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For example,
H is the chemical symbol of hydrogen.
O is the chemical symbol of Oxygen.
K is the chemical symbol of potassium. For potassium the K is derived from Latin word
Kalium.
Some elements might start with same first letters, such as Carbon, Calcium, Chlorine and
Copper have their names starting with letter C, therefore letter C can not be used to
represent all of them as chemical symbol.
The first letter C is assigned to represent Carbon, while the rest of the elements are assigned
two letters from their name as follows.
The symbols of some elements derived from Latin names are as follows:
Name of Latin name. Chemical Name of Latin Chemical
element symbol element name symbol
1 Sodium Natrium Na Silver Argentum Ag
2 Iron Ferrum Fe 8 Tin Stannum Sn
3 Copper Cuprum Cu 9 Zinc Zincum Zn
4 Lead Plumbum Pb
5 Gold Aurum Au
6 Mercury hydrargyrum Hg
Plants receive water, mineral and other nutrients from the soil which are carried to the other
parts of the plant
There are various mineral elements present in the soil that are absorbed by the roots of
plants.
The following are some of the important mineral elements required by plants:
✓ Phosphorus & magnesium – they are essential for the growth, development and
reproduction of the plant.
✓ Potassium – increases the quality of fruits and vegetables.
Various elements are used in manufacture of different toiletries that we use in day-to-day
life.
Some toiletries, for example toothpaste contains flouride compounds to prevent tooth decay
while soaps and detergents contain a compound of potassium.
Silver:
It is a precious metal.
It is used in making jewellery but it tends to discolour.
It is also used in making cutlery, teapots and medals.
Liquids.
A liquid has no definite shape.
That means a liquid changes its shape to take the shape of the container or vessel in which it
is put.
A liquid also changes its shape when spilled on the floor.
For example, when a liquid id poured in two different containers, the liquid will display two
different shapes that resemble or are similar to the container they are placed in. this means
liquids lack a definite shape
Gases.
Gases-a gas has no definite shape.
A gas changes its shape to look like that of container in which it is held in.
For example, when a balloon is inflated with air, the air inside takes the shape of the balloon.
Solids.
When a solid is totally immersed in a liquid, the volume of the displace liquid is
equivalent, (equal) to the volume of the solid.
The volume of the stone remains the same when place in two different measuring
cylinders. Therefore, solids have a definite shape.
Liquids.
The volume of water poured in a measuring cylinder remains unchanged even when it is
transferred from one measuring cylinder to other measuring cylinders of different
capacities.
For example, if you pour 30ml of water in a 50mli measuring cylinder, its reading will be
30ml.
If the same water is transferred to a 100ml measuring cylinder, the reading will still
remain 30ml.
Therefore, liquids have a definite shape just like solids.
Gases.
A given mass of a gas can occupy different volumes in different containers. This is an
indication that gases, do not have a fixed volume.
c.) Solids, liquids and gases are different in terms of their Compressibility.
Compressibility is the ability of a substance to be reduced in volume or size by applying force
or pressure on it.
Compressibility can also be defined as how much a given volume of matter decreases when
pressed.
When a bottle id filled with air, it can easily be squeezed compared to one filled up with
water.
If the two are replaced with sand, we cannot squeeze the bottle anymore.
This experiment proves that gases are highly compressible, liquids have little compressibility
while solids are incompressible.
Gases.
Occupies entire volume of container.
Their particles move freely because the intermolecular forces are very weak.
This makes particles to move far apart from each other and can be brough closer when
pressure is applied. This is the reason gases are highly compressible.
Liquids.
Their properties lie between those of gases and solids.
Their intermolecular forces in liquids are weaker than in solids but stronger than in gases.
The particles in liquids do not move freely as in gases, therefore, it is difficult to compress
liquids since the liquid particles can move but keep same volume.
Vyntex Softcopy Publishers Integrated Science Notes grade 8 pg. 6
Solids.
Particles in solids are very close to each other (closely packed) and the intermolecular forces
between the particles are very strong. The strong forces keep the particles in fixed position.
This is the reason why solids are hard, firm and rigid.
Therefore, solids are incompressible.
c.) Solids, liquids and gases are different in terms of their ability to flow.
