FUEL STORAGE

Storage

Storage of fuel in aircraft is achieved using tanks, mounted within the fuselage
or more commonly within the wings. On some aircraft they may be hung on the
outside (fighter aircraft for example) under the wings, or as wing tip tanks. One
major problem of storage is finding space within the airframe, bearing in mind,
the more fuel that is carried the greater the range of the aircraft. In addition to
space, distribution of the tanks is vital in maintaining the aircraft's Centre of
Gravity (C of G) and trim.

The three main types of tank are:

* Rigid
* Flexible/Bag Tank
* Integral

Rigid Tanks

A rigid tank may be made from metal or glass reinforced plastic. Rigid tanks
are used internally as well as externally, but internally they have poor
utilisation of airframe space.

Flexible/Bag Tank

Flexible/bag tanks are made from synthetic rubber and are commonly
employed as internal tanks. However, they do suffer from chafing and require a
smooth finished tank bay. They must be a good fit in their compartment so
that the loads are supported on all surfaces of the tank.

The great advantage of a bag tank is that in the event of a crash, they are
resistant to fracture even though the surrounding structure may distort.

There are various types of materials used in the construction of flexible fuel
tanks. A selection is listed as follows:

1. HYCATROL. A green coloured Hycar based synthetic rubber of two

thicknesses, 0.040" standard and 0.020" lightweight.

2. FLEXELITE. A red or black Flexsyn material which is synthetic

rubber based and similar to Hycar. Two thicknesses are again
available, 0.045" standard, for tanks of more than 100 gallons (455
litres) capacity and 0.020" lightweight, for tanks of less than 100
gallons capacity.
 3. MARLITE. A blue coloured material of a two-ply nylon and Terylene
fabric with a special type of fuel resistant resin barrier held as a
sandwich between the two. Marlite tank material is especially
suitable for aircraft use in that it will not deteriorate at
temperatures up to 100°C, and does not become brittle at
temperatures down to - 60°C.

Due to the fact that no "fuel-extractable" ingredients are used

these tanks will always retain their dimensional stability. This
obviates the need for any stabilising process, as is used on tanks
using synthetic rubber as a base. The normal thickness of material
used in the construction of these tanks is from 0.018 to 0.020
inches.

General protective coverings are often fitted on flexible tanks. This stiffening
consists of three or four layers of fabric, or fabric and rubber, cemented to the
tank. Bag tanks, which are limp and incapable of supporting their own weight,
are usually reinforced only with a layer of nylon fabric or net on their outer
surfaces. All types of flexible tank are held in the aircraft by some form of
suspension/attachment system, and heavy fittings are connected to the
aircraft structure by bolts or studs. Examples of various methods of securing
tanks to tank bays are shown in figure 1.

Integral Tanks

Integral tanks are popular owing to the high utilisation of space and saving of
weight. They are not so crash resistant as flexible tanks.

An internal part of the airframe is sealed with provision made for pipeline
attachments etc, and this forms the integral tank. Commonly part of the wing
section is used in civil aircraft as is parts of the fuselage on some military
aircraft.

In the mainplane an area between the front and rear spar and two ribs is
sealed off. Construction is usually by "sandwiching" a sealant between all of
the metal joints in the tank area and then applying a further layer of sealant
over the joints and rivets within the tank area. The tank is usually completely
coated on the inside with a layer of sealant. The sealant must satisfy exacting
demands for corrosion resistance, flexibility and sealing qualities over a long
period of time and over considerable variations in temperature.

Advances in the specifications of these sealing compounds, usually rubber or

polymer based, have now made integral tanks much less liable to leaks in
service. The fact remains, however, that any failure of the aircraft structure
may cause a leak which might be very difficult to cure.
In practice most integral tanks leak slightly - caused by flexing of the wing in
flight. The AMM will specify what leaks are allowable and give standards
relating to the size of external staining etc, showing on the underside of the
wing.

The thin sections of modern high speed wings lead to pumping problems from
the integral tanks when the fuel level is low, or the aircraft is in an exaggerated
climb or descent.

These problems may require the mainplane tanks to feed into one
central tank known as the collector tank. It is important to note that when
aircraft are taken into hangars for maintenance, all tanks are kept sealed and
flexible and bag type tanks have sufficient fuel to ensure that the tank does not
"dry out".

Dry fuel cells will cause shrinking and possible deterioration of flexible tanks
and shrinking of sealer used in integral tanks, thus promoting leakage when
refuelled.

QUESTION: Why are the tanks situated around the centre section of the
fuselage and in the mainplanes? (2 mins)

ANSWER: As the fuel is consumed during flight so its mass becomes less. If it
were situated along the fuselage away from the C of G then it
would upset the trim of the aircraft. So most fuel tanks are
situated as close to the longitudinal C of G as possible. Having said
this there are some aircraft with (small) fuel tanks in the
tailplane/fm.

