RAJALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS), CHENNAI.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CE17304 FLUID MECHANICS
PART-A WITH ANSWERS
UNIT – I FLUID PROPERTIES AND FLUID STATICS
1. Define the term continuum.
Ans.
The mathematical idealisation of continuous distribution of matter i.e. when the properties of matter
are considered as a function of space variables, then the matter is called as a continuum. In
liquids, the molecules are so closely spaced that their intermolecular cohesive forces compel them to
behave like a continuous mass.

2. Define Control Volume.

Ans.
It is an identified volume fixed in space, bounded by a control surface. It may be infinitesimal or as
large as desired.

3. Differentiate between an ideal fluid and real fluid.

Ans.
An ideal fluid is the one which has
 No Viscosity.
 No surface tension.
 Incompressible.
 These are not practically existing in nature.
A real fluid is the one which has
 Viscosity.
 Surface tension.
 Compressible.
 They are the practically existing fluids.

4. Differentiate Density and Viscosity.

Ans.
 Density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of mass of a fluid to its volume i.e. mass of fluid
contained in a unit volume. It is denoted by the symbol ρ. The S.I. unit of density is kg/m3.
 Viscosity is the property of a liquid which determines the amount of resistance to a shear
stress. It can also be defined as the property of a fluid due to which it offers the resistance
to movement of one layer of fluid over another adjacent layer. It is denoted by the symbol
μ. The S.I. unit of viscosity is N-s/m2
 Note: Density is otherwise called Mass Density or Specific Mass.
Viscosity simply represents the dynamic viscosity of the fluid.
It is also the shear stress required to produce unit rate of shear strain.
5. State the standard values of density and weight density for water and mercury.
Ans.
Title Water Mercury
Density (kg/m3) 1000 13600
3
Weight Density (kN/m ) 9.81 133.416

6. Brief about the phenomenon for capillarity with a neat sketch.

Ans.
Capillarity is a phenomenon of rise or fall of liquid surface relative to the adjacent general
level of liquid. This is due to the combined effect of cohesion and adhesion of liquid particles.
The rise of liquid level is known as capillary rise whereas the fall of liquid level is known as capillary
fall or capillary depression.

7. Define the relationship between absolute pressure and gauge pressure with the help of a
neat sketch.
Ans.
 Absolute pressure is the pressure which is measured above the absolute zero of pressure.
Gauge pressure is the pressure measured with the help of pressure measuring instrument, in which
atmospheric pressure is taken as datum.

8. Define specific weight, specific volume and specific gravity.

Ans.
 Specific weight (weight density) is defined as the ratio of weight of a fluid to its volume. It is

denoted by symbol w. Its S.I. unit is N/m3.

 Specific Volume is defined as the volume per unit mass of the fluid. It is the reciprocal of specific
mass. It is denoted by 1/ρ. Its S.I. unit is m3/kg. It is commonly applied to gases.

 Specific Gravity or Relative density is defined as the ratio of specific weight of a fluid to the
specific weight of a standard fluid. It is denoted by the symbol S. For liquids, the standard fluid is
water and for gases it is air.

(or)

Note: Specific gravity is also the ratio of density of a fluid to the density of standard fluid.

9. Define surface tension.

Ans.
Surface tension is caused by the force of cohesion at the free surface of a liquid. The liquid
molecules near the surface of the liquid experience a net inward force due to absence of molecules
above them. Thus the free surface acts like a very thin film under tension.
 Note: Cohesion is intermolecular attraction between molecules of same substance.
Adhesion is intermolecular attraction between molecules of different substances.

10. State Newton’s law of Viscosity.

Ans.
Newton’s law of viscosity states that, “the shear stress on a fluid element layer is directly proportional
to the rate of shear strain (or) velocity gradient.” The constant of proportionality is called the co-
efficient of viscosity.

τ = shear stress (N/m2)

du/dy = rate of shear strain or rate of shear deformation or velocity gradient (s-1)
μ = co-efficient of viscosity (dynamic viscosity)

11. Define Vapour pressure.

Ans.
º
Consider a liquid (say water) in a closed vessel which is heated. It will vaporise at 100 C. During

vaporisation, the molecules will escape from free surface of the liquid. They will get accumulated in the
space between free surface and top of vessel. These vapours exert a pressure on the liquid surface
which is called the vapour pressure.

12. What is cavitation?

Ans.
Consider a flowing fluid system. If the pressure at any point in this system becomes equal to or less
than the vapour pressure, the vaporization starts. The bubbles of these vapours are carried by the
flowing fluid into region of high pressure where they collapse giving rise to high impact pressure. This
 pressure is so high that adjoining solid surface gets eroded and cavities are formed. This phenomenon
is known as cavitation.

13. Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity of a liquid, if the pressure of the liquid is
increased from 70 N/cm2 to 130 N/cm2. The volume of the liquid decreased by 0.15
percent.
Ans.
P1 = 70 N/cm2
P2 = 130 N/cm2
∆p = p2 – p1 = 130 – 70 = 60N/cm2 = 60 x 104 N/m2
dⱯ/Ɐ = 0.15% = 0.15/100 = 0.0015

Bulk modulus

K = (60 x 104)/(0.0015) = 400 MN/m2

14. Write the expression for capillary rise/fall in terms of surface tension for water/mercury.
Ans.

Incase of water it is capillary rise and  = 0° between water and glass tube
Incase of mercury it is capillary fall and  = 128° between mercury and glass tube

15. What is meant by total pressure and centre of pressure?

Ans.
 Total pressure is defined as the force exerted by a static fluid on a surface either plane or
curved when the fluid comes in contact with the surface. This force always acts normal to
the surface.
 Centre of pressure is defined as the point of application of the total pressure on the
immersed surface in a static fluid.