Particles in liquids can move from one place to another, therefore, a liquid can flow and
change shape. This makes liquids such as water to flow from a tap to fill a jar or a bucket.
This is applied when pouring tea in a cup.
Solids have particle that do not move therefore solids cannot flow.
Gases have freely moving particles which can be moved from an area. For example,
when you breathe, you force air (gas) into and out of your lungs. This is an indication that
gas flow in and out of the body. This is also applied when cooking gas flows from the gas
cylinders to the burners when cooking.
Therefore, liquids and gases can flow while solids cannot flow.
Procedure:
- Put 5g of powdered blue hydrated copper (II) sulphate in the test tube.
- Set up the experiment as shown below.
✓ The chemical change that had occurred is reversed. Some chemical changes are therefore
temporary and can be reversed easily. These changes are referred to as temporary chemical
changes or reversible chemical changes.
Procedure:
- Clean the magnesium ribbon by rubbing it with sand paper. Examine the appearance of the
magnesium ribbon.
- Hold the ribbon with a pair of tongs over a burning candle or Bunsen burner for a few
minutes.
Caution:
Burning magnesium ribbon produces a very bright flame that can damage your eyes. Avoid
looking directly at the flame.
✓ Burning magnesium ribbon form a substance called magnesium oxide. A change in which
one or more substances are formed is known as chemical change.
✓ A chemical change is also known as permanent change. Most chemical changes are
irreversible in nature.
✓ Chemical changes are important in life. Example of chemical changes include:
o Digestion of food in the body.
o Ripening of fruits.
o Fermentation of grapes.
Melting metals.
- Metals are heated to a molten state making it possible to shape and form them into
desired objects or structures.
Generating electricity.
- Water can be converted to steam, which can in turn be used to drive turbines to generate
electricity.
Fog formation.
- Fog forms when water vapour (gaseous state) condenses. During condensation, molecule
of water of water vapour combine to make tiny liquid water droplets that are suspended
in the air. Fog reduces visibility. Some animals such as insects, depend on fog as a source
of water, especially in desert climate.
-Classes of Fire.
Fires can be classified between four and seven classes.
The following are six classes of fire mostly widely used and accepted.
Class Type Involves
Class A Ordinary fires. Fires that burn materials such as wood, cloth, paper and
plastics.
Class B Flammable liquids. Fires that involve liquids such as grease, oils, paraffin,
petrol, diesel and alcohol.
Class C Flammable gases. Fires that involve gases such as propane, butane and
methane.
Class D Metallic fires. Fires that are ignited by combustible metals such as
potassium, sodium, aluminium and magnesium.
Class E Electrical fires. Fores that are caused by electricity or involve electrical
equipment and appliances, for example mobile phone and
computer chargers.
Class F Cooking fires These fires are ignited by cooking oil and animal fats.
Removing heat:
- Water is mostly used to remove the heat from fire.
- A water fire extinguisher would be the safest way of doing this.
- However, these extinguishers cannot be used on all types of fire.\
Removing oxygen:
- It is important to remove oxygen gas from fore triangle to prevent spread of a fire.
- This can be achieved by using either a carbon (IV) oxide or a form fire extinguisher.
Fire extinguisher come in different types depending on the kind of environment you are in.
Some places such as school, work or home, one or more types of fire extinguishers may be
required.
The following are different types of fire extinguishers and the classes of fire they put.
Form fire extinguisher Water fire extinguisher Carbon (IV) oxide fire
extinguisher.
In case of fire out break this is the Show the route to use and exit the Used to alert the users of the
point to assemble. affected area in case of fire. premises to exit the area due to fire
outbreak
Components of a plant
cell.
The following diagram shows different components of the animal cell as seen under a light
microscope.
Magnification of Cells.
Magnification of a specimen is the measure of how much bigger a specimen is when it is
viewed through a hand lens or microscope compared to its original size.
Magnification is usually expressed using “X” before the digits, for example, X2, X10 and
X20. The X stands for ‘times.’
It is a measure of how much bigger an object appears when viewed through a hand lens or
microscope, for example X2 means the object has been magnified or enlarged two times or
the image is twice bigger than the actual object.
For alight microscope, the final magnified image of an object as seen by the observer is the
product of the magnifying power of the lenses that are used. These lenses include eyepiece
lens and the objective lens.
