MACHINE TOOLS

Lathe

Used for turning, drilling, thread cutting. On modern production lines are
automatic computer controlled.

Drilling Machine

Usually has a selection of drilling speeds and may have automatic feed.

Milling Machine
May be a horizontal or vertical mill. A horizontal mill is shown and is used for
milling down metal to a close tolerance and good surface finish.
Grinding Machine (Not shown)
Similar to a milling machine but will grind to closer tolerances and a better
finish.

Grinding Machine - Bench Type

Most workshops and hangars have a grinding machine, the most common type
is the double-ended bench machine with coarse and fine abrasive wheels or
stones.
Tool rests are fitted in front of each wheel to support the item being sharpened.
Tools being sharpened can be ruined if allowed to "lose their temper" by
overheating. The item being sharpened must be dipped in water or oil to keep
the tip cool (depending on the type of wheel).
When grinding move the tool from side to side to avoid forming ridges on the
wheel, NEVER use the side of the wheel.
Safety Precautions
* ALWAYS wear protective goggles when using a grinding machine.
* Make sure the tool rests are as close to the wheel as possible, but not
touching.
* DO NOT grind soft metals or materials such as aluminium, brass,
magnesium, etc.
* The wheels should be dressed from time to time by a qualified person.
Guillotine
Used for cutting sheet steel, aluminium, rigid composites, etc. May be small
enough to be fitted to a bench.

Folding Machine

Folds metals ductile/malleable enough to be bent.

Fly Press

Used to stamp/shape metal by a downward force of the stamping head.

NOTE. For information on portable powered hand tools used on aircraft refer to
the book in this series "Basic Engineering 3"
 HAND TOOLS
HAMMERS
Classified by the weight and type of head. Hammer heads are forged from high
carbon steels with faces hardened and tempered. Shafts are made from
straight grained ash.

The main types are:-

1. Ball Pein - The flat surface is used for most general work.
2. Cross Pein - At right angles to the shaft, for general work, the cross
pein being suitable for use where access to working area is limited.
3. Straight Pein - Pein inline with shaft similar usage as the cross pein.
4. Nylon Faced - Used to deliver blows to the work without damaging the
surface.
5. Copper or Lead - Similar to the nylon faced hammer in terms of
application.

CENTRE PUNCH

Made of high carbon steel hardened and tempered. Used for making light Pop
Marks along scribed lines for surer guidance and a heavier Pop Mark
"Indentation" to locate the point of a drill at the start of the drilling operation.
A sharp point should be maintained by grinding, the angle should be 90° for
general work and for light work such as marking out should be reduced to 60°.
Remember that titanium should not be centre punched nor should marking
out lines on aluminium alloy.
PIN PUNCHS - Parallel and Tapered

Are both made of high carbon steel - hardened and tempered.

The parallel pin punch is used to drive out rivets, (after head removal), bolts,
split pins, shackle pins etc. Always use the correct size punch and never use a
tapered punch as this will tend to enlarge the hole.
DRIFTS

Flat ended punches either solid or tubular which are used for localising the
effect of hammer blows and preventing damage to finished surfaces. Also used
for dismantling and assembling tight fitting parts. Drifts are made from
Copper, Brass Steel, or Aluminium. Steel drifts only should be used to drive
Ball or Roller bearings as softer drifts may break and fragments from the drift
could lodge in the bearing. Ends must be clean and any damage removed.

PLIERS
There are various types of pliers, each designed for a specific use e.g.
1. Combination - Can be used to hold round or flat material and have
cutting edges for cutting split pins, locking wire, etc.
2. Flat Nose - Used to hold flat material.
3. Snip Nose - For twisting locking wire.
4. Diagonal or Side Cutting - Used for cutting soft wire cutting split pins.
5. Cable Stripping - For removing the insulation from electrical cables.
6. Circlip Pliers - Removing circlips, internal and external.

Pliers are classified by type and overall length, usually made of high carbon
steel, jaws hardened and tempered.
SCREWDRIVERS

Common or flat bladed - Blade of high carbon or alloy steel. The end of the
blade ground flat to fit the slot cut in the head of the screw. Handle is made of
wood or plastic. Classified by length of blade.
Ratchet - Usually flat bladed.
Watchmakers - Has a long thin blade with a flat plastic handle. Used for
smaller screws such as in electrical work.
Pump Screwdrivers - Drill operated on the Archimedes principle. Pushing or
pumping the handle turns the screwdriver via the screw mechanism.
Phillips - Blade head has a cruciform shape tapered to the correct angle. The
end is further machined and four tapered flutes provide correct engagement
with the slots and face of the cruciform recessed head of the screw.
Electric - These are usually battery powered and are re-chargeable. Bits are
supplied of different sizes and shapes that fit into a chuck or adapter. The
electric motor can be controlled in such a way that provides for a varying speed
and torque output.
All screws slots or recess should be cleared of paint or dirt before applying the
screwdriver and the shaft of the screwdriver should be aligned with the screw
during use. Blade fit in the screw is most important otherwise screw head will
be damaged making removal or tightening difficult. Use correct size screw-
driver and never grind the flat blade to a chisel head.
SPANNERS

These are supplied in a variety of forms and have the size marking stamped on
them. This size relates to the size of nut or bolt to which it fits, e.g.
!/4 BSF .
3
/ 8 BSW
0 BA etc.

or, which is more common the spanner is marked with the across flats size e.g.
32mm
7 l
/ 8 "etc. • • '
This size relates to the distance across the flats of the nut or bolt.

Open Ended Spanners - Made of high carbon steel with a different size at
each end. The length of the spanner is indicative of the torque to be applied to
the nut/bolt. (Based on the strength of the average person). The greater the
size the longer the spanner. This rule also applies to ring spanners.
Ring Spanners - These give full enclosure to bolt head or nut. Each corner
fits snugly with an angle in the aperture of the spanner and is usually
bi-hexagonal to facilitate its use when angular movement is restricted.
Supplied in double ended form to fit nuts of consecutive sizes, the ends are
generally off set but straight shank types are available.

Box Spanners - These also fully enclose the nut or bolt head and are
particularly useful where access to the nut or bolt head is restricted to the
centre line of the screw axis.

Socket Spanners - These are used with various types of attachments and
again this type of spanner fully encloses the nut or bolt head. The socket
aperture is bi-hexagonal at one end and the other end the aperture is square to
take the various attachments. Attachments can include:- extension bar, drive
bar, T bar, universal joint, flexible extension bar and reversible ratchet. Socket
spanners are usually supplied in sets complete with the requisite attachments.
"C" Spanners - Used on ring nuts with recesses cut round the circumference
to accommodate the lug on the spanner.

Peg Spanners - Two round pegs protruding from the flat surface engage in
corresponding holes in special nut or screw plate.
Splined Spanners - For use on circular splined nuts.

Adjustable Spanners - These are supplied in various forms and should not b
used if the correct size 'ordinary' spanner is available.

Torque Spanners - These will be dealt with in more detail under the heading
"Torque Loading". In most instances a socket is used to fit the square drive of
the torque spanner.

HACKSAWS

These are designed to cut most types of metals and other hard materials. They
usually consist of a frame, handle and removable blade.
Frame - Made of mild steel and may be of fixed length or adjustable length.
The blade is usually located on two pins - one at each end of the frame.
Blade - There are two main types of blade:-
(i) High carbon flexible steel, hardened and tempered.
(ii) High Speed Steel, contains 14% tungsten. Remains sharp over a longer
period but is more brittle and expensive.
Blades are classified by their length, material and number of teeth per inch
(pitch). The number of teeth per inch varies from 14 (coarse) to 32 (fine).
Normal blade lengths are 8, 10 and 12 inch but other lengths are available.

Choice of Blade - This depends upon the type of material to be cut. Soft
metals (e.g. brass, aluminium) require coarse pitch blades. Hard metals (e.g.
iron and steel) require fine blades. The shape and thickness of the material
must also be considered. At least three teeth must be in contact with the
material at any time. Therefore, fine blades must always be used for tubing
and thin metals.

Question: Can you think of any checks and precautions to take when

using a hacksaw? (15 mins)

Answer: There are lots of checks and precautions to take and some

are as follows :-
(a) Choose the correct type of blade.

(b) Choose the correct length of blade with the correct

pitch (teeth per inch).

(c) Fit the blade to the frame with the teeth pointing
away from the handle.

