MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES
BET3205
SUBJECT METHODS IN RELIGIOUS
EDUCATION
Purpose

To equip bachelor of education student teachers with knowledge and skills while preparing to teach CRE in
secondary schools.

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to:

i. Explain importance of studying CRE in Kenyan secondary schools.

ii. Demonstrate competences and skills in the preparation of the schemes of work and lesson plans.

iii. Execute necessary teaching methods in the teaching of CRE with respect to moral values of the
learner.

iv. Apply valid and reliable methods in the assessment and evaluation procedures in CR

Course Content
- Aims and objectives of Religious Education:
- Place of religious Education in secondary school curriculum;
- Dimensions of Religious Education Syllabuses;
- Schemes of work and lesson plans for religious education;
- Different approaches, methods and activities for teaching concepts, values and skills; Teaching
aids and resources;
- Methods of assessment and evaluation procedures.

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 CHAPTER ONE

RELIGIOUS EDUCATION IN THE CURRICULUM INTRODUCTION

This first chapter is concerned with the role of religious in the society, the importance of
studying religious education and its place in the school curriculum. The chapter also looks at the
history of R.E during the Colonial era and its role in the educational system since independence.
Lastly, it under sources the importance of African Traditional Religious (A.T.R) in the teaching
of R.E and sources of information for teaching the subject.

The role of religion in society

Religioun has played and continues to play an important role in the society by;

1. Cementing the society and uniting people of varied origins; cultures and gender through a
common belief in a supernatural power.
2. Giving its followers an ego of identity and a sense of belonging.
3. Setting moral standards and ethical values for humanity by establishing a code of conduct
for all its adherents. This enables people to relate well with God and with one another in
the society.
4. Being a source of hope and comfort during grievous moments. Such moments bring
sorrow and loneliness and it is only religious which provides relief.
5. Acting as a socializing agent. It brings people together during religious functions and
allows interaction between individuals and groups.
6. Helping to resolve the mystery of life by compensating for ignorance. There are many
things which humanity does not comprehend about the universe, its origin, its creator, the
essence of life after death e.t.c. it is only by running to religious that some of these
questions can be addressed therefore, filling the gaps where knowledge or reason has
failed.
7. An attempting to fulfill humanity’s quest for fellowship with God. Humanity is always
searching for an inner fulfillment, an emptiness which is satisfied by religion.

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The national goals of teaching R.E

Religious Education is justified in the school because of the following reasons.

i. The achievement of national goals of education especially for the fourth goal which states
that education should promotes sound moral and religious values this can be fully
realized through the teaching of R.E.
ii. For career purposes there are certain jobs which can not be pursued without knowledge of
R.E such as law, theology, anthropology, philosophy and counseling.
iii. To ensure full development of the students in all domains of learning. While other
subjects in the curriculum focus on cognitive domain, it is only R.E in the entire
curriculum which concentrates not only on cognitive but also relating and affective
domain. This ensures an all round student.
iv. It is the only subject in the curriculum which addresses the spiritual being of the child
which is an important aspect of a human being.
v. For the glory of God (Religious reason).
vi. For social reasons so that students can learn to get on with other people. It thus enhances
social relating in society as a whole (social reason).
vii. It helps learners to become more responsible for their own world outlook and to sort out
their religious beliefs (social reason).
viii. It is taught so that students learn to relate the world’s principles and values to their
religious beliefs (social reason).
ix. It is intended so that the learners acquire certain dispositions (knowledge, values and
skills e.t.c), thus education reasons.
x. According to Phoenix‟s curriculum philosophy, the teaching of Religious Education is
justified in the curriculum because R.E is part of six broad fields/spheres/realms of
meaning which every individual ought to learn to function in human society.

These are;
a. Symbolic meaning- this refers to meaning as attached to symbols and it comprises of
disciplines of Maths, Linguistics and Languages.
b. Empirical meanings- this is meaning as derived from systematic, scientific observations.
It includes disciples like Physics, Chemistry, Biology and Sociology.
c. Aesthetic meaning- it is meaning related to people’s concept of beauty and comprises
disciplines like Music, Dance, Drama, Poetry e.t.c.
d. Synoptic meaning- this refers to spontaneous and in differential meaning as exhibited by
babies, lovers and poet.
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 e. Ethical meaning- it is meaning of prescription normative or obligatory kind and
comprises disciplines of ethics, philosophy of law, social and political philosophy.
f. Synoptic meaning
- Historical meaning; this is all reality from the perspective included are disciplines of
history, paleontology and evolutionary studies.
- Philosophical meaning- it refers to all meaning from national perspective. Under this
are all philosophical disciplines e.g metaphysics, cosmology and epistemology.
Metaphysics- the branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of existence, truth
and knowledge.
Cosmology- the scientific study of the universe and its origin and development.
Epistemology- the part of philosophy which deals with knowledge.
- Ultimate meaning- this is reality absolute perspective e.g ultimate truth beauty,
norms, meaning e.g theology and study of world outlook. Religious falls under this.

The History of R.E before and after Independent

The history of R.E in Kenya has its roots in the synagogue tradition of the Jews at the time of
Christ. The kind of R.E taught in the synagogue influenced the early Christian catechism both in
its rituals, doctrine and moral education content. The core of the content was originally a
profession of faith in Christ Jesus, the son of God and savior and much of the content from the
Old and New Testament.

However, when Christianity took root in the Greek and Rome cultures, R.E also began to take on
Greek and Roman cultural features. While theology was affected by Greek philosophy, ethics
and ritual came under a strong Roman influence.

During European Middle Ages, the Christian tradition became vulnerable to Europeans and
became an integral part of the European culture. It is this European acculturated form of
Christianity that was spread throughout the world during the missionary period of the 19th and
20th centuries. The missionary education was against non-Christian religious and condemned
them calling them satanic and barbaric. The western missionaries took it upon themselves to
civilize the world through their culture, religious, education and civilization.

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The teaching of R.E during Colonial Period

Religious Education was taught at two levels in this period;

i. In missionary schools based on Western model.
ii. In madras attached on mosques under the Arabic model where, Muslim children were
instructed by the Sheikh on Islamic faith. This teaching had been going on at the
Kenyan Coast and in the main centers of trade in the interior before the colonial rule.
Even after establishment of the rule they continued to instruct their young in Islamic
tradition.

In the colonial schools, Christian was the core subject of the missionary education although other
subjects were gradually allowed into the curriculum. It was the only subject in the missionary
schools that was not open to discussion. The primary objectives of this early education were to
convert the heathen to Christianity via education. A good Christian had to have the;

 Knowledge of the Bible.

 Ability to sing hymns
 Recite the catechisms
 Communicate both orally and in writing
 Train through English and local languages for;

o Local clergy
o Catechists
o Lay readers
o Priest or Godly teachers who will minister to the need of their people.

The place of R.E after independence

The status of R.E was drastically affected when Kenya attained independence in 1963. The
Kenya Constitution granted freedom of conscience, thought, religious and freedom to manifest
ones religious, and to propagate it in worship, teaching, practice and observance.

Under this, no person could be forced to be taught a religion not his/her own. This therefore
meant that the missionaries could not continue teaching Christian religion in the same way they
had done under the colonial rule. The government appointed the first commission of education
under professor Ominde to look in to the entire education system and recommend relevant
changes so that education could serve the needs of an independent African nation.
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The Ominde commission declared Kenya as a secular state where all religious were the same. It
made recommendation regarding the teaching of Religious Education in schools and tried to
neutralize the divisive aspects of religious by ensuring that;

- The missionaries handed over the management of schools to the government while
they maintained the status of sponsors.
- The government managed all the schools, but with the co-operation of religious
bodies in the matters of religious instructions.
- There is creation of an ecumenical syllabus in order to reduce inter-denominational
rivalry on what should be incorporated in the R.E syllabus instead of spiritual.
- R.E transmitted knowledge, understanding and moral growth.
- Proselytizing and propaganda was out of place in schools.
- R.E was taught based on modern educational principles and practice but not on
particular objectives of any religion
- The commission however, gave the following concessions to the sponsors
- The sponsor were given the responsibility of preparing teaching material such as,
textbooks.
- They had to maintain the religious tradition of the schools
- They were to be presented at school committee and board of governors of schools
they sponsored
- They were free to use school building when the school were not on session
- They had a say on who could head the schools and could reject any teacher or head
they felt was not fit to be in this schools

These recommendations were legalized under the education act of 1968 and therefore become
law .these was the beginning of moral decadence in schools. The fact that R.E was treated as any
other subject in the curriculum meant that any one with religious knowledge could teach it
regardless of their moral record the emphasize in R.E teaching had shifted from affective domain
to cognitive

The Gachathi report of 1976 was also negative on teaching of R.E and advocated for introduction
of ethics in the curriculum instead of R.E it argue that in a pluralistic society, it was not healthy
to rely sorely on religious education as basis for moral education

The Mackay report recommended the introduction of social ethics and education in the
curriculum as a compulsory but non-examinable subject. R.E was to be one of the optional

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subjects in secondary schools. The recommendation was implemented under 8-4-4 education
system in 1986.this move by the government was not to be received well by the sponsor of the
former missionary schools who saw this as an attempt to undermine the role of R.E in the
curriculum.There discontentment caused the government to make it compulsory soon after
school.This last decision by the government revoked the decision once more and made social
ethics and education examinable and an alternative to religion education .Both were put in group
(ii)cluster and examination purpose at form four,only one subject from this group could be
chosen

Therefore from 1991 to 2001 R.E&S.E.E were among the 13 compulsory subject in form (i)&(ii)
while in form (iii)&(iv) they became optional and candidates could only do one of the two .in
2002.Following the curriculum review S.E.E was removed from the secondary school syllabus,
Religious Education was retained but made compulsory for only form i & ii

R.E in African traditional religion (ATR)

The religious education curriculum has four religions in one syllabus;

 Christian Religious Education

 Islamic Religious Education
 Hindu Religious Education
 African Religious Education

African element in religion is very important because the curriculum is meant for an African
child in an Africa environment. African religion was characterized by the social environment of
the child and the elders as the main managers and educators of customs and tradition as
transmitted from ancestors

The traditional Africa education was religious in nature because of the transmission of the
heritage and concern with the development of the individual. It was meant to enable one to fit in
his or her society and the social environment.

The content of art was derived from the nature of God. His creation forms of worship religious
specialists, mystical powers, magic, witchcraft and taboos

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In the syllabus, ATR is meant to not only educate the child on his/her cultural; background but
also to show it is relate to Christianity or Islam in the curriculum implementation it is to be
presented as a living experience affecting the child today .the emphasis should be on positive
aspect of Africa heritage, society and aspect and its people. The child is to show respect and
pride in his/her Africa heritage.

Importance of incorporating ATR in religious education syllabus

 It forms the background and environment of the child so the child so that even one is
converted to Christianity or Islamic he/she is still haunted by his/her past in ATR.
 There are common element between ATR and Christianity/Islam e.g belief in a super
power, life after death, reward and punishment.
 ATR forms the total African perspective of life; to understand the Africa and his/her
stand in Christianity/Islam is to understand the religious beliefs of his/her people.

It is important to point out that although ATR has been in the curriculum of decades , it has made
very little impact in the lives of school pupils. These could be possible reasons according to
Gronewegen (1993)

Modern education is very rationalistic .it insist on people having good reasons for accepting or
rejecting traditions yet tradition were kept because they were tradition.

African heritage belongs to many ethnics communities with varied cultures but the heritage
taught in Kenyan schools features only a miniature parts of one own ethnics heritage.this make
little or no impact at all in the overall transmission of African heritage.

Much of our ethnic heritage only makes sense in the original ethnics heritage and translation
in either English or Kiswahili makes it lose meaning

Christianity and Islamic have take over from ATR the role of prescribing norms and values.

Sources of teaching R.E

 The source of R.E refer to possible places or things where one could get authentic
information on the subject. There are mainly primary source as opposed to
secondary source. They include the following

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  Written source such as religious documents (the Bible, Quran); official or legal document
the education act the constitu7tion and the government. commissions reports,
narratives e.g chronicles ,annual, newspaper, journals and books and lastly private
documents like letters, diaries, autobiography and biography
 Oral tradition sources: this is the main source of ATR and contemporary Christian
living or Islamic living. It concentrates on resent or past events as told by word of
mouth.
 Archeology many religious or even historical site have been excavated and given a lot
of insights on people’s religious
 Anthropology: cultural anthropology deals with beliefs and customs of people and
therefore their religion. Their studies of both modern and traditional
communities can give a lot of information on religious beliefs of the
communities involved

Summary

The chapter has underscored the importance of religion in society and religion education in
curriculum. It has been emphasis that goals of education could not be realized within the
contribution of this subject because of its concern with the moral development of the
students. The teaching of R.E before independence was more spiritual in nature while
after independence the shift was on cognitive learning. with the present crisis of
managing and controlling HIV/AIDS R.E instruction in morals and values is the only
option out of the crisis.

Suggested learning activities

1. Justify the inclusion of R.E in the secondary school curriculum

2. State the objectives of either teaching R.E or IRE
3. How could RE education be used to achieve the following goals of
education
 Individual development and self fulfillment
 Sound moral and religious values
 Social equality and responsibility
 Positive attitudes towards good health and environmental protection

Discuss the importance of Ominde commission and Education ACT in the teaching of R.E IN
KENYA
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 CHAPTER TWO

TRANSIMISSION METHODS IN THE TEACHING OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

A strategy is a way and means of organizing and facilitating learning experiences .There are two
teaching strategies namely expository and heuristics strategies. Expository is also referred to as
transmission or explanatory approach to teaching where the teacher impart or exposes knowledge
to the learners .The presenter presents declarative information in a step to step way through
lecture explanation and the provision of guided practices through oral drills or written seat work
.Examples of methods which fall under expository strategy are lecture ,story telling,
narratives,teacherdemonstration,textreading,recitations,notedictating,audio visual presentations
etc.

Heuristic approach also known as {discovery or experimental} is a strategy where the learners
are left to explore and find out information for themselves.The teacher assumes a directive role.
Examples of methods which fall under heuristic are: experimental [laboratory experimental]
project work, small groupwork, roleplay, discussions, inquiry or discovery etc.

Consideration in selection of a strategy

Its important to note that selection of teaching strategy will depend on whatever approach will be
most effective and more efficient in producing learning. The teacher can be guided by the
following considerations in choosing a strategy.

1. The nature of the topic. What are you going to teach?

2. Objectives of the lesson .what do you want to achieve in your lesson?
3. The type of the learners their experiences ability interest and skills
4. The personality of the teacher his/her interest ability creativity and his/her approach to
teaching and the subject to hand
5. Facilities and resources available e.g buildings books and money.
6. Size of the class :e.g this refers to the number of pupils in a given class .A congested
class will favour more teacher-centered approaches

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 7. Environment; the physical and cultural environment one operates in.
8. Transmission methods

Lecture Method

It is a technique of teaching by means of the spoken word where information is given orally
generating and relating understanding in the learners (audience) Calhan and Clark (1990) defineit
as a method where the teacher tries verbally to give to the learner does not Groenewegen (1993)
concurs by defining it as an oral presentation of a pre-learned set of data meaning, examples
summaries and evaluation with or without visual support. There are two forms of lecturing
.formal and informal.A formal lecture is purely verbal and communication is basically one way
from the speaker to the audience. An informal lecture is modified form of the conventional
lecture. Communication is two-way from the speaker to the listener and from the listener to the
speaker. Informal lecture is normally interrupted by questions, comments, suggestion, viewing,
observations, demonstration etc. learner are given room to participate in various ways as the
progresses

Although a good lecture can be stimulating and challenging maintain high interest level in
audience, when given by a competent teacher, it can also be boring, uninspiring and monotonous
and tend to make the audience passive. It is not the appropriate method to use when one intends
to change the values and altitudes of his/her audience because in a lecture one is expected to
accept the facts presented without questions. It is important to note that materials taught through
are quickly forgotten. McCleish (1968) reported that 40% of the main points were recalled
immediately after the lecture and only 20% a week later.

Given the importance of religious education, it would be important that the teacher avoids pure
lectures by making them more informal. This can be realized by the teacher doing the following

 Preparing questions to be asked at key strategic places/points

 Adjusting the lecture to the ability level and language level of the student
 Limiting the content to the experiences, interest and aspirations of
the learners
 Accompanying the lecture with the resource available such as poster,
pictures, charts, objectives, models and audio-visual aids on the topic of
discussion. This will increase the retention level of the material learnt
One should also know what techniques should be utilized for the lecture to be effective both at

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the preparation and presentation stages. Below are some of the techniques

In the preparation phrase one should:

 Indentify the main theme of the lecture

 Divide the lecture into three parts: introduction, main body and conclusion
 In the introduction find some interesting catching device to capture the audience
interest e.g poems a song a picture etc
 In the body, the talk should be partitioned I n a few briefly worded ideas in a
logical order.
 Prepare questions that will be asked in strategic places of the lecture.
 Prepare charts audio visual aids models and pictures of the issue at hand which
will accompany the lecture.

