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189698966532815876 nowPuc Physics Chapter10-Mechanical 
Properties of Fluids Notes by u n Swamy

Copyright MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Chapter 10 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

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Fluids: The materials that can flow are called fluids. Liquid and gases are collectively known as
fluids. Unlike a solid a fluid has no definite shape of its own.
Available Formats
Hydrostatics (Fluids statics): The study of fluids at rest is known as hydrostatics.
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Hydrodynamics (Fluids dynamics): The study of fluids in motion is termed as hydrodynamics.

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Density:this
Densitydocument

=  −
of a substance is defined as the mass per unit volume of the substance.

−
 
SI unit of density is and dimensions are

    ℎℎ 

Relative density: It is defined as the ratio of the density of the substance to the density of water.

  =  Twitter

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Relative density has no unit. It is a pure number.

4 1000−

Note: Density of water at is maximum and is equal to

Pressure: The pressure is defined as the magnitude of the force acting perpendicular to the surface

=  − 
of an object per unit area of the object.
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SI unit of pressure is or −−
. Dimensions of pressure is

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Pressure is a scalar quantity, because hydrostatic pressure is transmitted equally in all
directions, when force is applied, which shows that a definite direction is not associated with
pressure.

Measurement of pressure: The normal force exerted by the fluid at a point may be measured and
the arrangement is as shown.

It consists of an evacuated chamber with a spring that is calibrated to measure

the force acting on the piston. This device is placed at a point inside the fluid.
The inward force exerted by the fluid on the piston is balanced by the outward
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spring force and is thereby measured.

Pascal’s Law: The pressure in a fluid at rest is same at all points if they are at the same height.

Pascal’s Explanation:
Consider an element  
- in the form of a right-angled prism in the fluid.
As the element is very small, every part of it is located at the same height from the liquid surface.

Let ,  
Then the effect of gravity is same at all these points.
and be the normal forces exerted by the fluid on the faces and , 
,  
respectively.
Let and be the area of the faces

U N Swamay, Lecturer in Physics, GPUC Aranakatte,

, 
and respectively.

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 == sicosn

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Since the element - is in equilibrium, net force acting on that element should be zero.

By geometry,
 == cossin
Pressure on =  = sisinn =  1
Pressure on =  =   =  2
Pressure on =  3
The above equations says,  =  =  implies that  = =
Hence, pressure exerted is same in all directions in a fluid at rest.

Expression for pressure:

  ℎ
Consider a vessel containing a liquid of density , which is in equilibrium.
Consider a cylindrical element of fluid having area of base and height .

But =  ther+
+
efore  ==0=0 and  =
As the fluid is in equilibrium, the net force acting on it is zero.

= =
 =ℎ
=ℎ
If the 1   
is in the figure is shifted to the top of the fluid, which is open to atmosphere,  may

 =ℎ
be replaced by atmospheric pressure and by then,

= +
The above equation tells us that pressure depends on height, so that the pressure in a fluid at rest
is same at all points, if they are at same height.

Gauge Pressure: The pressure

atmospheric pressure by an amount
 ℎ ℎ
at depth from the surface of the fluid is greater than the
. The excess pressure at depth is called Gauge pressure. ℎ
Gauge pressure is the difference of the actual pressure and the atmospheric pressure.

Atmospheric pressure: The pressure of the atmosphere at any point is equal to the weight of a

At sea level it is 1.013×105 1 ℎ  =1.013×105

column of air of unit cross-sectional area extending from that point to the top of the atmosphere.
and

Hydrostatic paradox: Consider three vessels,   and of different

shapes. They are connected at the bottom by a horizontal pipe. On
filling with water, the level in the vessel is same. Though they hold
different amount of water, any how the pressure of the water at the
bottom is same. This result is known as hydrostatic paradox.

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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Measurement of atmospheric pressure:

(i) Mercury Barometer:
Torricelli invented a mercury barometer to measure the atmospheric pressure.
It consists of a long glass tube closed at one end and filled with
mercury and inverted in to a trough of mercury as shown. The space in the
tube above the mercury column is almost empty and can be neglected. This

   
space is called Torricelli space.
Now the pressure at = pressure at , which are at same level.

