Chapter 10

Data Analysis and Interpretation

Data collection techniques (in Chaps. 5–9) can lead to a compiled set of data ranging
from observation field notes to interview records and transcripts, documents, images,
and artifacts. These represent an aggregation of consumer perspectives, activities
and other relevant phenomena. Because qualitative research can produce a massive
amount of data, the next challenge is to make sense of it which may involve cutting
down the volume by separating trivia from significance, identifying the main pattern
of data, and developing concepts that denote the essence of what the data illustrate
(Patton 2002). This process demands the researcher’s skills, insights, and experience
to succeed rather than following any set procedure. There is no straightforward way to
measure the reliability and validity of the research findings. Realizing the challenges,
this chapter focuses on overall guidelines for data analysis and interpretation to
support the judgment and creativity of the researcher, and suggests some criteria for
evaluating qualitative consumer and marketing research.
From the largely fragmented data collected, the chapter begins with how to prepare
and organize data in order to make sense of the overall collections. Data analysis
involves coding to arrive at some thematic patterns of the data. Next, interpretation
refers to a more abstract, conceptual layer of meanings derived from the data with
reference to the research intentions. These processes are discussed in connection
with the focused subject of consumption and marketing in the Asian market and
combined with the Asian perspectives and practices of knowledge management. Liu
(2011) proposed that the Asian systems of knowledge development can enhance a
qualitative study of complex research phenomena due to the lack of dualism that
separates mind from matter and human nature from material nature. Moreover, the
Eastern traditions (e.g. Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism) generally engage
a holistic intertwined thinking which allows tolerance for contradictions such as
between logic, feelings, and intuition, between objectivity, subjectivity, and empathy,
or between mind, body, and spirit in the oriental systems approach (Polsa 2013; Zhu
1999, 2000). Such Asian epistemology combines different viewpoints into a creative
tension and hence suggests opportunities to employ alternative approaches in creating
and sharing knowledge.

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 239

K. Nuttavuthisit, Qualitative Consumer and Marketing Research,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-6142-5_10
240 10 Data Analysis and Interpretation

Preparing the Data

Qualitative research data can be quite complex and varied. The different research
techniques can lead to multiple forms of data ranging from audio recordings or notes
from interviews to fieldnotes from observation, photos, videos, and other participant-
produced materials (e.g. journals, drawings, artifacts). Some raw data, such as audio
recordings, need to be transcribed for further use. Photos and videos must be logged
and catalogued. Thus, the first step is to prepare the data to be in a form suitable for
further analysis.
For audio recordings (e.g. from interviews), the researcher may transcribe directly
from what consumers say. It is preferred to keep the original language to best reflect
the true meanings. Currently there are many software programs that can assist in this
task, but it still requires checking and verification. Besides the verbal expressions,
transcribing may incorporate vocal expressions such as laughter and sighs. Other
manifestations such as verbal utterances (e.g. er, uh, hmm), pauses, pitch, volume,
flows, and fluency can be quite important in understanding consumer responses and
perspectives. These can be recorded also in the transcripts but with some indicat-
ing signs such as brackets. The extent of how much detail to include may depend
on the purpose of the research and the need to assess certainty. Researchers may
hire someone to do this task, providing clear guidelines. The transcribing should
be completed as soon as possible so they can be integrated with some data from
observations made during the interviews. This is quite crucial for research on con-
sumption and marketing in the Asian market where consumers tend to be careful
and selective in their verbal expressions. Hence, other nonverbal cues must be taken
into consideration and recorded. Though it is better to keep transcripts in original
languages because this can reflect true meanings, in case of having multinational
researchers who need to operate on data analysis, translation can be used but with
skilled interpreter. Additionally, in some cases, back translation is recommended to
ensure accuracy of transcribed data.
Alternatively to transcribing, there are some computer programs (e.g. NVivo,
Atlas.ti, OneNote) developed to accommodate data analysis (i.e. coding) directly into
the original audio-video materials. Here, transcribing is not needed but data trails
and materials must be prepared and organized. This approach has the advantage of
saving time and effort while preventing the loss of some verbal and nonverbal cues
from transcribing. However, due to the technical operation required, it is still most
common to find transcribing into written text.
Next, fieldnotes incorporate different aspects of observation from the infor-
mants’ behaviors to their interactions with the surrounding situations as well as the
researcher’s viewpoints and impressions. Some preliminary analysis can be included
in the fieldnotes, but in separate spaces (e.g. in the margins of a page). This can lead to
identifying some emergent themes which are quite useful in furthering the research.
Besides fieldnotes from the ethnography research, interviews can also combine field-
notes about the informants’ reactions in the other research methods (e.g. interview,
focus group) such as their body language and responses to the research setting. Often
Preparing the Data 241

the fieldnotes are in brief due to the time constraint during the observation. Moreover,
in some contexts, like in the Asian environment, taking extensive notes openly may
be perceived as threatening or inappropriate. Most importantly, it may disrupt the
normal behaviors and ongoing situations. It is suggested that the brief notes must be
elaborated to the full notes soon after in order to better attain recollections. These
collections may be first stored chronologically to keep consistent with the time of
occurrence. Later they may be rearranged according to the topics or social groups
being analyzed.
In collecting qualitative data, photo taking can help record visual details as part
of the observation and it can be used in triangulation with other data sources. These
photos are meant for capturing perspectives in action rather than perspectives of
action (Gould et al. 1974). That is, it should reflect parts of the people’s behaviors
which may not be captured in words, but it does not project total experience with
specific views and interpretation. Photos collected must be logged and catalogued
to correspond with the other data sources (e.g. audio-video recording, transcripts,
fieldnotes) so they can be combined with the other materials. In the analysis, it is
important to understand about the setting, people, and activities depicted to prevent
viewer’s speculation.
In some cases, researchers may design their research to incorporate participant-
produced materials such as asking informants to draw a picture, write a story, or
have them take pictures or videos. This approach can allow consumers to express
their worldviews and identity. Particularly with Asian consumers who may be more
reserved in their verbal expressions, this technique can produce quite insightful data.
Abraham (2015), who conducted action research with ESL and academic writing
students in Malaysia, explained the combined use of stories collected from diaries,
letters, and interviews. The research findings illustrate that students became more
open to express opinions given the status of the researcher as an instructor of the
class. The author mentioned the case when one student challenged his teaching while
normally students would simply follow what they were told to do. Such participant-
produced data can be utilized to engage further dialogues with consumers in the data
collection process, and it can be combined with the other data sources in the analysis.
Like in this case, the continued conversation led to the author’s admitting to the
student that he was right and finally deciding to adjust the teaching method. Because
of their connected uses, the participant-produced materials should be organized and
retrieved together with the other data materials.
A similar process can be used with supporting artifacts (e.g. leaflets, posters, cat-
alogues, product samples, or articles from the market), which can enhance better
understanding of the context. Moreover, they represent stimuli that may influence
consumer reactions. For example, Song and Hsu (2013) studied the image of Taiwan
as a travel destination for tourists from Mainland China and found the projected
images observed from articles published in leading travel magazines were different
from the perceived images revealed in the interviews. When referring to the support-
ing materials, it is important to also note the dates, places, and sources of this data.
An example of Song and Hsu (2013)’s research suggested that the projected image
communicated in the articles changed from the time before and after the opening up
242 10 Data Analysis and Interpretation

of Taiwan’s tourism to Mainland China. Being a new destination, Taiwan received

more editorial attention and positive coverage in the magazines.