In the presentation stage one has to:

1. Introduce the topic by in identifying the objectives of the lecture /topic highlighting the
main points of the lecture, defining new terms.
2. Show enthusiasm for the topic your teaching this will arouse the learner interest in
lecture.
3. Punctuate the lecture with pauses
4. Ask thought provoking questions in strategic places to involve the audience
5. Check on the understanding by asking the audience a few questions
6. Encourage them to ask questions
7. Reinforce the points of the lecture and provide the transfer by relating key points to the
audience as experience or interest and drawing examples from the class group
8. Make use of illustrations and examples to illustrate points
9. Supplement or add life to lecture by making use of audio-visual aids and other aids like
maps,charts, pictures films strips, slides realia and object.
10. Repeat important points for emphasis or give the learners chances to catch up by
summarizing information for them
11. Avoid irrelevancy by keeping to the points
12. Try to be humorous to make the lesson interesting

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 13. Make use of chalkboard/chart/overhead projectors transparency for summary of the main
points of the lessons and illustrations
14. Use a familiar language and to the level of the audience
15. In conclusion be forceful by either summing up or reviewing by asking related questions
or giving assignments
16. Follow the lecture with related activities to bind the learning by:
 Ensuring the learners make notes using your outline
 Checking their notes and knowledge acquired
 Carrying a discussion with them on points they did not follow
 Giving a project related to the content in the lecture
 Asking oral questions on the content covered
 Asking them written questions to test their understanding
 Allowing a student to summarizing the main points of the lecture in new lessons

Some of the topics in Religious Education syllabus which will call for the use of
informal lectures;

1) Christian approach to human sexuality to human sexuality marriage and family

2) Christian approach to work
3) Christian approach to leisure
4) Christian approaches to wealth money and poverty
5) Christian approach to law order and justice
6) Christian approaches to selected issues to modern science and technology and
environment

Narration/story-telling

Narrations is oral presentation of a string of events often with explanations of the events in terms
of their cause and effects (Groenwegen 1993).this could be local national international or
historical events or issues

Its is one of the most suitable and important method of teaching R.E because

1) It presents to the learners clear, vivid, interesting and orderly sequence of events
through this the learners visualize the people and events the way they happened
2) It help to stimulate the learners imaginations
3) It helps in enhancing the interest of the learners in RE

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 4) It is good for character formations when children emulate the characters of great heroes
in the bible or Quran or in the present or past societies
5) It provides an opportunity to bring closer and makes real to the learners the religious
experience of different people
6) It help in emotional development of learners as they begin to appreciate what others have
done in the society or even to sympathize with them
7) Is it a source of enjoyment Jesus himself effectively used this method in most of his
teaching.

Quality of a good story

A good story should be

Relevant to what is being or is to be taught. It should also have important factual information on
religion or issues being taught

Interesting dramatic and exiting evoking memories of vividness

Short, simple with a few characters

Suggestion and inspiring the student to action

Of a good moral, i.e the good should be rewarded and evil punished

Convincingly real i.e containing authentic detail which will make the character alive to the
learners

Based on real life/biblical/Quran or African situation or be within learners experience

When does a teacher use a story?

A story can be used in RE teaching and learning. as an introduction, where it serves as a set up
for learners to be ready or attentive to the lesson, as in interlude to bridge a transition in teaching
steps to revive the flagging concentration of learners in order to channel them to a desired end
and lastly as an end to reflect key points or forces in a lessons message or the moral implications
of the lesson.

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When using story-telling teaching in teaching and learning the teacher should.

1) Consider the age individual differences level and expectations of the learners
2) Ensure the story has an introduction developmental stage and conclusions
3) Indentify select and introductive visual aids to be used at the right time
4) Plan what activities to involve the learners in either during the storytelling session

For effective use of narration the following should be put in consideration:

 The relevancy of the narration to the content being taught.

 the use of simple and easy language
 The use of gestures, facial expression, movements modulated voice while narrating.
 showing of interest in the story being told by telling in natural .vivid way and with asense
of humor
 The use of visual aids and bringing them in the presentation at the right time.

Given the role of religion in the war against HIV/AIDs one can create stories based on dangers
of promiscuity (e.g. brilliant school girl ,a newly married couple and a father of 50years
conducting HIV/AIDS). The teacher can make use of stories in various communities which
emphasize on character formation.

Audio-visual presentation

Audio-visual presentation is a methods where the teacher use a video tape, a film etc. to pass
content top the learners. It could include feature films (or o video), sets of slides with audio
cassettes and animation on films or video tape. To be beneficial end has to incorporate critical
discussion in the presentation. the presenter should draw out a set of questions to guide a
discussion on the theme of the film .it should be useful for those question to be given to the
learners before viewing so that they will have something to focus on during the presentation.

Summary

The methods discussed in the chapter fall under explanatory approach because they are
transmission in nature involving the passing of information to the learner by the teacher. It is
advisable that the presenter encourages interaction with the learners and among the learners
using child-centered activities in the process of imparting knowledge. Use of question in a
lecture

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audio-presentation and even story-telling is imperative. Utilization of the media by the teacher
and learners personal interaction is essential in effective learning

Suggested learning activities

Discuss the advantages of using the following strategies in R.E

 Expository strategy
 Heuristic strategy

What situation in R.E can call for the use of explanatory strategy as opposed to heuristic
strategy?

Identify stories in your tradition society with a moral teaching which an R.E teacher could utilize
in the secondary school teaching

1) Bring out the moral teaching in each story and its relevant in prevention of HIV/AIDS
 Identify in either C.R.E or I.R.E syllabus in secondary school level.imagine you are to
give a lecture on this topic to your students
 Explain how you could prepare yourself for the lecture and
 How you could deliver the lecture.
 Identify some of the problems you are likely to encounter in delivering the lecture
 How would you asses the effectiveness of the lecture

Discuss the problems you are likely to face when using audio-visual media in teaching R.E

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 CHAPTER THREE

FACILITATION METHODS IN TEACHING OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

These are methods, which are learner centered and they fall under heuristic approach. They are
so called because they facilitate the acquisition of knowledge through interaction, experiences
and reflection. The learner is actively involved in the learning process. This is very important for
transmission of knowledge and values. The learners are not only to hear but to see, to act out
situations and even to debate on issues. In so doing they personalize the information and are thus
able to recall, understand and apply it to their situations and of these close to them.
Some of the methods, which could be utilized by the teacher, are discussed in the pages that
follow;

Questioning/Answer Method

Questioning is at the core of any teaching. It is an essential tool in the transmission of any
information. It is defined as a carefully designed string of questions which lead the learner to
arrive at an answer.

Questioning is very important in any presentation because of the role it plays;

i. It motivates learning
ii. It sustains attention.
iii. It stimulates interests, information, initiative and creativity among the learners and
attentive to one establishing a rapport with learners in order to keep them alert and
attentive during the presentation.
iv. It prepares the audience for new content by assessing their knowledge level on a given
topic.
v. It evaluates the learners‟ level of understanding by encouraging the transfer of ideas and
application of knowledge and on the spot solution to problems.
vi. It encourages a problem solving approach to teaching and learning.

Through questions the teacher will know what information the learners have on a given topic and
organize learning experiences accordingly. Their reaction to questions will also tell one whether
they are following the presentation or not. If not, the teachers can adjust the teaching to satisfy
the learners‟ needs. Questions could be asked on practically any topic in the C.R.E/I.R.E
syllabus.
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Proper Questioning Techniques

For one to apply questioning techniques adequately, the following should be observed;

i. Clarity of expression. Use simple language and to the level of the audience which will
produce the right responses.
ii. Question on what is within the experience, ability and background of the learners to get
response.
iii. Have an answer in mind.
iv. The questions should be directed to the whole group to the involvement of as many
people as possible.
v. Sequence questions so that they chart a logical sequence reflecting the development of
the presentation.
vi. Use prompting questions when there is no response or the response is weak, or the
response is partly or completely incorrect.
vii. Pick on individuals to respond questions, use their names.
viii. Use probing techniques to get better response through support questions, clarification
rephrasing and use of examples e.t.c.
ix. Pause after asking a question for digestion, organization and response from the learners.
x. Give credit for effort made by using enforcement techniques.
xi. Do not interrupt the learners‟ response even if it is wrong.
xii. Accept correct answers and comment on the wrong ones so that the learners have no
doubt as to the correct response.
xiii. Avoid chorus answers and rhetorical questions.

There are many ways of categorizing questions, but Bloom (1960) classified them as lower order
and higher questions. Lower order questions are normally narrow and factual seeking recall of
facts, definition of terms or descriptive statements or recall of correct answers. Higher order
questions are broad and call for interrelationships and value judgments. They cover synthesis and
evaluation levels of learning.

Discussion and Group Techniques

Discussion is a learning activity where the teacher and learners talk together in order to share
opinions, views or information about a topic or a problem. It makes an absolutely fundamental
contribution to learning. A genuine discussion must start with some attempt to elicit opinions and
knowledge from the learners to treat them seriously and to explore their consequences e.g what
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they think about reasons for the spread of HIV/AIDS, their opinions about cultural practices in
relation to the spread of HIV/AIDS, their opinions about the use of condoms, abstinence e.t.c.
there are two approaches to discussion expository-oriented and inquiry-oriented discussion. In
expository, the teacher defines the objectives of the lesson, explains learning activities, allows
for the discussion and invites questions before concluding the activity.

In inquiry discussions, the teacher may not state the objectives, instead she/he arranges for the
discussion to take place and the whole activity is open-ended. The teacher serves as a leader and
students carry out the discussion and arrive at a conclusion. Learning is seen as the product of
creative inquiry and active student participation. In query-discussion, class sessions are
characterized by;

 The probing exploration of ideas, concepts and issues.

 Building upon audience responses in a developmental flow.
 Interaction among all participants.
 Questioning, sharing, differing and conjecturing on the part of all.
 Learner’s participation in decision making.
 Hypothesizing and problem solving.
 Shifting leadership among participants.

Topics which call for whole class discusses are; effects of irresponsible sexual behavior, drug
abuse, corruption, effects of modern science and technology on the environment, issues to
money, wealth and poverty among others.

Examples of participatory activities, which fall under discussion, are whole class discussions,
panels, symposia, roundtables, forums, committee and small groups.

In these activities, there are techniques that provide opportunities for the learners to present their
ideas, opinions and information and for the expression of differing view points. They are
interactive in nature. They include the following;

1) Roundtables- this is a quite informal group, usually five or fewer participants who sit
round a table and converse among themselves and with the audience.
Normally, there is active learning and responding. It is also characterized by effective
exchange of ideas, opinions and viewpoints. A topic like risk behavior and situations
which guards to HIV/AIDS would be ideal for this type of discussion.
2) Panel- it is a fairly informal setting in which four to six participants with a chairman

19
 discuss a topic among themselves, and there is a give and take within the class. It allows
for free flow and exposition of ideas. It is wide open and spontaneous in exchange of
views. Each participant makes an opening statement, but there are no speeches. The class
is given room to make comments freely, giving their views.
3) Forum: a type of panel approach in which a panel gives and talks with the audience.
4) Symposium: this is a more formal setting in which participants‟ presents speeches
representing different positions and open up for questions from the floor. It requires
thoughtful preparation and can be useful in a religious class when discussing topics of
controversy like science and technology.
5) Debate: a very formal approach consisting of set speeches by participants of two
opposing teams and a rebuttal by each participant. It calls for careful planning for it to be
productive.

In these presentations, students need to be taught how to gather information, take major points,
organize material, present a position succinctly and engage in a dialogue and debate with one
another.

How to organize a debate

1. Select a topic or a question to be debated on

2. Allow students to form two teams, one for the topic and another arguing against it.
3. Select a chairman and a time-keeper
4. Choose first speakers, one for , another against
5. Choose second speakers, open for, another against
6. The speakers should be given 5-7 minutes each
7. Allow for first rebuttal for , and first rebuttal against
8. Give chance for second rebuttal for, and second rebuttal against
9. Allow time for a general discussion, this is when the floor is open for the rest of the class

Topics for debate could include;

 It is better to accompany my boyfriend to a disco than to a church.

 The best way to fight HIV/AIDS among youth is to teach sexual abstinence instead of use
of condoms. Discuss.

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  Sex education should be introduced in schools in order to control the spread of
HIV/AIDS.
 Knowledge of HIV/AIDS without techniques of behavioural changes is useless.

Small groups (syndicate and pair groups)

This involves forming groups from the whole class. The groups should consist of between 3 to 5
members for syndicate groups and 2 learners
learners for quick reference as pair groups. One can select
learners to groups using their abilities, interests, friendships, gender, seating arrangements,
ethnicity e.t.c. in syndicate groups different topics are discussed and the findings shared by the
rest of the class.

Normally these groups meet to share opinions, viewpoints, reactions e.t.c. they are
important because;

i. They provide an opportunity for all participants to interact in a way that is not possible in
a class situation. This makes learning more meaningful.
ii. They promote self-discipline
discipline and reduce management problems.
iii. The audience learns the skills of listening as well as talking as they listen and exchange
ideas.
iv. They also get opportunity to practice other manipulative skills through resources
observations e.t.c.
v. It can be used to let off steam when the audience seem restless and bored.
vi. The learners (audience) grow in confidence as they discuss, argue and exchange ideas
with each other.
vii. There is emergence of leadership qualities through sharing of responsibilities.
ponsibilities.
viii. They develop the audience higher-level
higher level cognitive, interactive and communication
skills and increase their accountabilities and independence.

Organization of the group work

It is important for group work to be organized properly. This organizational

organizational process can be
considered at three levels; before, during and after the group work. Before group work; one
should ensure that;

There are required resources for discussion.

The work to be discussed is written on the chalkboard or on pieces of paper.
paper. It must be
clear to the learners if the discussion has to be productive.

21
 Groups are formed using one of the techniques of grouping already discussed.
Learners move in groups and identify a chair person/secretary.
Specific time is given for discussion
discussi e.g 7-10 minutes.
During group work, it should be ascertained that learners discuss/perform with a chairperson
leading the discussion and the teacher goes round checking/assisting where possible. After the
group work, one should open up the discussion, pooling all points from the secretaries,
restructuring, rephrasing, using correct terminologies and writing the points on the chalkboard.
In addition to this, the teacher should also allow time for questions, clarifications and comments
and additional and ask learners to copy the points down; give concluding remarks, and give the
class follow-up activities if necessary.

These groups could also be utilized in a wider project where in groups of 5-6,
5 6, the audience could
work on a project in matters relating to HIV/AIDS, drug abuse, covenant, African moral and
cultural values and rites of passage e.t.c.

Brainstorming

It is a technique of generating ideas from the learners. It involves a question or challenge to the
learners and either the teacher or leader of the
t group-taking
taking note of all the possible
answers/responses before discussing and evaluating them. The ideas generated make excellent
springboards for discussion and problem solving. The techniques is important because;

i. It stimulates meaningful discussion on

o a given issue or problem.
ii. It stimulates creative thinking.
iii. Many students are encouraged to respond to the question thus encouraging full
participation from the learners.
iv. It leads to the development of democratic principles in learners because they learn to
express their ideas/feeling freely without any inhibitions.

Procedure to follow;

- The teacher introduces a topic or a problem/question to the class.

- She/he asks members of the class/group for their ideas, solutions or comments on the
issues.
- The class/group
roup responds with whatever comes to the mind.
- All responses whether wrong or correct are accepted and recorded on the chalkboard
on a piece of paper for reference.
- No comments are allowed until all groups/class members have expressed every idea
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 they can think of.

- The teacher allows the class/group on how a brainstorming session can be handed.
However, the teacher is free to make modification to suit the objectives of the lessons.

Project Methods

A project method has been defined by Callahan and Clerk (1990) as any unit of activity
individual or group, involving the investigation and solution of problems that is planned and
carried to conclusion by a student under the guidance of the teacher. It focuses on the need of
providing opportunities for full involvement of the child in learning by allowing free interaction
with situations in real life. As a result, the child develops into a decent worthwhile citizen.

Possible Projects areas in Religious Education

Covenant making the Old Testament in African traditional society and in the modern society.