(d) Tension the blade correctly by taking up the slack

then applying two or three turns of the wing nut.

(e) Make sure that the work is secured in the vice.

(f) Use long steady strokes releasing the pressure on the

back stroke.
Other Types of Metal Cutting Saws
Junior Hacksaw - Uses a small flexible blade usually with 32 teeth per inch.
It is used for general light work where a standard hacksaw would be too large.
The blades have pins at each end which fit into slots in the frame. Tension is
applied by the frame.
Piercing Saw - Uses a very fine (32 to 80 teeth per inch) blade. The frame is
deeper than the Junior Hacksaw and it is used for cutting intricate shapes in
sheet metal.
Coping Saw - Uses a coarse (14 teeth per inch) blade. The blade fits in a
frame similar to the Junior Hacksaw but it can be swivelled to any angle and is
used for shaping soft materials such as wood.
Tension Files (e.g. ABRAFILES) - The blades are made from a specially heat
treated flexible steel wire and by using links they can be fitted to a standard
hacksaw frame. They are very useful for cutting intricate shapes as they can
cut in any direction and do not clog.
Blades are obtainable in three grades :-
* Fine
* Medium
* Coarse

HAND FILES
Used for the removal of metal to accuracy's of plus or minus 0.001 inch.

Files are made from High Carbon Steel and consist of the body which is
hardened and tempered, and a tang which is left relatively soft. A handle is
fitted, usually made from wood (Beech or Ash) and a ferrule made from steel or
brass. The ferrule prevents the wooden handle from splitting. Some files are
supplied already fitted with a plastic handle.
Classification

Files are classified by length, cut, section and grade.

Length - This is the length of the file excluding the tang.

Section - This is the cross section of the file:

(a) Flat - Used for general purposes. Sometimes one edge is left without
teeth to permit working against a finished surface.

(b) Half Round - This file tapers towards the tip. One surface is flat and
the other is curved. It is a general purpose file which can also be used
for filing concave surfaces, it is double cut on both sides.

(c) Triangular or Three Square - This file has three sides each at 60° to the
others. It tapers towards the tip and is used for filing in awkward
corners and angles less than 90°. It is double cut on all surfaces.
(d) Square - Used for slotting, grooving and finishing square edges. It
tapers for part of its length and is double cut on all surfaces.

(e) Round - Used for filing out concave surfaces and holes. Usually double
cut and tapering towards the end. Small round files are sometimes
called "rat tails".

Cut

This denotes the type of teeth.

(a) Single Cut - These are used mainly on hard metals. The teeth are
formed by a series of cuts parallel to each other but at an angle to the
length of the file.

(b) Double Cut - Are the most widely used. They have two series of cuts
which cross each other, one series being coarser than the other. The
teeth of these files tend to clog more easily than single cut files.
(c) Dreadnought - Suitable for heavy cutting on soft metals. They are
single cut files but with teeth curved in an arc.

(d) Rasp - These files are used for coarse work on soft materials such as
lead and wood. Each tooth is cut separately by means of a single
pointed tool.

Grade

This defines the depth and spacing of the teeth.

(a) Bastard - A coarse grade which removes metal fairly quickly. Intended
for roughing out, or completion of a job where finish is unimportant.
(b) Second Cut - A finer grade which gives a better finish but is slower
cutting.

(c) Smooth - The teeth are shallow and closely set enabling a good finish
to be obtained. They cut comparatively slowly and should be used for
finishing work only.

Filing Method
Cross filing is used for general purpose work and for squaring and roughing
down.

Draw filing is used for finishing. Once the cross filing has been completed, the
surfaces can be draw finished until all the crossfiling marks have disappeared.

Question: Can you think of 4 or 5 precautions to be observed when filling?

Allow about 10 mins.
Answer: The precautions that I have thought of are listed below:

1. Never use a file without a handle. The tang of the file may injure your
hand or wrist.
2. Always use the length and grade of file appropriate to the job.
3. Secure the work in the vice so that it is rigid and positioned to enable
filing to be done horizontally.
4. Whenever possible use the full length of the file for each stroke. Do not
rush the stroke and as the file only cuts on the forward strike relieve the
pressure on the return.
5. Keep the file teeth clean using a scratch card. Where clogging material
cannot be removed by this method, pick it out with a sharp point. Chalk
rubbed on to the teeth during the final finish helps prevent clogging.
6. New files should, if possible, be used first on brass, cast iron or similar
metals before using a steel. This helps to harden them off.
7. The blades are brittle. To prevent breakage or dulling of teeth, store
them separately after use and do not strike them with, or on, any other
hard material.

THE BENCH VICE

The bench vice provides rigid support for work. It allows both hands to be used
when sawing, filing, drilling, bending, etc.

The body of the vice is normally manufactured from cast iron and has
detachable hardened steel jaws. It is made in two parts:-

(a) The main body, which contains a fixed nut or half nut and is bolted to
the work bench.

(b) The sliding part which fits into the main body and is moved backwards
and forwards by means of a screw thread. This screw thread engages
with the nut in the main body. Turning the screw thread, by means of a
tommy bar, in a clockwise direction closes the jaws and in an anti-
clockwise direction opens the jaws.
Some vices have a quick release mechanism which allows the sliding part to be
positioned quickly. With a quick release mechanism, a half nut is used and
operation of a lever disengages the half nut from the screw thread. The screw
thread is usually a single start square or buttress type.

Objects with machined or smooth surfaces can be protected, when held in a

vice, by using clams. These can be made from copper, lead or aluminium.
Tubing can be protected by the use of hardwood "V" blocks.

Precautions and Maintenance

The vice should be mounted such that the top of the vice is level with the
workers elbow when he/she is standing (or sitting for some disabled) next to
the vice.

* Always ensure the vice securing bolts are tight.

* Always ensure the vice is clean.
* Always clean the vice after use.
* Keep the screw thread lightly lubricated.
* Never use the vice as an anvil for hammering metal work.

Vices are classified by the width of their jaws, a common size being 100mm.
(4 inches).

Machine Vice

Machine vices are used on drilling and shaping machines to hold the work
piece.
The body of the vice is manufactured from cast iron or steel and the base is
slotted so that it can be bolted down to hold the work steady. For light drilling,
the vice can be held by hand.
The design of machine vices varies, but they all give a parallel grip. As with the
Bench Vice, one jaw is fixed and the other is sliding. The sliding jaw is moved
by a screw thread which is turned either by a knurled handle, a tommy bar or
a cranked handle. No quick release mechanism is fitted to this type of vice.

Take care, when drilling, not to drill into the base of the vice. If possible,
position a piece of wood under the work to be drilled.

Toolmakers Clamp
The toolmakers clamp is used for holding small pieces of work together for
assembling, riveting or screwing.

They are made of case-hardened mild steel. A clip screwed to the top jaw
locates screw A and thus prevents the jaws falling together when being
adjusted. This type of clamp gives a parallel grip in all positions. The jaws are
adjusted to approximately the correct position and final tightening is done by
first adjusting screw A and then screw B.

The toolmakers clamp is classified by the length of the jaws. Jaw lengths are
normally for 50 - 150mm.
Hand Vice

The hand vice is used for holding work for drilling, riveting, etc. The body is
made from steel and the jaws hardened and tempered.

SHAPING TOOLS ;

Chisels

Chisels are made from high carbon steel, hardened and tempered or nickel
alloy steel specially heat treated to give a lasting cutting edge. The chamfered
head is left soft otherwise it would crack under hammer blows.

Types of Chisels and Their Uses

1. Flat - Used for general chipping work such as parting metal sheet or
cutting flat surfaces prior to filing.

2. Crosscut - Used for cutting grooves in a flat surface.

3. Diamond Point - used for cleaning out corners and rectifying incorrect
drill starts.
4. Half Round - Used for cutting half round bottomed grooves and may
also be used for rectifying incorrect drill starts.
Selecting the Correct Chisel for the Job
Consideration must be given to both the nature of the work and the material to
be cut. The nature of the work governs the size and shape of the chisel. The
type of material governs the cutting angle. For example, the cutting angle of
aluminium is 30°, mild steel 60°, hard steel 70-75°.

Care of Chisels
The cutting edge of a high carbon steel chisel is sharpened on a grindstone.
During the process, the cutting edge must be kept as cool as possible by
frequent immersion in water. The end of the chisel struck by the hammer
should be kept flat and free from ragged ends by grinding.