Data Analysis

Qualitative research analysis involves finding patterns within and across different
sources of data. These patterns may be derived based on research questions generated
during the research design process, they may be associated with some theoretical
frameworks identified in the literature reviews, or they may emerge out of the data
and researcher insights. There are no strict rules and steps to follow but rather general
guidelines about how to work with a complex whole and possibly divide it into
parts. Because of the open nature of naturalistic inquiry, data analysis may begin
with the process of collecting and preparing the data. This preliminary analysis can
support further development of research such as indicating new questions to ask the
next informants, revisiting and finding new sets of literatures, adjusting the research
questions, or suggesting new ways of using data. Park and Lunt (2015) mentioned
in their research with civil servants in South Korea that after their initial analysis
of the data collected they began to observe some distinctive viewpoints from their
female informants who were significantly underrepresented at senior levels of the
South Korean civil service. The researchers then explored the transcripts separately,
acknowledging gender as a fundamental category of analysis. Here they learned from
the new use of gender-partitioned transcripts that their female informants used the
interviews to express dissatisfaction and grievances. Such findings added insights to
the research that intended to explore the influence of Confucianism in the Korean
working culture.
In spite of some guidelines from the research questions, directions for data anal-
ysis typically emerge during the course of fieldwork as some patterns and themes
are identified. These analytical ideas would be recorded also in the data collection
(e.g. in the fieldnotes). However it should be noted that such preliminary analysis
should not interfere with the openness of the data collecting procedure and/or lead
to some premature conclusions. In that case, there is a risk of seeking additional data
to confirm the preliminary field analysis, which defeats the purpose of qualitative
research. Thus, in spite of some concepts identified earlier, the inquiry should always
look for alternative explanations and patterns.
To find thematic patterns in the data, coding is a fundamental step. It is an attempt
to identify meaningful units of data by separating data into small components that
can retain meaning in themselves despite no supporting context (Ely et al. 1997) or
condensing data into meaningful segments (Creswell 2007). The coding technique
can be applied to different types of data ranging from words to sentences, paragraphs
or compiled texts, visual materials, and artifacts. For text-based data, codes can
be drawn directly from the language used by the informants (namely emic code)
or scripts on the obtained materials. They can also refer to conceptual language
used within the field of interest (namely etic code). Both emic and etic codes must
Data Analysis 243

be simultaneously considered. Neal (2016)’s research on sex tourism in Thailand

found the emic terms “dirty work” and “dirty customers” useful in understanding
the relationships between work and moral systems. Yet the author learned that both
workers and customers actively resisted and tried to neutralize the stigma and shame
of the discourse. Here, the specified codes were considered useful in highlighting the
interaction within the etic moral systems, but they should be interpreted with caution
taking into consideration how the people try to morally justify their actions too.
As for visual-based data, coding can be combined with the semiotic analysis that
is aimed at studying signs (discussed in Chap. 1). Zhao and Belk (2008a, b)’s study
of signs under the communism and consumerism eras in China as represented in the
newspaper advertisements suggested the semiotic analysis of not only the verbal or
visual content of the ad but also the spatial composition, the way in which certain
objects were represented, and the styles. Another example of video ethnography
in India by Viswambharan and Priya (2016) illustrated, in addition to analyses of
the content, how the cameras work (e.g. zooming in and out, different scopes of
the two cameras used, one to cover the focal persons and the other to cover their
accompanying persons and surrounding conditions), which also represents varied
views of the world.
In essence, coding involves analyses of both content and form of the data pre-
sented. With a culturally specific setting such as the Asian market, researchers may
pay close attention to the emic codes such as metaphors used in the discussions as
well as the underlying contexts. Asian languages tend to be less specific than West-
ern ones. For example, Fletcher and Fang (2006) explained that in the Asian context
“yes” may mean “I hear what you are saying” and “no” may signify “I need to think
about it.” Moreover, they discussed Mandarin Chinese and Japanese as being more
ideographic and context dependent. Gao (1998) explained that Chinese do not spell
out everything in their communication but leave the unspoken meanings for the lis-
teners to figure out (aka implicit communication). Similarly Lim and Choi (1996)
indicated that Korean communication emphasizes noon-chi (“other awareness, or
situation sensitivity”) which involves various sources of knowledge and information
about others and the context, as well as the history of people’s interaction to sup-
port understanding. Koreans do not necessarily assume that the others will be able to
figure out their intentions. Such implicit, high-context communications demand ana-
lyzing of some embedded codes different from low-context communication where
the information is vested in the explicit code (Hall 1976).
Besides emerging from the data, coding may be indicated based on the research
purpose or research question. This can help align analysis of data collected with the
initial research design or in some cases suggest if the research question should be
adjusted. Additionally, coding can be influenced by concepts from prior literature.
This can support finding contributions from areas that can extend or challenge pre-
vious understanding. Yet this coding should not be too restricted because it may run
the risk of force-fitting the data into the established concepts, blinding the original
thoughts, or preventing emergence of new concepts.
Before coding, it is recommended that researchers go through the entire dataset
to become fully immersed in the context. Next, according to the grounded theory,
244 10 Data Analysis and Interpretation

which represents an inductive approach to go through text and identify categories and
concepts in order to form substantive theories (Strauss and Corbin 1990, 1998), there
are different ways to perform coding such as open coding, axial coding, selective
coding.

Open Coding

Open coding intends to describe phenomena found in text. Therefore, analysis

involves a close look at the data sentence by sentence, phrase by phrase or some-
times word by word. Here, researchers may compare the data to find differences and
similarities across incidents. This comparison process helps formulate categories by
comparing each empirical instance in the data with other instances, and as the anal-
ysis continues, evidences in the data are then compared with the emerging category.
Though this procedure may be considered time consuming, such an approach can
often lead to thorough analysis. The video ethnography research of Viswambharan
and Priya (2016) explicated the analytic process beginning with the researchers’
watching the video contents (i.e. a documentary film based on post-Godhra riots in
2002 in India) several times, which led to their ability to observe the socio-political
context of hatred and violence during the time. The authors proposed the four initial
macropropositional categories (i.e. sources of distress, distress related to post-disaster
events, relational disruptions, and denial of justice). Next, they located sample inci-
dents for each category, and then compared and refined the macropropositions until
they eventually derived the final revised categories (i.e. overwhelmed by loss, living
forced identities, relational disruptions, and denial of justice and equity).
Open coding is essential at the beginning of the study because the produced codes
can support development of categories to be further analyzed. Categorization is to
classify and label a unit of data as belonging to, representing, or exemplifying some
more general phenomenon (Spiggle 1994). The names of categories should signify
the phenomenon clearly and quickly remind researchers of their implications so they
can be further developed or differentiated from the others. Sometimes the emic terms
used by informants can become useful labels, specifically those that involve distinct
local cultures with some inherent meanings that can not be easily transferred to the
other common terms. For instance, Nguyen (2015a, b) analyzed the different ways in
which Vietnamese talk about face (i.e. thê diên), which refers to the socially approved
image of a person or how one is viewed in others’ eyes. The author proposed that
this is frequently associated with terms such as “giũ, thê diên” (save face) and “mất
thê diên” (lose face) while there is a lack of terms for gaining face. This supports
the analysis about the need to preserve face rather than the desire to gain more of
it. The identified categories can be collapsed into more general, higher conceptual
constructs (aka the abstraction process), while some categories may be divided to
become subcategories. The dimensionalization process helps to identify properties
(e.g. attributes, characteristics) of categories and to see how they vary along their
dimensional ranges. An example from Nguyen (2015a, b) explained that the term,
Data Analysis 245

?
- ông (male face) was frequently referred to in most situations while the
thê diê. n dàn
?
- bà (female face) was rarely regarded. The author then suggested
term, thê diê. n dàn
there was a gender bias in the Vietnamese language in which the dàn - bà (womanly)
character usually connotes a negative judgment.