Rites of passage in various African communities represented in class and their role in inculcating
moral values.

a. Religious specialists in various African communities in Kenya and their relevance today.
b. African moral values with references to communities represented in class.
c. The teachings of Jesus according to the Gospel of Luke and their relevance to Christians.
d. The teaching of Mohammed and their relevance to Muslims.
e. The miracles of Jesus according to the Gospel of Luke and their relevance to Christians.
f. The parables of Jesus according to the Gospel of Luke and their relevance to Christians.
g. Compare and contrast the teaching of Old Testaments prophets (Amos, Jeremiah) on
social and religious evils of their times and evil in Kenya today.
h. Compare and contrast the teachings from Nehemiah’s life to St. Luke’s gospel and a
Christian life today.
i. Compare and contrast Christian and African approach to human sexuality marriage and
family.
j. Effects of irresponsible sexual behavior today.
k. The effects of cultural practices on the spread of HIV/AIDS. Specific areas to be
investigated in the learner’s locality are; widow inheritance, polygamy, sex for ritual
purposes. Other doorways for HIV/AIDS are tattooing, ear piercing involvement in

23
 traditional healing and witchcraft, communal shaving after a funeral, shaving of a new
born, traditional circumcision and Female Genital Mutilation. (FGM)
l. Effects of local brews, bhang, miraa on the spread of HIV/AIDS.
m. Caring for people living with HIV/AIDS in the family and neighborhood according to
Jesus teaching on love.
n. Role of devil worship in the spread of HIV/AIDS in schools and the community.

Criteria for a good project

1. Relevancy; it should be relevant to the C.R.E/Islamic syllabus.

2. Usefulness. Its worthiness to Religious knowledge, values, attitudes and skills to be
transmitted.
3. Economical; in terms of time, effort, cost and availability of resources needed for its
implementation.
4. Suitable and challenging. This should be decided in relation to time mental age and
ability of the learners
5. Interesting and appealing; some of the projects and activities within them should be
chosen depending on the real life situation of the learners.
6. Reality; it should be based on real life situation so that the learning experiences within
the project are applied in life.
7. Richness; the project should deal with many issues of the problems promoting
interdisciplinary approach to learning. The learners should be able to acquire varied skills
in the project and even knowledge in different areas of the curriculum.

Preparation for a Project

In planning to use a project approach to teaching and learning the following guidelines would be
useful;

i. The teacher should identify a project to work on, which is interdisciplinary in nature and
relevant to the instructional objectives and topics in the syllabus.
ii. Discuss the nature of the project with the students, highlighting its scope.
iii. Allow the learners to decide democratically on areas they should work on within the
project.

24
 iv. Let them plan and cooperate to execute the plan with the teacher‟s guidance. Some of the
activities should include; observing, drawing, painting, modeling, interviewing,
reading and writing.
v. The teacher and the learners should evaluate the project. Constructive criticism should be
made on the completed project so that an improvement is made on it.
vi. The teacher should record the project in a book for future reference, which will include
how the project was identified duties assigned, problems encountered and experience
gained by the learners.

Field Trip

Field trip also known as religious visits are related to project method in that a project can take
the form of a trip to an area/a village where the project is being conducted. It calls for a visit to
an area of religious value to the learners. Possible areas where trips can be made to are;

 An established church or a mosque, traditional shrine/grave, mountain or river with a

religious significance.
 Community events such as marriages, baptism, crusades, funerals, initiation ceremonies,
Easter and Christmas celebration e.t.c.
 Hospitals where there are HIV/AIDS patients.
 Rehabilitation centers for HIV/AIDS patients or orphans or even drug addicts.
 Children homes for orphans and abandoned children in need of love.
 A village devastated by HIV/AIDS- Kendu Bay, Rang’alla.
 Approved schools to illustrate what can be befall when they disobey God. The parents
and the teachers.
 A police station or prison to see criminals.
 A visit to a law court to listen to court proceedings.
 A visit to parliament to listen to the proceedings.

Consideration for a Trip

1. The educational goal for the trip

2. The suitability of the field trips.
3. The time required
4. The cost involved in terms of transport, food, out of pocket e.t.c.

25
Preparation for the Trip

a. Identify a relevant place.

b. Discuss the intended trip with administration.
c. Identify objectives of the trip
d. Inform the learners about the trip.
e. Contact relevant people or agents to seek permission and agree on date time, and number
of students coming and the activities they would be involved in.
f. Assign students various roles during the trip and activities they would be involved in.
g. Providing the students with the materials and apparatus needed.
h. Enlisting the support and assistance of members of staff and parents during the trip. They
will have to accompany you.

On arrival to the scene of the trip, the teacher should reinstruct the students on what should be
done individually or in groups. The tasks assigned for instance have to be carried out. The
teacher should supervise them in their various activities.

After the trip there should be follow up activities where the teacher has to consolidate the
findings. The students can carry out a discussion based on their experiences in the field; they can
ask questions related to what they saw in the field. They can also write a composition, a report or
project on what they saw.

Role Play

According to Nasibi and Kiio (1995) role-play can be defined as a rehearsed dramatization in
which the players try to clarify a situation by acting out the roles of the participants in the
situation. The players personify other people and think like them. It would be indispensable in
teaching of R.E which is based on people’s experience fighting and controlling HIV/AIDS.
Learners can be led to play different roles.

Importance of Role Playing in R.E

 The participants and audience are able to see, a situation through other people‟s point of
view. In other words they will able to conceptualize the dangers of irresponsible sexual
behavior through those people who are affected and infected by HIV/AIDS. It opens their
understandings and feelings for those affected and infected as they try to play these roles.
 It prepares them for real life, situations because they play roles of historical characters or
events in the society. The characters for instance, become alive in the mind of the

26
 participants.
 It helps in clarifying certain concepts, and demonstrating attitudes and values which
otherwise would have been different to conceptualize or illustrate.
 It helps in planning and trying out strategies for attacking social and religious problems
or evils.
 It helps in testing out hypothetical solutions to problems.
 It enhances motivation in learning as the roles played excite both the participants and the
audience.
 Participants especially children and the youth are able to practice leadership.
 It helps in developing hidden talents of learners that are not nurtured by teaching
procedures.

Organization on the Role Play

1. Select a topic in a C.R.E or I.R.E syllabus, which the class understands very well.
2. Specify the purpose for role playing e.g it is to highlight the prize of
unfaithfulness/irresponsible behavior.
3. Explain areas of emphasis in the topic
4. Decide the number of the players.
5. Encourage the audience (learners) to volunteer to play different roles.
6. Select the required number from those who volunteer to participate.
7. Use your direction to assign roles.
8. Be sure that the players understand the situation and their roles.
9. Brief the audience and make sure everyone understands what the players are trying to do.
10. Let the students act out the situation.
11. Stop a player when s/he steps out of the role or when s/he cannot continue with success.
12. If time allows get a second group of students to play the roles when the first group has
finished.
13. Summarized the role play presentation, with a short discussion.
14. Give concluding remarks, correcting any misinterpretations and errors made.

Limitations of the role playing

 It is time consuming
 It is not realistic enough and as such can lead to misconceptions.
 Sometimes the learners take it as a form of entertainment and as a result they lose its
meaning.
27
  Some students do not like playing certain roles especially those of unadmirable
personalities like Jezebel, Ahab, Satan, victims of HIV/AIDS and drug abuse criminals,
prostitutes e.t.c.

Summary

This chapter has dealt with heuristic strategies of teaching where both interactive and
experiential methods were discussed. It has made it clear that learners should be encouraged to
take more control of learning situations because it is through this that interactive learning would
be achieved and the social skills of cooperative, sharing, respect and love will be fully realized.

Suggested Learning Activities

1. Explain how a teacher can make questioning method learner oriented in addressing a
group of youth on the effects of HIV/AIDS on the youth.
2. „Hearing about something is not as effective as doing it‟. Discuss this in relation to
lecture methods and role play.
3. a. Discuss the limitations of small group methods in disseminating religious education
contest.
b. Give suggestions on how the limitations mentioned in (a) might be overcome.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

METHODS OF TEACHING MORALS IN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

Learning takes place in an individual in four main domains: cognitive affective, psychomotor
and social relating. The methods which have been discussed so far have been on how to teach
R.E so that learning takes place in the cognitive and to some extent in the affective domain. This
chapter goes further to look at some of the methods which can be utilized so that there is a
change in the values attitude and therefore behavior of the learners. This area is very important
because R.E teaching Is not only concerned with transmission of religious knowledge but also
values and on how the youth can be influenced so that their values and attitudes change on
issues relating to morality and sexually

Definitions of morals, values and attitudes

Morals refers to peoples relationship with others as pertain s to their judgment about what is
right and wrong .it can further be defined as that which pertains and is concerned with right
conduct or principles or rules of right conduct.

Values are defined by Lang et al (1995)a “personal assessments worth ,attributed to all
concepts, experiences, relationship and material things which influence ones evaluations of our
attitudes towards the desirability of behavior or events”. They are further understood as
principles ,standards or qualities that are fully and freely chosen as worthwhile or desirable to
strive and live for.

Long et al (1995) further defines attitudes as “personal predispositions (feelings and urges
generally based on values that evolve from experience and influence individuals behaviour in
certain ways towards themselves and other persons and things”

Values tend to form slowly but once accepted and internalized they become part of the behavior
of the individual guiding his/her own conduct and relationship with others

Desirable values and attitudes are important not only for the individual growth in the affective
but also for integration in the society. The two are related because major shift to attitude for
instance will require a change in all ones values a behavior

The effective teaching of values will require an understanding of the moral development of the
children.

29
Moral development

Although a number of studies have been carried out in a child‟s moral development the focus
will be on the findings of Piaget and Kohlberg as expanded by Groenewgen 1998 Piaget
assigned three main stages of development in the child‟s ability morality of insight from birth
to until 7-8 years. This stage is characterized by;

i) Heteronomy in which morality is based on authority .one behaves morally because of the
authority of the adults and rules laid down by them. Rules are therefore obeyed
because of those who set them.
ii) Morals realism: the morality of behavior is judged on the basis of its objective
consequences i.e. the mount of punishment due depends on the nature of damage
done regardless of the motive behind the action. For instance, in the reasoning of a
child of that age, a person who breaks 10 cups should have a heavier punishment than
one who breaks one cup regardless of the motive behind the action.

2. Morality of cooperation from 7-8 years until 11-12 years .this is characterized by:-

i) Growing autonomy in where the rules can be argued and bargained about

ii) Growing reciprocity in which instead of measuring the morality of damage done one now
takes motives into account.

3. Morality of contract from 11-12years. This is where there is consideration of the relevance of
circumstances to the moral judgment over the act. The judgment that moral rules as conventions
make sense for the sake of the common good.

It is important for a teacher to be aware of these various stages so that s/he will be able to
know what to emphasis at a given age e.g. for a child who is in pre-school to primary class 3
the appeal should be more on the rules set by God the parents and the teacher. These are
authority figures in the lives of children and whatever they say is likely to be accepted and
therefore obeyed. For a child who is in class six and seven, the teacher has to allow discussions
on the importance of rules set. Kohlberg (1963) like Piaget found three levels of moral
development but each with two stages

1. The pre- conventional level stage. This has two stages

Stage 1: marked by obedience to rule, for the sake of avoiding punishment

30
Stage 2: marked by obedience to rules for the sake of obtaining rewards

2. The level of conventional role conformity

Stage 3: marked by obedience to rules for the sake of getting adults approval

Stage 4: marked by obedience to rules for the make of avoiding social censure and the guilt
resulting from it

3. The level of post-conventional morality

Stage 5: this is marked by a readiness to abide by social contract and democracy

Stage 6: marked by the acceptance of principles of conscience

It is important to note that all these stages are not only found among children but also in adults.
In adults most stages play a part although many of them never reach the stage of autonomy.

Based on the above moral development stages Kohlberg came up either a developmental model,
which is essential to teaching of moral education. In this model, the teacher is expected to
present moral issues to learners in order to be challenged and to progress to a subsequent stage.
The model employs an intervention strategy where moral dilemmas are discussed by learners to
enhance their moral judgment. The teacher task is that of facilitating the learners natural
impulses towards development in an environment supportive to the growth of moral thinking
(Were 2003)

Value and attitude formation and internalization go through many steps according to Langen
(1995):

i) Receiving :the child learns about new values by getting or receiving information on the
new values or being exposed to experiences about the new attitudes and values
ii) Responding to or assuming or participating actively in practicing a new value or attitude.
The child responds by practicing the new value.
iii) Valuing or attaching worth to the new value or attitude thereby beginning to build a
consistent value system. The child starts attaching value to the new attitude or value
system.
iv) Organizing and bringing together different values system. The child starts selecting and
building his/her own value system from the experiences she has been exposed to
v) Internalizing or adopting and applying a new system that shows consistent and stable
behavior patterns
31
The role of the teacher in the teaching of values
Effective teaching of behavior change would require the teacher observing the following:

1. Discovering the current values and attitudes of his/her students before embarking on
changing them. This will include their feelings emotions and desire.
2. Creating an atmosphere and adults thrive in an open flexible ,respectful, warm caring
and cooperative environment .such an atmosphere encourages the learner to feel loved,
understood respected ,valued and safe

The learners want to be loved, regardless of whom they are what they have achieved etc. for the
teacher to demonstrate this love she needs to be warm caring, kind to each child. A healthy
atmosphere where children can grow positively and develop holistically has to be created. When
this happens, the child will accept and believe in him/herself.

A child learns best when his/her emotions and level of readiness are accepted and respected. The
teacher has to listen to and give the individual space to express his/her feeling and ideas. Listen
to the students openly and attempt to process with clarity the answers to his/her needs and
situations:

3. Modeling the qualities or values which she wants to pass to the student’s question. these
values could be obedience
purity,faithfulness,trustworthiness,considerate,love,honesty.tolerance,emphathy etc. she
has to display these qualities in everyday interaction with the learners to be able to
impart them.
4. Being sensitive to their feelings and preferences. This calls for the teacher knowing the
children under his/her care well so that he can appeal to their emotions through his/her
interaction with them in and out of class. This will need development of reflective
technique where the teacher can mirror on the learner behavior without expressing a
positive or negative judgment. This can be done by making use of phrases
like………you seem to prefer the use of……………….you look you
seem…………………….you sound… you give the impression
5. Teaching communication interpersonal and group skills. This will lead to a healthy
interaction between an individual and others ,leading to the development of a realistic
positive self -concept and promotion of social behavior
6. Providing information and structuring learning experience which will lead the learners
in discovering and reflecting on their feelings and discussing possible changes. That is
the learners can only work towards change of behavior when they are conscious of their
32
 negative existing values the problems their negative behavior can cause other students
and the plan how they can revise them and develop new ones.
7. Promoting personal integration and self concept. The teacher should set attainable but
challenging task or goals. Individual learners should be accepted encouraged and
recognize. At the same time criticism should be constructive
8. Promoting self-control by being human and consistently matching of behaviors and
consequences
9. Encouraging positive social behavior. This is done by the learners being taught to reject
prejudices and learn to like others and see matters from others perspective.

This can be achieved through interactive learning already discussed in the previous chapter.

Positive social behavior can be enhanced by the teacher providing opportunities for the learners
to interact with people who have desirable attitudes. This will promote learning of about ones
attitudes and their effects on self and others.

10. Allowing time for comprehension and reflection: students need to be given time to grasp
an reflect on new information and experience that will initiate change. This is made
possible through
a) Discussing groups focusing on well structured and interesting topics.
b) Arranging for group decision-making a group can debate on an issue and make a group
discussion on it. This fosters acceptance and ownership
c) Stressing cooperation within groups
d) Using role-play, which allows experiments with different attitudes and free expression
of feelings.
11. Encouraging deliberate change in behavior by allowing students to discover a
current value or attitude analyze it by consideration its positive and negative effects to
themselves and others in school or society. The effects of undesirable behavior should
lead to the teacher encouraging them to change their behaviour.

How values and attitudes should be transmitted

The method already mentioned in this chapter and the previous do apply however they would
need to highlight some of key methods. This would include experiential and interactive learning
approach ethical and valuing approach with the latter emphasizing on the valuing skills.

33
Experiential learning approach in teaching morals is based on the fact that “only real life
experiences are effective in moral learning” that the child learns by living life and experiences
are the true teachers. This calls for the teacher teaching using resource people related in one
way or another to the learners ; and using simulated experiences such as drama ,role play
mock sessions and dance. In mock sessions for instance the learners simulate the working of a
social institution such as a mock court session on victims of sexual irresponsibility such as
rapes, divorces, pregnancies etc

Critical learning approach leads to the acquisition of critical skills while teaching a
particular topic in a C.R.E or Islamic syllabus. Critical learning method is defined as that
method in which the teacher facilitates the acquisition of critical skills while teaching a
particular topic particular topic (Groenewagen :1993).