QUESTION: Why? (3 mins)

ANSWER: By pumping the fuel to or from the tailplane/fm tanks the aircraft
can be trimmed to fly either straight and level, or slightly nose up,
or slightly nose down. So the fuel is used as a trimming system.

Example - Boeing 777-200

The fuel tanks are sealed parts of the wing structure using:

Upper wing skin

Lower wing skin
- Front spar
Wing ribs

Wing ribs divide the fuel tanks into bays, and reduce the movement of fuel
during aircraft manouevers. Doors and cut-outs provide access into the fuel
tanks for inspection or component replacement.
Fuel Tank Locations

The centre fuel tank is between rib 8 of the left wing and rib 8 of the right wing.
Wing ribs divide each side of the centre tank into seven fuel bays. The centre
wing section between the left and right side-of-body ribs (ribl) is also a part of
the centre fuel tank.

Three span-wise beams between the left and right side-of-body ribs divide the
centre wing section into four fuel bays. A purge door for the fuel bays in the
centre wing section is on the rear spar.

Wing ribs divide each main tank into 24 fuel bays. The forward parts of the
bays between rib 8 and 11 are dry. These wing dry bays prevent fuel spillage on
to the engine in the event of an engine burst.

The surge tanks are between rib 32 and 34 in each wing. A wing rib divides
each surge tank into two fuel bays.

Wing Ribs

Standard wing ribs have upper and lower openings between the stringers that
let fuel and air flow through.
Sealed tank-end ribs close the ends of each fuel tank.

Rib 18 is a baffle rib. The rib is sealed, but has check valves (one way valves)
between each lower stringer. The check valves let fuel flow inboard at a slow
rate. One hole at the bottom of the rib lets fuel flow outboard. This keeps the
fuel level on the two sides of the rib the same. Two large holes and six smaller
holes at the top of the rib let air through.

Rib 10 is a fuel dam rib. The lower section is the same as the baffle rib, but
the upper section is the same as a standard rib. The fuel dams of rib 10
prevent fuel from flowing away from the fuel pump inlets.

Fuel Tank Access Doors

The access doors fit in fuel bays over openings in the aircraft skin. A clamp
ring and knitted aluminium gasket bolt to the access door from outside the
aircraft to hold the access door in position. Thus, no bolt holes are in the skin.

Sump Values

Sump drain valves are at the lowest point of each fuel tank. Functions include:

- Getting fuel samples.

- Removal of water and contaminants from the fuel tanks.
Draining all the fuel that remains after the defuel procedure.
- Checking for fuel in a surge tank before opening access door.

The centre tank has two sump drain valves situated at the lowest points of the
center wing section next to the side body ribs. Access to each valve is through
an access door in the wing-to-body fairing. A flexible hose connects the valve
to a drain hole in the fairing.
Each main tank has one sump drain valve. The sump drain valve is in the
lower wing skin near the fourth access door from the fuselage (between ribs 8
and 9).

A sump drain valve for each surge tank is between ribs 32 and 33.

To drain fluid from the centre tank, push up on the flexible hose connection on
the sump drain valve. This opens the valve and lets the fuel drain through the
hose. Use a container to collect the fuel at the drain hole in the wing-to-body
fairing.

Note. There is no need to commit to memory all the details of the Boeing
system described above, it is included as a typical modern aircraft fuel tank
system only.
 CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

This section deals with the various methods of manufacturing the aircraft
structure.

The Stressed Skin

This may be made of metal or composite structure.

For metal aircraft it is usually preformed to the necessary curvature before

being joined to the frames, stringers, etc. The skin of metal aircraft is usually
made from aluminium alloy and may be coated either side with aluminium
(alclad). On some aircraft it may be magnesium alloy.

Some parts of the structure may be made from titanium or stainless steel.
These metals are heavier but withstand heat better, so may be fitted near jet
engine exhausts etc.

Stressed Skin Attachment

In the majority of metal aircraft the skin is attached to the frames, stringers
etc, by the use of rivets. These are usually countersunk or dimpled flush with
the skin on the outside of the aircraft to reduce aerodynamic drag.

On some parts of the airframe the structure may be attached by the use of
bonding. This is an adhesive process using synthetic resin adhesives and often
called by its trade name 'Redux Bonding'. It requires a bonding agent, heat,
and pressure.

For composite aircraft attachment will be by special fasteners, bonding, or the

frames etc are integral with the skin.
Bonded Structure

The Redux process is a method of joining:

* Metal to metal.
* Metal to wood.
* Metal to thermo-setting plastic.

A bonded metal to metal joint is normally stronger than a rived joint because:

* The whole of the faying surfaces are joined.

* There are no holes drilled to weaken the metal.
* There are no stress concentration areas. The stresses are evenly
spaced-out across the joint.