Axial Coding

The process of relating categories and their subcategories (or properties and dimen-
sions) to indicate a more complete explanation is called axial coding, that is coding
around the axis of a category. This could involve proposing a statement that denotes
conditions, actions/interactions, and consequences. Sometimes direct transcripts may
provide clues about this linkage but in most cases it takes place not descriptively but
rather at a conceptual level (Strauss and Corbin 1998). This is quite apparent in the
study of Asian consumption and marketing as prior theory suggested the logic of
thinking and communications could be less clear cut and more holistic (Fang 2003;
Choi and Nisbett 2000)
Such an analysis can help contextualize a phenomenon, that is to discuss a con-
ditional structure (e.g. a circumstance in which issues are situated) and identify the
process in which a category is manifested (e.g. actions/interactions of persons in
response to the issues). This is in essence to explain the why and how of a phe-
nomenon of interest which emphasizes the dynamic and evolving nature of events.
Normally this complex relationship is less concrete. Thus having a scheme or iden-
tified perspective to explore the emerging connections can be helpful, particularly
with fragmented data. An example is Boddy (2007)’s study using the brand mapping
technique to analyze relations between different brands based on a two dimensional
space of which the dimensions were identified from previously determined concepts
or informants’ perceptions. In the research, the author suggested that the dimensions
recognized as important for people in Confucian societies are things like “suitable
for use when with a group of friends” on one axis and “suitable to use when on one’s
own” on the other. From the specified axial dimensions, the author further elaborated
that brands considered not suitable for use in front of other people seemed to be those
that are less popular in the market.
When analyzing details of elements in the axial coding, researchers must take into
consideration unique characteristics of specific contexts. The previously discussed
case demonstrates the importance of brands’ being presentable to others recognizing
the influence of Confucian values in which people are conscious of their roles in
relation to others (Bond and Hwang 1986). Conditions of consumption and marketing
in the Asian market may incorporate culture, time, place, rules, beliefs, motives,
and social groups. These conditions tend to have significant impact on people’s
actions/interactions including their consumption behaviors, though they may not
be clearly stated. Actions/interactions to be considered can be the deliberate acts
taken in response to the conditions or the habituated way of responding, which
may have no specific purpose but to maintain social order. The latter is frequently
246 10 Data Analysis and Interpretation

observed in Asia where social harmony is highlighted. Thus, the researcher should
pay close attention to details of the actions though they may not be coordinated with
the conditions. For instance, when Sobh and Belk (2011) collected data in Qatari
homes, they learned that women abide by the common rules to remain in specific
areas where they will never encounter male strangers/visitors. Despite the restricted
conditions, the researchers observed that the women in fact attain a domain of control
and freedom in their domestic spaces as they get to decide whom to allow in, while
the other male family members are expected to respect their decisions. Moreover,
the findings revealed that women have the final say in designing most rooms in the
house (except the majlis which represents a male public space). These observations of
detailed actions lead to different viewpoints regarding freedom. The authors proposed
that the freedom that women in Qatar experience in their homes is above and beyond
the commonly understood sense of individual privacy that Westerners derive in their
domestic spaces.
Consequences happen as a result of actions/interactions which may appear in
various forms from success to failure of responding to the conditions. Also, the con-
sequences can be categorized as intended or unintended, single or multiple, reversible
or nonreversible, immediate or cumulative. It is noted that by culture in Asia some
consequences are less apparent in the Asian market due to the need to uphold the tradi-
tion. Yet these may be observed in the research findings, particularly with qualitative
inquiry. As an example, Kimura and Belk (2005) conducted a video ethnography of
Christmas in Japan and found that it was perceived as a threat to potentially displace
traditional local holidays. As a result, there has been an effort to keep Christmas at
arm’s length so that it is perceived as imaginary and foreign. Specifically there is
the O-seibo holiday, which occurs during the same time of year, when people give
gifts to employers and business partners. The authors captured the partitioning of
the gift merchandises (for O-seibo and Christmas) in different parts of department
stores in Japan. Consequently, the interview discussion illustrated that people per-
ceive Christmas as a welcome relief from more hierarchical and obligatory traditional
celebrations.
The relations can change depending on the way in which different people assign
meanings to the conditions, their modes of action, and resulting consequences which
may affect the next decisions to take action. As a result, the axial coding should
be continually performed with comparisons of new data. If there are contradictions
given the similar phenomenon, researchers can investigate if the data are inconsistent
or there are variations of the relations which can extend the range of a category.
Particularly in Asia where the culture emphasizes importance of contexts, people may
develop multiple situational meanings for the same products or services depending
on different interpersonal relationships and consumption contexts (Eckhardt and
Houston 2008; Tu 1994). This is because there are both private and public selves
involved, while values in the society can be continually modified in order to maintain
social harmony (Chan and Rossiter 2003). Moreover, Asian consumers are able to
hold a variety of incongruent meanings by not having to resolve their conflicts because
of their psychological ability to accept conflicting beliefs and attitudes (Williams and
Aaker 2002; Aaker and Sengupta 2000). Fletcher and Fang (2006) referred to the
Data Analysis 247

concept of Yin Yang or “embracing paradox” in which a strong tendency towards one
dimension does not preclude its opposite. The authors proposed that this approach to
life is not clearly explained in the etic theory of culture and social behaviors. Box 10.1
explains Fang (1999)’s explanations of applications of the Yin Yang principle to the
six values of Confucianism.

Box 10.1 Yin Yang and the Six Values of Confucianism (Fang 1999)
1. Moral cultivation is both positive (lifelong learning, commitment, self reg-
ulation of behavior) and negative (rejection of law as rational, relationships
related to immediate context rather than to wider society).
2. Reliance on informal relationships is both positive (allows things to get
done) and negative (discourages establishment of strong institutions).
3. Family orientation is both positive (enables Chinese culture to endure and
survive hardships) and negative (creates nepotism, corruption).
4. Value of age and hierarchy is both positive (handing down wisdom to the
next generation) and negative (discourages the young from giving their
views).
5. Maintenance of harmony is both positive (assists dispute resolution) and
negative (considers individual rights as of low importance).
6. Face is both positive (a self regulating moral mechanism) and negative
(stultifies the demonstration of genuine feelings).
Sources: Fang (1999), Fletcher and Fang (2006).

Selective Coding

As multiple categories are being developed, selective coding can be performed by

relating many categories to one core category in order to attain a single storyline.
This core category represents the main phenomenon which quite often is stated in
the formulated research question. Yet, sometimes a new and different phenomenon
may emerge from the research process, and this may become more significant for
the research than the original focus of interest. For example, in the study of Schoen
(2015) who explored the folk legend of the runaway brides as an articulation of
the social control of women in rural Bangladesh, the author earlier focused on the
tensions between long-rooted cultural norms (i.e. arranged marriage and the notion
that good girls and good brides remain attached to families) and social change (i.e.
men leaving the village for jobs in cities and abroad and women becoming more
educated). Yet the legend being told by informants emerged in other ways too as
informants seemed to imply that women, being under social control, were apt to run
away. Informants then discussed strategies to prevent that such as women’s being
carefully monitored by husbands and mothers-in-law, asking women’s opinions and
248 10 Data Analysis and Interpretation

consent in choosing a groom. This gives some new meanings to the storytelling
given growing acceptance of the social change regarding women’s education and
wider experiences beyond the domestic sphere.
Because qualitative inquiry can encourage new discoveries and may lead to a shift
in research perspectives, it is important to work out what is of central importance.
Researchers can try to derive it from the axial categories which tend to capture the
essential aspects of the phenomenon, or they can return to earlier sets of open cod-
ing. The core category can be characterized by its having formal relationships with
all the other important categories and therefore having a central position in the sys-
tem of analyses (Böhm 2004). Moreover, if looking at the axial categories, this core
category represents a phenomenon that can connect the different axial categories.
The study of Grinshpun (2014) illustrated the case of coffee consumption in Japan
whereby the relevance of a foreign product in the local context is determined by the
interchange between global and local, foreign and native descriptions. However this
core category, which is generally understood, is further explained with distinct details
of the axial categories (i.e. its conditions, actions/interactions, and consequences).
Here the author proposed that the foreign cultures (such as coffee and café in Japan,
as well as Christmas or Western cuisine) were somewhat modified to fit the local
demands but never disregarded its original flavor. At the same time, the use of tradi-
tional cultural icons, which largely symbolize the domestic locality, are also being
defamiliarized by way of disconnecting such cultural nostalgia from the local past.
The core category in relation to its properties and dimensions as well as the other
relevant categories can be identified as a proposition encompassing key conceptual
constructs which can lead to the next process of integrating and refining theory. In
this study of Grinshpun (2014), the specified proposition indicates that a sense of
cultural estrangement (either the foreign or local) is essential for the commodifica-
tion of culture as it helps reaffirm the authentic entities and enhance the consumer
appeal with the new meanings ascribed into the consumption. Such a proposition
emphasizes the concept that the global and local do not represent a dichotomy but
rather dynamic constructs in a culture move.
There are no rules to specify which type of coding precedes the others, and in
fact the nature of coding is iterative. The process typically begins with generating
an initial set of codes and as new codes emerge the old codes are reviewed and/or
previously coded data may be recoded. These initial codes will be further explored
to see if they can be collapsed into more abstract categories that integrate a set of
lower level codes or expanded into variations of phenomena. The iteration can be
between part of a text (or interview) to the whole, between each data instance and
the entire data set (Thompson 1990), and even between data collection and data
analysis. Zhao and Belk (2008a, b)’s study of yuefenpai (poster advertisements) in
China explained the iterative process beginning with immersion in previous literature
of the interested time of 1930s Shanghai to immersion in the historical, sociological,
and cultural environment. Next, individual yuefenpai were closely read in relation
to the social circumstances from both micro and macro perspectives. Finally, the
collection of yuefenpai was examined as a whole to identify common themes and
patterns, while individual yuefenpai were referred to as a particular case to illustrate
Data Analysis 249