There are a number of methods already discussed which require critical thinking: they include
the whole class discussion, question answer, debate, small group discussions, buzz groups
,panel discussions etc. these methods lead to the development of positive moral development
leading to decision-making and judgment.

In the above methods the students are able to share with each other opinions, viewpoints and
reactions. Interactive and group skills are also fostered through the above discussions leading to
the development of social relating skills which are important in moral development/

The valuing approach as described by Raths (1966) is a way of interacting with a student so that
s/he considers what she has chosen, what she prizes or what s/he is doing

Valuing approach is important according to Groenwagen (1993) and Raths (1966) because:

(1) It stimulates an individual to clarify his/her vales

(2) Helps learners to accept and become committed to proper high level values
(3) Enables students to look at their behavior and make decisions from the existing
alternatives.
(4) Helps learner to develop clear values

The approach is categorized into four thought sheet/daily, writing value sheets daily, writing
value sheets, value classifying responses and value analysis.

34
Thought sheet is a method where the teacher either occasionally or regularly asks students to
write down their thought, feelings and reactions about topic or an issue. The writing can be
used by the teacher in a class discussion maintaining anonymity (Groenewagen 1993)

Value sheets according to Raths (1966) consist of a series of questions about an issue. The
questions may be presented on the value sheet or by a role-playing incident, a situation a
dramatization, a film clip a tape-recording and reading selection. Students will write down
answers down answers to the questions on the value sheets. Discussions will then follow. Value
sheets give an opportunity for one to exercise the valuing skill choosing from alternatives on
the basis of the advantages and disadvantages attached each alternative. The sheet should vary
from one age group to another depending on its group moral judgment.

Internet

Internet is a worldwide network connecting millions of computer users. It is only known as the
information super highway and cybercafé.

This super highway is not only revolutionizing how we communicate but in also transforming
the way in which information is delivered to people. Although the teacher can use the resources
already mentioned e-mail and on –line internet are quickly supplementing even replacing some
form of print material.

The internet gives one access on virtually any subject. One can review various newspapers,
magazines, academic papers, research findings and development on various issues e.g.
HIV/AIDS inclusive. The teacher can also get pictures, maps and various graphics on the
internet. All this is for free.

It is therefore, important that the teacher knows how to locate relevant information resources on
the Net and even guidelines for evaluating information resources once they are identified

Given the technicalities involved, it is not possible for the procedures to be discussed here. The
teacher will need special exposure to be able to use internet for teaching purposes.

Summary

In this chapter I have looked at appropriate methods, which can lead to change of behavior in
learners. This is important because R.E calls for changes in the values and attitudes of the
learner. It has been emphasized that the method used should be those, which facilitate the

35
development of the valuing skills through social interaction, experience critical thinking
decision-making etc.

Suggest learning activities

1. Define the phrase “morally educated person”

2. Explain any two effective methods you would use to change the attitude of the youth
about pre-marital sex
3. HIV/AIDs is a punishment from God because of the moral decay in our society”

Discuss this statement with appropriate examples from the modern society.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

THE RESOURCES OF TEACHING RELIGIOUS METHODS

INTRODUCTION
Davis (1975) defines resources as anything in the school or its environment which is living or in
animate that way be used to help teaching or learning. These may include people in various
guises, building and their surrounding, physical plants and even actions resulting from a change
in any particular section.

Media, channel, medium, technology and resources are related terms pointing to materials and
their organization in the communication process, so that when one talks of media of
communication, she or he is referring to printed word in form, books, newspapers, magazines,
pictures, radios, television, videos, computer, projectors, 3 dimensional figures, realia(objects)
and general environment with its physical phenomenon.

Communication aids also called instructional aids are those devices which do not carry the other
instructional load but serve only to support a classroom teacher or communication face to face
presentation. The examples are charts, posters, overhead transparency, projectors, pictures, realia
etc. they are not complete in themselves without the exposition of the teacher, and they are
therefore just aids to the learning process

Classification of media

There is a wide assortment of media to be used in communication of R.E. while some are
commercially produced others can be made locally. Although there many ways of categorizing
instructional media it can be classified as:

1) Print media

These are reading materials that have been developed for use in teaching of R.E. or have relevant
information on the topics of related syllabus. They include the main sources of religious
information the bible and Quran, the Government document such as the constitution. Education
act and commission reports. Others are textbooks, supplementary books, references books and
newspapers, journals, magazines, reviews, periodicals, pamphlets and newsletters.

2) Non projected media (graphic materials)

These are materials that use combination of drawings, words, pictures and symbols. They include
chalkboard, comics, cartoon strips, diagrams, charts, atlas, maps, pictures, bulletins, felts and

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magnetic boards.

(3) Audio-Media

It refers to any material through which massages are directed to the ear. In this category there are
audio-tape recorders and radio.

4) Audio-visual projected media

These are material through which massages are directed simultaneously at the ear and eye. They
include sound film-strips, sound slide sets, sound motion, pictures and video tapes.

5) Internet

This is an international network; basically is a collection of million computers hooked up to

thousands of networks around the world by use of a communication link for the purpose of
sharing data and other resources.

6) Community resources

These involve resource people, venues of study, objects and events occurring in the community
which lead to the learner understanding better the topic under study.

7) Mass media

It refers to any means through which Religious information is conveyed to the public. This
includes the radio, television, newspapers and the internet. Although these have been covered in
the categories mentioned so far, they should be given special treatment because of the

contribution they make in informing the public on social issues such as HIV and AIDS epidemic,
drug abuse, sexual abuse, abortions and corruption.

Importance of Learning Resources

Use of media is essential in the teaching of R.E .because:

1. It increases learners, motivation by creating a conducive atmosphere which is

stimulating, interesting and intellectually rewarding, motivation increases because of
learning resources, concreteness and interest appeal. The level of motivation will
depend on how the teacher organizes the class for the utilization of the resources
2. It leads to sharing of ideas, thoughts, feeling and knowledge. This sharing leads to
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 ones persuasion to change his or her attitudes or to adopt desirable responses or
actions
3. It can be tailored to the abilities and needs of learners each of which has a preferred
way of learning e.g. through sight, experiences, learning etc. for example, media can
be used to structure learning experiences for the achievers.
4. It enhances learning, increases perception, understanding and reinforcement and
hence retention of what has been taught. According to Squnders (1974) 11%of what
is learnt is through the sense of hearing, and 83% through sight. He goes on to reveal
that 20% of what is seen is retained compared to 50% of what is both seen and heard.
5. It adds life and can enrich a lesson by encouraging participation appealing to the
learners varied abilities and ensuring order and continuity of thought.
6. Media enable the learner to acquire and strengthen skills in reading, observing,
listening and communicating ideas.
7. Media can also be used to present facts, organize knowledge, stimulate imagination
and change attitudes.
8. Instructional media makes learning real because it enables the learner to come in
contact with either the real things she or he is learning, or purely visual material of
the items learnt.

Learning resources can either be commercially produced or teacher made. There are a number of
materials in the market which are valuable source of R.E information. They include written
documents by individuals and organizations such as textbooks, religious documents, magazines,
newspapers, video tape, pictures, charts, radios and TV programmes.

Commercially produced materials are advantageous basically because they are of high quality
since they are produced by experts. They are also durable and more authentic. However, their
main limitation is that they are expensive to produce and buy.

Teacher made resources for R.E teaching

Given the expenses involved in producing media, it is advisable that R.E teachers should produce
their own resources because of the following reasons.

i) Teacher made materials can be adjusted to local needs and the environment.
ii) The same material could be tailored to instructional needs.
iii) It is easy for the teachers to evaluate the effectiveness of the resources he has produced
and revise it accordingly.
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 iv) A teacher utilizes better a material she has made than the one she has bought
v) Teacher made resource can lead to the learners developing a variety of skills such as
creativity ,imagination and initiative as they are involved in producing these materials

Although the resources produced by the teacher have the above strengths they also suffer from
the following limitations:

i) Low production quality because of lack of exposure on the part of the R.E
ii) High production cost which cannot be justified for the limited local use
iii) Unavailability of materials in schools and communities hampers their production and
therefore their utility
iv) Lack durability because of cheap materials used in their production

Factors that affect the choice of media

1. The relevancy of the media to the topic being discussed and the objectives to be achieved

2. The accuracy and authenticity of the information presented in the media

3. The suitability of the material in relation to the age and level of the audience

4. Clarity of images and sounds presented in the media

5. The attractiveness of the material in relation to colours, the print and illustrations
6. The quality of the production material

7. Availability of the media and the facilitates e.g electricity, rooms/halls and its size

8. The recency of the information presented in the media. Is it up –to –date?

9. The size of the media and the audience

10. The skills of the audience in relation to media

Commonly used materials in the teaching and learning of R.E

Textbooks

A textbook can be defined as a standard book especially designed to communicate a specific

body of knowledge to a specific group of learners. It is written for a particular subject for a
particular time

Its importance to teaching R.E information cannot be underestimated because of these reasons:
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 1) They spell out and interpret the syllabus by identifying relevant information which
relates to the syllabus objectives and content
2) They provide a uniform selected and organized body of knowledge on the syllabus
content (topics and sub-topics)
3) They assist the teacher in daily lesson preparation in giving assignment, organizing class
activities and providing further readings to the learners thus reinforcing learning
4) They furnish a permanent record to the learners, making it easier for an individual to
check and recheck what the writer has said thus improving performance
5) They could be used for individualized learning especially where teachers are in short
supply ; individualizing instruction enables learners to proceed at their own pace
6) They assist the teacher in teaching. This has led to some educators describing them as
“assistant master in print”.
7) The format and style of a well-written and well illustrated text can increase children‟s
motivation to learn as new concepts are built upon what has proceeded
8) They enable the learners to develop certain skills e.g. note-making, critical thinking data
analysis and imagination.
9) They are economical because they can be used and re-used for their cost per student is
quite low

Criteria for textbook selection

The teacher should choose a class text against the criteria below

1) The relevancy of the text book to the curriculum objectives of teaching of R.E
2) The accuracy of information conveyed. This is determined by the authenticity
competency and background of the writer
3) Content coverage as per syllabus which is well explained and free from bias, and
controversy
4) Proper arrangement of content which include; an information table of content, glossary,
complete and detailed index and bibliography
5) Suitability of the language used in relation to the class or group to be taught. It should be
suitable in style, vocabulary and sentence construction (simple and short)
6) Attractive and stimulating illustration which should include devices that aid past learning
such as illustrations and pictures to avoid monotony of print. The illustrations such a
pictures ,sketches, maps ,diagrams and time charts should be correct, authentic,

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 purposeful and appropriately placed in the textbook with proper size and suitably
captioned
7) Clarity and readability of print: it should be easy to read, the type ,face pleasing with
enough spacing between words, line and paragraphs. The paper should be good and the
binding strong
8) It must provide a variety of thought-provoking activities and exercises for the learners at
the end of each chapter. These activities and exercises should be appropriate for both
gifted and slow learners and promote the spirit of inquiry and motivate students for
further study in religious related issues
9) The price must be affordable.

Effective utilization of a Religious Education Textbook

For effective utilization of the texts at whichever level the teacher should do the following:
(1) Familiarize himself or herself with the textbook. After identifying a topic covered in the
textbook, the teacher should read and understand it and look for same topics in other
reference books available in the library.
(2) Add reality to textbook information by using teaching aids, examples and explanations
which are not the same as those in textbook.
(3) Rearrange the order of topic if you think it is desirable adapting it to the learners and
their needs.
(4) Use only those parts of the text that seem to be relevant. Skip the other parts.
(5) Use the textbook for reference purpose during a lesson or a series of lessons.
(6) Study pictures, maps, diagrams, sketches and particular passages and build lessons
around them. They can form a basis for class discussion.
(7) Use the textbook when you want to develop critical thinking by encouraging critical
reading, thinking and testing for logic, and bias. The teacher can show learners that
writers disagree sincerely by allowing them to compare the text with source materials.
(8) Use of textbooks when discussing controversial issues. discuss with the students the
views held by different people and sources (books)where these arguments could be
found
(9) Use it to explain unfamiliar terms
(10) Use it to develop writing styles e.g. Writing of stories ,poems on social issues
(11) Incorporate the textbook into multimedia teaching strategy i.e. use it with other
materials and methods
(12) Use assignments in the text books as follow –up activities after the lesson
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 considering different abilities for note-making
(13) Evaluate the effectiveness of the textbook by finding out whether it has met
religious education objectives and the needs of the learners ,the teachers and parents

Limitations of textbooks in teaching and learning of R.E

Textbooks have the following shortcomings:

1) Some of them provide sketchy information on important topics and this

disadvantages readers who sorely depend on them

2) When overused they replace the instructor classroom

3) Textbooks predigest material and so deny the learners the need to think organize and
arrive at independent conclusions
4) They encourage note-learning
5) Sometimes the textbooks represent the views of the author or government of the day
thus indoctrinating the learners
6) Textbooks are pre-planned and do not meet the varied abilities of a typical class. The
class members usually move together as if they are of the same ability thus ignoring
individual differences. They treat too many topics, present too many ideas too fast to
be absorbed within a given
7) Textbooks are usually not written in readable form .rarely do students comment on
the excitement and vigor of a textbook as they might on the qualities of a motion
picture or a recording
8) Textbooks are hard to keep up-to-date. In some topics the material is out of date by the
time the book appears in the market and it takes time before it is revised.

Newspapers, Newsletters and Magazines

These materials have useful information on social issues affecting the immediate society and the
world at large and could therefore be used in teaching of R.E

They are importance because of the following:

1) They offer valuable and up-to –date information. This is especially the case with
newspapers and the weekly/monthly magazines. The recency of the information makes
teaching more real and applicable to the student’s environment.

43
 2) They are available in the open market in a wide variety hence one can get a better
balanced view on religious issues discussed in various sources
3) Occasionally ,they offer very detailed information otherwise not available in ordinary
textbooks, e.g. during HIV/AIDS day, newspapers may outline achievements made in
the fight against the virus
4) They are flexible in their use e.g. magazines and newspapers can be cut into relevant
pieces to illustrate on how to convey a message or they can be used whole on a wide
range of topics related to sexually transmitted diseases
5) They facilitate in the development of
i) Reporting information accurately and systematically
ii) Comparing information from different sources to arrive at a reasonable conclusion
iii) Identify some concepts commonly associated with religion
6) Newspapers and reviews can provide a room for open criticisms and suggestions on local
issues associated with immorality e.g. prostitution, use of condoms, child abuse, drug
abuse, cultural practices, pregnancy and HIV and AIDS
7) Wider coverage of issues

How to use the materials in R.E Teaching and Learning

Effective use for these materials requires the teacher to do following:

i) Identify a theme on which to focus reading. The communicator should consider

whether:
a) The theme can be clearly stated to suit the audiences level
b) The audience will have problems with parts of it;
c) It will fulfill the purpose for which it is intended
ii) Survey the available reading first to evaluate their suitability on criteria of:
a) Relevance and accuracy of information and relatedness to the topic of study
b) Appropriateness to the audience reading level in terms of vocabulary ,sentence
structure and level of abstraction in terms of reasoning power on issues that is
controversial
c) Background materials where it will be determined whether additional information will
be needed to subsidize or support the topic being read
iii) Prepare a series of focused questions to unable audience to know exactly what they
are required to extract from the readings
iv) Evaluate audiences answers to determine which areas need further attention
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 v) Display on the bulletin board some newspaper cuttings showing current information
on HIV and AIDS /sexual abuse, drug abuse etc . these could be mounted by a book
or filed for future reference

Limitations of newspapers and related materials

Collateral materials are limited in a number of ways:

1) Lack of objectivity: most of the information obtained from the newspaper ,reviews and
magazines on controversial matters is influenced by personal or group interests. They
can give wrong information to students if they rely so much on them

2) They are not durable because they can easily be destroyed if not handled well
3) Magazine and newspaper give emphasis to immediate news.
4) Some collateral materials e.g. journals do not report daily events and so they are not up-
to-date.
5) Some collateral materials e.g. journals, magazines are expensive and this calls for limited
leadership

Non-Projected (Graphic Materials)

Chalkboard
Chalkboard is the most useful and versatile of the visual aids at the disposal of an R.E instructor.
It is irreplaceable and indispensable resource in teaching and learning. According to
J.C.Aggarwal (1982, it is the oldest and the best friend of the teacher.

How to use the chalkboard in R.E teaching

For effective use of the chalkboard the teacher should:
(1) Ensure the chalkboard is clean before using it.
(2) Partition the chalkboard into three sections if the size allows:
(i) Use the left hand column for new words/concepts/terms and any of those unexpected
needs that occur in most lessons.