16. Name the devices that are used to measure the pressure of a fluid.
Ans.
 Manometers:
 Simple Manometers
 Piezometer
 U-tube manometer
 Single column manometer
  Differential Manometers
 U-tube differential manometer
 Inverted U-tube differential manometer
 Mechanical Gauges:
 Bourdon tube pressure gauge
 Diaphragm gauge
 Vacuum gauge

17. Define compressibility.

Ans.
Compressibility is defined as the reciprocal of bulk modulus of elasticity K, which is defined as the
ratio of compressive stress (∆p) to volumetric strain (– dⱯ /Ɐ). – ve sign mean the volume decreases
with increase of pressure.
∆p = increase in pressure
Ɐ = original volume (initial volume)
dⱯ = decrease in volume

18. With neat sketches, brief about the conditions of equilibrium for floating bodies.
Ans.

Stable equilibrium – M is above G. For given clockwise displacement, buoyancy shifts to B1 cutting
through M. Buoyant force and weight of body constitute an anticlockwise couple and bring back body
to its original state.
Unstable equilibrium – M is below G. For the same case as above, buoyant force through B1 and
weight of body create a clockwise couple and thereby resulting in overturning the body.
Neutral equilibrium – M is at G.
19. With neat sketches, brief about the conditions of equilibrium for sub-merged bodies.
Ans.

Stable – W = FB, B is above G. Clockwise displacement balanced by anticlockwise couple.

Unstable – W = FB, B is below G. Clockwise displacement creates a clockwise couple.
Neutral – W = FB, B and G at same point.

20. Briefly explain the terms buoyancy and centre of buoyancy.

Ans.
Buoyancy – When a body is immersed in a fluid, an upward force is exerted by the fluid on the body.
This upward force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body and is called Force
of buoyancy or simply buoyancy.

Centre of buoyancy is defined as the point through which the force of buoyancy is supposed to act.
This will be the centre of gravity of the fluid displaced.

21. The surface tension of water in contact with air is 0.0725 N/m. The difference in pressure
between inside and outside of water droplet is 250 N/m2. What is the diameter of the
droplet?
Ans.
Surface tension, σ = 0.0725 N/m
Difference of pressure (inside pressure – outside pressure), p = 250 N/m2
For a droplet, p = 4σ/d
Therefore, diameter d = 4σ/p
= (4 x 0.0725)/250 = 1.16 mm

22. What do you understand by Hydrostatic law and Pascal’s law?

Ans.
Hydrostatic law: It states that rate of increase of pressure in a vertical direction is equal to
weight density of the fluid at that point.
 Pascal’s law: It states that the pressure intensity at a point in a static fluid is equal in all
directions.

23. Define Metacentre. What is meta-centric height? How it is calculated?

Ans.
Metacentre – It is defined as the point about which a body starts oscillating when the body is
tilted by a small angle. It may also be defined as the point at which the line of action of the force of
buoyancy will meet the normal axis of the body when the body is given a small angular displacement.
Meta-centric height – The distance between the meta-centre of a floating body and the centre of
gravity of the body. It is denoted by MG.

Where I = moment of inertia

Ɐ = volume of fluid displaced by body
BG = distance between centre of buoyancy and centre of gravity of the body

24. Brief about the CGS and SI units of Dynamic viscosity and Kinematic viscosity.
Ans.
Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of dynamic viscosity to the density of the fluid.

Title CGS units S.I. units

Dynamic viscosity, μ Poise or dyne-s/cm2 N-s/m2
Kinematic viscosity, ν Stoke or cm2/s m2/s

1 N-s/m2 = 10 Poise
1 m2/s = 104 Stokes

25. Brief about the effect of temperature on viscosity of fluids.

Ans.
Viscosity of liquids decreases with the increase of temperature while that of gases increases
with increase in temperature. In liquids, cohesive forces dominate molecular momentum
transfer, while in gases it is vice-versa. This is the reason for the difference in behaviour of liquids
and gases.
26. State the concept of pressure measurement used in mechanical gauges.
Ans.
They make use of different forms of elastic systems such as tubes, diaphragms or bellows, etc.
through the deformation of which the effect of pressure is measured. Generally mechanical gauges are
used to measure high pressure.

27. Define Fluid Statics.

Ans.
Fluid statics is the study of a fluid at rest; The concept also includes the study of fluids under
uniform acceleration.

28. Determine the specific gravity of a fluid having viscosity 0.005 Ns/m 2 and kinematic
viscosity 0.035 x 10-4 m2/s.
Ans.
μ = 0.005 Ns/m2
ν = 0.035 x 10-4 m2/s
We know that ν = μ/ρ, Therefore ρ = μ/ν
ρ = 0.005 / (0.035 x 10-4) = 1428.57 kg/m3

29. Find the surface tension in a soap bubble of 40 mm diameter when the inside pressure is
2.5 N/m2 above atmospheric pressure.
Ans.
D = 40 mm = 0.04 m
Pressure in excess of outside, p = 2.5 N/m2
For a soap bubble, p = 8σ/d

The surface tension, σ = (2.5 x 0.04) / 8 = 0.0125 N/m

30. Give the expression for measuring the centre of pressure.

Ans.
In case of planes vertically immersed,

In case of planes immersed inclined,

 = angle of inclination
31. Classify fluids based on Newton’s law of viscosity. Give suitable examples.
Ans.
Based on Newton’s law of viscosity, the fluids are classified as:
 Ideal fluids – has no viscosity and is incompressible.
 Newtonian fluids – obey Newton’s law of viscosity. Eg. Water, air
 Non-Newtonian fluids – do not follow Newton’s law of viscosity. Eg. Blood, Polymer
solutions, etc.
 Plastic fluids
 Ideal plastic – has yield stress and then follows Newton’s law of viscosity. Eg. Sewage
sludge.
 Thyxotrophic – has yield stress and Non-Newtonian. Eg. Printer’s ink.
 UNIT – II FLUID KINEMATICS AND FLUID DYNAMICS
1. Define fluid kinematics.
Ans.
Fluid kinematics is a branch of Fluid mechanics which deals with the study of velocity ad acceleration
of the particles of fluids in motion and their distribution in space without considering any force
or energy involved.

2. What are the Methods to describe fluid motion.

Ans.
The motion of fluid particles may be described by the following methods:
 Langrangian method – concentrates on movement of single particle.
 Eulerian method – concentrates on a point in the fluid system.

