ProfPawale Sem III Algebra III Unit 3 Lect

Algebra III-Unit-3
Modules
Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale
Department of Mathematics
University of Mumbai.
November 9, 2020
Lecture-1: Definition and Examples
Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Definition
Let R be a ring (not necessarily commutative nor with 1). A left
R-module or a left module over R is a set M together with
1 a binary operation + on M with (M, +) is an abelian group,
and
2 an action of R on M (that is, a map R × M → M) denoted
by rm ∈ M, for all r ∈ R and for all m ∈ M, which satisfies
1 (r + s)m = rm + sm, for all r , s ∈ R, m ∈ M.
2 (rs)m = r (sm), for all r , s ∈ R, m ∈ M.
3 r (m + n) = rm + rn, for all r ∈ R, m, n ∈ M.
If the ring R has a 1 then we have

4 1m = m, for all m ∈ M.

Remark
The “left” in the above definition indicates that the ring
elements appear on the left.
The right module can defined similarly.
If the R is commutative and M is a left R-module then by
defining mr = rm for all r ∈ R, m ∈ M, we can make M into
right R-module.
Unless explicitly mentioned otherwise the term “module” will
always means “left module”.
Module over a field F and vector space over F are the same.

Problem
Let be a ring with 1 and M is a left R-module. Then show that
0m = 0 and (−1)m = −m for all m ∈ M.

Definition (Submodule)
Let R be a ring and M-be an R-module.
An R-submodule of M is a subgroup N of M which is closed under
the action of ring elements, i.e.
rn ∈ N, for all r ∈ R, n ∈ N.
Every R-module M has the two submodules M and {0}.

{0} is called the trivial submodule.

Examples
1 Let R be a ring. Then M = R is a left R-module.

2 Let R be a ring with 1 and n ∈ Z+ .
R n = {(a1 , a2 , . . . , an )/ai ∈ R for all i}.

Then R n is an R module.
3 The module R n is called the free module of rank n over R.
4 If M is an R-module (two sided) and I is an ideal of R, such
that am = 0 for all a ∈ I and for all m ∈ M. In this situation
we say that M is annihilated by I and M is an (R/I )-module
under the operation:
For each m ∈ M and r + I ∈ R/I let
(r + I )m = rm.

Let A be an abelian group. Then A is a Z-module. As

a + a + · · · + a
 (n times) if n > 0
na = 0 if n = 0

−a − a − · · · − a (n times) if n < 0


Let F be a field and R = F [x]. Then R is an integral domain
with 1.
Let V be a vector space over F and T be a linear
transformation from V to V .
Define T 0 = I and T n = T ◦ T ◦ · · · ◦ T (n times). I is an
identity map.
If A, B are linear transformations from V to V , then define
(αA + βB)(v ) = α(A(v )) + β(B(v )).
Let p(x) ∈ R, p(x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 ,

where an , an−1 , . . . , a1 , a0 ∈ F .
For each v ∈ V define
p(x)v = (an T n + an−1 T n−1 + · · · + a1 T + a0 )(v )

= an T n (v ) + an−1 T n−1 (v ) + · · · + a1 T (v ) + a0 v
This makes V into an F [x]-module.

Proposition (The submodule criteria)
Let R be a ring and let M be an R-module. A subset N of M is a
submodule of M if and only if
1 N 6= ∅.
2 x + ry ∈ N for all r ∈ R and for all x, y ∈ N.
Proof.
If N is a submodule, then N is a subgroup of M, 0 ∈ N.
Hence N 6= ∅.
As N is a module over R, (2) follows.
Suppose (1) and (2) hold.
Let r = −1, then (2) implies N is a subgroup of M.
Let x = 0, then by (2) ry ∈ N for all r ∈ R and for all y ∈ N.
This defines action of R on N, which satisfies all module
criteria. So N is module over R.
N is a submodule of M.

Proposition
Let N1 ⊆ N2 ⊆ · · · be an ascending chain of submodules of M.
Then ∪∞i=1 Ni is a submodule of M.
Proof.
As Ni 6= ∅ for each i, ∪∞
i=1 Ni 6= ∅.
Let r ∈ R and x, y ∈ ∪∞
i=1 Ni .
x, y ∈ Nk for some k.
As Nk is a sub-module, x + ry ∈ Nk
x + ry ∈ Nk ⊆ ∪∞
i=1 Ni .

Definition
An element m of the R-module M is called a torsion element if
rm = 0 for some non-zero element r ∈ R. The set of torsion
elements is denoted
Tor(M) = {m ∈ M/rm = 0 for some non-zero r ∈ R}.