(ii) Use the central column for planned summary, main points of lesson, record structure of the
lesson.

(iii) Keep the right hand column for sketches and diagrams.

(3) Write titles in capital letters in the middle top part of the chalkboard and underline them.

45
(4) Start writing from the top left corner and proceed to the right.
(5) Write straight and parallel (horizontal) to the chalkboard.
(6) Leave ample margins on both sides of the chalkboard.
(7) Write legibly and visibly.
(8) Give adequate and uniform spacing between the words and lines.
(9) Maintain uniformity in writing style and size so that the material to be emphasized shows
up.10 make sure that any work appearing on the chalkboard is clear, clean, neat,
orderly, relevant, true and of correct spelling. This improves the impact of presentation.

(11) Do not block what you have written, stand out of the way.
(12) Draw learners‟ attention on what you write on the chalkboard and allow time for them to
transfer information in their notebooks before erasing.
(13) Use colour, underlining and encircling for emphasize.
(14) Ensure that maps, charts, diagram and all other works appearing on the chalkboard are
simple and easy to follow.
(15) Erase material no longer needed to avoid confusing students with cluttered work.
(16) Do not use the lowest part of the chalkboard as the work cannot be seen from the back of the
class.
(17) Ensure that the chalkboard is serviced periodically.

Limitation of chalkboard

Although the chalkboard is an effective teaching tool it has number of shortcomings:

1. A lot of time is spent writing on the chalkboard instead of teaching.

2. Use of chalkboard does not cater for individual differences, especially learners with low
writing speed and reading problems.
3. Use of chalkboard poses health problems.
4. Use of chalkboard is dusty and messy and this discourages some teachers from using it
effectively.
5. Very few teachers have the skill of chalkboard work or writing. This prevents them from
utilizing it effectively.
6. Sometimes the size of the chalkboard delimits its effective utilization especially when it
is too small.

Charts

A chart is a combination of written or drawn pictorial or graphs a material which presents a clear
46
visual summary in tabulated or methodical from. Charts are either teacher-made or ready-made.
Where possible it is recommended that teachers make their own charts incorporating their
personal ideas and line of approach in communication. If possible the teacher should involve
learners in preparation of charts.

Examples of some charts used in R.E are pie charts, graphs, pictorial charts, diagrams time line
and line charts.

Uses of charts
Charts can be used to:
1. Direct learners‟ attention when it is needed most e.g. in introduction for a good effect and
at the end for forceful conclusion.
2. Motivate learners by providing a variety of media.
3. Summarize information through the use of figures, statistics and symbols.
4. Transform abstract ideas in visual form.
5. Stimulate creative thinking.

Qualities of a good chart

A good chart must:

1. Have a heading/title in capital letters.

2. Bring out the message clearly precisely and forcefully, ie it should have a central idea
standing out clearly.
3. Use symbols which can be understood by the users.
4. Contain information which is true, accurate and authentic in all respects.
5. Be simple, not loaded with unnecessary details.
6. Have bold writing and outlines which can be clearly seen from a distance.
7. Be easy to read with clear symbols and lettering.
8. Be interesting and neat, making it attractive to look at.
9. Be of good size, large enough to be seen by the entire class.
10. Make use of conventional colours where necessary and also colour coding to show
contrast, comparisons or growth

How to prepare charts

When preparing charts for teaching /learning purpose the the teacher should do the following:

1) Use a manila paper which allows for use of all conventional colours, white is an ideal

47
 colour
2) Give the chart a heading written in capital letters which is brief but clear
3) Give it frame which has a margin with two opposite sides which are proportional
4) Sketch out the outline of the chart on manila paper in pencil
5) Pencil in the details of the chart lightly
6) Ink in the outline and details in the chart
7) Where possible use a lettering guide
8) Give the chart a key at the right hand bottom corner. The key should tell exactly what
each symbol represents
9) Keep it in good condition before and after use

How do you use it?

In using the chart the following should be done:

1) give a provision for hanging or printing the chart at a strategic place in the classroom.
Do not use learners to hold it unless it cannot be helped
2) Use proper materials for displaying the chart without damaging it, e.g. cello tape ,a string
for hanging pins, staples etc
3) Display it when you are ready to use it, i.e. it should be introduced at the right time
4) At times prepare questions which could be answered using the chart
5) Use a pointer to point out specific features in the chart
6) Make maximum use of the chart during the lesson
7) Once the class is through with the chart ,it should be removed
8) store and preserve it for future use

Maps

Maps are useful in R.E teaching because they help the learners to locate places where people
mentioned in the bible or Quran lived making Religious experiences real.

They also make religious knowledge comprehensive and easy to remember, enabling learners
to visualize areas in question and relative position of political unity and peoples relationship
with their environment. Lastly, it brings the religious world and people into the classroom

A good map has the following characteristics accuracy, simplicity, sizable,

readability, study, usability and attractivess.

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How to use maps effectively in the teaching of R.E
For effective utilization of maps the teacher should do the following according to Nasibi
and Kiio (2005)
1) Hang it conveniently in the classroom
2) Display it at the right time for instance when she/he wants to use it to emphasize an
idea, after introducing something which needs to be checked on the map.
3) Make sure it is large and clear enough for every student to be able to see the
required detail without strain.
4) Let the students focus on the map at the same time whether they are looking at it as a
class, individuals or groups.
5) Make a sketch of small and detailed maps with useful information or have them projected
on an overhead projector.
6) Use a pointer when showing important features on a wall map. Do not block it.
7) Identify questions to be answered by the students using the map.
8) Tell the learners what to look for. They should look at it critically, interpret it and come
up with some conclusion.
9) Relate map work as much as possible to the lives of students starting from the known to
the unknown.
10) Make sure the learners develop a variety of skills such as critical observation and
interpretation. This is possible if the map is studied in detail.
11) Make sure any assignment given on the map is done to your satisfaction by checking the
students‟ exercise books. This could be either drawing the map or filling in outline map
specific information.
12) Encouraging students to collect and draw as many maps as possible. This will improve
their skill in drawing.
13) Handle maps well because they are delicate.
14) Fold and keep them well after use for future utilization.

Pictures

There are a wide variety of pictures which could be used in teaching of R.E. they could be
obtained from textbooks, reference books, religious picture books, postcards, newspapers,
magazines, or they could be taken alive by a camera person as events take place e.t.c

49
Criteria for good pictures.

A picture selected must be:

 Truthful and accurate, portraying the events of discussion truthfully.

 Clear and easy to understand with important parts of the picture standing out
clearly.

 Interesting, attractive in its artistic form and colour leading to the stimulation of the
mind.
 Clean and in good condition.
 Suitable for a particular purpose. The teacher has to be clear on the point the picture
is supposed to illustrate the lesson.
 Visible, it should be large enough and easily visible to the entire class.
 Relevant and useful: A picture must have some educational value making an
important contribution to the lesson.
 Pleasing harmonious it must have original colours accurately and vividly
reproduced.
 Artistically and technically of high quality.

How to utilize pictures

In order to promote maximum learning, pictures should be selected and used in accordance with
sound guidance

1) The teacher should prepare questions in advance which will guide learners into
interpreting pictures so that they are directed or challenged by their observation
2) The teacher should guide the learners to ensure that they not only look at pictures but also
look into them, criticize, interpret and explain their significance.
3) Select and arrange pictures carefully to form a sequence so that significant questions can
be raised as the learners examine them.
4) Loose and large pictures should be displayed at a strategic point in the classroom for
every learner to see.
5) Small pictures should be projected so that the entire class can see them. In the absence of
a projector, enough copies should be produced using a duplicator or photocopier and
distributed to the whole class.
6) Provide pictures for individual, small group and whole class study

50
 7) Avoid passing pictures
8) Use a few pictures at a time‟ holding back pictures on topics which will arise later in the
lessons (s) , such a procedure moves learners from one lesson to another
9) Use labels and captions, coloured paper, arrows and strips (in drawn pictures) to highlight
items in pictures, this will add to the instructional value of pictures through improvised
eye appeal.
10) Organize picture collection around main ideas or problems and place them in a kit or file
for easy handling and utilization.
11) Pictures can also be mounted to add to their attractiveness and durability
12) Pictures on display should be changed frequently because after sometime they will lose
their motivation appeal.
13) Keep pictures clean and not tattered. Transparent plastic papers can be used to preserve
them for future use.

Silent projected media

These are materials which are projected through a projector to the learners and they do not
have sound, hence the term silent. The most commonly used materials in this category are
slides, filmstrips and overhead transparencies.

Slides

These are pictures taken through the use of camera using a special film known as a slide film.
There are many events taking place in the community which the teacher can take pictures and
make slides. They include; welding ceremony ,funeral services, child naming ceremonies
,baptism services, Eucharist service, circumcision ceremonies, graduation into warrior class.
Once the pictures have been taken, they are processed and framed ready for use through
projection using a slide projector.

How to organize for slides

1) Decide on the topic to prepare slides on. It should be a religious or traditional related
theme.
2) Write down the teaching points you want to get across to the learners
3) Make list of pictures you will like to take
4) Photograph the scenes you have decided on

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 5) Send film for processing it will come back to you as a set of slides
6) Arrange the slides in the order in which you plan to show them
7) Project them for a friend to evaluate them
8) After projection discuss with your friend the effectiveness of the pictures and makeany
necessary adjustments e.g. re-arranging the order of the slides
9) After re-arranging ,number them in order which they will be shown
10) Pick them in order you have arranged them
11) Project them when required
12) If necessary give comments on each slide as it is projected. I this case, commentary roles
should be prepared in advance as this makes teachers work easier

Over Head Transparencies

A transparency is a material used to write on and the written word is projected on an overhead
projector. There are different types of transparencies, but commonly available ones are acetate,
cell-film or polythene sheet. The overhead transparency can be used as the chalkboard where
the teacher writes on the transparency as the lesson proceeds gradually building up a lesson
summary as the work is projected.

Objects/Realia

An object is a visible or tangible thing to which attention or action is directed. In R.E teaching, it
refers to areal thing which has some religious moral or importance. Examples of objects which
can be used in R.E teaching are: the cross, rosary, priestly. Robes, regalia, traditional medicine,
witch doctors‟ paraphernalias. armlets worn round the neck and waist of a new born child,
traditional stool, warriors spears and shield, holy cups wine and bread used during Holy
communion, engagement and wedding rings marriage certificates, coins/money ,seeds
,commonly abused drugs ,condoms, gloves, circumcision knife among others.

How to utilize objects in a Religious Education lesson

To utilize the objects effectively in a teaching/learning situation, the following should be done:

1) Introduce the object to the learners i.e. tell what it is and its function
2) If it is big enough display it is a strategic place so that all learners can see it at the same
time.
3) If it is shall pass it round ,if you want to encourage closer inspection or comments
52
 ,but do not continue talking as the object is being inspected as this will divert the
learners attention.
4) Identify questions that can be answered by use of the object.
5) When you are giving an explanation or answering questions, make sure that all the
learners can see the object at the same time.
6) Draw students attention to study the physical qualities of the objects and specifically
identify what you want students t o study about the object.
7) Link the object and the message to be conveyed. This means that the learners should be
able to see the relationship between the object and the content being taught.
8) Use the chalkboard to emphasize the main features of the object
9) Keep it away safely after use to avoid breakage

Models

A model is a copy or a present’s ion of a real thing or object on a smaller scale. Just like an actual
object or thing it has breadth, length and depth and can be viewed from other sides . usually
,models are not true to scale miniature but the more accurate ones are better teaching aids
because the learners are able to visualize them as they would have visualized the real objects.
The following could be modeled .stone tablets with the ten commandments ,the rod of Moses
,the tabernacle ,the Ark of the covenant among others.

Importance of Models

Models are essential in teaching because:

1) They represent the real object which may not be available or could be too bulky to be
brought to the classroom.
2) They add meaning and realism to the explanation about an object.
3) They make the learning interesting as the learners participate in the preparation of the
models.
4) Learners become creative and imaginative as they are expected to come up with
good models
5) Use of models can sometimes be economical in terms of time and finance for
example ,instead of taking the class to a historical site, the models of objects on the site
could be made by both the learners and the teacher and then be brought to the class
room for use.

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Characteristics of Good Models

Models qualify to be good if they have these qualities:

o They are three dimensional with depth ,height and width providing
interior views of the objects which are normally covered or otherwise
invisible
o They are large enough to be seen readily by the whole class
o They are well finished
o They make use of colour and texture to highlight important features.
Parts which are not essential should be in less conspicuous colours

How to Make a Model

Where the learners are involved in the preparation of the model, the teacher should do the
following:

i) Introduce the objects to be modeled, highlighting its main physical

features.
ii) Identify the materials to be used
iii) Supply the material or ask the learners to look for materials
iv) Assign roles to individuals or groups
v) Guide them on how to prepare the models
vi) Ensure that the amount of detail molded depend on the age of the
learners
vii) Supervise the work and give guidance where necessary
viii) Evaluate the finished process using the qualities discussed above

Note

1) The teacher may make the model and then present the finished
article to the class
2) In utilizing the model ,the teacher should use the same procedure
used in utilization of objects

54
A Resource Person
Informed people (resource persons) can also be used by the teacher to supply information on
given content area. In choosing there source to use, the teacher must be guided by relevancy,
suitability ,accuracy ,clarity and quality of the material in a relation to the content to be taught.
The choice of a resource person should depend on the person’s personality, experience and
familiarity of the content under discussion.

Summary

In conclusion, the chapter has exposed an assortment of instructional resources at the disposal of an
R.E teacher. These resources are either teacher made or commercially produced. The use of a
variety of learning ,resources makes R.E alive to the learners and therefore every effort
should be made by the R.E teacher to utilize them fully.

Suggested Learning Activities

1) Evaluate the main text book you are using for teaching R.E following the criteria
given for an effective textbook
2) What are the advantages and disadvantages of relying on the textbook identified in
question 1?
3) i. Go through a daily newspaper and find out what information has been published on
social issues. Analyze this information in relation to its relevance to R.E syllabus.
ii. How would you use this information to teach?
4) Prepare a chart relevant to teaching any of the topics in R.E syllabus.

55
 CHAPTER SIX

COMMUNICATION MEDIA

INTRODUCTION.
Communication media is concerned with those medium of instruction which are complete and
can convey the communication message with or without the teacher. They are important because
of their entertainment nature where they engage at the emotional level to change their behaviour.

The Radio.

The Radio can be used to:

 Inform and motivate the youth on issues of morality, religion and culture like sexually
transmitted diseases especially HIV and AIDS, drug and sexually abuses, pregnancy,
corruption, preaching and music of religious or moral teaching. There are radio
programmes which could be very useful in creating in the youth awareness of
irresponsible sexually behavior e.g you variety shows, radio soap opera and drama,
radio sports, and discussions programmes.
 Radio variety show: includes music, short stories, short interviews and jokes.
 Radio soap operas and drama: Consist of interesting stories which are enacted to really
capture the experience of the youth and their families.
 Radio sports have an advertising format often accompanied by catchy tunes. They
use young people to communicate the message to the other youths.
 Radio Discussions: Discussions on social issues between the experts to the youth is
perpetuate and integrated with music giving accurate and authentic information
relating to drugs ,alcohol, HIV and AIDS e.t.c

-Although these programmes are not addressed to the classroom audience, the R.E teacher
can make use of any relevant ones. A keen and dedicated teacher can record the programme
replay them to sieve what is of use to the learners .If it is a pure religious education
programme it can be replayed to in class .In such a case, the teacher can prepare a series of
questions in advance to know exactly what the learners are required to extract from the
programme .This could be identifying certain ideas, writing summaries or comparing.

-The teacher can also alert the learners about the programme and the time it will be on air,
and then as part of homework, ask the learners to listen to it as follow up, the teacher could
ask them questions related to the programme.

56
 -There programme prepared specifically for an R.E class. In such cases the teacher need to
organize for the broadcast as shown below.

Preparation for a radio lesson.

Farrant (1980) has given the following suggestions on how to get the most out of the
educational broadcasting:

1. Get in advance details of the programmes to be broadcast.

2. Select the programmes that have positive value for your students.
3. Judge how to make the best use of each programme you have selected, whether alive,
recorded in full or in part.
4. Make whatever administrative preparations are necessary to obtain the equipment and
accommodation needed for the lesson.
5. Prepare the students before the broadcast in accordance with any suggestions contained in
the printed teachers notes.
6. Plan timing and physical arrangements so that the students receive the programmes
clearly.
7. Carry out whatever follow-up is necessary to derive full benefit from the programme.