==  
But pressure at = atmosphere pressure,
pressure at
where is density of mercury.

Note:

1 ℎ   1  76

(1) At sea level, the mercury column in the barometer is found to have a height of .

1   =1

1   =133
The pressure equivalent to this column is
(2) A common way of stating pressure is in terms of or .
.

(4)    
(3) A pressure equivalent to
and
is called a

    1=105

.
are used in medicine and physiology.
In meteorology a common unit is the and .

(ii) Open tube monometer:

It is useful instrument for measuring pressure difference.
It consists of a U-tube containing a low density liquid for measuring small
pressure differences or a high density liquid for large pressure differences.
One end of the tube is open to the atmosphere and the other end is

   =ℎ
connected to the system whose pressure is to be measured.
The pressure at is equal to pressure at point .
The gauge pressure is

which is proportional to the height of the liquid.

Pascal’s law for transmission of fluid pressure: Whenever external pressure is applied on any
part of the fluid contained in a vessel, it is transmitted undiminished and equally in all directions.

Applications of the law: Hydraulic machines work based on the Pascal’s law for transmission of
fluid pressure. In these devices fluids are used for transmitting pressure.

Hydraulic machines: The devices which work on the Pascal’s law are known as hydraulic
machines. Ex: Hydraulic lift, hydraulic brakes etc.

Hydraulic lift: It consists of a horizontal fluid filled container.

Both the ends of the container are fitted with two cylinders
having pistons of different area of cross-section as shown in
the figure.


Explanation: Let the force of magnitude
small piston of surface area
 be applied to a

This generates a pres ure,= 

This pressure is transmitted undiminished through the fluid to a larger piston of surface area 
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Hence,=  =   MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

As  >=>()
,
This shows that a small force applied on the smaller piston appears as a large force on the larger
piston.

Hydraulic brakes: When we apply a little force

on the pedal with our foot, the master piston
moves inside the master cylinder and the

pressure caused is transmitted through the


brake oil to act on a piston of large area ( and 
). A large force acts on the piston and is


pushed down expanding the brake shoes (
and ) against the brake lining and retard the

motion of the wheel.

Archimedes’ principle: When a body is immersed completely or partially in a liquid it appears to

lose a part of its weight and this apparent loss of weight is equal to the weight of the liquid
displaced by the body.

Fluid dynamics: Fluid dynamics deals with fluid flow – the science of flow of fluids.
Types of flow: The flow of fluids is divided into two types, namely
(i) Streamline (Steady) flow (ii) Turbulent flow

Streamline (Steady) flow: If a fluid flows such that the velocity of its particles at a given point
remains constant with time, then the fluid is said to have streamline flow.

Explanation: Consider a liquid passing through a tube as shown. If the

velocity of the flow is small, all the particles which come to will have 
 
the same speed and will move in same direction. As the particle goes from


and its speed and direction may change, but all the particle at will


have the same speed, also if one particle through has gone through
then all the particles passing through go through .

Streamline: The path followed by the particle of a fluid in a streamline flow or steady flow is
called streamline.

Properties of streamlines:
(i) The tangent at any point on the line of flow gives the direction of flow.
(ii) The streamline may curve and bend, but they cannot cross each other.

Equation of continuity:


Consider streamline flow of a fluid of density , through a pipe 
of non-uniform cross-section. 

Let be the velocity of the liquid entering at of the cross-sectional area normal to the surface.
Let be the velocity with which it flows out at where the area of cross-section
surface.
normal to the 
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 =
=× =
×=
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Mass of fluid entering at per second

Mass of fluid entering at per second
Since the flow is steady,
The mass of the fluid entering per second is equal to the mass of the fluid

==
flowing out per second.

This equation is called equation of continuity and it is the statement of law of conservation of mass

=
in flow of incompressible fluids.
In general,

Note: The product 

gives the volume flux or flow rate and remains constant throughout the
pipe of flow. Thus, at narrower portions where the streamlines are closely packed, velocity
increases and vice versa.

Turbulent flow: When the speed of flow exceeds a limiting value called critical velocity, the
orderly motion of the fluid is lost and it acquires an unsteady motion called turbulent motion.
Ex: Floods, hurricanes, whirlpools etc.