The process does not cause corrosion and is not attacked by fungi or other
organisms, nor is it affected by water, gasoline, oil, or other common solvents.

Where the Redux process is used on the outside panels of aircraft it provides
protection against leaks (rain water on all aircraft and floats/hulls on those
aircraft that land on water). On pressurised aircraft it provides for a pressure
tight joint. It also produces a smoother aerodynamic finish.

Redux bonding is also used in the construction of:

* Metal stiffeners to wooden floor panels.

* Brake linings to brake shoes.
* Honeycomb structure.
* Parts of cars and many other non aircraft uses.

Machined Skin/Integral Structure

We have so far seen how the metal aircraft is made up of several parts
riveted/bonded together. For large aircraft the separate parts run into their
thousands with rivets running into their tens of thousands. Each joint is a
potential corrosion hazard. Can you think why?

When two metals are joined together there is a possibility of galvanic corrosion
- particularly when the metals are different or have had different heat
treatments. There is also another potential hazard - crevice corrosion.

If we were to manufacture the whole of the aircraft skin, including the

stringers, frames, longerons, brackets, window cut outs, etc, from one
piece of metal then this would eliminate the two corrosion problems above.

This type of construction known as Machined Skin or Integral Construction

also eliminates many of the problems associated with riveting.
Of course, integral construction is expensive. Large slabs (example 1.5m x
0.3m x 20m) of aluminium alloy are milled into shape by a computer controlled
milling head - working in a similar way to a sculpture. Milling most of the
metal away to produce skin say no more than 4 or 6mm thick with all the
"attachments" part of the skin.

This gives a structure with a higher strength/weight ratio than before with all
the advantages relating to corrosion, stress concentration, etc., that we have
already discussed. It also produces a 'perfect' external aerodynamic skin.
It is expensive, using large milling beds with computer controlled milling heads
and with 90% of the original metal being milled away.

Of course, all the milling Hvaste' is returned to the supplier for recycling - and
at a large manufacturer this will require a fleet of trucks continuously
returning the now bulky Vaste' to the remelting plants.

Chemical Etching

The "machining" may be done by chemical etching. For small amounts of

metal removal the metal may be removed by chemicals. The parts that do not
require metal removal are protected by an applied protective process and the
complete part is them dipped into a bath of acid solution.
The solution will 'eat away' at the metal it can get at, leaving the protected
metal area. At the appropriate time the metal is removed, the etched areas
neutralised, the protection on the protected areas removed and the metal is
ready for its anti-corrosive treatments.

By repeating the process several times with different areas treated with the
protective coating complex shapes can be produced.

Honeycomb Construction

This type of construction may be used in the manufacture of aircraft structures

including flooring and flying control surfaces.

When a panel bends the high stresses are felt on the outside surfaces, with
little or none felt in the middle - the same as in beam bending theory - so why
not have all the metal on the outside where it matters. Having a skin made up
of several layers is called Sandwich Construction and like most things it is not
new.

It was used in the construction of wooden aircraft. The Mosquito (second world
war fighter bomber) had a fuselage skin made up of plywood - balsa wood -
plywood, all glued together with wood glue.

Modern sandwich construction methods usually have the outside skins of

aluminium alloy or carbon fibre with the Tilling' of aluminium or composite
honeycomb. These are all bonded together using the Redux or other bonding
process.

Flanged Lightening Holes

Frames and other structures inside the aircraft are made lighter by the use of
holes cut into them by the manufacturer. If the hole is made so that there is a
flange (a small lip) formed around the edge then the whole structure is stronger
and more rigid.
Flanged lightening holes:

* Reduce the weight of the structure.

* Increase the strength and rigidity.
* Allow for inspection access.
* Allow for the routing of pipelines, cables, etc.
Doubler Plates

A Doubler Plate may be used in the aircraft structure where there are extra
stresses to be allowed for. They may, of course, be milled into the structure
but they may also be riveted or bolted into position. They may also be used as
extra strengthening around lightening holes in place of flanging. A fitted
doubler plate will also provide a fail-safe type of construction.

Fail Safe Construction

Fail-safe may also be used in system design. For example: if the computer
controlling the cabin lights on the 747-400 fails then it automatically fails with
the lights ON.

Annoying if you are trying to sleep on a long flight but in an emergency, or

when simply serving meals etc, the cabin is well lit. So the computer 'fails safe'.

In structure design "fail safe" is normally associated with prevention of crack

propagation. The best way to stop a crack from developing is to design a
discontinuity across its path.

In composite materials the 'discontinuity' is provided by the fibres - which

means that a crack will not normally develop across the fibres but will develop
along them.

Comment. Have you noticed how most materials will tear. The tear (a crack if
you like) will develop along the weave (cutting weft and warp yarns separately)
it will never develop at 45° to the weave. Back to "Fail Safe".