3. Define path line, stream line, streak line and stream tube.
Ans.
Path line – It is the path followed by a fluid particle in motion. It shows the direction of particular
particle as it moves ahead.
Stream line – It is an imaginary line within the flow so that the tangent at any point on it indicates
the velocity at that point. Equation of a stream line is

Streak line – It is a curve which gives an instantaneous picture of the location of the fluid particles,
which have passed through a given point.
Stream tube – It is a fluid mass bounded by a group of streamlines, the contents of which are known
as ‘current filament’.

4. Describe in brief about streamlines.

Ans.
 A streamline cannot intersect itself, now two streamlines can cross.
 There cannot be any movement across the streamlines.
 Streamlines spacing varies inversely as velocity.
 Series of streamline represent the flow pattern at an instant.

5. Classify the different types of fluid flow

Ans.
 Steady flow and unsteady flow.
 Compressible flow and Incompressible flow.
 Uniform flow and Non-uniform flow.
  Rotational flow and Irrotational flow.
 Laminar flow, Transition flow and Turbulent flow.
 One-, Two- and Three-Dimensional flow.

6. Differentiate Steady and Unsteady flow.

Ans.
Steady – In this type of flow, Fluid characteristics like velocity, pressure, density, etc. at a point do
not change with time. Eg. Flow though prismatic/non-prismatic conduit at constant flow rate.
Unsteady – In this type of flow, Fluid characteristics like velocity, pressure, density, etc. at a point
change with time. Eg. Flow through a pipe whose valve is opened or closed gradually.

7. Differentiate Uniform and Non-uniform flow.

Ans.
Uniform – In this type of flow, velocity at any given time does not change with respect to space.
Eg. Flow through a straight prismatic conduit.
Non-uniform – In this type of flow, velocity at any given time changes with respect to space. Eg.
Flow through a non-prismatic conduit.

8. Differentiate Compressible and Incompressible flow.

Ans.
Compressible – density of fluid changes from point to point. Eg. Flow of gases through orifices,
nozzles, etc.
Incompressible – density of fluid remains constant throughout the flow. Liquids are generally
assumed incompressible. Eg. Subsonic aerodynamics.

9. Differentiate Rotational and Irrotational flow.

Ans.
Rotational – the fluid particles while moving in the direction of flow, rotate about their mass
centres. Eg. Motion of fluid in rotating tank.
Irrotational – the fluid particles while moving in the direction of flow, do not rotate about their
mass centres. Eg. Flow above a drain hole of a wash basin.

10. Differentiate Laminar and Turbulent flow.

Ans.
Laminar – paths taken by individual particles do not cross one another and move along well defined
paths. Eg. Flow through capillary tube.
Turbulent – fluid particles move in a zig-zag way. Eg. High velocity flow through large conduits.
 Laminar – Reynolds number < 2000
Transition – Reynolds number 2000 – 4000
Turbulent – Reynolds number > 4000

11. Differentiate One, Two, Three-Dimensional flow.

Ans.
One-D flow – Velocity is a function of time and one space co-ordinate only. Eg. Flow in pipe
Two-D flow – Velocity is a function of time and two space co-ordinates. Eg. Flow between parallel
plates of infinite extent.
Three-D flow – Velocity is a function of time and three mutually perpendicular directions. Eg. Flow in
converging or diverging pipe.

12. Define circulation, vorticity and rotation in fluid flow.

Ans.
Circulation (г) – is defined mathematically as the line integral of the tangential velocity about a
closed path.
Vorticity (Ω) – is defined as the circulation per unit of enclosed area.
Rotation (ω) – is defined as one-half of the vorticity. The flow is irrotational if rotation is zero.

13. Write down the application of continuity equation.

Ans.
It helps in the determination of change in fluid velocity due to enlargement or contraction in the
diameter of a pipe.

14. Can the path line and stream line cross each other at right angles? Why?
Ans.
It is not possible. A fluid particle always moves tangent to the stream line. In a steady flow,
pathlines and streamlines are identical. In an unsteady flow, a fluid particle follows only one streamline
at one instant.
So pathline have no resemblance to any given instantaneous streamline.

15. Define convective and local acceleration.

Ans.
Convective acceleration – defined as the rate of change of velocity due to change of position of
fluid particles in a fluid flow.
 Local acceleration – defined as the rate of increase of velocity with respect to time at a given point
in a flow field.

16. Define velocity potential function and stream function.

Ans.
Velocity potential function (ϕ) – It is defined as the scalar function of space and time such that its
negative derivative with respect to any direction gives the fluid velocity in that direction.

Stream function (ψ) – It is defined as a function of space and time, such that its partial derivative
with respect to any direction gives the velocity component at right angles to this direction.

17. List out the properties of velocity potential function and stream function.
Ans.
Properties of ϕ:
 If velocity potential function exists, the flow should be irrotational.
 If velocity potential function satisfies the Laplace equation, it represents the possible steady
incompressible irrotational flow.

Laplace equation is

Properties of ψ:
 If the stream function exists, it is a possible case of fluid flow which may be rotational or
irrotational.
 If the stream function satisfies Laplace equation, it is a possible case of an irrotational flow.

18. To what type of flow is the concept of velocity potential and stream function applicable?
Ans.
The concept is applicable for possible steady incompressible irrotational flow.

19. Write the continuity equation in terms of Cartesian co-ordinates for both compressible as
well as incompressible fluids.
Ans.
For incompressible fluids,
 For compressible fluids,

20. Write the expression for the rotational components of a fluid element in x-y, y-z and z-x
plane.
Ans.
For x-y plane

For y-z plane

For z-x plane

21. Define Equipotential line and Line of constant stream function.

Ans.
 A line along which the velocity potential is constant, is called equipotential line.
 A line along which the stream function is constant is called line of constant stream function.

22. Define flow net and list its applications.

Ans.
A grid obtained by drawing a series of stream lines and equipotential lines in known as flow net.
Uses:
 To determine quantity of seepage and uplift pressure below hydraulic structure.
 To determine velocity and pressure distribution for given boundaries of flow.

23. Define rate of flow (Discharge)

Ans.
It is defined as the quantity of a liquid flowing per second through a section of pipe or channel. It is
generally denoted by Q. Its S.I. unit is m3/s. 1 m3/s = 1000 litres/s.
Mathematically, Q = A x V
Where A = Area of cross section of pipe/channel
V = velocity of flow
24. Define Fluid dynamics.
Ans.
Fluid Dynamics or Dynamics of fluid flow is the study of fluid motion considering the forces or
energy causing the flow. The dynamics behaviour of the fluid flow is analysed by the Newton’s
second law of motion.