Differences between streamline flow and turbulent flow

Streamline flow Turbulent flow
1 It is a regular and orderly flow 1 It is irregular and disorderly flow
The lines of flow are parallel to each other The lines of flow are not parallel to each
2 2
other
The velocity of the flow is less than the The velocity of the flow is greater than the
3 3
critical velocity critical velocity
Different particles cross a given point with Different particles cross a given point with
4 4
same velocity different velocity

Bernoulli’s principle: For streamline flow of an ideal (non-viscous, incompressible) fluid, the sum
of pressure, the kinetic energy per unit volume and potential energy per unit volume remains a
constant.

+   +=
flowing through a pipe 
Proof: Consider an incompressible and non-viscous fluid
of varying cross-sectional area.

  
Let the flow is streamline.
Let  
and be the pressure and and be the area of cross-


section at and respectively.

∆   
Let is the speed of fluid at and at .

distance ∆ 
In a small interval of time , the fluid at moves through a
to .
 
At the same time the fluid, initially at moves through a distance ∆ to .

 =×
  × 
The work done on the fluid in the region

= ∆
is,

 =∆
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 =∆   =∆
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

 =∆ = 

Since the flow is streamline,  
Work done on the fluid in the region
 ∆=   ∆ against the pressure is

= ∆
The net work done on the fluid is,

A part of this work done is utilised to change the kinetic energy ane remaining is utilised in

 ∆=×
changing the gravitational potential energy.
If is the density of the fluid, then the mass of the fluid passing through the pipe in time is, ∆
∆=×
∆=∆ ∆=×∆
Change in kinetic 1energy is,∆= 12 ∆ 
∆= 2 ∆ ∆=∆ 
∆=∆ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ
Change in potential energy is,

=∆+∆
Applying work-energy theorem for this volume of fluid, we get,

 ∆=∆ ℎ  ℎ+ 12 ∆ 

Dividing each term by ∆
 =ℎ ℎ+ 12  
,

 +ℎ +12  = +ℎ + 12 

On rearranging,

In general, ++   =

Limitations of Bernoulli’s theorem:
1) While proving Bernoulli’s theorem, we have assumed that no energy is lost due to friction, but
in practice due to viscosity of the fluid some energy is lost. The kinetic energy lost gets converted
to heat. Thus, Bernoulli’s equation applies only to non-viscous fluids.

2) Bernoulli’s theorem cannot be applied to compressible fluids, as the elastic energy of the fluid is
not taken into consideration.

3) Bernoulli’s equation does not hold good for non-steady or turbulent flow, as the velocity and
pressure may vary with time and position.

Speed of Efflux: Torricelli’s law : The word efflux means fluid out
flow. Torricelli discovered that, the expression for speed of efflux from
an open tank is similar to that of a freely falling body.


Proof: Consider a tank containing a liquid of density with a small 

hole in its side at a height from the bottom of the tank.
Let be the height of the free surface of the liquid from the bottom of
the tank.
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  =
Let be the pressure of air above the free surface of the liquid.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

 =  
From the equation of continuity,

Where  →→ 
Cross-sectional area of the hole

 →→
Cross-sectional area of the tank
Velocity of fluid coming out of the hole

Since  ≫
Velocity of fluid at the top surface of the liquid


, top layer of the liquid is approximately at rest. i.e.  =0
Also the pressure of the fluid at the hole is same as that of the atmospheric pressure  .

1 +  + 12  =+

Applying Bernoulli’s equation to point 1 and 2,

21  =  + 

 + 
2 = =
  +ℎ sin ce   =ℎ
2 
 =  +2ℎ 
)

 =2  +2ℎ

 =√
If the tank is open to atmosphere then, =
This is same as the speed of a freely falling body. This equation is known as Torricelli’s law.

Applications of Bernoulli’s principle:

1) Venturimeter: Venturimeter is used to measure the speed of an

   
incompressible fluid in a pipe. It consists of a tube with normal cross-
sectional area with a constriction of at the middle of the tube. One
arm of -tube monometer is connected to the point where the area of cross-
section is and the other arm is connected at the constriction.