Scrapers
These are made of high carbon steel hardened or tempered. They are used to
produce a very accurate finish on the surface that has already been as
accurately finished as possible by filing or machining. Used mostly on steels. It
is essential for scrapers to have a very sharp cutting edge and this is obtained
by grinding on a grind stone followed by sharpening on an oil stone. When not
is use, scrapers should be stored with their cutting edges suitably protected.
The types of scraper in general use are:-
1. Flat - Used to produce accurate flat surfaces.
2. Three Square - Useful for working in awkward corners.
3. Half Round - Used for scraping curved surfaces such as bearings.
To produce a fiat surface, it is necessary to use a surface plate and engineers
blue. Make sure that the surface plate and the work are clean.
Smear a thin layer of engineers blue on to the surface plate, then place the
work on the surface plate and move it backwards and forwards. Remove the
work, and the high spots will be coloured blue. Remove the high spots using a
scraper and then rub the work on the surface plate again. Keep repeating the
above procedure until the work is as flat as possible. For some work a smooth
file can be used in place of a scraper.
The same procedure can be used with journal bearings by applying engineers
blue to the journal.

Drills . • ' . . .

Used for drilling holes and are available in various forms to meet different
requirements.
They are manufactured from high carbon steel or alloy steel. Alloy steel drills
are sometimes referred to as high speed drills as they can be used at much
higher cutting rates than high carbon steel drills. High speed drills contain
14% tungsten which allows them to run hotter.
The following types of drills are in general use:-
1. Flat Drills - Simple to manufacture but they tend to drill inaccurate
holes. They are slow cutting, power wasting and do not clear the
cuttings. This leads to clogging and overheating. The cutting angle
varies for 5° for hard material, to 20° for soft material such as brass. The
point angle is 45°.
2. Bottoming Drills - Used to finish the bottom of a blind hole. A standard
twist drill could be modified for the same purpose.
3. Arboring or Peg Drills - Used for counterboring holes to provide a good
seating for a bolt head or nut. It is also used to drill holes to receive a
cheese head screw. The projecting pin on this type of drill must be the
same diameter as the hole to be counterbored.

4. Twist Drills - This is the most common type of drill in general use for
drilling metals and hard materials. The shank is the plain portion of the
drill that provides the drive. The flutes allow for swarf clearance and
provide a means to allow coolant and lubricant access. The land
provides for clearance to reduce friction. The web of the drill increases
in thickness from the tip to the shank to provide extra strength. At the
tip of the drill, the web forms a chisel edge.
The cutting angle is normally 59°, (from the centre line), the cutting
edges being of equal angle and length. The angle between the web and
the cutting edge is 130° and the clearance angle is 12°.
On large drills the web may be thinned by local grinding to reduce the
size of the non-cutting edge.
NOTE: The cutting angle may be altered to suit specific drilling operations,
Aluminium 90°, Brass 118°, Cast Iron 118°, Copper 90°, Hard
Steel 130°, Mild Steel 118°, Plastics 90°.

Cutting Speeds '

This depends on size, type of drill and the material being drilled,
e.g. 1/4" twist drill cutting mild steel at 400 r.p.m.
1/4" twist drill cutting brass at 800 r.p.m.
1/8" twist drill on a certain metal at 800 r.p.m.
1/2" twist drill on same metal at 200 r.p.m.
In general, speeds depend on the peripheral speed of the drill so the larger the
drill the slower the r.p.m.

Drill Shanks
The grip exerted by a self centring chuck is adequate for smaller drills, but a
stronger grip is required with larger drills so they usually have a "Morse Taper"
terminating in a flat tang.
The Morse Taper f l in 20) This engages directly with the tapered adapter of the
drilling machine. A slot is provided in the adapter to remove the drill by
inserting a wedge, which sits on top of the drill tang, and tapping the wedge
with a hammer to free the drill.

QUESTION: Do you know of any other "standard" tapers? (5 mins)

ANSWER: Taper pins 1 in 48

Taper keys 1 in 100

Lubrication

Prevents excessive heat, which preserves the temper of the drill.

Suitable Lubricants:-

Mild Steel - Cutting oil or soapy water.

High Carbon Steel - Turpentine or paraffin.
Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys - paraffin.
Brass, Cast Iron - No lubricant needed.

TAPS

Taps are used for cutting internal threads. They are manufactured from high
carbon or alloy steel hardened and tempered. They are fluted to provide
cutting edges, the shank is tough with the end squared to allow it to be turned
with a wrench. Taps are supplied in sets of three except for B.A. sizes where
the second tap is omitted.

Markings on the shank include, type of thread, the size, and the number of
threads per inch.
Types of Tap
1. Taper Tap - Used for starting the thread and is tapered from the tip to
the sixth thread. The tip diameter is equal to the root diameter of the
threads, it will cut a full thread in a through hole.
2. Second Tap - Used to deepen the thread cut by the taper tap in a blind
hole or a hole through thick material. It is less tapered than the taper
tap.
3. Plug Tap - Used to finish the thread cutting at the bottom of a blind
hole or a hole through thick material. It is not tapered at all.

Cutting Internal Threads

(a) The first step in producing a well cut internal screw thread lies in the
drilling of the hole to the correct size. This should be the core diameter
of the thread, but practically, the hole needs to be slightly larger to
prevent the tap from binding and possibly breaking.
To find the correct drill for use, consult an Engineers Pocket Book which
will give tapping drill sizes. If the book is not available, the correct drill
size may be obtained by:-
(i) Measuring the core diameter and taking the nearest size drill
which is slightly larger than the core diameter.
 (ii) Select a drill which will just pass through a nut of the appropriate
size.

(iii) The drill size may be specified on the shank of the tap.
(b) Having drilled a hole to the correct dimensions enter the tap
perpendicular to the face, turn in the cutting direction until the tap
just starts to cut.

(c) Test the tap for squareness using a square.

(d) Continue turning in the cutting direction for half a turn, then reverse
the direction for a quarter turn. This continuous action will break the
cuttings into chips and prevent straining the tap.

(e) Continue cutting the thread as described until either the bottom of a
blind hole has been reached or the full cutting length of the tap has
been used.

(f) Change to the second or plug tap as required and continue until the
thread has been properly cut.

(g) Lubricate the work using the same lubricant as for drilling.

QUESTION: Sometimes the tap may break in the hole - usually through
poor engineering practices. Can you think of any reasons
why it might break? (3 or 4 reasons) (5 mins)

ANSWER: My list is as follows:-

(a) Using an incorrect tap size.

(b) Hole too small.
(c) Trying to force a tap too far down a blind hole.
(d) Turning tap clockwise all the time.
(e) Lack of lubrication.

Removing A Broken Tap

(a) If a sufficient amount of the tap is projecting above the surface it is

sometimes possible to remove the tap with a pair of pliers.
(b) Providing the melting point of the work piece is well above the annealing
temperature of the tap, anneal both the work and the tap. The tap can
then be drilled out and the hole retapped. (For information on
annealing refer to the heat treatment section in this book series).

(c) Large taps can often be unscrewed or broken into pieces with a punch or
chisel.

(d) Broken taps can be removed using an extractor. There are two types of
extractor: -

(i) A screw extractor which has a left hand thread. It requires the tap
to be annealed and drilled.

(ii) For larger taps only, an extractor can be used that has a set of
prongs which fit inside the flutes of the tap. No drilling or
annealing is required.

Using an Ezi-Out. A tapered coarse threaded tap, left handed thread,

more or less the same thing as the extractor. (Refer to the book in this
series, on nuts and bolts, for more information on Ezi-Outs)

DIES

There are two types of die:- '•

Circular - This type is generally used for cutting smaller threads. Slight
adjustment can be effected by the screws in the side of the stock. The die
thread is tapered to allow an easier start to be made. When fitting the die to
the stock, the tapered side must always be away from the shoulder of the
stock.
Rectangular - This is a two piece die which is adjustable and is used for cutting
larger diameter threads. Two or three cuts may be required to cut the full
thread, the die being closed up after each cut. The die has tapered threads to
allow easier starting. The engraved numbers on the two halves must be fitted
on the same side.

Cutting External Threads (Using Circular Die)

(a) Secure the work in the vice.

(b) Slightly taper the rod end to assist the start.

(c) Slacken the two outer screws in the stock. Tighten the centre screw and
re-tighten the outer screws.

(d) Place the stock and die squarely on the rod and commence cutting the
thread using the same technique as for taps.