the concepts. The iterative coding process continues until it is saturated: that is, no
new information seems to emerge during coding, and collecting more data could
be counterproductive. In some cases, refutation is performed with the aim to test
the emerging inferences (e.g. categories, constructs, propositions). This can be by
utilizing a negative case analysis: that is, to find a specific case that can disconfirm
the prior analysis, purposive sampling to produce data for comparison and contrast
of the concepts, or examining the developed concepts in different contexts (Spiggle
1994).
With the open nature of qualitative inquiry, there can be multiple codes applied
to the same data and the codes can be expanded, contracted, or revised later as
interpretation unfolds (Patton 2002). However, when proceeding through the data, it
should be done in a systematic manner to attain a complete analysis of all possible data
instances and prevent distortion from selective use of data. Currently some software
programs (e.g. NVivo, Atlas.ti) can support comparison, categorization, and linking
between categories. Nevertheless, researchers must do the analysis because they
need to decide what goes together to form a pattern, how to label a category with
associated meanings, what properties and dimensions constitute a category, how to
formulate conceptual framework and develop theory. Thus, computer programs can
facilitate analysis but not replace it because qualitative research requires the creative
and analytical skills of researchers to perform the rigorous analysis.
Lastly, records of data analysis include writing code notes which may be put in the
margins of printed materials (e.g. interview transcripts, fieldnotes), on cards during
the analysis, or put into memos. Computer programs can facilitate these tasks (e.g.
by coding on files, building codebooks, creating memos) which can ease the process
of organizing and retrieving coded materials, but this may depend on researchers’
preferences and styles. Furthermore, records can be made about the process in which
the data is being analyzed and the development of categories and concepts. These
may include memos about insights and ideas generated, directions to continue, and
practices performed at various stages of analyses. Such records can support the later
process when the researcher returns to the data for further development, or it can
help assess if the analysis conducted is solid and sound.

Data Interpretation

As the analysis divides a complex whole into parts by dissecting, reducing, sorting,
and reconstituting data, interpretation suggests meanings for the identified patterns.
The aim is to develop a more complete explanation or general account of the phe-
nomena. This may lead to a formation of theories or development of strategies. Data
analysis and interpretation is an iterative rather than a sequential process. Researchers
can always go back and forth between operating the data and understanding its mean-
ings. Moreover, the iteration permits alternation between immersing in and distancing
from the data (Wallendorf and Brucks 1993).
250 10 Data Analysis and Interpretation

The interpretive process involves exploring additional connections to the data,

realizing there can be multiple layers of meanings embedded in the data. Spig-
gle (1994) proposed the general practices of studying the meanings that consumers
attach to their experiences and translating between their and researchers’ perspec-
tives derived from some previously formulated meanings. Here, it is important that
researchers have a good understanding of different research contexts and cultures
(e.g. the Asian market in this case) in order to stay true to the data rather than impos-
ing their own views. For instance, the abovementioned research of Zhao and Belk
(2008a, b) studying the yuefenpai (poster advertisements) of the 1930s Shanghai
observed the portrayal of General Yue Fei in the Commander Cigarettes poster ad.
Based on a semiotic analysis, the authors proposed that the use of General Yue Fei,
who is the famous hero who defended the Southern Song dynasty from the invasion
of the Jin, signified the beginning of the anti-Japanese war during that time and also
the decline of consumerism in Old Shanghai. This example demonstrates the need
to combine good understanding of the research context in order to achieve insightful
interpretation.
Realizing conditions of the context can facilitate researchers to interpret true
meanings underlying the data. These meanings are furthered to indicate some coher-
ent patterns by combining into larger wholes or by identifying unified themes by
which consumers construe their worlds and meanings shared with the others. The
process yields development of abstract constructs that represent the meanings of
consumption phenomena. Furthermore, Kozinets et al. (2002)’s study demonstrates
that this process can be connected with narratives of other disciplines (i.e. the study
has conceptualized the mythological appeals of a themed flagship brand store). In
addition, researchers can try to decipher some underlying cultural codes, rituals, or
traditions that can lead to reoccurrence of the phenomenon.
Interpretation emerges throughout the coding process in data analysis. When com-
paring different codes during the open coding, researchers may seek to answer why
there are similarities and differences. By exploring resemblances in meanings across
various incidents, researchers can identify some recurring elements and parallel struc-
tures. This interpretive process yields meanings of codes that are thickened into more
abstract, conceptual categories. As an example of interpretation, Chan (2000) studied
lifestyle and consumption of the middle-class in Hong Kong, identified from jobs
and levels of education, and learned in the data analysis about the overall expression
of distaste and disapproval of mass-produced clothing. Then she identified that there
were some degrees of difference between the middle-class who come from an inter-
mediate social origin who tend to show more contempt than those who come from the
higher, intergenerationally stable social origin. The author also indicated this similar
pattern in the other case of cinema-going in which the first group expressed their
strong rejection of mass blockbuster films. The author interpreted this as an urge
of this specific group of the middle-class to distinguish themselves from the lower
groups since they have just reached the level while the latter group is already assured
about their social identity. At the theoretical level, the author proposed that personal
history and mobility experiences must be added into consideration when analyzing
how the middle-class formulate social identity through taste and consumption. Such
insight is quite distinctive from the Asian perspective and practice where class is
Data Interpretation 251

defined by not only the current individual socioeconomic level but also past family
background.
When some identified categories are collapsed into higher conceptual constructs,
interpretation plays a role in the abstraction. Yet it is highlighted that the abstract
themes identified must remain connected to consumers’ perspectives. The hermeneu-
tic interpretation suggests that by paying close attention to consumers’ idiographic
experiences, researchers can find some patterns of their personal concerns and life
goals that constitute the frame of reference in their lives. These references are usu-
ally grounded in some shared cultural meanings whereby the interpretation can help
explain how they are incorporated or adapted into a person’s experiences (Thompson
et al. 1994; Ricoeur 1981). For instance, with an abstract theme such as creativity that
seems to be commonly understood, Leung and Hui (2014) found that this term has
been used in Chinese context with implications of modification, revision, renovation,
rearrangement, or reinterpretation of existing knowledge or previous concepts. The
authors explained this is because the society and individuals are greatly influenced
by traditions and respect for the past. On the contrary, creativity in the Western per-
spective commonly denotes novelty, originality, invention, and willingness to reject
tradition (Sternberg et al. 2005; Weiner 2000). Such implications are less familiar
in the Asian context because they can potentially disrupt the social harmony. This
example suggests that researchers must be responsive to different cultural meanings
when assigning conceptual labels.
In addition, the interpretation can suggest some mental structures underlying the
identified patterns. Lévi-Strauss (1963, 1976) proposed the structuralist approach
and explained that these structures, in part created by a system of binary oppositions,
represent the source of the social structures that allow people to make sense of the
world. Box 10.2 demonstrates an example of Nuttavuthisit (2005, 2007a, b, c)’s
study of Thailand’s brand meaning that employed the structuralist approach in its
data interpretation.