  
Measurement of speed: Let be the density of the fluid flowing in the pipe
and be the density of the monometer liquid.

Speed at the constriction,  =    =

Let and be the velocities of the fluid at broader region and constriction respectively.
Then from equation of continuity,

 + 121  = + 121  

Using Bernoulli’s equation, assuming the flow is horizontal,

 + 21  = + 21 []

 + 2 1= +2 []
  = 2  [()1]
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 ℎ
Due to this pressure difference the fluid level in the -tube connected at the constriction, rise
above that in the other arm. The difference in the heights is the direct measure of pressure
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

difference.

  =ℎ= 12  [()1]

Speed of the fluid at wide neck is, = 21ℎ 
 = [()]−⁄
By measuring the value of ℎ speed of the fluid can be calculated.

2) Filter pumps (Aspirators): When a fluid passes through a region at a large speed, the pressure

 
in that region decreases. This fact is used in this device.
The air in the tube is pushed using a piston. As the air passes
through the constriction its speed is considerably increases
and consequently pressure drops. Thus the liquid rises from the
vessel and is sprayed with the expelled air. Bunsen burner,
atomiser and sprayers work on the same principle.

3) Carburettor: The function of the carburettor is to deliver the rightly proportioned mixture of
petrol vapour and air to the cylinder of a petrol engine. This also works based on Bernoulli’s
principle.

4) Uplift of an aircraft:
The shape of the wings of aircraft is
specially designed so that the velocity of
the layers of air on its upper surface is more
than that on the lower surface.

versa. So the pressure 

According to Bernoulli’s principle where velocity of the fluid is high, the pressure is low and vice-
is low at the upper surface of the wing and pressure is high at the
lower surface of the wing. This difference in pressure causes an upwards thrust called dynamic lift

on the wings of the air-craft.

5) Swing bowling: When swing bowlers in cricket deliver the ball, the ball changes its plane of
motion in air. This kind of deflection from the plane of projection can be explained on the basis of
Bernoulli’s principle.

6) Blood flow and heart attack: Bernoulli’s principle helps in explaining blood flow in artery. The
artery may get constricted due to the accumulation of plaque on its inner walls. In order to drive
the blood through this artery a greater demand is placed on the activity of the heart. The speed of
the flow of the blood in this region is which lowers the pressure. The heart exerts further to open
this artery and forces the blood through. As the blood rushes through the opening, the internal
pressure once again drops due to same reasons leading to a repeat collapse. This may result in
heart attack.

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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Viscosity: The property of a liquid by virtue of which it opposes relative motion between its
different layers is called viscosity.

Explanation: When the liquid flows on a horizontal surface, the velocities of different layers of the
liquid will be different and there is a relative motion between successive layers of the liquid. In the
absence of an external force, the faster layer tends to accelerate the slower one and slower one
tends to retard the faster one.

Viscous force: In case of a liquid having relative motion between the layers internal forces are
developed, which retard the relative motion. These retarding forces are called viscous force.

Note: (1) The viscous force does not operate as long as the liquid is at rest. They come to play only
when there is a relative motion between its layers.
(2) Greater viscosity favours streamline flow whereas lower viscosity causes turbulent motion.


Co-efficient of viscosity ( ): The coefficient of viscosity of a fluid is defined as the ratio of shearing
stress to the strain rate.

Explanation: Consider a liquid enclosed between two glass plates


as shown. The bottom plate is fixed and top plate is moved with a
constant velocity, with respect to the fixed plate.


The fluid in contact with the surface has same velocity as the surface. Therefore, the layer of the
liquid in contact with the top surface moves with a velocity, and the layer in contact with the
fixed surface remain at rest. The velocities of the layers increase uniformly from bottom to the top.

ΔΔ 
Due to this motion, a portion of liquid initially having the shape ABCD takes the shape

Δ
AEFD after a short interval of time . If the distance between the plates is and plate at the top

ℎ  = Δ

moves through a distance in time then,

The strain in a flowing liquid increases continuously with time. Therefore in case of liquids the

  = ΔΔ = 

stress is directly proportional to the rate of change of strain.