(e) With the thread cut, try a nut on the-new thread.

(f) If further cutting is required, slightly loosen the centre screw of the
stock, tighten the two outer screws and re-tighten the centre screw.

(g) Repeat the process in (d), (e) and (f) until the nut is a good fit on the
thread.

DIE NUTS

These are similar in shape to a hexagon or square nut and are used to clean or
restore a thread that has become damaged. They are turned using a spanner.
 Precautions
1. Use taps in the correct order.
2. Ensure the die is the right way
round in the stock.
3. Chamfer the rod before starting
the die.
4. Use the correct size tapping drill.
5. Check for squareness once
cutting has started.
6. Ensure blind hole is deep
enough to allow for clearance
ofchippings.
7. Use a cutting solution where
necessary.
8. When tapping a deep blind hole
withdraw the tap occasionally
to clear chippings.
9. Take a "roughing" cut with an
undersize die first then follow
with a "finishing" cut.
Result if not observed
Difficulty in starting the thread,
possible tap breakage.
Difficulty in starting the thread,
Difficulty in starting the thread,
Oversize holes result in partial
threads. Undersize holes may
result in a broken tap.
Broken taps. Badly damaged
thread. ; ;
Hole too shallow in depth may
cause a broken tap.
Overheating, binding, seizure and
consequent tap breakage. Ragged
or stripped thread.
Tap breakage,
Poorly furnished thread,
stripped thread,
QUESTION: If you had to cut a male and female mating thread, which
one would you cut first and why?

ANSWER: You should cut the female first (using the taps) so that when
the male thread is cut the die is set to its largest diameter
on the first cut and can be adjusted on subsequent cuts so
as to obtain a good fit between the male and female thread,
(occasionally trying the male thread in the female).

REAMERS

Reamers are used to enlarge drilled holes to accurate dimensions and give a
smooth internal finish. They are manufactured from high carbon or alloy steel
and the flutes provide a series of cutting edges. The amount of metal that can
be removed by a parallel reamer depends upon its size and the type of material
being used. As a rough guide, the amount of metal that can be removed from a
i/2 inch diameter hole by a parallel reamer is about 0.005 inch. With larger
holes, a correspondingly larger amount of metal can be removed.

Types of Reamers:

Parallel - These only cut to one size and may have straight or spiral flutes.
The size is marked on the reamer.

Expanding - These have separate blades that slide in slots which taper in
depth. The blades are held in position by two nuts. Alteration to the cutting
size is made by loosening one nut and tightening the other. They are parallel
reamers

The reamer has 5 blades and therefore cannot be checked for size by a
micrometer or vernier calliper. It has to be checked using a RING GAUGE.
(For information on micrometers, verniers and ring gauges see the section
Precision Measuring Instruments in this book series).

Shell - These are hollow fixed size reamers used on close fitting mandrels or
boring bars which pass through the hollow centre. Used to ream long or deep
holes.

Taper - These are used to prepare holes for taper pins. They are supplied in
sets numbered from 0 to 10 the taper being the same as the standard for taper
pins (i.e. 1 in 48).
Piloted - These ensures that the reamer cuts centrally in the hole and is easier
to use. The tapered end makes the reamer cut progressively and also ensures
a neater hole at the entry end.

Machine Reamers - Have a tapered drive (Morse Taper) to fit directly into a
drilling machine or lathe.

Precautions During Use

If a straight reamer is used with the pilot, great care must be taken to ensure
that the reamer enters square in the hole. Reamers must be turned only in a
clockwise direction whilst cutting and extracting. The same lubricants should
be used as for drilling.

When drilling a hole that is to be reamed:-

* Select a drill 0.005 inch smaller than the reamer for parallel reamer or
0.005 inch smaller than the small end of the reamer for taper reaming.

* Always ream by hand using the correct wrench - except for machine
reaming - and that should be carried out by a qualified person.

* When taper reaming for a taper pin, ream the hole so that the pin is a
hand push fit with the small end flush with the bottom of the work. The
taper pin is then hammered in (gently) so that V 4 inch protrudes from
the bottom (with 1 / 8 inch showing at the top). The taper pin is then
locked into position by:-

(a) Peening.
(b) Bending the legs out (split taper pin).
(c) A nut (threaded taper pin).
THE RULE

Made from high carbon steel hardened and tempered, usually graduated in
Imperial and metric units. Classified by length. Rules must be kept free from
rust and must not be subjected to rough usage. After use clean and lightly oil.

MEASURING TAPES

Can be obtained in various lengths usually marked off with both metric and
Imperial scales. Tapes are made of linen or flexible steel. When storing steel
tapes clean and lightly oil.

DIVIDERS
Used to set out distances, scribe arcs and circles. The legs are made of high
carbon steel hardened and tempered; the spring of spring steel, and the
adjusting screw mild steel. Classified by length of legs. The points should be
kept sharp and the legs of equal length by stoning on the outside. When not in
use the points should be protected by sticking them into a cork.
TRAMMELS

These consist of a bar with up to 3 adjustable trammel points attached. Using

two of the points the trammel can be used to scribe large circles. Using 3
points the trammel can be used to check bow in a member. The points may be
adjusted for both height and position on the bar.

SCRIBERS
Used for marking lines on the surfaces of work. They are made of high carbon
steel hardened and tempered. Classified by length, like the points of dividers
must be kept sharp and protected when not in use.
Note: Materials such as aluminium alloy are notch sensitive - i.e. will soon _
start to develop a crack at a notch or scriber mark when under stress.
Therefore NEVER scribe a line on aluminium and its alloys unless it is a
cutting line or a (short) line is to be drilled out - i.e. for rivet holes.

FITTERS SQUARE
Used for marking off lines at right angles to an edge or surface and checking
for squareness. Squares are made of high carbon steel hardened and
tempered. The square should be kept clean, lightly oiled and in its box when
not in use.
To check for accuracy, check it against a master square or place on a known
true edge, scribe a line down using the blade as the guide. Reverse the square
on the known true edge and any error will show up as twice the actual error.
COMBINATION SET

A combination set is three tools in one, consisting of:-

The blade which is graduated in inch and metric scales. There is a central -
groove along its entire length which accommodates the clamping screw fitted to
each of the heads.
There are three heads made of close grained cast iron:-

(a) Square Head - This is provided with two working faces one at 90°,
the other at 45° to the blade thus enabling it to be used as a
square and as a mitre. A spirit level is incorporated in the head
and a scriber is also fitted.
(b) Centre Head - This is used in conjunction with the blade to locate
the centre of round bars, etc.
(c) Protractor Head - This is used in conjunction with the blade for
checking or setting any angle up to 180°. A spirit level is often
incorporated. The accuracy is 1°.
CALLIPERS

Inside and outside are used in conjunction with a rule or other measuring
instrument for measuring distances between or over surfaces or for comparing
measurements. To set the callipers set them close to size by hand then adjust
to correct size by tapping one leg (not at the point) against a rigid object.
Odd leg callipers are used for finding the centre of a round bar and for scribing
lines parallel to an edge or surface. Sometimes referred to as "Jenny Callipers".
SURFACE PLATES .

Are made of cast iron and accurately machined and hand finished. Provided
with three feet to prevent rock; the undersides are ribbed to prevent warping
and twisting of the top face. Always keep clean and lightly oiled. When not in
use keep covered with a wooden cover preferably felt lined soaked with oil.
Avoid damaging surface. Do not drop tools or work onto the surface.

MARKING OFF TABLES

Are used to support work for marking out, and form a base from which
measurements can be taken. They are made of close grained cast iron and are
strongly ribbed on the underside for rigidity.
The working surface is accurately machined to give a true flat surface and the
edges are square. To preserve the surface no work other than marking out or
measurement should be done on the table. After use the surface should be
lightly oiled and then covered with a wooden cover.

VEE BLOCKS

Used on the marking off table to support round work, they are made of cast
iron or mild steel case hardened and are supplied in identical pairs, each unit
of a pair being stamped with the same identification number. All surfaces are
accurately machined, the Vee angle is 90°. Vee blocks are classified by the
maximum diameter of the work which can be held.
SCRIBING BLOCK

This is used to mark out lines parallel to a true surface, such as the marking
off table or surface plate. The accurately machined base is made of cast iron or
case hardened mild steel. The scriber is made of high carbon steel hardened
and tempered. The pillar angle and scriber height and angle are adjustable. A
fine adjustment is provided for the pillar angle. Dowels in the base can be
pushed down to serve as guides against the edge of the marking off table so
that lines can be scribed parallel to the edge. Scribing blocks are classified by
the height of the pillar.