How to conduct a radio lesson

When conducting a radio lesson, the teacher should:

(1) Prepare the learners for the lesson. This can be done by introducing the topic and
informing the learners of what is expected of them during and after the lesson.

e.g they should be told to be attentive ,to write down new terms and concepts, to make notes to
follow instructions given by the radio teacher.

(2) Tune the radio before the lesson begins to ascertain that the volume is high enough for
all to hear (this should be tested before the teacher goes to the classroom).

(3) Ensure good sitting /seating arrangement.

(4) Display the necessary instructional materials before the lesson starts .

(5) Place the radio at a strategic place in the class to enable learners to hear without straining.

(6) Turn on the radio at the right time. (when the lesson is beginning).

57
(7) Tune on the right volume.

(8) Listen and obey instructions of the radio teacher.

(9) Make a follow-up to the lesson by organizing a discussion, asking the learners questions, or
giving a related assignment.

Advantages of using the Radio

The radio is important in R.E teaching because of these reasons.

(1) It motivates the learners to learn by providing a variety of voices, e.g Radio teacher,
radio students, thus breaking the classroom monotony.
(2) It has power to stimulate the learner’s imaginative ability.
(3) It provides learners with recent information not available in books.
(4) It provides for individual learning and independence in cases where the learners listen to
the radio programmes during their free time.
(5) It improves learners listening skills which is important in any learning process.
(6) Radio programme can be tape-recorded and preserved for future use.

Limitations

The use of the radio in communication of R.E has the following limitations.

(1) There are certain good programmes of general nature which do not fit in the school
hours, thus making it difficult for the teacher and the learners to make effective use of
them.
(2) The listener (learner) is forced to accept the information at the speed it is transmitted.
(3) The use of the radio is one way- communication, it provides no feedback.
(4) There is the danger of the radio lessons substituting the teacher.
(5) Some students may see the radio as mere source of entertainment and thus get little from
it.

The Tape Recorder.

A tape recorder could be defined as a device used to record speech, music e.t.c.On
electromagnetic tape .It is a very useful tool in HIV and AIDS communication because it can
be used and re-used over and over-again; it is easy to operate e.g to tape record, to start, edit

58
and to erase; it has high fidelity and lastly it adds authenticity and reality by bringing the
actual person under study to the learners.

Use of tape-recorder in teaching and learning

Tape recorder could be used during interviews with health workers, people infected and
affected by HIV and AIDS or on drugs, sermons, moral teachings, crusades e.t.c

Speeches: It could be used to record live speeches by the presidents(s), members of health,
director of medical services during HIV/AIDS day. The teacher could also record audio cued
(already recorded) speeches replayed through the radio and the television programmes.

e.g Speeches by President Arap Moi,when he declared AIDS a national disaster and by
Mwai Kibaki when he launched the war against HIV/AIDS during which religious
leaders and youth heads committed themselves to fight the scourge with more vigour and
fervor.

The tape recorder could be used to record a debate/discussion by a group of students on

important matters from a selected theme/topic

E.g a topic like cultural factors promoting the spread of HIV/AIDS, the learners could debate
on the importance of HIV/AIDS free society .The discussion could then be replayed to the
same group of learners for evaluation. The teacher could also make use of relevant debates in
radio/television programmes by taping and replying them in class.

Dramatization/role play could be organized with students could act a play on some roles
played by some personalities in the country and prevention of HIV/AIDS, child abuse crime,
corruption and drug abuse. The voices could then be recorded and replayed back to the
students for further discussions on the topic.

Tape recorded can be used by a teacher intending to be absent from school due to some
reasons. The lesson could be recorded and lesson arrangements made for the lessons to be
replayed to the students during the time of absence.

How to use a tape recorder in the classroom.

For effective utilization of the tape recorder, the teacher should follow the following steps:

59
(1) Preview the audio material.
The teacher has to listen to the material critically before taking it to the classroom .This will
help to:

(i) Determine the relevancy of the material.

(ii) Find out the objectives of the audio material.
(iii)Identify important terms and concepts used.
(iv) Find out other materials required for the lesson,e.g maps, charts and pictures.
(v) Find out whether there are activities for the students during the lesson.
(vi) Know the duration of the programme so that the teacher could make the necessary
adjustment regarding the lesson (timetable).
(vii) Find out what the main points of the programme are.
(viii) Decide on how the material will be presented i.e whether it will be a continuous
play or there will be pauses to allow for questions and discussions.
(ix) Decide on assessment procedures to use to determine whether the objectives have
been realized.
(x) Test on the condition of the cassette and on the cells (in places with no electricity)
whether they are low or high.
(2) Prepare the class for listening
(i) Introduce the programme to the students and explain the objectives.
(ii) Write new terms and concepts on the chalkboard and explain them.
(iii) Inform the learners what is expected of them during the lesson,e.g making notes,
writing down the main point‟s e.t.c.
(iv) Recognize sitting/seating arrangement if need be.
(v) Emphasize on class control.
(vi) Encourage students to listen quietly and carefully.
(3) Play the programme.
(i) Place the player/tape recorder in a strategic place.
(ii) Turn on the player and make sure the volume is loud enough for the whole class.

(iii)Stop and replay where necessary.

(iv)Ensure that the learners are doing the right thing at the right time during the
programme.This is to ensure full participation, e.g making notes and answering
questions.

60
 (4) Follow-up activity:

As a part of follow up of the programme the teacher should do the following:

 Fill in gaps where there were omissions in the presentation.

 Make clarification on areas which were not clear to the learners.
 Invite questions/comments from the students about the programme.
 Ask questions to find out whether the learners understood the lesson.
 Give assignment to the learners,e.g to write notes, work on a project to draw a chart,
the role play or to write a test
 Evaluate the effectiveness of the programmes by assessing learner‟s performance in
the given assignment.

Limitations of using a tape recorder in R.E Communication.

A tape recorder has a number of Disadvantages as a resource of teaching R.E.

1. The recorded programme lacks the visual image which is very necessary in the teaching
of R.E
2. The programmme does not cater for individual differences
3. Communication is usually one way from the presenter to the audience and not vice-versa
4. Sometimes tape recorders are used to substitute the teacher although this should not be
the case as the teacher is expected to guide the learners throughout the programmme.
5. Effectiveness of using the tape recorder s depends on the listening skills of the learners,
something which is beyond the teachers control as one cannot ascertain that the learners
are really listening.
6. It is not effective in large classes as the sound may not reach all the students.
7. Not every School can afford to buy the machine and its accompaniments.

Audio-Visual Materials.

The materials included in this group are:films,televisions,videos and sound slides: Use audio-
visual materials in R.E teaching is very important because they.

61
 1. Extend human perception by revealing the remote, the inaccessible, the invisible and
the inaudible to the learners
2. Bring the outside world with its differing cultures to an R.E classroom more vividly
than any other means under the teacher’s control. This arouses interest in history
learning.
3. Stimulate thinking among the learners and change their attitudes by providing another
dimensions to learners view of reality
4. Summarize information by allowing time laps photography; an event which took
many years can be shown in few hours e.g the life of Jesus of Nazareth, the Ten
Commandments and passion of Christ.
5. Clarify new terms and concepts and acts as a spring board for further discussion.

Films.

R.E teachers are advised to identify whatever relevant films are available and where to find
them. It is important that they select films that are pertinent to the teaching objectives. Some of
the places where films can be available are British Council Library.

National museums, American cultural Centre, Kenya Institute of Education. Kenya National
Library Service, Kenya National Archives, Universities and other Institutions of Higher learning

The teacher should note that in some of these places for example the Kenya National Archives,
films are not lent out but learners can be taken there to view them.

In deciding to use films, the teacher should be aware of their limitations such as the following:

 Some films can give learners incorrect notions.

 At times learners treat films as entertainment rather than learning features.
 Films may emphasize elements that should not be emphasized in the Course.
 Films are not very adaptable because it is difficult to excerpt what is wanted or to skip
what is irrelevant.
 They require special provision for projection.
 They take up fair amount of time, thought and money.
 Sometimes the language used is not to the level of the learners. As such learners do not
comprehend what they are portraying.

62
  Use of films disadvantages students with problems of hearing and seeing.
 They need a specialized (technical) skill for effective utilization which many teachers do
not have.
 In case of failure they can cause a certain amount of embarrassment and confusion.

Procedures for showing a film.

Below are some of the ways a teacher can prepare for film showing.

(1) Prepare yourself.

a) Select a film related to the study
b) Pay careful attention to the recommended level of use.
c) Check the equipment to ascertain that it is in good condition
d) Plan how it is going to be used.
e) Use film guides (pamphlets)
(2) Prepare the classroom.
a) Place the title, new vocabulary and main points or questions on the chalkboard.
b) Set up the equipment thread.
c) Check seating, the screen and ventilation.
(3) Prepare the learners
a) Introduce the film and tell them why they are viewing it the purpose ;
b) Display support material if any;
c) Explain the new words and terms appearing on the chalkboard.
d) Identify the learner’s activities.
e) Identify the main points they should look for in the film
f) Let students note down the questions to be answered by the use of a film.
g) Give them a study guide to follow if available.
(4) Present the film.
a) When everything is ready maintain silence and start the film.
b) Focus and frame the film.
c) Check sound level
d) Watch for film failure due to damage.
e) Do not make comments while the film is running.
f) If need arises, stop the machine for comments, discussion ore explanations before you
63
 continue.
g) After completing showing film make a follow-up.

(5) Follow-up.
a) Ask students questions about the film.
b) Discuss the main features of the film.
c) Initiate creative follow-up activities,
e.g written work,tests,projects,reading on the topic ,preparing a report.

d) If necessary reshow the film.

Television.

According to Binnning et al (1952), the television has great possibilities as an educational

medium. It can be a powerful tool in religious Education although it has a limited reach of urban
and audiences and social economic class.

How to get most from television.

An R.E teacher should identify relevant television programmes from the local dailies. As part of
homework and the learners should be asked to view this programmmes during their own free
time .In cases where not every student is served with a television set the should video-tape the
programme and show it to the entire class. This can also be done as a follow-up on what the
students viewed on their own. Where a School owns a television set, the teacher should
recognize the timetable if it is during School hours so that the students can have a chance of
viewing some of these programmmes.

In spite of its usefulness, the television has a number of disadvantages.

1. It is expensive for some Schools.

2. There is poor reception in some parts of the Country. Therefore, there is need for more
satellites to be set up.
3. Electricity can go off in the middle of a programme and there may be no alternative
source of power.
4. Some programmes fall during wrong hours either when the students are occupied or
when the teacher is not available to organize the entire class for viewing.
5. It is difficult to sieve out important information from a programme designed for a
64
 different purpose and addressed to a different audience (public) and make it relevant to
School Students.

Video Tape/Video Compact Disk (VCD)/Digital Video Disk (DVD).

The television can be utilized better if the teacher could use the above media. A part from
video taping the activities/events within the School Community and replaying them to the
learners, the teacher could CD write some TV programmes on Social issues especially those
focusing on HIV and Aids day, Christmas and Easter celebrations; and use the later in class
.An R.E teacher could also buy some commercially produced compact Disks (CD) which
could be played on the above machines. There are a variety of CD‟s on biblical stories
covering the creation, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Esther, Solomon, Jeremiah, Jesus among
many others. When teaching topics related to these stories the teacher should bring reality to
the lesson by using them as teaching and learning resources.

Suggestions on how to organize a video lesson.

A video lesson could be organized as follows:

1. Introduce the video programme. This can be done by giving a brief statement on the
programme, explaining the purpose for watching it, emphasizing on what to look for.

2. Give a predictive exercise which will prepare students for what they are about to hear and view
to familiarize themselves with the content of the video –tape .It will involve asking them to
predict/imagine what they are likely to see in that programmme.

3. Show the video tape.

4. Follow up the predictive exercise by asking questions to compare what they have viewed and
what they had imagined.

5. Reshow the video a second time if necessary.

6. Organize follow-up activities/exercises. This can be done in many ways. E.g. discussing the
content of the video to what they have viewed, or students doing further reading on the topic.

Filmstrips.

65
They are a continuous series of films of uniform size which are shown fixed order .They are
shown on a filmstrip projector.

These are two main types of filmstrips.

(i) Story telling-filmstrips: These are a series of pictures which tell a story. They are usually
accompanied by a written script which can be read by the teacher as the pictures are
being shown
(ii) Study filmstrips-It is not shown in the same manner as story-telling instead each picture
is used for detailed observation and study on areas or religious importance. The aim is to
spark discussions among learners and arouse interest of learning the area under study.

N/B

Some of these filmstrips are commercially produced. In such a case, the teacher is supposed to
study accompanying notes for effective utilization.

Summary.

This chapter has discussed communication media as an effective channel of transmitting R.E
information to various people because of their entertainment nature .The radio has a very wide
coverage both in rural and urban centers and if utilized effectively can lead to medium of
transmission given its pictorial presentation of information but its major limitation is that it can
only reach a limited audience.

Suggested Learning Activities.

1. a) Identify relevant R.E films and Video programmes that can be obtained at public libraries
and education resource centers.

b) Borrow these films and videos view them and make notes.

2. a) How would you use the following resources in teaching any relevant topic in either C.R.E or
I.R.E syllabus?.

i) A film on Jesus Christ or Sheikh AL. Amin Mazrui

ii) A tape recorder.

b) Discuss the advantages of each of the above resources in teaching of R.E.

66
 CHAPTER SEVEN.

PLANNING FOR TEACHING

Effective teaching is influenced by how well a teacher has prepared for the lesson before
teaching starts. It starts with one’s interaction with the syllabus and its interpretations, the ability
to make good schemes, lesson plans and the effective utilization of learning resources. Thus in
this Endeavour, a syllabus or the curriculum/content to be taught becomes important.

A Syllabus.

In simple terms it can be defined as a prescribed course of study in a given subject or level.
Burston and Green (1972) define it as “ a statement of the content of study-the amount of
knowledge and the selection of knowledge which it is proposed that a pupil should acquire”.

Importance of an R.E syllabus.

i) It defines the goals of education, the objectives of the teaching either C.R.E or Islamic Studies
and Specific Objectives of teaching topics in the syllabus. This is important because it gives the
teacher purpose and focus in teaching.

ii) It specifies the relevant content to be taught for the realization of the above goals and
objectives. This is necessary because content is at the core of teaching. Without it there will be
no teaching.

iii) It suggests a wide range of the methods and resources to be used for teaching of the subject
for the achievement of the objectives. This is very essential because it ensures that the learners
are actively involved in the lessons through a variety of activities which keeps them motivated
and their attention sustained.

iv) It specifies what content should be taught at what grade by matching the difficulty of the
content with the mental age of learners. This ensures that what students learn is within their
ability and level.

Schemes of Work.
A scheme of work is a detailed, logical and sequential plan that interprets the syllabus into units
for effective teaching. It can also be defined as a breakdown of the syllabus into manageable
units which could be covered in a specific period of time lasting for either a week(s), month(s) or
a whole year (Nasibi, Kilio,1995).

67
Importance of Scheming

According to Nasibi and Kiio (1995) .Scheming is essential because of the following:

1. It makes teaching both systematic and orderly since ensures that topics in the syllabus are
taught in order of difficulty starting with simplest to the most complex.
2. It ensures that every topic in the syllabus is covered.
3. It enables the teacher to budget for time wisely giving room for events and activities
which might interfere with the School calendar e.g public holidays, prize giving day,
sports day e.t.c.
4. It gives the teacher a forward insight in teaching by enabling her/him to identify content,
methods and relevant instructional materials which she is going to use in the lesson, thus
giving the individual enough time to sought out the requirements.
5. It guides the researcher in planning a lesson plan.
6. It checks the teacher’s pace of teaching.
7. It is useful during transition, when a teacher is transferred, the in-coming teacher will
easily take over from where she had left avoiding repetition or omission. This ensures
continuity of the learning process.

Feature of a Scheme work.