The coefficient of vi−scosity, = ⁄⁄ = 

−− 
The SI unit of viscosity is
.
 
. It can be expressed also in . The dimensions are

Temperature dependence of viscosity:

1) As the temperature of the liquid increases, the distance between the molecule increases. Hence
the magnitude of cohesion force decreases and the viscosity decreases.
2) When the temperature of the gas increases, the change of momentum and number of collisions
also increases and hence the co-efficient of viscosity increases.

Viscous drag or drag force: When an object moves relative to a fluid, the fluid exerts a friction like
retarding force on the object. This force is called viscous drag or drag force.
Viscous drag is due to the viscosity of the fluid.
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
Stokes’ law: Stokes proved that the viscous drag 
acting on a spherical body of radius 
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

moving

=
with velocity in a fluid of co-efficient of viscosity is given by,

The viscous drag increases with increases velocity of the body, but it is found that the body after
attaining certain velocity starts moving with a constant velocity called terminal velocity.


Terminal velocity ( ): When a body is dropped in a viscous fluid, it is first accelerated and then
its acceleration becomes zero and it attains a constant velocity. This constant velocity is called
terminal velocity.


Expression for Terminal velocity:


Consider a spherical body of radius falling through a viscous fluid having
density and co-efficient of viscosity .
Let be the density of the material of the body.

(i) its weight  

The viscous forces acting on that spherical body are,
in downward direction.


(ii) upward thrust equal to the weight of the displaced fluid.
(iii) viscous drag in a direction opposite to the direction of motion of the body.

Net downward force acting on that body

When the body attains terminal velocity, acceleration,
==0
=0
From Newton’s I law, Net force acting on the body is zero.

Now, i = × = 43 

ii =ℎ  ℎ  =6 = × = 43 
Therefore, 443  43 6 =0
(iii) According to Stocke’s law,

3  43 =6
   
 =  6 
 =  
i   ∝∝ 1,Terminal velocity depends inversely on viscosity of the medium.
Note: (i) , Terminal velocity depends on square of the radius of the sphere.

 
(iii) Falling of rain drops through air and the descent of a parachute can be explained using
Stocke’s law.

Reynolds number: When the rate of flow of a fluid becomes very large, the flow loses its
orderliness and becomes turbulent. In turbulent flow, the velocity of particles of the fluid at any
point varies randomly with time.

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 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Example: (i) An obstacle placed in the path of the fast moving fluid causes turbulence.
(ii) The smoke rising from burning wood.
(iii) Air left by cars, aeroplanes boat etc.

Osborne Reynolds defined a dimension less number which gives an approximate idea about


whether the flow would be turbulent or not. This number is called Reynolds number denoted by

  =    
.
If is the viscosity and is the density of fluid flowing with a speed in a pipe of diameter , the
value of is given by,

 
 <1000
Classification of flow based on Reynolds number:

 >2000
(i) For laminar or streamline flow,

(iii) For 1000< <2000
(ii) For the turbulent flow,
, the flow becomes unsteady.

Variation of Reynolds number: For a given fluid, the density and co-efficient of viscosity and

Then,
As the velocity increases
 ∝
constant and for a given pipe its diameter is constant.

also increases. If the velocity of the fluid increases beyond a limiting

value the flow becomes turbulent.

Critical Reynolds number: The value of Reynolds number at which the turbulence just occurs is
called critical Reynolds number.

Critical velocity: The maximum velocity of a fluid in a tube for which the flow remains streamline
is called Critical velocity.

Importance of Reynolds number: The value of Reynolds number is very much useful in designing
of ships, submarines, race cars, aeroplanes etc.

Note: Turbulence promotes mixing and increases the rates of transfer of mass, momentum and
energy.

Surface Tension: The property of a liquid at rest by virtue of which its free surface behaves like a
stretched membrane under tension and tries to minimise the surface area is called surface tension.

of the molecule at , 

and . The surface 
Explanation: Consider three spheres indicating the spheres of influence
is the free surface of the
liquid.

The molecule is well inside the liquid surface is attracted equally in all


directions by the neighbouring molecules. Hence the resultant force on
is zero.