KEY SEAT RULE

Sometimes called box squares and are used for marking off lines parallel to the
axis on the surface of tubes or round bars. Are usually graduated and are
classified by their length.
 MARKING OUT

To Find Centre of Round Bar

Fit bar in V blocks on the surface table; with the scribing block set
approximately one third diameter scribe a line across the end of the bar; rotate
bar 90°; check with fitters square that line is vertical; with scriber set at the
same height scribe a second line; rotate bar 90°; check line is vertical and
scribe third line; rotate bar 90°; check line again with square; scribe fourth
line with the square. Join corners diagonally and where diagonals intersect
this is the centre of the bar.

To find the Largest Square on the End of a Round Bar

First find the centre - as described above. Scribe a line horizontally across the
bar through the centre. Rotate this line to the vertical and draw another
horizontal line through the centre. Where these lines touch the outside of the
bar draw a horizontal line using the scribing block. Rotate this to the vertical
and repeat drawing the horizontal line. Repeat this process twice more to
produce the square.

Marking the Largest Hexagon

Find the centre. Set dividers to a radius slightly smaller than the bar radius
and scribe a circle. With the dividers set at this setting mark off the radius
round the circumference of the circle. Scribe lines from the centre through
each of these points, rotate bar till one of these lines is horizontal.
Reset scriber, scribe a line across the top of the ends of the two lines. Rotate
bar and repeat process till hexagon is complete.

To Find the Centre of a Tube

There are two methods. One method is to plug the tube with a piece of wood
and find the centre as if it were solid. The other method is described below.
Set the tube in V blocks. Set the scriber by eye to the centre height and make
a small mark at each side. Rotate the tube approximately 180° till the mark on
the far side comes to the scriber point where the second mark was made, move
scriber to the other side and make another small mark which will be near but
unlikely to be on the original mark.
Reset scriber towards original mark */4 of the distance between, repeat the
marking process disregarding the original marks. This time the marks should
nearly coincide with the other mark.
Repeat the operation 'till the marks agree. The scriber is now set at the centre
height.
 PRECISION MEASURING EQUIPMENT

This section deals mainly with micrometers and verniers, the accuracy of which
depends on:-

* The user.
* The temperature of the instrument/work piece.
* The quality of the instrument.
The best quality instruments are made from a steel with a low co-efficient of
expansion - sometimes called INVAR steel which contains 36% nickel.
Some instruments have a temperature marked on them and this is the
temperature at which they are most accurate. It is usually 68°F or 20°C.
Modern micrometers and verniers can be electronic. In other words there is an
electronic display on the frame of the micrometer or sliding jaw of the vernier to
display the reading that the instrument is set to. The reading is simply read
straight from the display. We will concentrate on the non electronic type - it is
more exciting.
In general the accuracy of each instrument is as follows: -

English micrometers 0.001 in.

English vernier micrometer 0.0001 in.
Metric micrometer 0.01mm
Metric vernier micrometer 0.001mm
English vernier calliper 0.001 in.
Metric vernier calliper 0.02mm
Vernier Bevel protractor 5min (60 mins in a degree)

THE MICROMETER

The micrometer principle can be applied to:-

* Outside micrometers.
* Inside micrometers.
* Depth gauges, etc.
The principle of the micrometer is the same in all cases. If we know the
numbers of threads per inch and we know that it is a single start thread, then
we know that the LEAD equals the PITCH.
At this point let us see if we can remember what these terms mean.
QUESTION: What do the following terms mean?

* Single start thread.

* Lead.
* Pitch.
(10 mins)

ANSWER: A single start thread is a thread which only has one helix,
i.e. one single thread only cut as a helix on the surface of a
round bar or on the inside of a hole.
The pitch of a thread is the distance between two adjacent

threads.
The lead of a screw thread is the amount of axial movement

the nut or bolt makes in ONE revolution.

So if we know the LEAD then we can divide the rotating part into a number of
equal divisions (Say N), so each division will represent an Nth of the lead when
rotated. This is the principle of all micrometers.

The Outside Micrometer (English)

All outside micrometers are similar in construction, it is the thread and type of
scales on them which will dictate whether they are English or metric.

The main components of the instrument are the frame, anvil, barrel, spindle
and the sleeve (or thimble).

The frame is suitably machined to receive the anvil, which is usually a press fit.
The mating faces of the anvil and the spindle are made of tungsten or tipped
with carbide to reduce wear.

The barrel is pressed into the frame to permit rotational adjustment. The
barrel is engraved with a graduated scale equal in length to the range of the
instrument, usually 1 inch or 25mm and is bored and internally screwed with
an accurate fine thread.

An integral sleeve on the spindle surrounds the barrel, this is usually knurled
at the outer end to facilitate easy finger action. Incorporated is a ratchet or
friction device to eliminate variation of pressure between the contacting faces.
The inner end of the sleeve is bevelled to prevent barrel scale shadows, and the
bevelled portion is graduated into equal divisions around its periphery.
The Principle of the English Micrometer

The spindle has 40 threads per inch (t.p.i.). This means that one complete turn
of the barrel (and spindle) will move the spindle forward or back by
V40 th. of an inch. The thimble is divided into 25 equal divisions. This means
that one division will have an axial movement of 1 / 2 s th. of a 1 / 40 th.
With no graduation on the sleeve coincides with the barrel scale line, the
graduation to be read is that nearest to the datum.

VERNIER MICROMETER

An additional scale based on the vernier principle, gives a greater degree of

accuracy.
The vernier scale on the barrel consists of ten divisions (or 5 where the thim
divisions are thous and half thous) whose total length is equal to nine divisii
on the thimble - 9 thous (or 9 half thous). The length of the vernier scale =
0.009 (or 0.0045) and is divided into 10 equal divisions (or 5 equal divisions
This means that each vernier scale division = 0.0009 in., therefore the
difference between one vernier scale division (0.0009) and one thimble scale
division (0.001) is 0.0001.
The micrometer is read the same as a normal micrometer for the thousandths
of an inch. For the ten thousandths of an inch reading the coinciding line is
found on the vernier scale. In the diagram above, assuming that the fourth
vernier division coincides with a sleeve graduation then the reading is:-

METRIC MICROMETERS

The spindle and barrel threads of the metric micrometer have a pitch of
0.5mm. The barrel is graduated in millimetres and half millimetres and the
thimble is graduated into fifty equal divisions, so that each represents
Vso of 0.5 = 0.01mm. The range of the micrometer is 25mm.
Reading the Micrometer

To read the micrometer, the highest figure on the barrel scale is read together
with any additional visible half-millimetre division, in the example above
5mm + 0.50 = 5.5mm. To this is added the number of hundredths of a
millimetre which are indicated by the co-incident sleeve and datum lines, in
this case 14, so that the reading is 5.5 + 0.14 = 5.64mm.

There may also be a vernier scale, the length of the scale is equal to nine
thimble divisions (0.09mm), and is sub-divided into five equal divisions so that
each division is equal to 0.018mm. The difference between TWO thimble
divisions 0.02 and ONE vernier division is 0.02 - 0.018 = 0.002mm.

Care of the Micrometer

Keep the anvil and spindle end clean. Hold the micrometer truly square with
the job. Turn the thimble by the ratchet stud only - this ensures that the
same grip is taken at each measurement. Look at the micrometer after it is
set, before handing to another person.

(a) Checking - Always check for correct zero setting. To do this, screw the
spindle down on to the anvil till the ratchet slips (0 in. to 1 in. size only).
The reading should be 0.000 in. If incorrect the micrometer must be re-
set.

For larger micrometers, test pieces are provided, exactly 1 in., 2 in., 3
in., etc., which are "measured" between anvil and spindle. The
micrometer scale should again read zero (metric test pieces are supplied
i.e. 25mm, 50mm. etc.).

(b) Adjustment - The method of adjustment of the zero setting may be by

rotating the barrel on the frame by using a "C" spanner, or by adjusting
the thimble on the spindle, or by adjusting the anvil in the frame. Play
in the spindle threads is taken up by adjusting a nut at the thimble end
of the barrel; this nut is normally covered by the thimble.