It is more common to use the term "fail safe", in relation to a single structural
component. Should a crack occur, from a design point of view, it may be
allowed to develop, but will be stopped before the component is weakened to
the extent that failure could occur.
One way of doing this in metal structural components is, instead of making a
rib or a frame of one piece of metal is to make the component of two or more
pieces riveted or bolted together. Now if the crack starts in one piece it is
unlikely to spread to the other piece.

Fail Hard

This term relates mainly to primary structures where failure or fracture would
be catastrophic.

Safe Life

This is a basic design certification philosophy - mainly associated with primary

structure to limit the life of a component (normally in flying hours).

This safe life is normally independent of:

* Any detected defect.

* Fail safe provision.
* Redundant load path provision.

Total safe life is published by the airframe manufacturer and when reached the
component is replaced irrespective of condition.

Redundant Structure

This term is usually associated with structure that has many members ie,
there are several load paths. Should one member in the structure fail then the
load that it took will be shared by the other members. This structure has a
poor strength/weight ratio but has a good safety margin.

Damage Tolerant Structure

All structure has some damage tolerance. For highly stressed primary
structure this might be a small scratch or dent. For some structures the
damage might be considerable. In any case we classify and repair the damage
as normal - ie, as per the SRM.
 AIRFRAME RIGGING

To ensure that the main parts of the airframe (wings, tailplane, fin etc) are in
their correct position an airframe rigging check is carried out. For most of the
checks the aircraft will have to be put into the rigging position.

QUESTION: What is the rigging position? (5 mins)

ANSWER: It is where the lateral and longitudinal datum lines are horizontal.

QUESTION: Define the lateral and longitudinal datum lines. (5 mins)

ANSWER: They are both imaginary straight lines running at right angles to
each other and passing through the C of G of the aircraft. The
longitudinal datum line runs fore and aft along the fuselage. The
lateral datum line runs from wing tip to wing tip or parallel to a
line running from wing tip to wing tip.

The rigging position is obtained by jacking the aircraft and using a spirit
level, or plumb bobs in accordance with the AMM.

Putting Aircraft into Rigging Position

Methods used:

(a) Spirit level method.

(b) Plumb bob method.
(c) Using the aircraft's FMS (Flight Management System).

Spirit Level Method

1. Refer to the AMM.

2. Jack the aircraft until the wheels are clear of the ground and the aircraft
is approximately in rigging position.
3. Place a straight edge on the lateral datum points and adjust one of the
main jacks until the spirit level on the straight edge reads level.
4. Place a straight edge on the longitudinal datum points and adjust the
nose jack or tail trestle until the spirit level on the straight edge reads
level.
5. Recheck the lateral level.
6. If the lateral level is incorrect repeat points 3 to 5 above.

Note: In some aircraft spirit levels may be fixed in the structure, but the
procedure is similar to that outlined above.
Plumb Bob Method

1. Proceed as in items 1 and 2 above.

2. Attach a plumb bob to the correct part of the airframe (AMM) and note
it's hanging position in relation to a star or grid-plate, which is fixed on
the structure beneath it.
3. Adjust the appropriate jack/trestle to bring the plumb bob to the central
point of the grid-plate.
Determination of Aircraft's Attitude using the FMS.

The following is an extract from an aircraft manual:

Place standby power switch on the F/0's panel to NORMAL.

Power up the number 1 FMS by setting circuit breakers.
Switch number 1 INS (Inertia! Navigation System) to ALIGN on flight deck
overhead panel.

When the Captain's ADI (Attitude Director Indicator) ATT flag clears, proceed as
follows on the number 1 FMS CDU (Flight Management System Control &
Display Unit).
Line Select INDEX (61} Line Select MAINTENANCE (6R)
Line Select ANALOG IN (4L)
Press next page button.
Read pitch and roll to */2 °.
(Negative pitch refers to nose down and negative roll refers to left wing
low).

OR
From the wheel well inclinometers, estimate Roll and Pitch attitudes to the
nearest ¥2°.
 Normal stick readings are based on aircraft wings LEVEL and the nose .
0.5° NOSE DOWN. Any deviation must be checked for either by the
attitude indicators in the right wing gear wheel well or by the use of the
FMS.

The attitude indicators are spirit level devices marked off in degrees.

The wing and nose attitudes are identified on the FMS Analogue pages as
Roll and Pitch, a negative angle being LEFT wing down, or NOSE down.

Checks to be Carried Out Once the Aircraft is in Rigging Position.

1. Mainplanes - incidence and dihedral angles.

2. Tailplane - incidence and dihedral angles. If the tailplane is adjustable it
is set to neutral first.
3. Fin verticality.
4. Fuselage bowing - in the vertical plane (hogging and sagging).
5. Symmetry.
6. Engine alignment.