The molecule has a part of its sphere of influence above the liquid surface. Hence  experiences
a net force vertically downwards in the liquid.

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 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

The molecule is just on the surface of the liquid, hence it experiences maximum force pulling into
the liquid as a result the surface of a liquid behaves as a stretched membrane and the attractive
inter molecular forces on the surface of the liquid tend to compress the liquid surface, so that the
liquid tries to minimise its surface area.

Surface energy: The potential energy of the surface molecules per unit area of the surface is called
surface energy.

 =  

Unit of surface energy is / −
and dimensions are

Surface energy and surface tension:

Consider a thin horizontal film of liquid ending in bar, free

along horizontal through a small distance 

to slide over parallel guide as shown. Let the bar be moved
in order to
increase the surface area. Some work has to be done


against the internal force. If the internal force is , then
work done by the internal force is

. This work done is stored as additional energy(potential
energy) in the film.

2  
The increase in the area of the film is , since the film has two surfaces, the increase in the
area of the film should be . If is the surface energy of the film per unit area, the extra energy

=2== 
supplied to the film is,

  
The quantity is the magnitude of surface tension and it is equal to the surface energy per unit
area of the liquid surface.

Unit of surface tension is −

and dimensions are −
Note: Surface tension can also be defined as, force per unit length acting on the surface of the liquid.
.

Measurement of surface tension: A flat vertical glass plate, below which

a vessel of some liquid is kept, forms one arm of the balance. The plate is
balanced by weights on the other side. The vessel is raised slowly till the
liquid just touches the glass plate and pulls it down a little because of
surface tension.

Weights are added till the plate just clears water. If the additional weight required is  then the

 = 2 = 2
surface tension of the liquid air interface is,

where → 
length of the plate.


Angle of contact: The angle between tangent to the liquid surface at the point of contact and solid
surface inside the liquid is called as angle of contact. It is denoted by .


The value of determines whether a liquid will spread on the surface of a solid (Wetting liquid) or
it will form droplet on it (Non-wetting liquid).

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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

 ,  

Now let us consider three interfacial tensions at all the three interfaces, liquid-air, solid-air and
solid-liquid denoted by and respectively.
Since the surface is at rest, at the line of contact the surface forces between the three media must in
equilibrium.
Then,  + =
If  > , the angle of contact is obtuse. When is obtuse
angle, the molecules of the liquid are attracted strongly to

themselves and weakly to those of solids and the liquid will not
wet the surface.
Ex: (i) water-leaf interface.
(ii) water in waxy or oily surface.
(iii) Mercury on any surface. etc.

If  < 
, the angle of contact is acute. When is acute angle,
the molecules of the liquid are attracted strongly to those of solids
and the liquid will wet the surface
Ex: (i) Water on glass.
(ii) Water on plastic sheet.

Drops and Bubbles: Due to surface tension, surface of liquid always has a tendency to have least
surface area. For a given volume a sphere has the minimum surface. Therefore a small volume of
liquid take the shape of a sphere, that is why drop of a liquid and bubbles assumes the shape of a
sphere.

Pressure difference across a liquid surface:


(i) For concave surface of liquid: If the surface of the liquid is concave the
resultant force due to surface tension on a molecule on the surface act
vertically upwards. To balance this, there should be an excess of pressure
acting downward on the concave side.


(ii) For convex surface of liquid: If the surface of the liquid is convex, the
resultant force acts downwards and there must be an excess of pressure on
the concave side acting upwards.
Thus there is always an excess pressure on the concave side of a curved
liquid surface over the pressure on its convex side due to surface tension.

Excess pressure inside a liquid drop and Bubble

  
(i) For a liquid drop: Consider a liquid drop of radius having surface tension .
Let be the pressure inside the drop and be pressure outside the drop.

The excess pressure inside the drop = ×
Outward force= ×4
Outward force acting on the drop = pressure


surface area of the drop

×
Due to this force, the drop expends. Let its radius increases by
Hence work done = force change in radius
.

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work done = ×4 × MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

The work done against the force of surface tension is stored inside the drop in the form of its
potential energy.