Box 10.2 Thailand’s Brand Meaning

Country branding refers to the identification of competitive positioning, or to
a promise to deliver a specific set of benefits and values of a country to the
global market. Realizing its importance, in 2001 the Government of Thailand
initiated a Branding Thailand project with the objective of finding out about
Thailand’s brand meanings from the perceptions of prospective consumers
towards Thailand and its major industries, namely cuisine, fashion and tourism.
The research for the Branding Thailand project was carried out over a one- year
period (April 2002–May 2003) on a diverse consumer base that may or may not
be users of Thai products or services. This was done to capture as many different
experiences and perceptions as possible and also to represent the true nature
of the market. Through one hundred focus group and in-depth interviews in
the United States, and 1000 online surveys with consumers in thirty countries
that yielded a 12% response rate, the Branding Thailand research provided
252 10 Data Analysis and Interpretation

a detailed qualitative account of consumer perspectives toward the essential

qualities of the country.
The differing responses elicited the four emergent themes of Thailand’s
brand meanings: Fun, Fulfilling, Friendly, and Flexible. As an example, one
participant mentioned the notion of Thai-ness as being flexible: “I think Thai-
land is about freedom. Because I see a contrast between high-rising businesses
and very poor circumstances there” yet “people don’t seem to be that agitated”.
He stated, “I was pretty amazed with this relaxed attitude in Thailand. It seems
to me that they feel free to live as they like.”
Another participant remarked on the nature of Thai food which “can rep-
resent the warmth of Thai family” as “they have a meal together with a lot of
food in the center.” These four major themes of Thailand’s brand meanings
are somewhat represented in products or services, such as in tourism where
there is a variety of fun entertainment, fulfilling natural scenery, friendly home
stays, and a flexible spirit of adventurous discovery.
It should be noted that Thailand’s brand meanings appear in a “fusion” form,
rather than as rigid beliefs, opinions or attitudes, because of the multi-layered
meanings of Thai individuality, history, society, and culture. This juxtaposition
of fun, fulfilling, friendly and flexible illustrates a mix of the active and passive
traits of the Thai people’s lifestyles and places in Thailand. By using a “struc-
turalist approach”, similar to that of Hirschman (1987) or Levy (1981), this
article proposes a typology of “Thai- ness” that incorporates these interrelated
concepts of people (lifestyle) and places as the underlying structure of con-
sumers’ perspectives towards Thailand’s brand meanings. During the research
project, consumers mentioned the values that defined Thailand as a brand by
referring to the eclectic place (e.g. “a city of life”) and the peaceful place (e.g.
“a soothing vacation destination”). Moreover, they illustrated the lifestyle in
Thailand by describing the dynamic living (e.g. “a constant negotiation every-
where”) and the relaxed lifestyle (e.g. a “laid-back” people). Crossing these
two dimensions yields the four major themes of Thailand’s brand meanings.
Data Interpretation 253

Within this typology, the dynamic of Thailand’s brand meaning is empha-

sized, as consumers perceive the differences of values ranging from excitement
to tranquility and from tangible to intangible. Triandis and Gelfand (1998)
elaborated on the contradictions and tensions of the values seen to define Thai
culture, while Fieg (1976) and Gannon (2001) also associated Thailand with
being a land of diversity. Moreover, the dynamic of Thailand’s brand meaning
denotes the case where each consumer can perceive different values depending
on how they interact with each context (i.e. place and people). One participant
noted “Thailand is an amazing place. Amazing in a sense that you have this jux-
taposition of everything.” And he claimed “I can’t just pick one thing and have
that be representative of Thailand because that’s not. The notion of Thailand
is diversity. For me, that’s an amazing sensation.”
Sources: Nuttavuthisit (2005, 2007a, b, c).

When analyzing properties and dimensions of the categories (as stated in the
axial coding), the interpretation helps suggest distinct dimensions of the same cat-
egories or distinct elements of the same phenomena (or subcategories). By relating
codes as elements of the same phenomena, the interpretation helps to elaborate the
complexity of the phenomenon and the various ways in which it can manifest itself
in human experience (Belk et al. 2013). Arnould and Wallendorf (1994) proposed
different kinds of interpretive processes to refine the coded categories so that they
become identifiable themes. These include the paradigmatic relation to identify vari-
ants of a single concept, syntagmatic relation to signify a temporal or narrative
sequence, metaphoric relation to denote a figurative relationship of similar concepts,
and metonymic relation in which a part is taken as an emblematic representation of
the whole domain.
Next, the axial coding identifies relations between categories and subcategories.
This may indicate conditions, actions/interactions, and consequences of consumption
and marketing. Interpretive process can aid in this process as it helps provide expla-
nations of the sequence of events by identifying phases. Belk et al. (2013) explained
the interpretivism roles to facilitate comparisons between different conditions that
give rise to dynamics of the relations. This qualitative approach is not intended to
predict the process but rather to structure the categories. Thus, the interpretation may
suggest a multidirectional process with some feedback loops and mutual interactions.
The multidimensional interpretation is highlighted in some studies, particularly in
contexts where there may be external forces leading to some contradictions or incon-
sistencies of self narratives. Box 10.3 illustrates the KJ method invented by a Japanese
ethnologist to achieve such a case of complex interpretation.
254 10 Data Analysis and Interpretation

Box 10.3 The KJ Method

A Japanese ethnologist, Jiro Kawakita, invented the KJ method in order to
tackle difficulties in analyzing his ethnographic data in Nepal (which are con-
sidered to be quite complex, idiosyncratic, and non-repetitive). The method
was adapted from Charles S. Peirce’s notion of abduction and relies on intu-
itive, non-logical thinking. Kawakita believes that this methodology can help
counter the imposed Western philosophy which tries to treat the world as an
assemblage of parts that can be manipulated by individuals. Though it has
been widely practiced in Japan, the implication, which is generally based on
the group-oriented model, is not limited to Japanese culture but can be applied
universally.
This method is similar to the grounded theory by Glaser and Strauss (1967)
to form connections between categories consisting of codes. But rather than
forming a logical integration of categories into a theory, the KJ method intends
to create new connections between new concepts that might be contradictory to
each other. Nochi (2013a, b) proposed that this method is suitable for analysis
of people’s self-narratives which tend to comprise many contradictions and
inconsistencies. The method involves the ringi-seido process, which refers to
how the Japanese build consensus through circulating a petition through various
levels of management, and the nemawashi process, which ties diverse opinions
together to form the collective decision-making (Lincoln and McBride 1987).
The KJ method involves four major steps. First, the “label making” is when
information based upon observations is written on note cards (one concept
each) and researchers randomize the concepts (i.e. shuffling the cards) and then
group the labels into “teams.” Kawakita highlights a non-linear, non-logical
process whereas feelings and intuitions are encouraged in this stage. Next, the
“label grouping” is to assign titles for all the teams of labels and subsequently
order the data into larger groups of “families” with titles assigned. The third
step, “chart making,” is to draw a sketch of configurations which reflect patterns
of the data also with arrows to show relations (e.g. cause and effect, sequence,
interdependence, contradictions). Lastly the chart is explained in written or
verbal form which should be concise and logical.
In sum, the KJ method is claimed to be more experiential and intuitive
than theoretical or restricted by formal criteria. It enables analysis that is less
restricted to assumptions, preconceived notions, and rigid dogmas. Kawakita
suggests that the method can facilitate group solidarity, and it has been
employed successfully in many socioeconomic development projects as well
as business practices.
Source: Scupin (1997).