Angle of Incidence. The angle the chord line of the main plane makes with the
longitudinal datum line.
Checking Angle of Incidence

Position the incidence board on the datum points of the main/tail plane (found
in the manual and often marked on the aircraft). Place a inclinometer on the
board, check the bubble position at zero degrees or adjust the inclinometer
until the bubble reads zero and note the amount of angle the plane is out of
true. Check this with the tolerances given.

Checking Angle of Dihedral

Definition. The upward and outward inclination on the tailplane or mainplane

to the lateral datum line.

(a) Spirit Level Method - The principle of checking the dihedral angle is
similar to that for checking the incidence angle.

In other words place the correct incidence board on the correct position
on the mainplane/tailplane. Place a clinometer on it and check how far
the mainplane/tailplane is out of true.

(b) Theodolite Method - This method uses a set of sighting rods and a
theodolite. The rods are screwed into specific positions on the underside
of the mainplane and looked at through the theodolite.
 Each rod has a datum line with graduations marked up and down on the
rod. When looked at through the theodolite the sighting rod datum aligns
with the datum line in the eyepiece of the theodolite if the mainplane is
an the correct angle.

With the master rod (usually the shortest) the theodolite is set to read so
both datums align.

Distortion of the mainplane or an incorrect dihedral angle will be

revealed by non alignment of the sighting rod marks when viewed
through the eye-piece of the theodolite. These should be recorded as each
rod is sighted.

NOTE. A theodolite is an instrument that is set up using very accurate

built-in spirit levels to be horizontal. When the head is moved round in
this condition it will traverse in a horizontal plane. Thus on a perfect
wing (rare) the datum on each sighting rod will align with the theodolite
eye-piece datum. On electronic theodolites they are self levelling and
readings can be recorded and printed by the instrument.

Set the theodolite to the horizontal and align with the mark on the master rod
(usually the shortest). Sight on all the other rods on turn. Note any variations
in the readings either by using the scales on the rods.

Check these values with those stated in the log book and check any differences
with the tolerances laid down in the AMM.
Fin Verticality

With a non swept fin a plumb bob hung from the top hinge of the rudder
should align with all the other hinges. With a swept fin plumb bobs are hung
from each hinge and must align with a centre line marked out on the hangar
floor - which is the centre line of the aircraft. In other cases a symmetry check
may be carried out.

Engine Mountings

Engines attached to the wings may be mounted with the thrust line parallel to
the horizontal longitudinal plane of symmetry but not always parallel to the
vertical longitudinal plane (they maybe inclined slightly outwards).
The check to ensure that the position of the engine, including any degree of
offset, is correct depends on the manual, but usually entails measurements
from the centre line of the engine to the longitudinal centre line of the fuselage.
Any longitudinal horizontal plane offset maybe measured using an
inclinometer.

Symmetry Check

The drawing illustrates the principle of a typical symmetry check, with figures
and tolerances given in the AMM. In some cases the measurements may be
recorded in the aircraft log book.
For small aircraft the measurements are taken using a steel tape, and to allow
for tape sag a spring balance is used tensioned to say 5 Ibs. In this way there
will be some sag in the tape, but it will be the same for all measurements.
Remember it is the differences in the measurements that we are looking-for.

For larger aircraft a plumb bob is used to transfer each measurement point to
the floor of the hangar marking the position with chalk. The points on the floor
are then measured using the steel tape. This method may be easier than
trying to measure with a long steel tape several feet up in the air.

QUESTION: Why are tolerances only given and not actual dimensions?
(2 mins)

ANSWER: The coefficient of linear expansion of aluminium alloy is quite high

(in fact its coefficient of linear expansion is 23 x 10-6 where as steel
is nearly half this value), so as the temperature of the airframe
changes so will its size. Quoted dimensions therefore would be
irrelevant.

Relationship Between the Manual and The Aircraft Log Book

On the first rigging check (at the manufacturers) the readings obtained are
recorded in the aircraft log book. Subsequently any readings taken should be
compared with these.

Tolerances (ie variations) are laid down in the AMM. The manual is common to
all aircraft of a particular type but each aircraft will have its own log book.
Various cleaning agents are available for both general cleaning and specialist
cleaning applications -just a few are listed above. All are supplied with user
instructions and health warnings where necessary.

The aircraft as a whole and its component parts should be kept clean. This
helps to reduce wear, allows for leaks to be more readily detected, reduces
crevice corrosion and makes the aircraft more aerodynamic (for surface
cleanliness anyway). It also helps to promote a good image to customers - and
makes the aircraft more pleasant to work on.

For general exterior cleaning a non acid soapy solution diluted in water can be
used and the area rinsed off with clean water and dried. Turco Air Tech (or
similar) is suitable.
After cleaning check all drains to see that they are clear and make sure water
has not entered parts of the airframe such as:

* Engine intakes and exhausts.