1. Administrative details: Every scheme of work must have administrative information

indicating the subject, class, stream, term and year when the schemes will be operation. It
also give a title e.g “C.R.E Scheme of work,From 11B, 1st term,2007.
2. Week: It refers to the week of the term when a given topic in the Scheme will be taught
e.g 2nd week “Introduction to Geography” .The teacher has to plan for all the weeks of the
term.
3. Period of lessons. This refers to the specific lesson in a week when a given topic or sub-
topic will be taught. The number of lessons per week .While in forms three and four there
are four lessons in a week .Given that there are many activities in the term which
interfere with teaching, the teacher is supposed to identify these activities and cater for
them in the planning process. To estimate the number of periods to be taught in a term
which interferes with learning, the teacher is supposed to identify these activities and
cater for them in the planning process. To estimate the number of periods per week, less
10% for lost periods that may occur due to interruption and other factors.
4. Objective. They specify what the learners are expected to achieve at the end of the

68
 lesson. They are very specific and started in behavioural terms.
5. Content: It shows what topic or sub-topic will be covered in a given lesson/period. It also
indicates some of the main points of the lesson.
6. Learning activities: These are activities which the students will be expected to carry out
in order to learn the content presented to them by the teacher.
7. Resources: These are teaching/learning materials which the teacher is supposed to use to
facilitate learning and therefore achieve the objectives stated e.g reference books,
newspapers, magazines and journals.
8. References: These are textbooks and other printed materials the teacher uses or consults
when scheming or planning to teach e.g reference books, newspapers, magazines and
journals.
9. Remarks-These are comments a teacher makes after teaching a given lesson went on as
schemed and if not why and what steps will be taken to rectify the situation. The steps to
be considered could be repeating the whole lesson or clarifying out remedial teaching or
re-teaching specific elements of the lesson or clarifying certain issues e.t.c.
10. Means of evaluation-This refers to how the learner‟sachievements will be assessed
against the planned lesson objectives.

69
C.R E SCHEMES OF WORK FORM ONE FIRST TERM 2007.

Wee Period/ Content Objectives Learning/ Resources Reference Remarks

k. Lessons Activities

1 1 INTRODUCT -By the end -Answer -Pictures of Gichunga S Taught as

2 ION of the lesson Questions Religious N planned.
3 TO C.R.E the learner on What Is leaders and et el al
a) Meaning of should be C.R.E High Court Secondary
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b) Reasons of i)Define discussions lawyers. Religious
studying C.R.E on -A map on Education
C.RE. ii)Explain the importance -Writing Students
importance of learning board for Book
of learning C.R.E Lessons One 2nd
C.R.E -Making notes and edition.
notes on illustrations Kenya
definition Literature
and Bureau,Nai
importance robi,Chapte
of C.R.E r pg1-2 title
publisher
Place your
chapter
pages

C.R E SCHEMES OF WORK FORM ONE FIRST TERM 2007.

70
Wee Period/ Content Objectives Learning/ Resources Reference Remarks
k. Lessons Activities

1 1 INTRODUC -By the end of the -Answer -Pictures of Gichage S N Taught as

TION Questions on Et el al planned.
TO C.R.E lesson the What Is C.R.E Religious
learner leaders and High Secondary
a) Meaning of -Open class
C.R.E should be able to Court Christian
discussions
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studying C.R.E on -A map on Religious

C.RE. ii)Explain importance -Writing Education
the of learning board for Students
importance C.R.E Lessons Book
of learning -Making notes and One 2nd
C.R.E notes on illustration edition.
definitions s Kenya
and Literature
importance Bureau,Na
of C.R.E irobi,Chap
ter pg1-2
title
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2 b) Reasons By the end In -A copy of Gichage el The last
for studying of the lesson groupings the Bible al 3-4 objective
C.R.E. the learners of 3-4 writing Groneweg not
Continued. should be discuss board of en T.G covered
THE BIBLE. able to Answering the Main Subject because
a)The Bible -Explain the questions points of Methods of time..
as the word. importance on …. the lesson Religious
of learning. - Gichage et Education
-Appreciate Experiment al pg Course
the ing on….. Book for
importance Teachers,
of C.R.E to Lecturers.
their lives. Nairobi.C
Explain the hapter 1
bible as the pg 4.
word of
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3 b) Human By the end Observing A chart Gichange Lessons
authors of the lesson a chart illustrating et.al pg.5 were
c) Major the learner illustrating the covered
divisions of should be the divisions as
the Bible. able to divisions the planned
d) The Bible -Explain the the divisions of the last

71
 as a library. bibles major divisions of the Bible. objective
divisions. the Bible. A picture To be
-Explain -observing of the tackled
The Bible a picture of inside of a next
human the library library. lesson.
authors. showing the
-Discuss the arrangeme
Bible as a nts of the
library of library
books. showing the
arrangements of
the
books.

LESSON PLANNING.

A lesson plan in a work plan showing clearly all activities that are going to take place during the
lesson and the order(sequence) in which they are going to follow.

Importance of Lesson plan.

Well written lesson plans are useful in many ways.

1. They are used as basis for the lesson to be presented. They give the teacher an agenda or
outline to follow as the teaching takes place.
2. They enable the teacher to be familiar with the teaching content and to visualize the best
way of covering it.
3. They serve as a guide/road map to the teacher on the content to be taught in order to
avoid vagueness and irrelevancies.
4. They serve as a memory bank, reminding the teacher of the main points to focus on
during the lesson. This becomes important incase of a memory lapse an interruption or a
distraction.
5. They give the teacher security and confidence, especially to a beginning teacher who can
walk into a classroom with the confidence gained from having a well- developed and
organized framework for the day‟sinstruction.
6. They act as an orderly sequencing of content and learning activities in a lesson.
7. They improve the teacher‟s performance by acting as a basis for future planning.

72
Elements/Features of Lesson plan.

A good lesson plan has a number of features.

1. Administrative details; This shows name and registration number of the student,
teacher, School, Subject, form and stream of the class, the date when the lesson will be
taught e.g 2/10/2007, and the time of the day when the lesson will be taught.
2. Topic/sub-topic; this is the topic of the subject matter to be taught that day.
3. Objectives; There are the same objectives stated in the schemes but now transferred to
the lesson plan, stating what to be achieved in one lesson of 40 minutes or a double
lesson of 80minutes.

4. Time; The exact time the teacher will spend at every stage of the lesson (introduction,
body and conclusion)
5. Content; The exact information to be passed to the learners under the topic/sub-topic
being taught, it is to be presented at three levels: Introduction, lesson development and
conclusion .It identifiers the main points to be delivered in the body of the lesson.
6. Learning activities: Refer to what the learners will be doing at each level of the lesson to
show that learning is taking place or the objectives are being realized. Each activity
should be planned around the pattern of transition namely; introduction activities, lesson
development activities and conclusion activities .They should be specific and challenging
enough depending on the learners level ability. They should also be varied, related to and
helpful in achieving topics objective. Examples of related to the helpful in achieving
topic/sub-topic objectives.Examples of related activities are; answering
questions,discussions,chalkboard writing, drawing reading,role-
playing,debating,copying,doing homework/assignments and note-taking among others.

A sample of a lesson plan’s Format.

Name of the Student Teacher:…………………Reg no……………..

School/Form

Subject No. In Class.

Date.

Topic Time

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Sub-topic

Objectives

Time Content Learning Activities Resources Materials

Self Evaluation.

Note; Self evaluation is when the teacher evaluates his/her teachings after the lesson to find
out whether the objectives were realized on not, if not, what should be done?

A Sample of a Lesson Plan.

Name of the Student teacher: Timo Baraka

School:Maria Secondary School Form: 1B

Subject: C.R.E No. in class 35.

Date: 15/3/2007 Time 9:00-9:40

Topic: INTRODUCTION.

Sub-topic: Reasons for studying C.R.E

Appreciate the importance of C.R.E in their lives.

Time Content Learning activities Resource materials

5 Introduction Attempting to define a
Definition of Religion as a religion.
belief in supernatural power.
30 Lesson development. Answering the question Gichage S N
et el al Secondary
Definition of C.R.E what is C.R.E?
Christian Religious
It is a study of the beliefs of Noting down the Education
Students
followers of Christ Jesus. definitions of C.R.E
Book
One 2nd edition.
Kenya Literature
Bureau,Nairobi,Chapter
pg 1

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 Reasons of studying C.R.E Open class discussions on Gichage pg 2-3
-Acquisition of moral reasons for C.R.E – -Pictures of lawyers
dispositions. Observing pictures of ,judges,evangelists.
-Career purposes prominent evangelist, -Chalkboard for writing
-For spiritual development lawyers, judges, and down the mainpoints of
-Gives identity professors of religion. the lesson.
-For the achievement of -Listening to recorded
national goals. speeches by some of the
-For the glory of GOD . above people.
Application:The relevance of
C.R.E to the students
improves the relationship with
GOD and with one another.
-Gives them identity
5 Conclusion:Review the topic Answering questions on
taught. the topic.

Instructional Objective

These are very specific objectives which forecast on what the teacher intends the students to
do at the end of 40 or 80 minutes. They describe what one can do as a result of having learnt
and what an observer can see the learner doing in order that she can judge whether or not
learning has been successfully achieved.

They are important in any instruction because they:

1. Provide guidance for choosing subject matter to be taught

2. Guide in the selection of material, resources to be used.
3. Guide in designing appropriate teaching methods.
4. Provide standards for measuring students achievement
5. Help to provide feedback to the teacher and the learner about the observed behaviour.

Though an instructional objective should be criterion referenced, stating not only the terminal
behaviour expected but also what standards of performance pupils should attain. Such an
objective has three main characteristics:

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i) A terminal behaviour which is observable and measurable. The objective should describe the
learning outcome that the teacher intends to produce as a result of the instruction.

ii) A test condition which refers to the conditions under which the pupil is expected to meet the
standard required. The objective should show limitations of restrictions so that the one can
determine whether learning experience should occur for one to say there was learning.

iii) The standard or level at a which a student is expected to perform (level of performance).It
refers to indication of a standard of performance or an acceptable level of learning at which a
student proves that she has mastered the subject. The objectives should indicate the degree or
standard expected in learning and must specify the appropriate level of performance indicated in
the behaviour.

-Although the above are the main ones, there are other characteristics which should not be
overlooked. These include the objective being specific in content, being realistic, relevant, and
achievable, challenging and worth spending 40 or 80 minutes on.

Construction of Instructional Objectives.

Writing of instructional objectives involves using an action verb which describes what the
students will be doing as a result of learning experience. The behaviour specified must be
visibly, directly observable and measurable. This type of behaviour should be explicit (definite)
not implied. Some of the action verbs which go with the farming of the instructional objectives
include:

Label Compute Differentiate Discuss.

Mention Classify Name

List predict Describe

Match complete predict

Infer demonstrate operate

To arrive at the above action verbs one needs to ask as a result of learning?

-What activities do I expect he learner to be able to do as a result of learning?

-What behaviour should the learner exhibit to show that /he has learnt?

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-What level of performance will be acceptable as evidence that one has learnt?

Below are examples of well constructed instructional objectives;

(i) By the end of the lesson, the learners should be able to:

-Define Christian Religious Education.

-Explain at least six reasons of studying C.R.E.

-Appreciate the importance of learning C.R.E

(ii) By the end of the lesson, the learners should be able to:

-State the meaning of Quran

-Explain the importance of the Quran.

-Appreciate the importance of Quran in their lives.

(iii) By the end of the lesson, the learners should be able to explain the reasons for Kingship in
Israel

Objectives and levels of learning (achievement in the Cognitive domain).

To be useful instrumental objectives must show some indication of the level of achievement in
the cognitive domain that is expected of learners by the end of the lesson. Learning in the
cognitive domain is concerned with how people acquire ideas and how perceptions are
organized. It involves intuition, perception, imagination and reasoning.

In the cognitive, educators distinguish six levels of the achievement according to Bloom‟s
taxonomy of educational objectives. These levels are:

1. Knowledge level: This is learning at the lowest level where the learner is expected to recall
specific and universals, the recall of methods and processes

Or the recall of pattern, structure or setting. The behavioural verbs which go with this level are
define,describe,label,identify,list match,name,outline,reproduce,select,state e.t.c.

2. Comprehension level: This represents the lowest level of understanding. The understanding
is such that the individual is able to know what is being communicated without necessarily
relating it to other material or seeing its fullest implications. Action verbs used

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are:covert,defend,distinguish,estimate,explain,extend,give
examples,infer,paraphrase,predict,rewrite,summarisev e.t.c

3. Application. This refers to one developing the ability to use abstractions in particular and
concrete situations. The abstractions may be in the form of general ideas, rules of procedures or
generalized methods. The action verbs used
are:show,solve,use,change,compute,discover,demonstrate,manipulate,modify,operate,predict,pre
pare,produce,relate e.t.c

4. Analysis: It entails the learner breaking down communication into its constituent elements or
parts such that the relative hierarchy of ideas is made clear or the relations between the ideas
expressed are made explicit. The verbs used in stating objectives at this level are: point
out,differentiate,relate,discriminate,distingusish,identify,illustrate,infer,outline,select,separate,su
b-divide e.t.c.

5. Synthesis: It entails putting elements and parts together so as to form a whole in learning. It
involves the process of the learner developing the ability of working with pieces, elements e.t.c
and arranging and combining them in such a way so as to constitute a pattern or structure not
clearly there before. For instance, students have to draw elements from many sources and put
these together in a new form. Action verbs sued include
;categorize,combine,compose,create,device,compile,design,explain,generate,plan,rearange,recon
struct,relate,revise,rewrite,modify e.t.c

6. Evaluation: It involves developing the ability to make judgment about values and use of
criteria as well as standards as well as standards for appraising the extent to which particulars are
accurate,effective,economical or satisfying. The judgments may be either quantitative or
qualitative and criteria may be either that which is determined by the learner or that which is
given to him/her. The behavioural verbs for this level include
;appraise,compare,conclude,contrast,support,relate,describe,criticize,discriminate,

Explain, justify.

In R.E There is a lot of emphasis on the development of positive attitudes, values, emotions and
morals. This calls for objectives in the effective domain.

In this domain, there are five levels of learning according to Krathwohl taxonomy. These levels
of learning and the accompanying verbs are shown below;

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Krathwohl’s taxonomy for the affective domain.

Affective level Associated behavioural verbs.

1.Receiving Listen Accept Be aware
Attend Receive Favour
Prefer Perceive Select
2.Responding State Select Record
Answer List Develop
Complete write Derive
3.Valuing Accept Increase Indicate
Recognize Develop Decide
Participate Attain Influence
4.Organization Organize Find Associate
Judge Determine Form
Rate Correlate Select
5.chractarization Revise Accept Demonstrate
Change Judge Identify
Face Develop Decide

Objectives in the effective are stated as follows;

By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to;

i) Appreciate God’s covenant with Abraham by explaining its relevance to his/her life.

ii) Respect the Bible as the word of God by applying its insight in his/her life.

iii) Develop an awareness to observe Hadith in one’s life.

iv) Appreciate the relevance of Tawheed in the life of a Muslim by applying it to his/her life.

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Summary.

The chapter has focused on planning for R.E teaching. It has emphasized that teachers need to
plan carefully and put into action their plans sensitively and skillfully. This is done effectively
through scheming and lesson planning. Scheming is important because it ensures that all the
content and objectives which go with it, are covered systematically and realized respectively
within a specified time. Lesson planning is a must for teachers in an orderly sequence because it
outlines what should be covered at every stage of the lesson.

Suggested learning activities.

1. Explain the relationship between;

i. Goals of education and objectives of teaching either C.R.E or Islamic studies.

ii. Syllabus and schemes of work
iii. Schemes of work and lesson plan

2. Briefly explain the importance of the following elements in either a scheme of work or a
lesson plan.

i. Objectives
ii. Content
iii. Learning activities
iv. Resources
v. References
vi. Remarks

3.a)What problems are likely to face an R.E teacher who uses schemes of work prepared by
another teacher?

b) Why is it essential for an R.E teacher to prepare for teaching before going to class?.

4.a) Make a scheme of work in either C.R.E or I.R.E covering two weeks?.

b) From the above scheme of work,make one lesson plan.

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 CHAPTER EIGHT.

ASSESSMENT: EVALUATION IN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION.

INTRODUCTION.
Evaluation is critical to the success of any teaching and learning programme. Evaluation is
generally the process of generating data which is used assigning value to something and finally
making a decision, either to accept improve or reject it (Shiundu and Mulando:1992)It enables
one to determine to what extent, if at all, the objectives of a programme have been achieved
(Bishop:1985)Assessment on the other hand is wider and is the process of gathering and
providing information on the learners performance on a learning task through observing,
recording and evaluating performance.

Evaluation in R.E can serve these purposes.

1. To assess leaner’s attainment at the end of the teaching and learning. This has to be
assessed in relation to the objectives of the course.
2. To evaluate diagnostically learners progress and learning difficulties. One has to find out
what difficulties the learners experienced during the implementation of the curriculum.
3. To evaluate the effectiveness of R.E syllabus. How effective was the programme in
influencing the set objectives.

Forms of evaluation.

There are two types of evaluation; formative and summative.

-Formative evaluation-It refers to continuous evaluation which takes place during the process of
teaching and learning.

Sulton(1991:3),defining it in relation to learners and learning instructions stated that it is.

An ongoing process, conducted both formally and informally, by which information and
evidence about a Childs learning is absorbed and used to plan the next step, or guide through a
given task.