The magnifying power of each of these lenses is marked on the sides of the objective and
eye piece lens holder.
DIFFUSION.
An experiment to demonstrate diffusion in liquids.
Requirements:
A beaker.
Water.
Dye or ink.
A dropper.
writing materials.
Procedure:
pour some water in a beaker.
Put a drop of the dye or ink in the water.
What observations do you make after a few minutes?
Procedure:
- Place the scented flower in a corner of the classroom.
- Remove the stopper of the perfume, hold it a few centimetres away from your friend’s nose.
- Mass of particles- heavy particles move slowly hence slower rate of diffusion. Light
particles on the other hand move fast hence faster rate of diffusion.
-
- Diffusion distance- rate of diffusion depends on distance that particles have to travel in
order to be evenly distributed within available space.
- Surface area to volume ration- diffusion occurs faster in smaller organisms as compared to
larger organisms. This is because small organisms have a large surface area to volume ratio.
OSMOSIS.
Experiment to demonstrate osmosis process.
Requirements:
Capillary tube. Visking tubing.
A thread. Dyed concentrated sugar solution.
A clamp. A measuring cylinder.
Distilled water. Writing material.
Procedures:
o Moisten a piece of visking tube and rubber between your fingers to open it.
o Tie one end of the visking tubing tightly with a thread.
o Put the dye concentrated sugar solution in the Visking tubing using a measuring cylinder.
o Insert one end of capillary tube to the open end of the visking tubing and tie that end.
Questions to answer.
What happens to the level of the dye concentrated sugar solution in the capillary tube
after 20 minutes?
The level of the dye concentrated sugar solution increases in the capillary tube.
Osmosis is the random movement of water (solvent) molecules from there they are more to
where they are less through a semi-permeable membrane.
Osmosis can also be defined as the random movement of water (solvent) molecules from a
dilute solution to a more concentrated solution through a semi-permeable membrane until
the concentration on each side is equal.
Visking tubing is similar to the cell membrane. It is also a semi-permeable membrane, it has
tiny holes (pores) that allows small molecules through but prevents large molecules from
passing through.
Petri dish B-the slat did not dissolve because no water moved by osmosis in to the cavity.
This is because the boiled potatoes have destroyed semi-permeable cells membranes that
cannot carry out osmosis.
The process being investigated is osmosis in living cells.
Similarities.
Both are mean to equalize concentration of two solutions.
Both are passive transport processes, i.e., they do not require any energy to occur.
In both, particles move from an area of higher concentration to an area of low concentration.
Differences.
✓ Osmosis happens in liquid medium while diffusion happens in liquids, gases and even
solids.
✓ Semi-permeable membrane is required in osmosis while in diffusion no membrane is
needed.
✓ Osmosis requires water for movement of particles while diffusion does not require water.
✓ In osmosis there is only one way for particles to flow while in diffusion particles can flow in
any direction.
Menstrual cycle.
Menstrual cycle consists of natural changes that occur to the body of a female human
being every month in preparation to pregnancy.
A menstrual cycle lasts between 28-35 days. However, this can vary between female and
from one cycle to the next. The cycle depends on hormones.
Hormones are chemical messengers in the body.
They direct the body on what to do and when to do it.
The menstrual cycle is a process controlled by hormones in the female body.
The menstrual cycle is divided in to the following phases:
Approximate Event(s)
day(s)
1-5 day Bleeding from the vagina begins. This is caused by the
loss of the lining of the uterus.
This is called menstruation or monthly periods
6-14 days Blood loss stops.
The lining of the uterus begins to regrow and an ovum
starts to mature in one of the ovaries.
14-25 days Ovulation occurs.
The ovum travels through the oviduct towards the uterus.
25-28 days If the egg becomes fertilized by a sperm and attaches itself
to the uterus wall, the woman becomes pregnant.
If pregnancy does not occur, the uterus lining begins to
break down again, repeating the cycle.
Irregular bleeding.
Bleeding very little or no bleeding at all with each menstrual cycle is another challenge
related to the menstrual cycle.
Light or lack of bleeding can result from being extremely underweight or overweight.
If you are overweight, losing weight might help to make your periods regular.