Proposition
Prove that if R is an integral domain then Tor(M) is a submodule
of M. (Tor(M) is called the torsion submodule of M).
Proof.
For any r ∈ R − {0} and 0 ∈ M, r 0 = 0. Hence 0 ∈ Tor(M),
implies Tor(M) 6= ∅.
Let r ∈ R and x, y ∈ Tor(M). Then r1 , r2 ∈ R − {0} such
that r1 x = 0, r2 y = 0.
(r1 r2 )(x + ry ) = (r1 r2 )x + (r1 r2 )ry = r2 (r1 x) + r1 r (r2 y ) = 0.
As R is an integral domain r1 r2 ∈ R − {0}, implies
x + ry ∈ Tor(M).
Hence Tor(M) is a submodule of M.

Definition
Let M be an R-module and N is a submodule of M. The
annihilator of N in R is defined as
Ann(N) = {r ∈ R/rn = 0 for all n ∈ N}.
Proposition
The Ann(N) is a 2-sided ideal of R.
Problem
Let M = Z24 × Z15 × Z50 be a Z-module. Find the annihilator of
M in Z.

Algebra III-Unit-3
Modules
November 9, 2020
Lecture-2: Quotient Modules and Modules Homomorphisms

Let A, B be submodules of the R-module M. The sum of A and B
is the set
A + B = {a + b|a ∈ A, and b ∈ B}.
Problem
Show that A + B is a submodule of M and is the smallest
submodule which contains both A and B.

Definition (Let R be a ring and let M and N be R-modules.)
A map ϕ : M → N is an R-module homomorphism if
1 ϕ(x + y ) = ϕ(x) + ϕ(y ), for all x, y ∈ M. and
2 ϕ(rx) = r ϕ(x), for all r ∈ R, x ∈ M.
An R-module homomorphism is an isomorphism if it is both
injective and surjective.
The modules M and N are said to be isomorphic, and denoted
by M ∼
= N, if there is some R-module isomorphism
ϕ : M → N.
If ϕ : M → N is an R-module homomorphism, let
ker ϕ = {m ∈ M|ϕ(m) = 0} (kernel of ϕ) and let
ϕ(M) = {n ∈ N|n = ϕ(m) for some m ∈ M} (the image of
ϕ).
If R is a field then, R-module homomorphisms are called
linear transformations.
Define HomR (M, N) to be set of all R-module
homomorphisms from M into N.
Remark
The condition ϕ(x + y ) = ϕ(x) + ϕ(y ), for all x, y ∈ M implies ϕ
is a group homomorphism. Hence for all x, y ∈ M we have the
following:
1 ϕ(0) = 0.
2 ϕ(−x) = −ϕ(x).
3 ϕ(x − y ) = ϕ(x) − ϕ(y ).
Exercises.
1 Show that ker ϕ and ϕ(M) are submodules of M and N
respectively.
2 Let R be a ring with unity and let M and N be R-modules.
Show that, a map ϕ : M → N is an R-module homomorphism
if and only if ϕ(rx + y ) = r ϕ(x) + ϕ(y ) for all x, y ∈ M and
for all r ∈ R.

If R is a ring and M = R is a module over itself, then R-module
homomorphisms need not be ring homomorphisms and ring
homomorphisms need not be R-module homomorphisms.
Example
1 Consider R = Z the Z-module homomorphism ϕ : R → R
defined as ϕ(x) = 2x is not a ring homomorphism as
ϕ(1) 6= 1. But ϕ is a R-module homomorphism as
ϕ(rx + y ) = 2(rx + y )
= r (2x) + 2y )
= r ϕ(x) + ϕ(y )
for all x, y , r ∈ R.
2 Let R = F [x], where F is a field, then R is a ring. ϕ : R → R
defined as ϕ(f (x)) = f (x 2 ), for every f (x) ∈ R. is a ring
homomorphism but it is not F [x]-module homomorphism as
x 2 = ϕ(x) = ϕ(x · 1) = xϕ(1) = x, not true.

Example
Let R be a ring, let n ∈ Z+ and let M = R n . Then M is a
R-module. Then for each i ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n} the projection map
πi : R n → R defined as πi (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = xi
is a surjective R-module homomorphism with ker π equal to the
submodule of n-tuples over R which have a zero in ith position.

Example
M and N be Z-modules and ϕ : M → N be a group
homomorphism. Then ϕ is a Z-module homomorphism.
Justification:
As ϕ is a group homomorphism we have
ϕ(x + y ) = ϕ(x) + ϕ(y ), for all x, y ∈ M.
Let x ∈ M and n ∈ Z.
Suppose n = 0, then ϕ(nx) = ϕ(0) = 0 = 0ϕ(x) = nϕ(x).
Suppose n > 0, then
ϕ(nx) = ϕ(x + x + · · · + x) (n times )

= ϕ(x) + ϕ(x) + · · · + ϕ(x) (n times )
= nϕ(x)
Suppose n < 0, then ϕ(nx) = ϕ((−n)(−x)) =

(−n)ϕ(−x) = (−n)(−ϕ(x)) = nϕ(x), since ϕ(−x) = −ϕ(x).
Let R be a ring and let M, N and L be R-modules. Let ϕ, ψ be
elements of HomR (M, N). Define ϕ + ψ : M → N by
(ϕ + ψ)(m) = ϕ(m) + ψ(n) for all m ∈ M.
Exercise.
Show that
1 ϕ + ψ ∈ HomR (M, N).
2 With this operation HomR (M, N) is an abelian group.