INTERNAL MICROMETER

The micrometer is used for measuring internal dimensions. It is similar in

principle to the external type, but usually has 1/2 in. micrometer adjustment
only. The internal micrometer consists of a micrometer head and different
lengths of detachable extension rod, which enable the instrument to be used
for a range of sizes, e.g. 2 in. to 8 in. The extension rods are provided with a
collar; when fitting a rod, the collar must butt against the rod flanges and the
micrometer head.
The collar is used to allow an extension to read to its upper limit e.g. To
measure from 7 in. to 7 !/2 in. the extension rod 7 - 8 in. is fitted without the
collar. To measure from 7 */2 m- to 8 in. the half inch collar is fitted.

Checking
To check an internal micrometer, set it to read any figure, e.g. 3 in. and
measure it with an accurate external micrometer; the readings should
coincide.

THREE POINT MICROMETER

This type of internal micrometer has three measuring anvils mounted 120° to
each other. The inner ends of the anvils are angled and screw cut to suit the
conical measuring thread, springs fitted inside the cap ensure contact between
them.
Generally these instruments have accuracy similar to that of other micrometers
but with the three anvils it is impossible to measure ovality.

MICROMETER DEPTH GAUGE

Used for measuring the depth of holes or recesses, and the height of spigots
and shoulders from some reference plane on the component.
The instrument reads opposite to the other types of micrometer i.e. from RIGHT
TO LEFT.
These instruments are usually supplied with detachable spindles, to widen the
range of measurements.
OTHER TYPES ; • - : :

Other types of micrometers are available including:-

* Calliper Micrometer - Similar to a vernier calliper but uses a
micrometer head with a range limited to 1 inch.
* Variable Range Micrometer - Has a set of different length detachable
anvils.
* Recess Micrometer - Supplied with a long anvil to get into deep
recesses.
* Deep Frame Micrometer - Has a deep frame for access around sheet
metal plates, etc.
* Tube Micrometer - The anvil has a convex face and the micrometer is
used for checking the thicknesses of curved surfaces.
* Screw Thread Micrometer - The anvil has a Vee slot cut in it and the
spindle is ground to a point. It is used for the accurate measurement of
Vee threads.
 THE VERNIER

The Vernier Principle

The vernier system consists of a fixed scale (main scale) and a moving scale
(vernier scale). Assuming the two scales are of equal length and that the total
number of divisions in one scale is greater by one division than the number of
divisions in the other scale. The difference between the length of one division
on one of the scales and one division on the other scale will give the accuracy
of the instrument.

ENGLISH VERNIER CALLIPER

These have a vernier scale to read to 0.001 in. They give inside as well as
outside measurements, and have a much greater range than a micrometer;
they frequently have small "target points" for setting dividers accurately. Both
English and metric scales may be incorporated in the same instrument.

The 24/25 System

The main scale is graduated in inches, tenths and fortieths (each fortieth
equals 0.025). The "vernier" scale on the sliding jaw is formed by taking a
length of twenty-four main scale subdivisions (24 x .025 = 0.6 in.) and dividing
this into 25 equal parts (0.6 * 25 = 0.024in.). The difference in size between
one main scale subdivision (0.025 in.) and one vernier scale division (0.024 in.)
is 0.001 in.
The 49/50 System
The main scale is graduated in inches, tenths and twentieths (one twentieth
equals 0.050).
49 main scale divisions are divided into 50 equal divisions to form the vernier
scale.
49 main scale divisions = 49x0.050 = 2.450 ins. (0.050 is the length of
each main scale division).
One vernier scale division = 2.450 = 0.049 ins.
50

But one main scale division = 0.050

Therefore the difference in size between one main scale division and one vernier
scale division = 0.050 - 0.049 = 0.001 in.

Note: The accuracy of the two systems is the same - though some say the
49/50 system is easier to read. I'm not so sure.

Reading the Vernier

Always read the mainscale UP to the zero on the vernier. Then read the vernier
reading from the vernier scale.
1. Read the total number of whole inches.
2. Then read the number of whole tenths.
3. Then read the number of whole twentieths or fortieths.
4. Then check the coinciding line on the vernier to give the thousandths
reading.
METRIC VERNIER CALLIPER
The 49/SO System
The main scale is graduated in millimetres, each tenth division being
numbered 0, 1, 2, 3, etc., centimetres (10 millimetres = 1 centimetre). The
vernier scale is formed by taking 49 main scale divisions (49 x 1 ~ 49mm) and
dividing by fifty (49 -5- 50 = 0.98mm). The difference between one main scale
division (1.00) and one vernier scale division (.98) is 0.02mm.
Note: It is not as accurate as the metric micrometer

The 24/25 System ;

With this system the main scale is graduated in millimetres and half
millimetres and the vernier scale is formed by taking 24 mains scale divisions
(0.5mm) and dividing by 25 equal divisions which make up the vernier scale.
24 main scale divisions (l/2 millimetres) = 12mm.
12mm divided by 25 = 0.48 mm.
So each main scale division = 0.5mm. and each vernier scale
division = 0.48mm.
The difference between the two = 0.02mm.

Reading the Metric Vernier

1. Read the main scale (total complete divisions) either mm or 1 / 2 mm.
depending on system up to the zero on the vernier scale.
2. Read to the coinciding line on the vernier scale to give the reading to an
accuracy of 0.02mm.
Checks Before Use

(a) Before use the zero reading must be checked by cleaning the gauging
faces and closing the jaws using firm finger pressure, and securing the
frame with the locking screw.
(b) Hold the instrument to a source of light; dirt, wear or strain causing poor
contact will be indicated by light between the faces.

(c) Check the vernier scale locating screws for security, and check the zero
reading. If the zero marks are not aligned - note the error. Adjustment
can be made by loosening the vernier scale securing screws and re-
positioning the vernier scale to read zero, then tightening the securing
screws and re-checking.

(d) Check a known dimension toward the limit of the instruments

measuring capacity, this checks any distortion or "bowing" of the beam."

VERNIER HEIGHT GAUGE

This instrument is similar in construction to the vernier calliper except that the.
fixed jaw is shaped as a base, the lower face of which is accurately ground to
form a contact face at right angles to the beam. The upper face of the moving
jaw is the surface from which measurements are taken. This surface is parallel
with the underface of the base. The measuring jaw is provided with a
detachable scriber to permit accurate marking out, but can also be used for
internal measurement. The scale of the instrument does not start at zero, the
surface table is in fact the zero.
Precautions
It is essential that the base of the instrument is at all times in contact with the
surface table. It is advisable not to pre-set the instrument, otherwise the
scriber may override the work piece. The scriber should be lowered/raised
slowly using the fine adjustment until the required feel is obtained.
The instrument is not particularly stable when standing on its base, when not
in use it is advisable to lay it on its side.
Since the main scale does not start at zero it is necessary to use an accurately
ground distance piece, which is usually supplied with the instrument.
Adjustment of the vernier scale is similar to that used for the vernier calliper.
DEPTH GAUGES

The depth gauge is used for measuring the depth of holes and recesses or the
height of spigots and shoulders from some reference plane on the object. In its
simplest form the gauge consists of a graduated blade or rod, fitted with a
moveable head or stock which can be clamped to the blade in any desired
position. More complex gauges are provided with a vernier scale or a
micrometer head to measure with an accuracy of 0.001 in. or 0.02mm;
examples of the three chief types are shown in the illustration.

VERNIER BEVEL PROTRACTOR

The bevel protractor consists of a blade, a graduated protractor head, and a

stock. The angles between the stock and the blade are indicated by the
position of the zero on the vernier scale.

The main scale is marked off in degrees (0 to 360 or 0 to 90 and 90 to 0). The
vernier scale/s are formed by taking 23 main scale divisions (23°) and dividing
by 12.
23° = 10 55-
12

The accuracy is obtained by comparing ONE vernier scale division (1° 55') to
TWO main scale divisions (2°). This difference is 5' (5 mins).
Reading the Protractor
1. Read from the zero on the main scale to the zero on the vernier scale to
find the degrees.
2. CONTINUE READING IN THE SAME DIRECTION to find the coinciding
line on the vernier scale. This will give the number of minutes.
Reading Angle A gives a reading of 116°45'.

A quick check should show that the sum of the readings should equal 180° - if
they do not you have mis-read the instrument.
DIAL TEST INDICATOR

This instrument, which is also known as the "D.T.I." or Clock Gauge, is used
not for measuring the actual size, but to indicate small differences in size, or
for indicating the amount of eccentricity of revolving parts. It can also be used
to measure the "run out" or movement of mechanisms with a small amount of
movement. It is graduated in thousandths of an inch - every tenth thousandth
being marked - and reads up to .050 in. clockwise and .050 in. counter-
clockwise. Metric D.T.I.'s have a similar range.