If you are underweight, slow and steady weight gain may help to regulate your menstrual
circle.
Excessive bleeding is another challenge related to the menstrual cycle.
Bleeding is considered heavy if it interferes with normal activities.
However, though common, you should see a doctor.
Heavy periods can be a sign of a health problem.
Painful periods.
Most women experience menstrual cramps before or during their period at some point in
their lives.
For some of them it is part of the regular monthly routine.
However, if the cramps are painful and persistent, you should see a doctor.
Management of Menstrual challenges.
A doctor can prescribe hormonal medication that can help control heavy bleeding.
If one experiences heavy bleeding, an iron supplement might help to prevent anaemia.
Mild to moderate pain or cramps can be lessened (reduced) by taking an appropriate pain
reliever.
Taking a warm bath might also help to relieve cramps.
Surgery can also be performed.
If symptoms persist, always visit a doctor.
Ovum
Gonorrhea.
Symptoms.
Vaginal discharge with bad odours.
Penis becomes sore at the tip.
Urination is difficult and painful.
If untreated it spreads to rest of the organs blocking passages.
Prevention.
Avoid unnecessary sexual behaviours.
Abstain from sexual intercourse.
Faithfulness in marriage is encouraged.
Syphilis.
Symptoms.
Sore resembling blisters appear at site of infection.
Rashes appear on the skin.
Patient feels feverish, suffers body pains and loses hair.
Can be prevented by using same measures as in gonorrhea.
Herpes
Symptoms.
Painful sores on the genitals.
Blisters may disappear.
Can be prevented by;
Not indulging in promiscuous sexual behavior.
Being faithful in marriage.
Avoiding sexual contact with an HSV-II infected person
Heat energy.
Heat is a form of energy transferred from one body to another due to difference in temperature.
In an experiment where a metal rod on which different pins are attached using candle wax is
heated on a source of heat, the pins start to fall starting with one closest to the source of heat.
This means heat flows through the metallic rod from the burning candle to the other end of
metallic rod.
Sound energy.
Sound energy is the energy associated with vibration or disturbance of bodies or particles. Such
as striking a drum with a piece of wood or plucking the wire.
Nuclear energy.
Nuclear energy is the energy that results from nuclear reactions in the nucleus of atom.
Very large amounts of energy can be released when changes take place within the nucleus of an
atom.
Examples of these changes are nuclear fission in which a nucleus breaks down to give two
smaller nucleus or nuclear fusion where two small nuclei join to form one big nucleus and
radioactive decay in which the nucleus of an element change to different nucleus by releasing
certain particles.
Electrical energy.
Electrical energy is energy produced by flow of electric charges (electrons)
Mechanical energy.
Mechanical energy is the energy possessed by a body due to its motion or due to its position.
It can either be kinetic or potential energy or both.
When an object is falling down through air, it possesses both potential energy (PE) and kinetic
energy (KE) due to its speed as it falls. The sum of its PE and KE is its mechanical energy.
Mechanical energy=kinetic energy + potential energy.\
In conclusion. Kinetic energy is possessed by a moving body while potential energy is
possessed by a body due to its position.
The sum of an object’s kinetic energy and potential energy is its mechanical energy.
In the same way, when a compressed spring or a stretched catapult is released, it goes back to
its original shape and size. This indicates that the spring had stored energy due to compression.
The energy possessed by a body dur to compression (for example the spring) or stretch (for
example a catapult) is called elastic potential energy.
Risks or accidents associated with use of electricity include electrical shocks, electrical burns
and electric fires.
To reduce electricity accidents the following should be done:
✓ Move electrical appliances away from water.
✓ Repair any faulty wirings.
✓ Replace faulty appliances.
Loud sounds.
Various transformations of energy results in production of sound.
For example, a motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The mechanical
rotation of the fan, blenders and other appliance produces sound. In our environment, sound can
be classified into loud or soft sound.
Loud sounds such as loud music and shouting or screaming are not good for the environment.
Loud soud affect living things by:
✓ Causing irritation.
✓ Damaging our eardrums
To reduce loud sounds, we should do the following:
✓ Use more efficient appliances that minimise production of loud sound.
✓ Wear hearing protection devices to protect our ears from loud sounds.