Finally, to relate multiple categories into one core proposition (as stated in the
selective coding), interpretation supports mapping of different constructs or abstract
concepts and their connections to a broader consumer experience. The interpretation
Data Interpretation 255

helps indicate why certain consumer experiences are more or less prominent in
certain contexts, why they have specific characteristics, and why they can produce
certain consequences. By the explanatory faction, the interpretation suggests why
things happen the way they do or why they sometimes change to the other directions
(Belk et al. 2013). It is noted that this interpretive process is aimed at understanding
the conditions under which a phenomenon will or will not occur but not to suggest
that consumer experiences can be fully shaped by a set of factors. McGrath et al.
(2013), who studied the retail brand ideology of the House of Barbie in Shanghai,
suggested that this successful flagship brand store from the US market struggled in
Chinese market due to its discord with the local culture’s sensibilities, being not quite
Western and not quite Eastern in its format. The authors proposed the need to attend
to cultural propriety and create customer-centric meaning for the retail brand.
In essence, the interpretation can be quite intuitive, subjective, creative, and holis-
tic (Spiggle 1994). There are no clear steps and mechanics to develop interpretive
insights. In fact, such procedures tend to negate the essence of qualitative research
(Belk 1984). Researchers can learn to enhance their interpretive skills through alter-
nate practices of closely immersing in and distantly reflecting on the data until they
can grasp the core meanings. Moreover, working in interpretive groups (Thompson
et al. 1989) facilitates learning of multiple interpretations which can help strengthen
skills to interpret the data. In addition, this can engage triangulation across differ-
ent perspectives, leading to better research credibility (Wallendorf and Belk 1989).
Particularly with research in different cultural contexts, having researchers with dif-
ferent cultural backgrounds can promote greater insights into the data analysis and
interpretation. This concept was explained earlier in the Chap. 4 about the researcher
triangulation.
Because interpreting others’ experiences is inherently subjective, it is crucial to
stay connected with the data to minimize the possibility of researchers’ idiosyncratic
readings though it is not necessary to always agree with the informants’ descriptions.
The more abstract interpretation is likely to differ from individual consumers’ per-
spectives. Additionally, researchers may engage some objective theoretical stances
(Wallendorf and Brucks 1993) to help formulate systematic interpretation.

Evaluating Qualitative Consumer and Marketing Research

Data analysis and interpretation produces research results that can lead to theoretical
building and strategy formulation. Yet these must be based on good quality research.
This section explains how to assess qualitative consumer and marketing research
regarding trustworthiness, usefulness, and innovation and proposes different ways
to enhance the quality of the research.
256 10 Data Analysis and Interpretation

Trustworthiness

First and foremost, the research must be trustworthy to ensure further use of the find-
ings. Lincoln and Guba (1986) suggested four key criteria to assess trustworthiness
(i.e. credibility, transferability, dependability, confirmability). Later, Wallendorf and
Belk (1989) added the fifth criterion of integrity. “Credibility” denotes adequate and
believable representations of the phenomenon being studied which can help bring
confidence in the findings. This may be due to the data analysis and interpretation or
it may be ingrained in the quality of data presented. “Transferability” is the extent to
which the research can be employed in other similar contexts. Nevertheless, it should
be noted that the aim of qualitative research is not to achieve generalization but to see
the degree to which the results are applicable in other contexts. For example, Granot
et al. (2014) analyzed the concept of cute, the term frequently mentioned by Asian
female informants in the authors’ research on brand-driven retail decision making.
The authors studied the Japanese root of Kawaii cute, the other Asian-Pacific interpre-
tations, and the movement into American and Western mainstream consumer market
till it becomes a worldwide consumption phenomenon. The research suggested the
transferability of the concept as the term achieves diverse socio-cultural meanings
in different consumer cultures.
“Dependability” refers to the way in which analysis and interpretation are con-
ducted to avoid instability given that the phenomenon is inherently changing. This
means that the findings will be recurring if the study is replicated in the future. “Con-
firmability” is ability to trace a researcher’s formulation of interpretation from the
data and other records of analyses. This helps indicate if the findings emerge from the
data and not solely from the researcher’s viewpoints and if the researcher maintains
a neutral standpoint. Finally, the added criterion, “Integrity”, assures that data analy-
sis and interpretation are not weakened by informants’ misrepresentations including
lies, evasions, misinformation, fronts (Douglas 1976) or attempts to present them-
selves in more attractive ways (Nachman 1984). The latter case may be of specific
concern in studying Asian consumption where there may be attempts to provide
socially desirable responses given the face saving culture.
Evaluating the research’s trustworthiness may begin with the research design that
aligns the identified areas of study, the research purpose, the formulated research
question, and the planned research method. Next, the data collection should be
based on rigorous research techniques that can yield quality data (Patton 2002). The
research may incorporate triangulation across data sources, methods, and researchers.
Having multiple evidence gathered from interactions with several informants in vari-
ous settings, conducted with different research methods, and by different researchers
can help promote trustworthiness of the data. Moreover, a qualitative study conducted
over a suitable time span (e.g. to cover the cycle over which the phenomenon of
interest manifests itself) allows researchers to understand research contexts, acquire
sufficient data, and assess any distortion which may exist in the data obtained and
procedures performed. Additionally this supports the building of rapport and trust
among the informants so they feel open to share viewpoints or continue their nor-
Evaluating Qualitative Consumer and Marketing Research 257

mal behaviors and practices (in case of observations). Stressing the research ethics
to manage possible issues of harm, consent, privacy, and the confidentiality of data
is claimed to help strengthen the relationships. Yet the degrees of implications can
be varied in the different research contexts. The research in Vietnam by Nguyen
(2015a, b) suggested that asking informants to sign a consent form could make them
feel intimidated as generally they agreed to participate based on trust and informal
relationship. Thus, in this case an informal way to obtain consent may be applied
such as asking permission to record them.
Lastly, the data must be thoroughly analyzed and interpreted with the aim to gen-
erate results given substantial explanation. To address concerns about some predispo-
sitions and biases, Patton (2002) suggested that researchers discuss them explicitly
such as by acknowledging the researchers’ orientations. An example from Liong
(2015) conducting ethnographic research about Chinese fatherhood in Hong Kong
explained his being in the position of a feminist researcher interpreting data obtained
from informants who held viewpoints on gender and family which he opposed.
Making it transparent in the research report can help readers form better understand-
ing of the data analysis and interpretation. Additionally, having a diverse array of
researchers’ perspectives and informants’ comments from the member check can
help assess and/or enhance trustworthiness.

Usefulness

In addition to evaluating trustworthiness, quality research should be useful for further

developments. These can be in various forms and levels such as promoting better
understanding of the phenomenon of interest, suggesting linkages with different
contexts, or assisting future research inquiry. The usefulness may lie in the initial
research design to cover valuable areas of interest, generate meaningful research
purpose, and formulate significant research questions. The process of conducting the
research can also be useful as it promotes closer connections and relationships with
consumers.
Fundamentally, the data analysis and interpretation should provide insightful
ideas, concepts, or frameworks that can answer to the research questions (as explained
in Chap. 4). Beyond the identification and assemblage of common themes in the data,
the research should provide a unified synthesis or a holistic integration of concepts
(Strike and Posner 1983) which are useful in supporting further theory and/or strat-
egy development. Moreover, the research should spur discussions about connections
between the research results and the central issues or debates in the field (Spiggle
1994) or about how they can be transferred to different research settings. In other
words, the research should be able to help extend perspectives beyond the specific
domain studied and enrich understanding about other similar and different phenom-
ena. Zito (2014), who studied writing calligraphy in water, proposed the traditional
Chinese visual aesthetics with xieyi (i.e. to draw or literally write the meaning of a
scene) could portray a different perspective from the way in which the European post-
258 10 Data Analysis and Interpretation

Renaissance depicts the world visually. Xieyi work is quick, allowing no mistakes,
and the running-style calligraphy is picturesque featuring a sense of reality, surprise,
and the rhythm of ending and beginning again in the flow. Similarly Matzner (2014)
claimed that the study of visual culture was dominated by the prominence of the
visual in Western modernity. When exploring particularly the non-elite visual forms
and practices of South Asia, she suggested that this requires a culturally specific
mode of vision that seems to challenge Western Cartesian theories of visuality.
Besides finding connections between the data and analysis, researchers may also
try to generate and assess rival conclusions which can be useful in developing more
complete insights. Patton (2002) proposed finding other ways of analyzing and inter-
preting the data which would lead to different research results. This may engage
different logic of thinking and yield competing schemes and explanations for the
data. Here, researchers can try to understand reasons for the difference. For instance,
the previously discussed research study of Chan (2000) on middle-class lifestyle
and consumption in Hong Kong concluded with a possible change of findings. The
author stated that her interviews were conducted before the Asian economic crisis
in mid-1997 that significantly affected the Hong Kong economy. She proposed an
alternative view had the data been collected after the crisis that the recession could
ironically help untangle taste from money. In a booming economy, people were able
to possess goods masked as good taste. But in the slowdown when most people
became prudent, it became easier to observe taste as cultural capital separate from
economic capital. The author expected that a particular group of middle-class con-
sumers would utilize this opportunity to obtain social distinction separate from the
other groups of middle-class consumers. However, this conclusion was only made
as an assumption for further research. If in the future researchers are able to find
strong evidence for the proposition, the rival explanations could be considered an
alternative interpretation. If failing to find strong supporting evidence, it nonetheless
helps increase credibility and confidence in the original explanation.