25. What are the forces present in a fluid flow?

Ans.
In the fluid flow, the following forces are present:
i.) Gravity Force (Fg),
ii.) Pressure Force (Fp),
iii.) Force due to Viscosity (Fv),
iv.) Force due to Turbulence (Ft),
v.) Force due to Compressibility (Fc)

26. Write down the equations of motion considering the forces acting on fluid flow.
Ans.
Net Force on Fluid, Fx = Fg + Fp + Fv + Ft + Fc
i. Reynold’s Equation of Motion Fx = Fg + Fp + Fv + Ft
ii. Navier-Stokes Equation Fx = Fg + Fp + Fv
iii. Euler’s Equation of motion Fx = Fg + Fp

27. State the assumptions involved in the derivation of Bernoulli’s equation. Enlist its
applications.
Ans.
i. The fluid is ideal i.e. viscosity is zero.
ii. The flow is steady and continuous.
iii. The flow is incompressible.
iv. The flow is irrotational.
v. The flow is along a stream line i.e. it is one-dimensional.
vi. The only forces acting are gravity and pressure forces

28. Write Euler’s equation.

Ans.

Where p = total pressure in the direction of flow

 v = velocity of fluid flow
Ρ = density of the flowing fluid

29. State Bernoulli’s theorem and write down the Bernoulli’s equation for real fluids.
Ans.
Bernoulli’s theorem states that “in a steady, ideal and continuous flow of an incompressible
fluid, the total energy at any point of the fluid is constant along a stream line.” The total
energy consists of pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential (datum) energy. These energies are
represented in the form of their respective heads.

p /ρg = pressure head

v2 /2g = kinetic head or velocity head
z = datum head or potential head

30. Brief about pressure head, velocity head and datum head.
Ans.
Pressure head: This is due to the pressure of the liquid and is expressed as p/ρg
Velocity head: This is due to the velocity of flowing liquid and is expressed as v2/2g
Datum head: This is due to the configuration or position above some suitable datum line and is
expressed as z.
The sum of all these heads is called as the TOTAL HEAD.

31. State the impulse-momentum principle. Using the same, Write the expression for the
resultant force acting between two sections of the pipe in terms of discharge.
Ans.
The impulse-momentum principle is based on law of conservation of momentum and states that
“the net force acting on a mass of fluid is equal to change in momentum of flow per unit time in
that direction.”
F.dt = d(mv)
The above is the impulse-momentum equation which states that The impulse of a Force F acting
on a fluid mass m in a short interval of time dt is equal to the change of momentum d(mv) in
direction of force.

Resultant Force FR =

Where
Fx = ρQ(V1x – V2x) + (p1A1)x + (p2A2)x
 Fy = ρQ(V1y – V2y) + (p1A1)y + (p2A2)y

32. Why is it necessary to assume that the flow is steady before integrating Euler’s equation
to derive Bernoulli’s equation?
Ans.
The points of flow on different streamlines have different constant values. But for the sake of
simplicity, the same constant value is assumed so that the points on the flow are in the
same streamline. Therefore the flow is assumed steady.
And we also know that steady flow and streamline flow infer the same indicating that the fluid
characteristics do not change with respect to time.

33. What is venturimeter? Write the main parts of venturimeter.

Ans.
A Venturimeter is a device which is used for measuring the rate of flow of fluids through pipes.
The basic principle of venturimeter is that by reducing the cross sectional area along the pipe, a
pressure difference is created.
Parts of venturimeter:
i. Inlet section followed by Converging portion
ii. Throat part
iii. A Diverging cone followed by Outlet section.

34. Co-efficient of discharge of venturimeter is always greater than orifice meter. Why?
Ans.
Loss of energy due to sudden contraction (as in orifice meter) is higher than loss of energy due to
gradual contraction (as in venturimeter). So the co-efficient of discharge is greater for venturimeter
than orifice meter.
35. Sketch a pitot tube and explain briefly how it is used to measure the velocity of a flowing
liquid.
Ans. It consists of a glass tube bent at right angles. The diameter is large enough to avoid capillary
effects. It is kept vertically in a flowing stream with its open end facing the flow. The liquid enter
the tube and the level of liquid rise in the vertical leg of tube. This is because the end B of the
tube is a stagnation point where liquid has no velocity. Here the kinetic energy is converted into
pressure energy. Hence liquid rises in the tube by a height corresponding to the velocity of flow of
liquid.

36. Define the term ‘vena contracta’.

Ans.
The minimum cross sectional of the liquid jet in the downstream side is called Vena Contracta. In
other words, it refers to the point in a fluid stream where the diameter of the stream is least and
velocity is at its maximum.

37. What are the advantages of venturimeter?

Ans.
i. Loss of head is small and hence Cd value is high.
ii. No wear and tear.
iii. Less likelihood of becoming clogged with sediment.
 iv. Well-established characteristics.
v. It is suitable for large flow of water, wastes, gases and suspended solids.

38. What is cavitation in venturimeter?

Ans.
Due to reduction in area the velocity of fluids is increased and the pressure is decreased. When
the pressure comes below that of vapour pressure of the flowing fluid, then the liquid will be
vaporized. This phenomenon is cavitation which can damage pipe walls and corrode them.

39. Give the expression for Actual discharge of an orifice meter explaining the terms involved.
Ans.

Where
Cd = Co-efficient of discharge whose value is taken as 0.6
a0 = Area of the orifice
a1 = Area on upstream section
h = Differential Head

40. Give the expression for Actual discharge of an orifice meter explaining the terms involved.
Ans.

Where
Cd = Co-efficient of discharge whose value is taken as 0.96 to 0.98
a1 = Area of the inlet section
a2 = Area on throat section
h = Differential Head

41. What are the differences between venturimeter and orificemeter?

Ans.
VENTURIMETER ORIFICEMETER
Principle – When velocity head increases in an
Principle – Most of the potential energy of liquid is
accelerated flow, there is corresponding reduction
converted into kinetic energy of free jet.
in piezometric head.
Measures discharges of all incompressible fluids Measure discharges of liquids only
 (both gases and liquids)
Flow velocity is measured by noting the pressure
Flow velocity is measured with a pitot tube
difference between inlet and throat
Requires more space to be installed Easily installed and replaced
Loss of head is small High loss of head

42. Mention the applications of momentum principle.

Ans.
To determine resultant forces in cases like:
i. Force on pipe bends.
ii. Thrust on a propeller
iii. Jet Propulsion
iv. Moving Vanes

43. Define free liquid jets.

Ans.
Free liquid jet is defined as the jet of water coming out from the nozzle in atmosphere. The path
travelled by free jet is parabolic.