For example,
If two leaners of equal mass walked on mud and the boy pus on flat-sole shoes while the girl
wears sharp-high heeled shoes, which of the two would make deeper impression on the muddy
ground?
In the scenario above, the girl makes deeper impressions on the muddy ground than the boy.
This is because the weight of the boy is spread over a large surface area than that of the girl.
The greater the force (weight) acts on, the less the effect or impression made on the muddy
surface.
The sharp heel shoes of the girl have a small surface area in contact with the ground. The
smaller the area the deeper the impressions or more sinking than the shoes of the boy for the
same weight
Example 2,
If a leaner has two identical bags, but one has wider shoulder strap and the other has narrow
shoulder straps.
If the learner places same books with similar weight in the two bags, which bag will the learner
feel the straps squeezing more into their shoulder?
In this case, the bag with narrow straps will produce more squeezing effect than that one with
wider straps for the same force (weight) of books carried. This is because, pressure is high when
the surface area is small, and it is low when the surface area is large.
Pressure in liquids.
Pressure is represented by a symbol “P”
It is defined as force acting normally per unit area applied to the surface of an object.
Pressure increases as the force increases.
In mathematical terms, pressure can be expressed as:
Pressure = Force
Area
From the observation, It is easier to cut an orange with a sharp knife than with a blunt knife.
This is because, while cutting, the sharp knife has very small area of contact with the orange.
When using the blunt edge of the knife, the force requires to apply for cutting the orange is over
a large area. The sharp knife has a smaller area that produces a greater cutting effect. The blunt
knife has a large area that produces a lesser cutting effect.
The cutting effect is equivalent to pressure. For the same applied force, pressure is higher with a
smaller area and it is less with a large area.
It is easier to cut with a sharp knife, axe, panga than trying to cut with a blunt knife, axe or
panga.
A farm tractor has wide wheels that prevent it from sinking into the soil because pressure is
distributed over a large area of the wide wheels.
A trailer or trailers are fitted with many wheels to reduce pressure exerted on the road since the
wheels increase surface area.
1m
1.5m
2m
Pressure is calculated by dividing Force over Area (F/A)
From the block above Force, F is given as 20kg.
Change 20k into Newtons (N) this is done by multiplying the weight given in Kg by the
gravitational force (g) =10N/kg
Therefore, F =20 x 10N/kg
= 200 N.
=133.33N/m2
=66.67N/m2
If a force is exerted on a small area of contact, it will exert higher or more pressure than if the
same force is exerted over a large area.
Since weight of force of a brick is constant (does not change), a higher pressure is exerted on
the sand when the brick lands on narrow face than when it lands on the wide face.
The narrow face therefore, produces a deeper depression on the sand than the wide face.
Example 2.
Suppose the mass of a learner is 40kg and the total area of her feet is 500cm2. What pressure
does the girl exert when standing on one of her feet? Assume het feet have equal area.
(g=10g/Kg)
Solution.
Pressure =F/A.
Force the student exerts on the ground is her weight, which is 40kg x 10N/Kg.
=400 N.
Area =500cm /2 =250 cm2.
2
Example 3.
A mass of 50kg exerts a pressure of 2000N/m2. What area is in contact with the ground?
Pressure =Force/Area/
Pressure =2000N/m2.
Area? to be determined.
Pressure in liquids.
Demonstrating that a liquid exerts equal pressure at the same depth.
If a bottle is filled with water and equal size holes made from the bottom to the tops as show
above.
You will observe that after opening all the holes, water jet fall in different horizontal
distances depending on the depth they are on the bottle.
For example, in the diagram above. The water jet C is observed to move the farthest
horizontally.
As the depth from the surface decreases like in hole A and B, the distance from the container
to where the jet strikes decrease, indicating a lower pressure by the water.
The weight of the liquid acts downwards. The more the depth, the more the liquid is above
the point. This increases the weight causing more pressure at that level.
The pressure at this level acts on the container, on any object in water and on the liquid
below this level.
Area
Liquid density , ρ
h
P=hρg.
From the formula, pressure at a given point in liquids depends on the following:
a.) Depth or height of the liquid.
b.) Density of the liquid.
c.) Acceleration due to gravity (g=10N/kg)