In use it is rigidly supported, often by being fixed to a scribing block on a

marking-off table, and is set to the first height with which comparison is
desired. This is done by bringing the plunger over the first height and
adjusting the zero on the D.T.I, by turning the bezel until the zero is under the
needle.
If any other height is now compared by sliding it under the plunger the needle
will indicate on the + side if it is larger and On the - side if it is smaller: the
difference in size will in each case be read off directly on the dial.

BORE GAUGE
Similar to the D.T.I, but used to measure the ovality of a bore. The contact face
of the gauge is operated by a lightly spring loaded plunger fitted to a T shaped
head, the plunger movement being transmitted by a small curved rod retained
in a slide, and a long rod housed in the hollow handle. The curved rod limits
the plunger movement, so sets of distance pieces and extension rods are
supplied to increase the range - generally 2 in. to 6 in. The spring loaded anvil
centralises the tool in the bore to ensure that the spindle and plunger make
contact with the wall of the bore across its diameter.
FEELER GAUGES

"Feelers" are used to measure small clearances or gaps. The flexible steel
blades are graduated in thickness in most cases from 1 l/2 to 15 thousandths
of an inch. The blades are secured in a stack when not in use. Classified by
length of blades, after use should be lightly oiled and blades kept in the
scabbard to prevent distortion.

RADIUS GAUGE

This is similar to a feeler gauge except that the blades are thicker (and all of the
same thickness) and an internal and external radius is cut on each blade.
Each blade is also marked with the radius size.
SCREW PITCH GAUGE

Similar to a radius gauge but each blade has teeth cut on its edge and marked
with the number of threads per inch (t.p.i.). The stock into which the blades fit
when not in use is marked with the thread angle.

WIRE GAUGE

This is used to determine the thickness of wire and metal sheet. It is made of
hard metal sheet with accurately ground slots round the edges each slot being
numbered according to the specification laid down by the British Standard
Institute (British Standard Wire Gauge), or other standards authority. To use
the gauge try the sheet of metal or wire into the slots until the nearest is
obtained, then read off the number at the side of that slot.

SLIP GAUGES
Slip gauges or Johannson blocks are mainly used as standards for checking
the accuracy of working gauges; they are simply rectangular blocks of
hardened and polished steel, but they are ground to extremely high standards
of accuracy in length, flatness and parallelism. The full set of slips comprises
81 pieces, graduated in size, to enable any length from 0.05 in. to over 10
inches to be built up in steps of 0.0001 in. The slips are used in conjunction
with a set of accessories to produce fixed gauges for a wide variety of purposes;
the illustration shows three examples of check gauges built up from slips.
As the blocks are manufactured to limits of accuracy of a few millionths of an
inch, slips must always be handled with the utmost care; unnecessary wear of
the slip surfaces must be avoided as far as possible. Because of the very high
surface finish, atmospheric pressure is sufficient to cause the slips to adhere
together with a very tenancies grip, and in this condition they are said to
"wrung" together; when wrung together, a parcel of slips can be handled like a
solid block. Wringing is not possible if the adjacent surfaces of two slips are
separated by even the finest film of dust or oil, or by a layer of air; when
building up a gauge length, the slips should first be wiped with a dry fine
chamois leather (not a cloth) and then placed in contact by sliding one surface
on to the other. Conversely, separation of wrung slips should always be done
by sliding one slip off the other - never try to pull them apart.
Always dismantle slips immediately after use as they tend to bond together if
left assembled too long.

SINE BARS

The sine bar is an accurately machined bar which is used on a surface table or
surface plate. It is used in conjunction with slip gauges and rollers to produce
accurate angles (to an accuracy of 1 minute) (60 minutes = 1 degree).
Machined angles can be checked against it as can other instruments such as
the vernier bevel protractor.
To use the sine bar a knowledge of trigonometry is required - in particular the
SINE RATIO. (Refer to the book in this series MATHEMATICS & SCIENCE).
QUESTION: As a quick bit of revision, can you state what the sine of an
angle is? (5 mins [abit of a pun]).

ANSWER: The sine of an angle (of a right angle triangle) is the ratio of
the OPPOSITE side over the HYPOTENUSE.
SINE = 0 (SOH)
H

If we know the length of the sides O and H then we can

divide O by H and then find the angle by using tables or a
scientific calculator.

For accuracy it is essential that:

(a) The rollers are of the same diameter.

(b) The centre distance (L) is absolutely correct.

(c) The centre line (XX) of the rollers is absolutely parallel with the edge
(YY) of the bar.
 POWERED HAND TOOLS

Included in this section are the following portable power tools :-

* Torches
* Lead lamps
* Electric mains operated drills
* Battery operated drills
* Riveting guns
* Pneumatic hammers
* Pneumatic millers
* Pneumatic nibblers

Torches
These are supplied in a variety of forms and may be battery operated or
rechargeable.

The important point to note is that they should be of the spark proof type i.e.
safe to use on A/C.

Lead Lamps

These also should be of the safety type with the glass cover protected with a
wire frame. i

Mains Operated Drills

These may have a variable speed control and may have a gearing system to
further enhance the selectable speed range.

Not normally used on aircraft because of the sparks produced at the

commutator, but may be used in workshop and other maintenance areas.
When provided with a variable speed control the drill may be used (with the
appropriate bit) as a screw driver. To place a screw driver bit or a drill bit, the
bit is locked in the chuck using a chuck key.

Cordless Drill
Similar in operation to the drill described above except that it is powered by re-
chargeable batteries. Generally not so powerful but can be used in remote
locations away from a power source.

Pneumatic Drills (Windy Drills)

These are pneumatically powered using air pressure in the range 60 to 100 PSI.
They are controlled by an open/close air valve and may have a straight or
angled drive. They are vane operated, rotate at about 2500 r.p.m. and are
significantly safer to use than electrical drills as there is no possibility of
electric shock, nor electric spark - to cause a fire.
Pneumatic Riveting Hammers
These come in a variety of shapes and sizes.

In general air pressure (between 60 to 100 P.S.I.) causes a steel plunger to

move up and down inside a barrel. As it does so it strikes a rivet snap secured
in the end by a retaining spring.
 TORQUE LOADING

QUESTION: Can you define torque and state the units it is measured in?
(10 mins)

ANSWER: Torque is a twisting action and it is defined as force times

perpendicular distance from the_point of application of the
force to the fulcrum. In S.I. units it is Newtons (N) times
metres (m) = Nm, and in imperial units it is feet (or inches)
times Ibs = Ibs ft or Ibs ins.

There are several ways of torque loading a nut and bolt assembly without the
use of a torque spanner, e.g.
* Using a spring balance - to get the required force pulling at right angles
at the end of an open ended or ring spanner.

* Using Preload Indicator Washers. Special washers that compress when

torqued down by a nut. Consist of an inner and outer washer. The
inner washer is compressed when the nut is tightened down while the
outer washer is moved by the operator using a piece of wire. At the
correct torque loading the inner washer will have compressed
sufficiently to allow the nut to "nip" or hold the outer washer so that it
cannot now be moved. This "nipping" occurs at a pre-determined torque
value

* Using a micrometer. This is the most accurate method but is limited by

access problems. The bolt is accurately measured for length before any
torque is applied. Torque is then applied slowly to stretch the bolt a
specific length as laid down in the manual. Thus it is the actual stretch
of the bolt that is being measured - and that is what torque loading is
really all about.

Torque loading, therefore, is a measure of how far the bolt has been stretched
and how tight the joint is being held together.

If a nut/bolt assembly is over torqued then the material might be stretched

beyond its elastic limit and therefore it will be weakened. If the assembly is
undertorqued then the joint is not held tight enough and movement and failure
could occur.