44. Define the following:

a. Co-efficient of Discharge
b. Co-efficient of Contraction
c. Co-efficient of Velocity

Ans.

a. Co-efficient of Discharge: Cd
It is defined as the ratio of actual discharge to the theoretical discharge. It is sometimes
represented as Cd = Cv x Cc
b. Co-efficient of Contraction: Cc
It is defined as the ratio of area of a liquid jet at vena contracta to the area of orifice.
c. Co-efficient of Velocity: Cv
It is defined as the ratio of actual velocity of liquid jet at vena contracta to the theoretical velocity
of jet.
45. Define kinetic energy correction factor.
Ans.
It is defined as the ratio of kinetic energy of flow per second based on actual velocity across as section
to the kinetic energy of flow per second based on average velocity across the same section.
It takes a value of
1.02 to 1.15 for turbulent flows
2 for laminar flows

46. Define kinetic energy correction factor.

Ans.
It is defined as the ratio of momentum of flow per second based on actual velocity across as section to
the momentum of flow per second based on average velocity across the same section.
It takes a value of
1.01 to 1.07 for turbulent flows
4/3 for laminar flows
 UNIT – III DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND MODEL STUDIES
1. What is dimensional analysis? List the methods and uses of dimensional analysis.
Ans.
Dimensional analysis is a mathematical technique which makes use of the study of dimensions for
solving several engineering problems. It helps in determining a systematic arrangement of the
variables in a physical relationship (in a physical phenomenon), combining dimensional variables to
form non-dimensional (dimensionless) parameters.
The following are the two well known Methods:
a. Rayleigh’s method.
b. Buckingham’s -theorem.
Uses:
 To test dimensional homogeneity of fluid flow equation.
 To derive rational formulae for flow phenomenon
 To plan model tests and present experimental results in a systematic manner.

2. What are units and dimensions for Force, Density, Viscosity, Specific weight, Discharge,
Kinematic Viscosity, Pressure, Surface tension?
Ans.
PHYSICAL QUANTITY DIMENSIONS SI UNITS
Force MLT-2 N
Density ML-3 Kg/m3
Viscosity ML-1T-1 N-s/m2
Specific weight ML-2T-2 N/m3
Discharge L3T-1 m3/s
Kinematic Viscosity L2T-1 m2/s
Pressure ML-1T-2 N/m2
Surface tension MT-2 N/m

3. What are fundamental dimensions?

Ans. The various physical quantities in any fluid phenomenon are expressed in terms of primary
quantities called the fundamental quantities. They may also be called as fundamental dimensions or
fixed dimensions. They are designated as follows in dimensional analysis.
FUNDAMENTAL DIMENSION DESIGNATION
MASS M
LENGTH L
TIME T
TEMPERATURE 
4. What are derived quantities?
Ans. The quantities which are expressed in terms of fundamental quantities or the quantities which
possess more than one fundamental dimension are called derived quantities. Eg. Velocity, area,
acceleration, etc.

5. Brief about Rayleigh’s method.

Ans.
Rayleigh’s method is used for determining the expression for a variable which depends upon maximum
of three or four variables only. If the number of independent variables becomes more than four,
then it is very difficult to find the expression for the dependent variable.

6. State the disadvantages of Rayleigh’s method in dimensional analysis.

Ans.
 The method doesn’t hold good if the number of independent variables is more than the number
of fundamental dimensions.
 The method does not provide any information regarding the number of dimensionless groups to
be obtained as a result of dimensional analysis. So it has become obsolete and is not favoured
for use.

7. State Buckingham’s -theorem.

Ans.
Buckingham’s -theorem states that, “If there are n variables (independent and dependent variables)
in a dimensionally homogeneous equation of a physical phenomenon and if these variables
contain m fundamental dimensions (M, L, T), then the variables are arranged into (n-m)
dimensionless terms”. Each of these dimensionless terms is called term.

8. Define the term Dimensional Homogeneity. How is it attained in a fluid equation?

Ans.
Dimensional homogeneity states that every term in an equation (expressing a physical relationship)
when reduced to fundamental dimensions must contain identical powers of each dimension i.e. the
powers of fundamental dimensions on both sides of the equation will be identical.
The resulting equation shall be called as dimensionally homogeneous equation. Such an equation
shall be independent of the system of units. It is attained in a fluid equation by equating dimensions
on both the sides.
9. What do you understand by the term ‘repeating variables’?
Ans.
Repeating variables are those variables which are chosen to represent the -terms (dimensionless
terms) used in Buckingham’s -theorem of dimensional analysis.
These variables are chosen in such a way that
 They must jointly contain all the fundamental dimensions involved in phenomenon.
 They must not form non-dimensional parameters among themselves.
 The dependent variable involved in the phenomenon, should not be selected as
repeating variable.
 No two repeating variables have the same dimensions.
 One variable with geometric property (diameter, length, etc.), one variable with
flow property (velocity, acceleration, etc.) and one with fluid property
(viscosity, density, etc.).

10. Define model, prototype and model analysis.

Ans.
The Model is the small scale replica of the actual structure or machine. The actual structure or
machine is called Prototype. So the study of model of actual structures or machines is called Model
Analysis.
It has to be noted that the models need not necessarily be smaller than prototypes. In some cases, the
models are larger than prototypes (eg. Wrist watches, carburettor).