Innovation

Lastly, quality research should encompass some aspects of innovation. This may be
by providing new and creative ways of looking at the phenomenon of interest, trans-
forming existing ideas and concepts, or projecting new conceptualizations (Hunt
1989). Innovation may lie in the research design to identify new areas or subjects of
study, set research purposes, research questions, and study methods different from the
usual practices. For example, Leung (2015) reflected on her experiences of conduct-
ing migration research given her co-ethnicity with the informants (Chinese migrants
in Germany). She elaborated that the impact of shared identity was highlighted in
the data collection process. Yet it needs to be further discussed in the process of
knowledge co-production involving both researchers and research informants. The
author rejected the previous theory of insider-outsider dichotomy and suggested that
the relationship is rather dynamic, continually negotiated, and contextualized in the
Evaluating Qualitative Consumer and Marketing Research 259

space and time of interactions (which represents a key characteristic of the Asian
relationship). Probing on the reach of co-ethnic/co-national identities and uncover-
ing mechanisms underlying these can bring new perspectives on the research design
and practice.
Next in terms of innovation, the data collection can always incorporate innovative
procedures and techniques as the nature of qualitative inquiry emphasizes emergent
analysis along with the data collection, leading to the need to find some new ways to
gather and probe the data. Additionally, to enhance contributions of the research, it is
expected that data analysis can provide some new thematic patterns, and interpreta-
tion can signify some new meanings of the phenomenon of interest. Here, techniques
such as analysis of negative cases is suggested as they focus on the instances that do
not fit within the patterns (Lincoln and Guba 1986). Thus, they may help indicate
some new ways of looking at the data. Such an approach can help broaden or change
the prior analyses and interpretations, and in some cases they may serve as exceptions
to the explanations. For example, Anantharaman (2016), who studied bicycling as
a consumption practice in Bangalore, India demonstrated that in the highly hierar-
chical society the new middle-class consumers tried to distinguish themselves from
the low-status practice of cycling by claiming their uses as a way to be ethical and
ecological. Exploring the difference provides opportunities for new learning (Patton
2002). Furthermore, innovation may be demonstrated in the way in which results
of the research can extend to, or to certain degree alter, existing theory or strategy
frameworks. In some cases, it may even bring a breakthrough development or initiate
an originally new way of thinking.
In summary, this chapter explains ways to organize, analyze, and interpret empir-
ical data to attain broader conceptual meanings of consumer experiences. The inte-
gration of conceptual elements formulated in the research can facilitate theory con-
struction (Strauss 1987) and development of marketing strategy. The next chapter
explains the next stage, which is to disseminate research results.

References

Aaker JL, Sengupta J (2000) Additivity versus attenuation: the role of culture in the res-
olution of information incongruity. J Consum Psychol 9(2):67–82. https://doi.org/10.1207/
S15327663JCP0902_2
Abraham A (2015) Action researching power in an ESL and academic writing classroom. Qual Res
J 15(2):155–165
Anantharaman M (2016) Elite and ethical: the defensive distinctions of middle-class bicycling in
Bangalore. India J Consum Cult 17:864–886. https://doi.org/10.1177/1469540516634412
Arnould EJ, Wallendorf M (1994) Market-oriented ethnography: Interpretation building and mar-
keting strategy formulation. J Mark Res 31(4):484–504
Belk RW (1984) Possessions and the extended self. J Hist Res Mark 11:139–168
Belk RW, Fischer E, Kozinets R (2013) Qualitative consumer & marketing research. Sage Publica-
tions, London
Boddy CR (2007) Projective techniques in Taiwan and Asia-Pacific market research. Qual Mark
Res 10(1):48–62. https://doi.org/10.1108/13522750710720396
260 10 Data Analysis and Interpretation

Böhm A (2004) Theoretical coding: text analysis in grounded theory. In: Flick U, von Kardorff E,
Steinke I (eds) A companion to qualitative research. Sage Publications, London pp 270–275
Bond MHH, Hwang K (1986) The social psychology of Chinese people. In: The psychology of the
Chinese people. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 213–266
Chan AH (2000) Middle-class formation and consumption in Hong Kong. In: B-H Chua (ed)
Consumption in Asia: lifestyles and identities, pp 98–134
Chan AM, Rossiter JR (2003) Measurement issues in cross-cultural values research. In: ANZMAC
2003 conference proceedings, 1–3 Dec 2003, Adelaide, Australia, pp 1583–1589
Choi I, Nisbett RE (2000) Cultural psychology of surprise: holistic theories and recognition of
contradiction. J Pers Soc Psychol 79(6):890–905
Creswell JW (2007) Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches
(2nd ed). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications
Douglas JD (1976) Investigative social research: individual and team field research. Sage, Beverly
Hills, CA
Eckhardt GM, Houston M (2008) On the malleable nature of product meaning in China. J Consum
Behav 7(6):484–495
Ely M et al (1997) On writing qualitative research: living by words. Routledge/Falmer, London
Fang T (1999) Chinese business negotiating style. Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA
Fang T (2003) A critique of Hofstede’s fifth national culture dimension. Int J Cross Cult Manage
3(3):347–368
Fieg J (1976) A common core: Thais and Americans. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press
Fletcher R, Fang T (2006) Assessing the impact of culture on relationship creation and network
formation in emerging Asian markets. Eur J Mark 40(3/4):430–446
Gannon M (2001) Working across cultures: Applications and exercises. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications
Gao G (1998) “Don’t take my word for it”: understanding Chinese speaking practices. Int J Inter-
cultural Relat 22(2):163–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0147-1767(98)00003-0
Glaser BG, Strauss AL (1967) Discovery of grounded theory: strategies for qualitative research.
Aldines, Chicago
Gould LC et al (1974) Connections: notes from the Heroin world. Yale University Press, New
Haven, CT
Granot E, Alejandro TB, Russell LM (2014) A socio-marketing analysis of the concept of cute and
its consumer culture implications. J Consum Cult 14(1):66–87
Grinshpun H (2014) Deconstructing a global commodity: coffee, culture, and consumption in Japan.
J Consum Cult 14(3):343–364
Hall E (1976) Beyond culture. Doubleday, New York
Hirschman EC (1987) Theoretical perspectives of time use: implications for consumer behavior
research. Res Consum Behav 2:55–81
Hunt J (1989) Psychoanalytic aspects of fieldwork. Qualitative research methods, vol 18
Kimura J, Belk RW (2005) Christmas in Japan: globalization versus localization. Consumption
Mark Cult 8(3):325–338
Kozinets RV, Sherry JF, DeBerry-Spence B, Duhachek A, Nuttavuthisit K, Storm D (2002) Themed
flagship brand stores in the new millennium: theory, practice, prospects, the William R. Davidson
honorable mention award. J Retail 78(1):17–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-4359(01)00063-
X
Leung MVH (2015) “Talk to her, She is also Chinese”: a reflection on the spatial-temporal reach
of co-ethnicity in migration research. Qual Soc Res 16(2), Art 13
Leung VSY, Hui ANN (2014) A Recent Look: creative professionals’ perceptions of creativity in
Hong Kong. Serv Mark Q 35(2):138–154. https://doi.org/10.1080/15332969.2014.885366
Lévi-Strauss C (1963) Structural anthropology. Basic Book, New York
Lévi-Strauss C (1976) Structural anthropology, vol II. Basic Book, New York
Levy SJ (1981) Intepreting consumer mythology: a structural approach to consumer behavior. J
Mark 45(3):49–61
References 261