* Pitot static vents etc.
* Windows, doors and hatches.
* Air conditioning vents.
* Cooling grills.
* Drain holes.

Glass windscreens can be washed with a non acid soapy solution and cleaned
with a chamois leather and plastic windows can be washed with the same
solution and cleaned with a fine grade plastic polishing compound.

PAINTING

Aircraft are painted to make them look "pretty", provide a corrosion protection
layer for metal surfaces and provide identification markings.

Ideally paint should have the following properties:

* Good surface adhesion.

* Hard wearing and resistant to fluids.
* Inexpensive.
* Non toxic.
* Easy to apply.

Most paints do not combine all these and for the first two properties most paint
schemes require two coats.

The first coat (primer coat) provides the bonding coat. It has good adhesive
qualities, may contain anti-corrosive pigments but is usually soft with poor
wear characteristics.

The second or top coat has poor adhesive properties on metals and other
surfaces but is hard, will wear well and is resistant to fluids. So most paint
schemes employ at least two coats - a primer coat and a top coat, however,
some schemes employ more than two coats.

Paint

This usually a mixture of a vehicle and pigments. The vehicle is a liquid that
cements the pigments together when it dries - it is volatile and sometimes
water based. The pigments give colour, solidity, hardness and sometimes anti-
corrosive properties.
The anti-corrosive nature of paint is provided because it excludes air and
moisture from the surface of the metal. With primers containing chromates
there is added protection.

The effectiveness of any paint scheme depends on:

* Preparation - of the surface to be painted, of the paint and

the painting equipment.
* Atmospheric conditions - temperature and relative humidity.
* Correct application.

A paint scheme is usually classified according to the base of the materials

used, but primer, undercoat, filler coat and finishing coats may be made from
different bases.

Primers

These provide an adhesive coat on the metal surface. They are soft and easily
worn away and must be protected by a top coat. There are four main types.

* Wash or Etch primers. Is organic based and used as a three part

mix (primer, thinner and dilute phosphoric acid). When dry the
acid converts with the natural moisture in the air to produce a
phosphate film. Phosphates are good on the anti-corrosive front.

* Chromate primers. A synthetic primer such as MIL-P-8585 is a

zinc chromate primer. These primers should not be used as a base
coat for acrylic paints unless allowed to age for several days after
application. Resistance to aircraft fluids is not good.

* Stoving primers. Requires heat after application. Has poor

resistance to fluids.

* Epoxy primers. Ideal for polyurethane finish coats and is a 2 part

mix that should be used within 6 hours of mixing.

In some cases it is recommended that some primers are applied over others for
best effect. The mixing of primers is to be avoided unless specified in a
particular paint scheme.

Finishes

Sometimes called Top Coats, these provide a colourful, hard wearing, fluid
resistant top coat to the primers. The main groups are:

* Cellulose based. Have good adhesion, are easily applied and have
good weather resistance but have poor resistance to some aircraft
fluids.
 * Synthetic paints. Have similar properties. Can be applied over a
cellulose based coat but if cellulose paint is applied over synthetic
paint it will lift off (Salt on Chips but not Chips on Salt).

* Enamels. The general definition of an enamel is that it will dry

(cure) by the conversion of some of its solvents by the use of heat,
oxidation, or by catalytic action. Non enamels (lacquers) cure by
the evaporation of the solvents and can be put back to their
original condition by the use of thinners. Enamels have good
resistance to abrasion and some, older enamels, are air drying
whilst others require heat (baking) to cure properly. Called stoving
enamels the temperatures used are normally below 125°C (257°F).
Only used where these temperatures will not affect the heat
treatment of the metal. (Remember some Al alloys are precipitated
at 100°C.)

* Polyurethane Enamel. Is a two part chemically cured top coat

producing a hard finish resistant to fluids including Skydrol.
Difficult to paint strip needing long "soaking times" for the paint
stripper. Wash primers may be used but the best is an epoxy
primer. May take several days to cure completely and must be
used within 6 hours of mixing.

* Acrylic Lacquer. Dries quickly. Resistant to high temperatures but

has poor resistance to aircraft fluids. Can be applied over wash
primers and epoxy primers.

* Epoxy. Is a two part mix adding a catalyst to a resin which causes

a chemical reaction to allow it to cure. Tends to dis-colour due to
the weather but produces a hard surface resistant to fluids/acids.

When thinning, cleaning equipment etc always use thinners with the same
base as the paint - unless the specification/paint manufacturer's literature
states otherwise. All two part mix painting equipment must be thoroughly
cleaned immediately after painting operations, because if left over night, the
paint will cure and the equipment will be ruined.

Also, when applying one coat on top of another it is generally good practice to
used a paint scheme with all coats having the same base - unless the paint
scheme specification/paint manufacturer's literature states otherwise.