11. Define the terms Geometric Similarity, Kinematic similarity and Dynamic similarity.
Ans.
Geometric Similarity:
This type of similarity is said to exist between model and its prototype when the ratio of all
corresponding linear dimensions (like lengths, included angles, etc.) in the model and prototype are
equal. The models which are not geometrically similar are called geometrically distorted models.
Kinematic Similarity:
It is the similarity of motion between model and prototype and is said to exist if the ratios of the
velocity and acceleration (both magnitude and direction) at the corresponding points in both model
and prototype are the same. Geometric similarity is a pre-requisite for kinematic similarity.
Dynamic similarity:
It is the similarity of forces between model and prototype and is said to exist if the ratios of
corresponding forces acting at corresponding points are equal in both magnitude and direction.
12. Explain the term “Dimensionless Numbers” and list any 2 dimensionless numbers.
Ans.
Dimensionless numbers those numbers which are obtained by dividing the inertia force by viscous
force or gravity force or pressure force or surface tension force or elastic force. As this is the ratio of
one force to another, it will be dimensionless. They are also called as non-dimensional parameters.

13. Define Froude number and deduce the expression for it.
Ans.

The Froude’s number (Fe) as the square root of the ratio of inertia force of a flowing fluid to the
gravity force. Mathematically, it is expressed as

Froude’s number governs the dynamic similarity of the flow situations where gravitational force is most
significant.

14. What is an undistorted model?

Ans.
Undistorted models are those models which are geometrically similar to their prototypes or in other
words if the scale ratio for the linear dimensions of the model and its prototypes is same. The design
and construction of the model, interpretation of their results are simpler.

15. Enumerate the applications of dimensional homogeneity.

Ans.
 It facilitates to determine the dimensions of a physical quantity.
 It helps to check whether an equation of any physical phenomenon is dimensionally
homogeneous or not.
 It facilitates the conversion of units from one system to another.
 It provides a step towards dimensional analysis which is fruitfully employed to plan experiments
and to present the results meaningfully.

16. Define similitude.

Ans.
Similitude is defined as the similarity between the model and its prototype in every aspect, which
means that the model and prototype have similar properties. There are three types of similarities.
a. Geometric Similarity.
b. Kinematic Similarity.
c. Dynamic Similarity.
17. What do you mean by distorted models? Bring about its advantages and disadvantages.
Ans.
A model is said to be distorted if it is not geometrically similar to its prototype. For a distorted
model, different scale ratios for the linear dimensions (horizontal & vertical) are adopted. Eg. Rivers,
harbours, reservoirs, etc.
Advantages:
 Vertical dimensions of model can be measured accurately.
 Cost of model can be reduced.
 Surface tension can be reduced to minimum.
 Turbulent flow in flow can be maintained.
Disadvantages:
 Pressure & Velocity distributions are not truly reproduced.
 Its results cannot be directly transferred to its prototype.

18. Define Reynold’s number.

Ans.

Reynold’s number ( ) is defined as the ratio of inertia force of a flowing fluid to the viscous force

of the fluid. Mathematically, it is expressed as

=
This number is significant in cases where viscous forces are predominant.

19. Show that the equation v = is dimensionally homogeneous.

Ans.
Dimensions of LHS = V = L/T = LT-1

Dimensions of RHS = =

Dimensions of LHS = Dimensions of RHS = LT-1

⸫ the given equation is dimensionally homogeneous.

20. Define scale ratio.

Ans.
It is otherwise called as scale factor. It is defined as the ratio of lengths, diameters, heights, bases
of model to that of its prototype. It is denoted by the symbol Lr.
Ratio of Areas of model and prototype is called Area Ratio. Ar = (Lr)2
Ratio of Volumes of model and prototype is called Volume Ratio. Vr.= (Lr)3
21. Define model laws. Enumerate the model laws used.
Ans.
Model laws are also called similarity laws. For dynamic similarity between models and prototypes, the
ratio of forces needs to be the equal i.e. dimensionless numbers should be same for model and
prototype. The models are therefore designed on basis of ratio of the force which is dominating in the
phenomenon. “The laws on which the models are designed for dynamic similarity are called
model laws”. The following are the model laws.
a. Reynold’s model law.
b. Froude model law.
c. Euler model law.
d. Weber model law.
e. Mach model law.

22. Classify the types of models.

Ans.
Models are basically classified as,
 Undistorted models
 Distorted models

23. Brief about all the five model laws.

Ans.

MODEL DIMENSIONLESS
APPLICATIONS
LAW NUMBER

Reynold’s Reynold’s number is Pipe flow, resistance experienced by sub-marines, airplanes,

Model Law same fully immersed bodies, etc.

Free surface flows such as flow over spillways, weirs, sluices,

Froude Froude’s number is
channels,etc., Flow of jet from orifice or nozzle, where fluids
Model Law same
of different densities flow over one another.

Euler Model Euler’s number is Enclosed fluid systems where turbulence is fully developed,
Law same where cavitation takes place.

Weber Weber’s number is Capillary waves in channels, capillary rise in narrow passages,
Model Law same flow over weirs involving very low heads.
 Mach Model Mach’s number is Phenomena involving velocities exceeding speed of sound,
Law same under-water testing of torpedoes, water hammer problems.

24. How will you determine the total drag of a ship or partially sub-merged bodies?
Ans.
 The drag experienced by a ship consists of: Wave resistance and Frictional or viscous
resistance.
 Initially the frictional resistance of model and prototype is calculated.
 The model is then tested to measure its total resistance, by towing it in water contained in a
towing tank such that dynamic similarity for Froude number is satisfied.
 Then the wave resistance of model is found by deducting frictional resistance from total
resistance.
 Then by dynamic similarity of Reynold’s number, wave resistance of prototype is calculated.
 By adding wave resistance and frictional resistance, total resistance experienced by the
prototype [ship in this case] is calculated.

25. Define Euler’s Number.

Ans.
It is defined as the square root of the ratio of the inertia forces of a flowing fluid to the pressure
force. Mathematically, it is expressed as

It is important in flow problems in which a pressure gradient exists.

26. Define Weber’s Number.

Ans.
It is defined as the square root of the ratio of the inertia force of a flowing fluid to the surface
tension force. Mathematically it is expressed as,

It is important in situations where surface tension force is predominant.