The majority of bolts, nuts or screws on aircraft are subject to a standard

torque loading dependant on material, thread, size, type and lubrication.
Different applications may require a particular torque loading, this will be
specified in the appropriate Maintenance Manual. The normal method of
applying a specified torque loading is by means of a Torque wrench.
The Technique
This may vary from application to application, but in general the following
points apply:
1. Always inspect the joint, nut and bolt for damage, corrosion and
cleanliness.
2. Assemble, lubricate the threads or keep them dry - as laid down in the
manual.
3. Apply sealant or anti-seize compound as specified.
4. Run down nut by hand to check for excessive binding. Remember a self
locking nut should not be able to be run down by hand. (If it can be it is
unserviceable.
5. Using a serviceable torque wrench set to the correct torque loading and
using the correct size socket, torque the nut down slowly to half the
specified value.
6. Undo the nut and slowly torque to the full value.
7. Lock the nut by the appropriate means.
8. If the (castellated) nut does not align with the split pin hole in the bolt
then check on torque tolerances laid down in the manual and torque to
within those tolerances to align holes.
NOTE: For several nut bolts/studs joining the same part (such as a
cylinder head), they are usually tightened in sequence. If they are
located in a circle, for example, the first one to be tightened is usually
the one at the 12 o'c position followed by the one at 6 o'c position then:
1 o'c then,
7 o'c then,
2 o'c then,
8 o'c then
Several clock circles may have to be completed before the correct reading
is obtained on each nut/stud.
When using sealants in a joint the torque loading of fasteners should be carried
out within the setting time of the sealant. After ten minutes but within twice
the application life of the sealant, the loading should be checked and re-applied
as necessary.
Union Nuts

To ensure freedom from leaks, the parts of flared pipe couplings need bedding
in. By adopting the following procedure leaks will be avoided on this type of
coupling.

1. Assemble the parts of the joint, run up nut by hand.

2. Tighten to specified torque loading.

3. Slacken nut half a turn then re-apply specified torque loading.

NOTE: Torque loading is not usually specified for flareless couplings.

The method recommended is to tighten the nut with the fingers until positive
resistance is felt, then tighten a further half to one turn.

Lubrication of components is usually by the type of fluid used in the system.

Connections in Oxygen systems must be dry unless a special preparation is
recommended. P.T.F.E. tape may be recommended for oxygen systems.

QUESTION: Do you know why oxygen connections must not be

lubricated? (2 mins)

ANSWER: The combination of high pressure oxygen and most

lubricants will cause an explosion.

Stiffnuts

In order to check the effectiveness of the friction element of a stiffnut it is

general practice to turn the nut onto its mating thread by hand. If it is
possible to pass the thread through the friction element by hand, then the
locking is unsatisfactory.

However, certain manufacturers specify limits of frictional torque for various

thread types and sizes, and in these instances each stiffnut should be checked
with a torque wrench before re-use. Usually the stiffnut torque value is then
added to the specified torque value for the nut/bolt assembly, and this value is
set on the torque wrench.

Torque Tables

Tables of standard torque values for difference thread types and sizes, and for
special applications, may be found in the Maintenance Manual. Manuals for
older types of aircraft may be found to contain only special torque loading
requirements and a single table applicable to non self-locking nuts.
In these cases the frictional torque of a stiffnut must be added to the torque
quoted for the type and size of thread.
Tables usually specify the upper and lower limits of torque, but if a single
figure is quoted, it is generally accepted that this may be exceeded for the
purpose of lining up a split pin hole, tab washer or locking plate. However, an
upper torque limit should not be exceeded, and nuts should not be slackened
to line up these locking devices.
The table shows typical torque loading figures for steel non self-locking
lubricated Unified threads. It is applicable to British Standards A102 to A217
or American AN3 to AN20 bolts, and nuts, and should not be used when
different values are specified by the equipment manufacturers. If applied to
self-locking fasteners, the frictional torque of the nut should be added to the
figures shown.

TORQUE WRENCHES

In general can be classified as Dial Type or Break Type.

Dial type wrenches have some form of indicator on them to indicate how much
torque is being applied. They may have an actual dial on the handle or may
have an indicator bar attached to the socket drive.
The break type wrench is set to a particular value either by checking it against
something like the Acratork test rig or by setting the torque value on a
micrometer type scale on the handle of the wrench.

Dial Wrench
The following drawing shows a typical dial type wrench. When under torque
loading the drive shaft tends to twist (a very small amount) against a spring
beam within the unit. This twist is transmitted to a lever which moves a
pointer on the dial indicated in Ibs in or Nm.
The dial should be checked for zero prior to use.

Beam Type Dial Wrench

This works on the principle that the handle of the wrench flexes when torque is
applied. The indicator bar does not so it will read the torque value on the
scale. It should be checked for zero before use.
Break Type Wrench (Acratork)
The drawing below shows a typical break type wrench. The particular type has
no setting scale on it and each time it is set (by adjusting the screw adjuster
with a special spanner) it must be checked on a special checking rig.

It works on the principle that a roller is pushed by a spring into a slot in the
cam mechanism. As torque is applied to the wrench so the roller is pushed out
of the cam slot at a pre-determined value. Increasing the spring pressure, by
screwing in the adjuster, increases the torque setting by pushing the roller
more firmly into the slot.
When the torque on the wrench reaches its setting value the roller is forced out
of the slot and the wrench losses all drive to the drive spigot. Care is required
when pulling the wrench back to re-engage the roller with the slot as it can
cause the wrench to move rapidly to its "set" position.

Break Type Wrench (Britool)

This works on a similar principle to the Acratork except that it has a
micrometer type indicator scale on the barrel of the handle. To adjust the
setting the adjuster is screwed in or out (in to increase the setting - out to
decrease) and the sliding handle will move up or down the barrel to indicate
the torque set.
Scales on the handle can include Ibs in, Ibs ft and Nm.
The torque loading is applied via a helical spring within the barrel body.
When the preset torque loading is reached an audible click is produced and an
indicator bar moves out to give a visual indication. 'Feel' is also momentarily
relieved. The wrench does not loose drive so it must never be operated passed
the position when the click is heard. The wrench is reset automatically on
release of the hand pressure.
For very accurate torque loadings the wrench should be checked on a test rig
prior to use to confirm the barrel readings.

Extension Spanners
In some cases an extension spanner can be fitted onto the end of a torque
wrench. When this happens the reading on the torque wrench will be less than
the actual torque felt by the nut/bolt.

When an extension spanner is used the reading on the torque wrench can be
found from the equation:
/
Reading = Specified Torque x k.
D
If the extension spanner has to be placed at an angle (say for access) then all
lengths must be measured perpendicular to the force as shown in the drawing.
above.

Precautions
Whenever a torque wrench is to be used verify that the specified torque and the
wrench scale are in the same units, if not the specified torque should be
converted by calculation to the scale units.
When torque loading the wrench handle should be lightly gripped and force
applied smoothly at 90° to the axis of the wrench.
Values of torque within the first quarter of the wrench scale may be difficult to
read accurately and some manufacturers specify that the torque wrench
selected for a particular use should have a range where the specified torque
falls in the upper range of the scale.
When using torque wrench with a floating driving tang so that the direction of
rotation can be reversed, ensure that the driving tang is correctly positioned
otherwise damage to the fasteners may occur before it is noticed. Indicator
type torque wrenches should be checked before use to ensure that the scale
reading is zero.
All torque wrenches should be frequently checked for accuracy. One method of
checking is by attaching a spring balance to the centre of the wrench handle
and force applied in the arc of movement. The scale reading on the torque
wrench should be the same as the spring balance reading multiplied by the
length of the wrench. Checks should be carried out at several values on the
torque wrench scale range.

Acratork Test Rig

Another method of checking and setting torque wrenches is to use the

"Acratork" test rig (or a rig similar to it). It has a range of 0 - 400 Ib ft.
For this purpose there are provided two adapters and three different sizes of
adjusting keys.
The rig can be used to check any wrench and the following is a description of
how to set an Acratork wrench.
To check an Acratork wrench remove the end cap from the handle and fit the
wrench in the rig ensuring that the wrench is placed in as nearly horizontal a
position as possible, press downwards on the wrench handle until a sudden
drop in resistance of the handle is felt, return the wrench to the starting
position and remove. Set the pointer on the dial to zero and replace the
wrench on the rig, press the handle downward and note the reading on the dial
at the point where the drop in resistance occurs, this reading is the torque
loading to which the wrench is set. To increase the torque loading tighten the
screw adjuster inside the handle (RH thread) by means of the adjusting key.
Note this can be done without removing the wrench from the rig. Retest the
wrench and set the adjuster screw until the desired torque loading is obtained.
Ensure that the dot and the arrow on the head of the wrench are in line (this
indicates the roller is re-engaged with the cam) before removing the wrench
from the rig. Refit the handle end cap and the wrench is then ready for use.