=× 4   + ×4

Increase in potential energy = surface tension increase in surface area

=× 44+4
+ +24  
=×
= 4   +8  +84 
Since   8
is very small can be neglected.

8 ×=8
Increase in potential energy =

 ×4
Therefore work done =

 = 48
 =   ×
   
(ii) For a bubble: In case of a liquid bubble, there are two surfaces-inner and outer.
Consider a liquid bubble of radius having surface tension .

= ×
Let be the pressure inside the bubble and be pressure outside the bubble.
The excess pressure inside the bubble

Outward force= ×4

Outward force acting on the bubble = pressure surface area of the bubble


×
Due to this force, the bubble expends. Let its radius increases by

work done= ×4 ×

Hence work done = force change in radius
.

The work done against the force of surface tension is stored inside the bubble in the form of its
potential energy.

=×2 4   × 4
+
Increase in potential energy = surface tension increase in surface area

=×2 44+4
+ +24  
=×2
=2 4   +8  +84 
Since   
is very small can be neglected.

 ×4
Therefore work done = 16 
Increase in potential energy = 16

 ×=16
16
 = 4  ×
 = 
Note: Thus excess pressure in a bubble is two times the excess pressure in a liquid drop.

Capillarity: When a capillary tube is dipped in water, the water rises up in the
tube. This rise of liquid in a capillary tube is known as capillarity.

Capillary rise: The surface of water in the capillary is concave. Then there is a
pressure difference between the two sides of the top surface, which is given by,
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   = 2  
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

where cos→
vertical component of
Thus the pressure of the water inside the tube, just at the meniscus is less than
the atmospheric pressure.
 
Consider the two points and (as in figure). They must be at same height.
Then,
 +ℎ=
 
=ℎ
where  2   =ℎ ℎ
is the density of water and is called capillary rise

= 
Practical applications of capillarity:
(i) The oil in the lamp rises in the wick to its top by capillary action.
(ii) Sap and water rise up to the top of the leaves of the tree by capillary action.
(iii) Ink is absorbed by the blotting paper due to capillarity.
(iv) The moisture rises in the capillaries of the soil to the surface, where it evaporates. To prevent
this and preserve moisture in the soil, capillaries must be destroyed by ploughing and levelling
fields.

Detergents and Surface tension: We clean dirty clothes containing grease and oil stains by adding
detergents or soap to water. Washing only with water does not remove grease stains. This is
because water does not wet grease dirt, because there is very little area of contact between them. If
the water wet the grease, the flow of water could carry some grease away. This is achieved by
adding detergents.
The molecules of detergents are hairpin shaped, with one end attached to water and the
other to molecules of grease, oil or wax. Thus they tend to form water-oil interfaces. In other
words, the addition of detergent reduces drastically the surface tension of water. This kind of
process using surface active detergent or surfactants is important not only in cleaning but also in
recovering oil, mineral ores etc.

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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Suggested Questions.
One mark
1. Define Pressure at a point inside a liquid.
2. Write equation of continuity.
3. State Pascal’s law.
4. What is principle behind the uplift of an aeroplane?
5. State Stokes law.
6. Give one example for turbulent flow.
7. What is streamline flow?
8. Define surface energy.
9. Define angle of contact.
10. What is value of angle of contact for water-leaf interface?
11. What is capillarity?

Two marks.
1. State and explain Bernoulli’s theorem.
2. State Bernoulli’s theorem and mention any two applications.
3. What is the order of Reynold’s number for streamline flow and turbulent flow?
4. What is venture-meter? On which principle it works.
5. State and explain Pascal’s law for transmission of fluid pressure.
6. What is terminal velocity? Mention the expression for it.
7. Mention the factors on which terminal velocity depends.
8. How the viscosity of liquids and gases does varies with temperature.
9. Mention three applications of capillarity.

Three Marks.
1. State Bernoulli’s theorem with an example.
2. Derive an expression for liquid pressure at a point inside the liquid.
or
Arrive at an expression for pressure at a point due to liquid.
3. Mention the applications of Pascal’s law.
4. Mention the limitations of Bernoulli’s Principle.
5. Distinguish between Streamline motion and turbulent motion.
6. What is surface tension? Mention its SI unit. Mention expression for it.

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