27. Define Mach’s Number.
Ans.
It is defined as the square root of the ratio of the inertia force of a flowing fluid to the elastic force.
Mathematically, it is expressed as

It is important in compressible flow problems at high velocities.

28. Advantages of model testing.

Ans.
Model tests are quite economical and convenient.
Performance of hydraulic structures/machines can be predicted.
Can be used to detect and rectify defects of an existing structure.

29. Applications of model testing.

Ans.
 Civil engineering structures like dams, spillways, weirs, canals, etc.
 Flood control
 Turbines, pumps
 Design of harbours, ships, submarines
 Tall buildings

30. Advantages and Limitations of Dimensional Analysis.

Ans.
Advantages:
 To express functional relationship between the variables in dimensionless terms.
 It enables getting up a theoretical equation in a simplified dimensional form.
 It facilitates conversion of units from one system to another.
 The dimensionless parameters can be used to make certain logical deductions about the
problem.
Limitations:
 It does not give any clue regarding selection of variables.
 Only the relationship between parameters is indicated and doesn’t provide the complete
information.
 UNIT IV FLOW THROUGH PIPES
1. What are the characteristics of laminar flow?
Ans.
 There is a shear stress between fluid layers.
 No slip at the boundary.
 The flow is rotational.
 There is a continuous dissipation of energy due to viscous shear. So the energy
must be supplied to maintain the flow.
 Loss of energy is proportional to the first power of velocity and first power of viscosity.
2. What is hydraulic mean depth or hydraulic radius?
Ans.
It is the ratio of cross sectional area to the wetted perimeter of that section.
m=A/P
3. What are the minor losses experienced by a fluid when it is passing through
a pipe?
Ans.
 Loss of energy due to sudden enlargement.
 Loss of head due to sudden contraction.
 Loss of energy at the exit from the pipe.
 Loss of energy due to gradual contraction.
 Loss of energy due to an obstruction in pipe.
 Loss of energy at the entrance to a pipe.
 Loss of energy in bends.
 Loss of energy in various pipe fittings.
4. What are eddies and vena contracta in minor losses in pipes?
Ans.
Due to sudden contraction the streamline converges to a minimum cross section which is
called as the vena contracta. In between vena contracta and wall of the pipe a lot of eddies
are formed. These eddies cause a considerable dissipation of energy.
5. What is meant by transition state?
Ans.
The state at which the flow changes from laminar to turbulent is known as transition state.

6. Define critical velocity

Ans.
The velocity at which the flow changes from laminar to turbulent for the case of a given
fluid at a given temperature in a given pipe is known as critical velocity.

7. Where are the Darcy-Weisbach and Chezy’s formulae used?

Ans.
Darcy-weisbach equation is generally used for the flow through pipes.
Chezy’s formulae is used for the flow through open channels.

8. What are pipes in series or Compound Pipes?

Ans.
It is defined as the pipes of different diameters and lengths are connected with one another
to form a single pipeline.
In case of pipes in series Discharge remains the same and head loss varies with each
pipe.

9. What do you mean by flow trough parallel pipes?

Ans.
When a main pipeline is divided into two or more parallel pipes which again join together to
form a single pipe and continue as a main line. These pipes are said to be pipes in parallel.
In case of flow through parallel pipes, the total discharge will be the sum of discharges
through each pipe whereas the head loss tends to be the same in each pipe.
 10. Define the terms a) Hydraulic gradient line [HGL] b) Total Energy line [TEL].
Ans.
i. Hydraulic gradient line: It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure
head and datum head of a flowing fluid in a pipe with respect the reference line.
HGL = Pressure Head + Datum head
ii. Total energy line: Total energy line is defined as the line which gives the sum of
pressure head, datum head and kinetic head of a flowing fluid in a pipe with
respect to some reference line.

TEL = Pressure Head+ Datum head + Velocity head

11. What is meant by Moody’s chart and what are the uses of Moody’s chart?
Ans.
The basic chart plotted against Darcy-Weisbach friction factor against Reynold‟s Number
(Re) for the variety of relative roughness and flow regimes. The relative roughness is the
ratio of the mean height of roughness of the pipe and its diameter (ε/D). Moody’s
diagram is accurate to about 15% for design calculations and used for a large number of
applications. It can be used for non-circular conduits and also for open channels.

12. State the significance of moody’s diagram.

Ans.
 A graph in non-dimensional form that relates the Darcy’s friction factor, Reynold’s
number and Relative roughness for fully developed flow in a circular pipe
 It can be used for working out pressure drop or flow rate down such a pipe.

13. Define head loss coefficient.

Ans.
The constant which is equivalent to the losses due to sudden entry, exit, contraction and
enlargement is known as head loss coefficient.
14. Discuss the importance of Darcy-Weisbach formula.
Ans.
It relates the head loss or pressure loss due to friction along a given length of pipe to the
average velocity of the fluid flow. This formula is mainly used in fluid flow analysis based on
Reynolds number.

15. State Hagen-Poiseuille formula for finding the head loss in a pipe due to
viscous flow.
Ans.
Due to viscosity of the flowing fluid in a laminar flow some losses of head take place. The
equation which gives us the value of loss of head due to viscosity in a laminar flow is known
as hagen poiseuille law.

16. What is scale of turbulence?

Ans.
The length scale at which the structure functions for turbulence breaks down with large
scale.

17. What is equivalent pipe?

Ans.
A compound pipe consisting of several pipes of varying diameters and length replaced by a
pipe of uniform diameter is known as equivalent pipe.

18. Sketch the velocity and shear stress distribution for a laminar flow of an
incompressible fluid through a circular pipe.
Ans.
19. What are the factors influencing the frictional loss in pipe flow?
Ans.
Frictional resistance for the turbulent flow is,
a. Proportional to vn where v varies from 1.5 to 2.0.
b. Proportional to the density of fluid.
c. Proportional to the area of surface in contact.
d. Independent of pressure.
e. Depend on the nature of the surface in contact

20. Compare Laminar and Turbulent flow.

Ans.
Laminar flow
A flow is said to be laminar if Reynolds number is less than 2000 for pipe flow. Laminar flow is
possible only at low velocities and high viscous fluids. In laminar type of flow, fluid particles
move in laminas or layers gliding smoothly over the adjacent layer.
Turbulent flow
In Turbulent flow, the flow is possible at both velocities and low viscous fluid. The flow is said to be
turbulent if Reynolds number is greater than 4000 for pipe flow. In Turbulent type of flow fluid,
particles move in a zig – zag manner.