Application Procedure - General

The actual procedure used will depend on the situation at that point in time. In
general, however, the procedure is as follows:

1. Surface preparation. This can include paint stripping, corrosion

removal, degreasing, inspection of surface and application of a
primary anti-corrosive treatment.
 2. Application of paint scheme.
3. Meeting aircraft legal requirements - identification markings,
break-in markings applied etc.
4. Inspection of paint finish. Clearing of any masking and checking
all vents and orifices etc.
5. Weighing of aircraft if paint area exceeds certain limit.
6. Completion of documentation.

Paint Stripping

Always use the stripper recommended by the stripper manufacturer. Make

sure it does not get onto anything (or into any orifices) other than the metal
that is to be stripped. Do not strip composites - unless the stripper is
specifically designed for the purpose. Avoid contact with the skin and eyes and
do not inhale the fumes.

Always work in well ventilated areas and wear protective clothing including
goggles. If splashed irrigate skin/eyes with copious amounts of water and seek
medical advice.

In general two types of stripper are available - solvent type and wax type. The
solvent type evaporates quickly but the wax type adheres better to the surface.

Apply stripper generously with a brush, keep wet and allow soaking time.
When paint is puckered up and softened (acrylic paint will not pucker but only
soften) remove with a soft piece of plastic or a rubber squeegee. Clean area
thoroughly with MEK or acetone.

Ensure that stripper does not come into contact with composites, rubber,
plastics, tyres, windscreens, windows and any parts not requiring stripping.

Check that stripper has not entered any orifices such as drain holes, Pitot
static vents, intakes etc. Inspect the metal surface, faying edges, rivets, nuts,
bolts etc for any defects. Rectify as necessary.

Remove all waste products, bag in suitable containers, and dispose of in

accordance with local regulations.

Corrosion Removal

Explained in more detail in module 7, but in general can be removed

mechanically with a suitable abrasive or removed with a chemical solution.

After corrosion removal check area and depth of corrosion and refer to the SRM
(Structure Repair Manual) for classification of damage. Repair corroded area
using phosphate treatment for Fe metals; Deoxidine or Alocrom treatment for
Al alloys and selenious acid treatment for Mg alloys (more detail in module 7).
Degreasing

Any degreasing that has to be carried out should be done in a well ventilated
area using protective clothing and any splashes washed writh plenty of water
and medical advice sort.

Trihloroethylene can be used unless the metal is known to be adversely

affected by chlorinated solvents. Trichloroethane can also be used.

When dealing with glass fibre (GRP) all parting agent should be removed and
the surface rubbed down with a fine emery cloth. The surface is then cleaned
with a lint free cloth soaked in white spirit or MEK and the primer coat is
usually an epoxy primer.

(Parting agent is used to prevent the glass fibre layers from adhering to the
mould during construction.)

Primary Anti-Corrosive Treatments

These are listed earlier in book 3 and are usually applied by the manufacturer
and ideally should always be applied before any paint scheme.

Painting Conditions - General

For the successful application of a paint scheme correct atmospheric and work
conditions are essential. These are:

* Temperature 15 to 25°C (60 - 77°F), but for epoxy paints the

minimum temperature is 18°C.
* Relative humidity below 75%. In general the lower the relative
humidity the better, but for etch primers humidity is important
and it should not be below 30%
* The air should be changed every 2 minutes in the spray shop and
every minute in the spray booth - using extraction fans.
* The incoming air should be filtered to ensure it is free from dust
particles etc.
* Floor drainage - when using water for cleaning, rubbing down etc.
* Adequate flame proof lighting.
* Correct mixing of paint (viscosity), correct filtering, correct
thinners. Refer to paint scheme.
* Wear protective clothing including goggles and a breathing mask.
Do not smoke, eat or drink until after "scrub-up" after work.
* Keep all equipment clean and in a good state of repair. Clean and
dry all equipment thoroughly after completion of work.
Paint Schemes

The aircraft manufacturer may specify a paint scheme but usually it is the
paint manufacturer. It will give details of pre-treatments, materials to use,
thinning requirements, paint viscosities and methods of application.

Regulations

Because of the flammability of various paints, particularly cellulose and other

low flash point paints, various laws and regulations have been issued to
control their storage and use. In the UK these include the Factories Acts,
Cellulose Solutions Regulations, the Petroleum Act etc. The main items of these
should be displayed at the storage point which should be a lockable fire proof
building/container away from other buildings - with suitable fire fighting
equipment nearby.

Application Methods

The application method will depend on the extent of the area to be painted, the
equipment available and whether the paint specification to be used is suitable
for that application method. Methods include:

* Brushing. Suitable for small areas

* Spraying.