Lim TS, Choi SH (1996) Inerpersonal relationships in Korea. In: Gudykunst WB, Ting-Toomey S,
Nishida T (eds) Communication in personal relationship across cultures. Sage, Thousand Oaks,
CA, pp 122–136
Lincoln YS, Guba EG (1986) But is it rigorous? trustworthiness and authenticity in naturalistic
evaluation. In: Williams DD (ed) Naturalistic evaluation. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, pp 73–84
Lincoln JR, McBride K (1987) Japanese industrial organization in comparative perspective. Ann
Rev Sociol 13:289–312
Liong M (2015) In the shadow of deception: ethical dilemma, positionality, and reflexivity in
ethnographic fieldwork. Qual Res J 15(1):61–73. https://doi.org/10.1108/QRJ-03-2014-0008
Liu JH (2011) Asian epistemologies and contemporary social psychological research. In: Denzin
NK, Lincoln YS (eds) Sage handbook of qualitative research. Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp
213–226
Matzner D (2014) Jai Bhim comrade and the politics of sound in urban indian visual culture. Vis
Anthropol Rev 30(2):127–138. https://doi.org/10.1111/var.12043
McGrath MA, Sherry JF Jr, Diamond N (2013) Discordant retail brand ideology in the House of
Barbie. Qual Mark Res Int J 16(1):12–37
Nachman SR (1984) Lies my informants told me. J Anthropol Res 40:536–555
Neal M (2016) Dirty customers: stigma and identity among sex tourists. J Consum Cult
18(1):131–148
Nguyen TDT (2015a) Conducting semi-structured interviews with the Vietnamese. Qual Res J
15(1):35–46
Nguyen TDT (2015b) Gender discrimination in the way the Vietnamese talk about face the dien:
results from interviews with Vietnamese teachers. Qual Res J 15(2):147–154
Nochi M (2013a) Analysis of narrative text. In: Yoko Y, Asao T, Sato T, Akita K, Nochi M, Yamori
K (eds) Handbook of qualitative psychology. Shinyo-Sha, Tokyo, Japan, pp 324–344
Nochi M (2013b) Analysis of narrative text. In: Yamada Y, Asao T, Sato T, Akita K, Nochi A, Yamori
K (eds) Handbook of qualitative psychology. Shinyo-sha, Tokyo, pp 324–344 (In Japanese)
Nuttavuthisit K (2005) The holistic perspective of Thailand brand meaning. In: Proceeding of the
9th international conference on global business and economic development, May 2005
Nuttavuthisit K (2007a) Branding Thailand: correcting the negative image of sex tourism. Place
Branding Publ Diplomacy 3(1):21–30
Nuttavuthisit K (2007b) Postmodern consumption and marketing. Sasin J Manage 13(2):133–140
Nuttavuthisit K (2007c) The dynamic of brand equity. Asia-Pacific Adv Consum Res 7:2–3
Park S, Lunt N (2015) Confucianism and qualitative interviewing: working Seoul to Soul. Qual
Soc Res 16(2), Art 7
Patton MQ (2002) Qualitative research and evaluation method, 3rd edn. Sage Publications, Inc
Polsa P (2013) Crystallization and research in Asia. Qual Mark Res 16(1):76–93. https://doi.org/
10.1108/13522751311289776
Ricoeur P (1981) Hermeneutics and the human sciences. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Schoen RF (2015) Educated girls, absent grooms, and runaway brides: narrating social change in
rural Bangladesh. Qual Soc Res 16(1), Art 18. http://www.qualitative-research.net/
Scupin R (1997) The KJ method: a technique for analyzing data derived from Japanese ethnology.
Hum Organ 56(2):233–237
Sobh R, Belk R (2011) Gender privacy in Arab Gulf states: implications for consumption and
marketing. In: Sandicki O, Rice G (eds) Handbook of Islamic marketing. Edward Elgar,
Cheltenham, pp 74–96
Song H, Hsu HC (2013) The image of Taiwan as a travel destination: perspectives from Mainland
China. J Travel Tour Mark 30(3):253–271
Spiggle S (1994) Analysis and interpretation of qualitative data in consumer research. J Consum
Res 21(3):491–503
Sternberg RJ, Lubart TU, Kaufman JC, Pretz JE (2005) Creativity. In: Holyoak KJ, Morrison RG
(eds) Cambridge handbook of thinking and reasoning. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
pp 351–370
262 10 Data Analysis and Interpretation

Strauss A (1987) Qualitative Analysis. Cambridge University Press, New York

Strauss AL, Corbin JM (1990) Basics of qualitative research: grounded theory procedures and
techniques. Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA
Strauss A, Corbin J (1998) Basics of qualitative research techniques and procedures for developing
grounded theory. Sage Publications Inc, Newbury Park, CA
Strike K, Posner G (1983) Types of synthesis and their criteria in Spencer A. Ward & Linda J.
Reed (eds), Knowledge structure and use: Implications for synthesis and interpretation. Temple
University Press. pp 343–362
Thompson CJ (1990) Eureka! and other tests of significance: a new look at evaluating qualitative
research. In: Marvin G, Gerald JG, Richard WP (eds) Advances in consumer research, vol 17.
Association for Consumer Research, Provo, UT pp 25–30
Thompson C, Locander W, Pollio H (1989) Putting consumer experience back into consumer
research: the philosophy and method of existential-phenomenology. J Consum Res 16(2):133–146
Thompson C, Pollio H, Locander W (1994) The spoken and the unspoken: a hermeneutic approach
to understanding the cultural viewpoints that underlie consumers’ expressed meanings. J Consum
Res 21(3):432–452
Triandis HC, Gelfand MJ (1998) Converging measurement of horizontal and vertical individualism
and collectivism. J of Pers Soc Psychol, 74(1), 118–128
Tu WM (1994) Embodying the universe: a note on Confucian self-realization. In: Ames RT,
Dissanayake W, Kasulis TP (eds) Self as person in asian theory and practice. SUNY Press,
Albany, pp 177–186
Viswambharan AP, Priya KR (2016) Documentary analysis as a qualitative methodology to explore
disaster mental health: insights from analysing a documentary on communal riots. Qual Res
16(1):43–59. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468794114567494
Wallendorf M, Belk RW (1989) Assessing trustworthiness in naturalistic consumer research. In:
Hirschman E (ed) Interpretive consumer. Association for Consumer Research, Provo, pp 69–84
Wallendorf M, Brucks M (1993) Introspection in consumer research: implementation and
implications. J Consum Res 20(3):339–359
Weiner RP (2000) Creativity and beyond cultures, values, and change. State University of New
York Press, New York
Williams P, Aaker JL (2002) Can mixed emotions peacefully coexist? J Consum Res, 28(4):636–649
Zhao X, Belk RW (2008a) Advertising consumer culture in 1930s Shanghai: globalization and local-
ization in Yuefenpai. J Advertising 37:45–56. https://doi.org/10.2753/JOA0091-3367370204
Zhao X, Belk RW (2008b) Desire on fire: a naturalistic inquiry of chinese death ritual consumption.
In: Borghini S, McGrath MA, Otnes CC (eds) European advances in consumer research, vol 8.
Association for Consumer Research, Valdosta, GA, pp 245–246
Zhu Z (1999) The practice of multimodal approaches, the challenge of cross-cultural communica-
tion, and the search for responses. Hum Relat 52(5):579–607
Zhu Z (2000) Dealing with a differentiated whole: the philosophy of the WSR approach. Syst Pract
Action Res 13(1):21–57
Zito A (2014) Writing in water, or, evanescence, enchantment and ethnography in a Chinese urban
park. Vis Anthropol Rev 30(1):11–22