21. Give the relation between friction factor and co-efficient of friction.
Ans.
Friction factor f1 = 4 x co-efficient of friction f
 UNIT – V BOUNDARY LAYER FLOW
1. Give four examples in everyday life where formation of boundary layer is important.

Ans.
 The rain water flows on the outer wall surface from top to bottom during rainy season.
 The flow of water on river bed.
 The flow of condensed water in the drain pipe of air conditioning systems.
 Filling any liquid in a container.
 Movement of aeroplanes through air mass.
 Flow of air over earth surface.

2. What is boundary layer? Give a sketch of a boundary-layer region over a flat plate.

Ans.
The fluid layer in the vicinity of the solid boundary where the effects of fluid friction i.e., the
variation of velocity (from zero to free-stream) in the direction normal to the boundary, are
predominant is known as the boundary layer. The theory dealing with boundary layer flows is called
boundary layer theory.

3. Define Boundary layer thickness.

Ans.
It is defined as the distance from the boundary of the solid body measured in the y-direction to the
point, where the velocity of the fluid is approximately equal to 0.99 times the free stream velocity

of the fluid. It is denoted by the symbol δ.

δlam – Thickness of laminar boundary layer

δtur – Thickness of turbulent boundary layer

δ’ – Thickness of laminar sub layer

4. Write the types of boundary layer thickness.

Ans.

 Displacement thickness δ*
 Momentum thickness 
 Energy thickness δ**

5. Define Laminar Boundary Layer.

Ans.
Near the leading edge of the surface of the plate, where the thickness is small, the flow in the
boundary layer is laminar though the main flow is turbulent. This layer of the fluid is said to be laminar
boundary layer. The length of the plate from the leading edge, upto which laminar boundary layer
exists, is called laminar zone.

6. Define Turbulent Boundary Layer.

Ans.
The thickness of the boundary layer goes on increasing in the downstream direction. Laminar boundary
layer becomes unstable and the fluid motion is disturbed which leads to transition from laminar to
turbulent. This short length is called transition zone. Further downstream, the boundary layer is
turbulent and continues to grow in thickness and is referred as the turbulent boundary layer.

7. Define Displacement thickness.

Ans.
It is defined as the distance measured perpendicular to the boundary of the solid body, by which the
boundary should be displaced to compensate for the reduction in flow rate on account of
boundary layer formation.
Precisely, it is that distance by which free stream is displaced due to boundary layer formation.

8. Define Momentum thickness.

Ans.
It is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary of the solid body, by which the
boundary should be displaced to compensate for the reduction in momentum of the flowing fluid
on account of boundary layer formation.
9. Define Energy thickness.

Ans.
It is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary of the solid body, by which the
boundary should be displaced to compensate for the reduction in kinetic energy of the flowing
fluid on account of boundary layer formation.

10. Give the equations expressing the 3 types of Boundary Layer Thicknesses.

Ans.

11. What are the assumptions made in the analysis of boundary layer development?

Ans.
 A continuous flow is assumed to be along the surface of a thin flat plate.
 The system should have a sharp leading edge set parallel to the flow direction.

12. Brief about the boundary conditions for velocity profile.

Ans.
Irrespective of Laminar or Turbulent, the following boundary conditions define the velocity profile as:
1. At y = 0, u = 0

2. At y = 0 to δ, du/dy has some finite value.(du/dy > 0)

3. At y = δ, u = U

4. At y = δ, du/dy = 0

13. Differentiate between Drag and Lift.

Ans.
 The component of the total force in the direction parallel to the direction of motion is
called drag. It means, the pulling force required to move any object in the horizontal direction.
  The component of the total force in the direction perpendicular to the direction of motion
is called lift. It means the upward force required to lift any object to a certain height.
The above mentioned Two forces (Drag and Lift) act on a stationary body when immersed in
flowing fluid (real fluid).

14. Write the Von Karman Momentum Integral equation for boundary layer flow.

Ans.

Where U – Free stream velocity

15. Define Local Co-efficient of Drag and Average Co-efficient of Drag.

Ans.

Local Co-efficient of drag is defined as the ratio of the shear stress to the quantity ρU2. It is

*
denoted by the symbol CD .

Average Co-efficient of drag or simply co-efficient of drag is defines as the ratio of total drag force

to the quantity ρAU2. It is denoted by the symbol CD.

16. What do you understand by the term boundary layer separation?

Ans.
The boundary layer is formed on the flat plate when it is immersed in a flowing fluid. The fluid layer
adjacent to the solid surface has to do work against surface friction at the expense of its kinetic
energy, the loss of which is recovered by adjacent layer through momentum exchange. So
velocity goes on decreasing. At a certain stage, The boundary layer leaves the surface and gets
separated from it. This phenomenon is known as boundary layer separation.
Also if the pressure gradient in the direction of flow is positive, the boundary layer will separate.
17. Define point of separation.

Ans.
The point on the body at which the boundary layer is on the verge of separation from the surface is
called point of separation.

18. What are the factors affecting boundary layer flow separation?

Ans.
 The curvature of the surface
 The Reynold’s number of flow
 The roughness of the surface

19. When will boundary layer separate?

Ans. Practical applications where boundary layer separation is possible are:

 Diffusers
 Open Channel transitions
 Pumps
 Fans
 Aerofoils
 Turbine blades

20. What are the effects of boundary layer separation?

Ans.
It leads to the formation of eddies and wake zone of disturbed flow on the downstream causes
continuous loss of energy. This separation is undesirable, unstable and inefficient process.

21. Mention different methods to prevent boundary layer separation.

Ans.
d. Suction of the slow moving fluid by a suction slot.
e. Supplying additional energy from a blower.
f. Providing a bypass in the slotted wing.
g. Rotating boundary in the direction of flow.
h. Providing small divergence in a diffuser.
i. Providing guide blades in a bend.
j. Providing a trip-wire ring in the laminar region for the flow over a sphere.