High Pressure Air Spray. Using air at about SOpsi supplied via a
hose passing through a spray gun and using the venturi effect in
the gun to draw a suitably thinned paint up from a container on
the gun to be sprayed onto the surface.

Low Pressure Air Spray. The paint and the air are premixed and
supplied to the gun via a hose and sprayed onto the surface at low
pressure.

Airless Spray. High pressure (up to 4500psi) paint is supplied to

the spray gun and forced through a small orifice. This causes the
paint to form into very small droplets and impinge onto the
surface. Used for spraying polyurethane paints. Not possible for
some paints as they are too coarse.

Electrostatic Spraying. Used with any of the above, an electrical

charge is set up between the spray equipment and the part being
sprayed. This causes the paint to be attracted to the part and even
to the sides away from the spray equipment. Provides an even
coating to complex shapes and reduces spray mist.
 * Rolling. Using conventional rollers and paint trays or paint
supplied from a pressurised container via a hose to the handle of
the roller - a trigger in the handle controlling the flow of paint up
the inside of the handle to the roller. Used for primer coats.

* Dipping. Used for small parts with paints that are not a two part
mix as pot life is too short.

Paint Preparation

Check paint specification on the can and check life date.

If a two (or more) part mix make up mixture as per specification.

Thin paint, if required, as per specification/paint scheme and mix/stir

thoroughly. Mechanical agitators are preferred.

The amount of thinning (with the correct solvent) is by parts - so many parts
thinners to so many parts paint. The more thinners the lower the viscosity. The
viscosity (resistance to flow) can be checked using one of several methods. In
general it entails checking the time that a quantity of paint takes to fall under
gravity. For example:

1. Allow paint and thinners to reach the temperature of the paint

shop (keep in over night).
2. Mix paint as per specification.
3. Dip a special cup* into the paint and raise above the paint level to
about 12 to 24 inches. The paint will flow out of the hole in the
bottom. Measure the time using a stop watch from the paint
beginning to flow to when the first break occurs in the flow. This
time is related to viscosity using a table supplied with the cup.

* Several types of cup are available with names like Ford cup, Zahn cup etc.
Cups are about the size of a small tea cup with a handle which allows the cup
to be dipped into the paint. A small flow hole is provided in the base.

Spraying an Aircraft - General

1. Refer to the AMM and paint manufacturer's literature for any

special treatments, paint specifications, thinning ratios etc.
2. Locate aircraft in a suitable hangar ensuring correct atmospheric
conditions and hangar free from equipment that is likely to suffer
from spray dust. (Spray dust will settle on everything and is
difficult to remove.)
3. After any paint stripping inspect area for any defects and repair as
necessary.
 4. Shut doors, hatches and windows. Mask off areas not required for
painting including ports, vents, windows, windscreens, tyres etc,
5. Prepare paint and equipment.
6. Spray surfaces with a steady parallel action keeping gun about 8
inches (203mm) away from surface releasing trigger at the end of
each stroke.
7. Keep a check on faults that might develop.
8. Apply primer coat/coats and finishing coat/coats allowing suitable
drying times between each.
9. Apply aircraft markings, mandatory placards, break-in markings,
walkway markings etc. Stencil on the paint scheme.
10. Remove masking tape and any masking materials.
11. Check that paint has not got into/on: windows and windscreens;
brakes; tyres; rubber components; plastic components; Pitot static
vents; fine mechanisms; bearings etc.
12. Check paint scheme for any faults and that all doors, windows and
hatches open and close correctly.
13. Weigh aircraft.
14. Record work done in the aircraft log book and the weighing record.

Spraying Faults

There are 20 or painting faults altogether. Below are listed a few to give you
some idea of the sort of faults that can occur.

* Paint lifting. Poorly cleaned surface. Applying second coat before

the first is dry. Incorrect thinners. Apply the wrong type of paint to
the first coat (applying cellulose to synthetic)
* Orange peel effect. Too high a spray pressure. Drying time too
quick. Too damp or cold.
* Spray dust. Incorrect spray gun setting/spray gun distance
producing too much dust.
* Pin holes. Contamination in spray system. First coat not dry. Too
fast drying of top coat or top coat too thick.

Radomes

Should be sprayed with radar transparent paint. No paint having metallic

pigments can be used. Non metallic acrylic or polyurethane paints are suitable.

Wrinkle Finish

Used in instrument displays. The paint is very fast drying so the surface of a
layer of paint dries quicker than the bottom layers so causing the top layer to
shrink and wrinkle.
Wing Walk Paints

These paints contain sharp sand, which are brushed or sprayed on (with a
special nozzle) over the finish coat.

Acid Proof Paint

Black asphaltum or polyurethane is used in areas in close proximity to

acid/alkaline or their fumes - battery bays for example.

Float Bottom Paint

Black asphaltum or polyurethane is used to provide a wear resistant, water

tight corrosive resistant layer to floats and hulls.