Instructional evaluation is very important because it plays a diagnostic role by giving students a
sense of adequacy of their progress in learning and in offering feedback in a learning situation.

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Basically formative evaluation has the following functions.

 Motivating learners to learn more especially when they discover they are performing well
on a given task.
 Providing feedback regarding the learner’s progress in learning and in mastery of
knowledge, skills and attitudes.
 Furnishing the instructions with necessary information regarding the entry
behaviour/level of the learners.
 Enabling the teachers to determine the effectiveness of their learning materials and ways
of improving them.
 Helping the teachers to determine which different assignments should be given to
learners thus catering for their individual differences.
 Providing the teachers with specific feedback regarding learners‟ success or failure in
mastery of skills, attitudes and knowledge.
 Providing information about the effectiveness of the teaching/learning process.

Summative evaluation: It is viewed typically as a process that comes at the end of a course
or unit of instruction or programmme. It is designed to determine the extent to which course
objectives have been achieved .It is used to give judgment as to the value or worth of the
resulting programme in relation to instructional procedures.

This type of evaluation has the following functions.

1. Identifying problems that might hinder the achievement of set goals of educational
programme.

2. Determining the effectiveness and worthiness of a programme in order to make reliable

decision about educational planning in terms of time, human power and other resources.

3. Determining to what extent the desired objectives have been attained.

4. Furnishing the public (community) with the information concerning the effectiveness of
the programme.

5. Provides a basis for awarding certificates.

6. Securing information for selection of students for further education.

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 There are two major aspects of evaluation.

1. „Valuing‟ that is determining the value or worthiness of a particular programme.

2. „Measuring‟ that is determining the actual educational outcomes and comparing them
with the intended outcomes e.g measuring the extent to which a learner has as a result of
a particular programme.
Principles ofInstructional Evaluations

Shundu and Omulando (1992; 200), identify four main principles which should guide evaluation.

 Continuity-Evaluation has to be continuous at four levels. The first level is at the

beginning of the programme to determine the learner’s entry behaviour. It is referred to as
pre-assessment .The second level is continuous assessment during teaching or
implementation with a purpose of getting feedback in learning. This is done inform of
questions,observations,interviews e.t.c.This provides feedback and on the basis of such
feedback weaknesses in the programme is identified and remedied. The third level is end
of programme evaluation which normally comes at the end of the implementation of the
programme. The last phase is follow-up evaluation carried out after the implementation
of the programme.
 Evaluation has to be comprehensive. This is where a variety of instruments are employed
in evaluation to test many variables in assessment. All the objectives of the programme
have to be evaluated in all domains of learning in R.E the focus is more on affective,
social relating and cognitive domains of learning.
 Consistency with objectives: The evaluation content (items) should be related to the
objectives the programme had set to achieve e.g if the development of particular
attitudes is desirable the evaluation procedure should look for evidence that such attitudes
have been developed (Bishop 1985).
 Principles of validity and reliability: The evaluation tool should measure what the
evaluator intends to measure (validity) and the results should be consistent when
administered under similar conditions at different times (reliability).

Evaluation Techniques.

There are a variety of assessment techniques available to the implementer of R.E

curriculum. They include the following.

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 1. Written tests/quizzes. Although quizzes are usually shorter than tests both instruments are
used to measure learning or attitudes of learners.
2. Oral testing or questioning for immediate feedback.
3. Oral reports on observations made or oral presentations by individual or groups following
a group’s project or discussion.
4. Written assignment: This can be individually or in groups
5. Direct observation used to evaluate skills, attitudes and values which have been acquired.
6. Questionnaires for evaluating skills, attitudes and knowledge.
7. Rating scales: These are used to record assessment of the quality of performance r the
degree of achievement of an individual whether it is a concept, skill process or attitude.
The five point Likert scale can be used to discover the attitudes of the students on issues
like use of condoms, abstinence, bribery, child labour and African religion.
8. Interviews on what individuals think about certain issues.
9. Check list for observing certain traits exhibited .It is used to show what extent a student
has demonstrated change of attitudes and values or participation in group work or project.
10. Attitude scales to find out the views the students hold on moral and religious issues.
11. Direct observation of students to find out if there is any change in behaviour.The teacher
should look for changes in action and behaviour that indicate the adoption of new values
and attitudes as the students interact in and out of class.

Testing. These evaluation techniques are mainly applicable at formative and summative
level. It would be important for the teacher to know how he/she can evaluate learning using
a written test. The test could be an objective or an essay test.

Objective Tests.

These are tests where the learners responses are limited to either of the following single words,
phrases or simple choices from several choices presented to them (Ogunninyi:1984).

They have these characteristics:

 The answers are short as the learners are expected to select the correct response from a
limited number of alternatives, or to recall a very short answer.
 They have a wide content coverage since students are expected to respond to a large
number of items.
 Most of the learners‟ time is spent on reading and thinking than on writing.

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  The quality of the test and its validity depends on the skills of the constructor.
 It is easy to grade the responses.
 It is difficult to build the test items.
 It has a high scoring reliability.

Advantages of Objective Tests.

1. They allow for a wide content coverage.

2. They can be used to stimulate either convergent or divergent thinking, to learn facts, concepts
and principles.

3. The questions call for specific information and this encourages learners to pay close attention
to details of what they are studying.

4. Scoring is done quickly and more objectively.

5. High scoring reliability because there is only one correct answer per response.

6. It is easy to mark.

Disadvantages.

 Setting as time-consuming.
 It is expensivein terms of paper and human power.
 It tends to measure partial and superficial knowledge rather than broad conceptual
understanding.
 It is not effective in testing student‟s ability to organize their thought or to write
coherently.

 They tend to test recall or factual informational items rather than creativity.
 They give room for guessing.

There are many types of objective tests. Among them are multiple choice type, supply item
category (completion test), true/false and matching exercise.

Multiple choices types of objective test is a test that consist of questions on statements followed
by list of possible answers one of which should be chosen as the correct response (answer).

In true/false items, the students are presented with a declarative statement and are required to
indicate whether the statement is correct or incorrect. Some of the varieties of true/false are
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yes/no and right/wrong. Examples of such an item is. The covenant between Abraham and God
was between equals true/false or the Quran was written by Allah True/False.

Matching exercise is where a list of items is matched with a list of responses..It consists of two
columns where the 1st column is to be paired with alternative responses in the 2nd column.

Examples

 Terms and their definitions.

 Prophets and their prophecies.
 Causes and effects of anti social behaviour.
 Kings and their achievements.
 Parables and their significance.

Supply item tests are where a candidate is required to supply single word phrases(S) or sentences
to a given question. The are of two types; competition question and short answers questions.

Example:

1 -------------------- is one of the sexually transmitted diseases (completion item)

2. The kingdom of Israel was divided into two during the reign of King -----------------------------
----- (completion item).

3. Prophet Mohamed‟s flight to Meca is known as--------------------- (completion item).

4 ------------------- was the successor of prophet Mohamed (short answer item).

5. What was the main cause of Solomon‟s failure as King of Israel?.(Short answer)
6. Who succeeded Moses and led the Israelites in to the Promised Land? (Short answer item).

7. Name one Muslim Scholar (short answer item).

8. Define the term Zakat?(short answer item).

Essay tests

They require learners to give lengthy answers by a narrative on a given topic and knowledge and
attitudes acquired. The learners are expected to organize ideas or show creativity through
writing. There are two types of essays extended (open-ended) and restricted response (structured
type).They is also known as long and short essays respectively.

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Characteristic of essay questions.

Essay questions have these qualities:

 They require students to organize their work logically and express themselves clearly in
their own words.
 They consist of a few questions which require lengthy answers.
 They are relatively easy to prepare and too hard to mark accurately.
 Their quality depends on the skill of the setter and the scorer.

When to use essay questions?

They can be used when:

 The group is small.

 The teacher wishes to encourage the fullest development of the learner’s skill in the
written expression.
 The teacher wants students to organize ideas or to show their creativity.
 The evaluator is more interested in exploring the learner’s attitudes than in measuring
achievement.
 The assessor is more confident of his/her proficiency as critical leader
 The time available for test preparation is shorter than the time available for scoring.
 Evaluation complex or controversial areas of a subject.
 When learners are expected to apply the acquired knowledge to novel situations.
Guidelines for constructing essay questions.

These guidelines could be useful to an essay test constructor:

1. Define the learner’s task as completely and clearly as possible.

2. Write the items clearly and specifically in order for the learners to know what is expected
of them.
3. The expected responses from the students should relate to significant content and
behaviour as indicated in the table of specifications and objectives.
4. Restrict the subject matter to be covered by the question.
5. The area of the emphasis for the question should be indicated either by underlying,
writing in italics, or in bold.
6. The questions should be interesting and challenging enough.
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 7. Structure the questions in such a way that an overall understanding of the learners can be
assessed.
8. Each question should be easy to follow from the learners point of view
9. Avoid vague terms that could elicit contradictory responses from the learners.
10. Avoid the practice of allowing for optional questions because each learner should take
the same test as any other student if the scores are to be compared.
11. Try to set questions which test specific skills that the learners have been undergoing.
12. Check the adequacy of the question by seeing whether you and other experts can agree on
an ideal answer.
13. Provide generous time limit for the test depending on the number of complexity of the
questions.
14. Have a common basis for evaluation by preparing a marking scheme based on a valid
criterion.
15. Ensure that it measures the intended objectives.

Examples of essay questions.

1. Explain Jeremiah’s teaching on the new covenant (extended).

2. Discuss the social evils in Israel during the time of prophet Amos(extended)
3. Discuss the importance of Hadith (extended).
4. Explain the spread of Islam in East Africa (extended).
5. a)Define the term covenant(2marks)
b) Briefly explain three characteristics of a covenant (6marks)

88
 c.) Identify two examples of covenants today (6marks)
d) Explain the importance of God‟s covenant with Abraham to Christians today
(10marks).
6. Explain the meaning of Tawheed (5marks)
7. Highlight the attributes of Allah (5marks)
b) State the significance of Tawheed (5marks)
c) Explain the relevance of Tawheed in your life (6marks)

Advantages of essay questions.

1. They provide opportunities for the learners to demonstrate the degree to which
they can analyze a given problem.
2. They enable the learners to creatively select relevant information related to
question by the discussion.
3. They can provide good measure of learners understanding of any given area of
knowledge.
4. They enable the learners to organize answers in a systematic (logical) and
comprehensive manner.
5. They help the learners to improve their writing skills.
6. They help provide the learners with an opportunity to demonstrate as much as
possible, how much they know on a given item since there is no absolutely wrong
or right answer.
7. They give students opportunity to express themselves using their own phrases,
words and expressions and with minimum restrictions.
8. They measure more complex high levels of understanding e.g analysis, synthesis
and evaluation.
9. By analyzing the learner’s responses to an essay,an instructor becomes aware of
the learners approach to problem solving.
10. They are easy to set and leave no room for guessing.

Disadvantages of essay questions.

Essay questions though useful in Religious Education assessment, they have a number of
limitations.

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 1. They suffer from content unreliability and inadequate sampling of items because the
teacher can assess on only a limited sample of content covered and on very few items
(questions), given the lengthy answers (responses) expected.
2. There is lack of consistency in judgment because scoring depends on the physical and
mental state of the scorer.
3. Scoring is highly subjective because the evaluator can at times be impressed with the
literacy skill and handwriting of the learners. This can seriously impair the validity of
marks awarded in essay test.
4. Grading calls for expert judgment because they produce responses which can only be
effectively graded by a competent examiner.
5. Learner’s performance in a given item can influence the scorer in other items. The scorer
gives more or less marks depending on the first performance of the student.
6. Suffers from reliability where option questions are allowed. Students answer questions of
different content, thus making the results unreliable because the scores cannot be of
different contents, thus making the results unreliable because the results cannot be
compared.
7. They are time-consuming for students because a lot of time is spent thinking and writing,
and for the teacher when grading because one is expected to understand and interpret the
students mind as the work is marked.
8. They encourage bluffing since the students are encouraged to express themselves freely.
9. They have low reader –reliability because some students do better on some questions and
poorly on others depending on how questions are constructed.

Suggestions for improving essay questions limitations.

Limitations could be reduced if the following suggestions are taken into consideration.

 Restrict essay tests to objectives that are best achievable through this type of testing e.g
analysis, synthesis and evaluation
 Avoid vague terms that would elicit contradictory responses from learners.
 Structure items in such away that the overall understanding of the learners can be
assessed. This can be achieved through the use of questions such as “explain why‟
„analyze how‟ and „give reasons for‟.
 Score one question at a time for all who attempted it for consistency and flow of your line
of thought.

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  Score every objective that is to be measured independently.
 Mark an essay test when you are physically sound and mentally alert.
 Make sure the environment in which you are marking in is free from distractions.
 Prepare a marking scheme based on a valid criterion

Table of Specification.

When preparing tests whether objective or essay, one should be guided by a table of specification
to know which level of learning is to be tested. This can be defined as blue print in which content
area to be covered in a test as well as levels of cognitive learning are specified. In testing,
behaviour relates to six levels of cognitive development according to Blooms taxonomy, namely
knowledge,comprehension,application,analysis,synthesis and evaluation.

The table of specification consists of one row (vertically) showing the subject matter (content) to
be tested,and six columns defining the different levels of cognitive abilities to be tested in each
subject matter area shown in the row (vertical).

Importance of Table of Specification.

The table of specification is important in test construction because:

 It identifies the content to be included in the test.

 It enables the teacher to determine the levels of learning to be assessed in a given content
area.
 It ensures that each content area and levels of learning (instructional objectives) are given
proper amount of attention in the test and.
 It guides the setter in determining the number of questions to be included in the test and
the type of tests

How to Prepare a Table of Specification.

It can be prepared in the following ways:

 Prepare a grid chart with content area to be tested vertically in the chart and levels of
learning horizontally.
 Identify the content area to be tested based on topics covered in the syllabus and taught in
that class.

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  Determine the number of items per topic and the appropriate level of learning depending
on the objectives specified in the schemes of work.
 Ensure there are more questions on application, analysis and synthesis as opposed to
knowledge and evaluation.

Sample of a table of Specification.

COURSE CONTENT LEVELOF LEARNING IN TOTAL

THE COGNITIVE DOMAIN.

kno comprehe Applicatio n Synthesis Quest %

Analysis Evaluation
nsion ions
wled

ge

Introduction 2 3 6
to C.R.E

The BIBLE 2 1 2 2 8 16
Creation and 2 1 1 4 8
fall of man

Faith and God’s 1 1 2 1 1 1 6 12

promises to
Abraham

Sinai 1 1 1 2 1 6 12
covenant
Moses

Leadership in 1 3 1 2 7 14

Israel; David and

Solomon.

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Loyalty to 1 2 1 1 6 12
God; Elijah.

Selected aspect 1 1 1 1 2 4 8
in African
Religious
Heritage;
African concept
of God, spirits
and Ancestors.

African moral 2 1 2 6 12
and cultural
values.

Total number 5 6 10 10 10 9 50 100

of questions

Percentages. 10 12 20 20 20 18 100

Adopted from Nasibi (2003)

This chapter has discussed the key features of assessments in teaching and learning process. The
main focus has been on the classroom evaluation. Two types of evaluation have been defined and
their functions highlighted. Although there are many methods of assessing the learners,‟the
chapter has focused on testing as the most popular form of evaluation in Kenya Schools. Two
types of testing essay and objective test have been that they should select or preferred in relation
to what the assessor wants to evaluate. It was further emphasized that in constructing any kind of
test, it is important that a table of specification be used because it identifiers what levels of
cognitive development and content areas should be tested.

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 Summary

This chapter has discussed the key features of evaluation in an educational programme.Two
forms of evaluation were defined and their functions highly cited principles of instructional
evaluation were identified and discussed in relation to education programme different techniques
of evaluation were highlighted with particular reference to testing and direct observation. It
emerged evaluation is the key to any educational programme because it is able to illustrate to
what extent the set goals are being achieved and what improvements are needed for the full
realization of the programme goals or objectives.

Core Textbooks
 Penny Thompson (2006); Effective Teaching Of Religious Education; Pearson Further Education
 Ansu Datta (1992). Education and Society: Sociology of African Education. Macmillan
 L. Philip Barnes, Andrew Wright, Ann-marie Brandom (2008); Learning To Teach Religious Education In The
Secondary School: A Companion To School Experience (learning To Teach In The Secondary School)
(learning To Teach In The Secondary

More References:
1) Ayot H.O P.P Patvl (1989) instructional method, educational publishers Nairobi
2) Bbom, B, Engehehert etal (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
3) Collch, J.F and L.H Clark (1990) teaching in middle and secondary Schools,
planning for competence, Macmillan publishers, New York

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