If R is commutative ring then for r ∈ R define r ϕ by
(r ϕ)(m) = r (ϕ(m)) for all m ∈ M.
Exercise.
Show that
1 r ϕ ∈ HomR (M, N).
2 With this action of the ring R the abelian group HomR (M, N)
is an R-module.
Exercise.
If ϕ ∈ HomR (L, M) and ψ ∈ HomR (M, N) then Show that ψ ◦ ϕ ∈
HomR (L, N).

Proposition
Let R be a ring, let M be an R-module and N be a submodule of
M.The additive, abelian quotient group M/N can be made into
and R-module by defining an action of elements of R by
r (x + N) = (rx) + N, for all r ∈ R, x + N ∈ M/N.
The natural projection map π : M → M/N defined by
π(x) = x + N is an R-module homomorphism with krenel N.
Since M is an abelian group under + the quotient group

M/N is defined and is an abelian group.
We show that the action of the ring element r on the coset
x + N is well defined.
Suppose x + N = y + N, i.e., x − y ∈ N.
Since N is a (left) R-submodule, r (x − y ) ∈ N.
Thus rx − ry ∈ N and rx + N = ry + N.
The axioms for an R-module are easily checked in the same
way as was done for quotient groups.
For all r1 , r2 ∈ R and x + N ∈ M/N.
(r1 r2 )(x + N) = (r1 r2 x) + N

= r1 (r2 x + N)
= r1 (r2 (x + N)).
The other axioms are similarly checked. It remains only to show π

is a module homomorphism. Let r ∈ R and m, m0 ∈ M.
π(rm + m0 ) = (rm + m0 ) + N
= (rm + N) + (m0 + N)
= r (m + N) + (m0 + N)
= r π(m) + π(m0 )

Theorem: The submodules of the quotient module M/N are of the form
U/N, where U is a submodule of M containing N.
Proof: Let f : M → M/N be the mapping defined as
f (x) = x + N, ∀x ∈ M.
Let X be an R-submodule of M/N.
Consider U = {x ∈ M|f (x) = x + N ∈ X }.
We prove that U is an R-submodule of M.
If x, y ∈ U and r ∈ R, then x + N, y + N ∈ X and
f (rx + y ) = (rx + y ) + N = r (x + N) + (y + N) ∈ X , which
shows that U is an R-submodule of M.
Also, N ⊂ U, because for all x ∈ N, f (x) = x + N = N ∈ X .
Thus, N is an R-submodule of U. Also, if x 0 ∈ X , then there
exists y ∈ M such that f (y ) = x 0 , because f is an onto
mapping. So by definition of U, y ∈ U.
Hence, X ⊂ f (U). Clearly, f (U) ⊂ X . Thus, X = f (U). But
f (U) = U/N. Thus, X = U/N.
Theorem (The First Isomorphism Theorem for Modules)
Let M, N be R-modules and let ϕ : M → N be an R-module
homomorphism. Then ker ϕ is a submodule of M and
M/ ker ϕ ∼
= ϕ(M).
Proof.
Consider the mapping g : M/ ker ϕ → ϕ(M) given by
g (m + ker ϕ) = ϕ(m).
Along exactly the same lines as the proof of the fundamental
theorems of homomorphisms for groups or rings, we can show
that g is an R-isomorphism of M/ ker ϕ onto ϕ(M).

Theorem (The Second Isomorphism Theorem)
Let A, B be submodules of the R-module M. Then
(A + B)/B ∼= A/(A ∩ B).
Proof.
Define ϕ : A → (A + B)/B as ϕ(a) = a + B for all a ∈ A.
Let a, a0 ∈ A and r ∈ R.
ϕ(ra+a0 ) = (ra+a0 )+B = r (a+B)+(a0 +B) = r ϕ(a)+ϕ(a0 ).
ϕ is an R-module homomorphism.
Let a ∈ A
a ∈ ker ϕ ⇔ ϕ(a) = B ⇔ a + B = B
⇔ a ∈ B ⇔ ker ϕ = A ∩ B
Observe that (a + b) + B = a + B for a ∈ A and b ∈ B, and

ϕ(a) = a + B = (a + b) + B, which implies ϕ is surjective.
Hence A/(A ∩ B) ∼= (A + B)/B.
Theorem (The Third Isomorphism Theorem)
Let M be an R-module, and let A and B be submodules of M with
A ⊆ B. Then (M/A)/(B/A) ∼ = M/B.
Proof: Define ϕ : M/A → M/B as ϕ(m + A) = m + B for all m ∈ M.

Let m + A, m0 + A ∈ M/A and r ∈ R.
ϕ(r (m + A) + (m0 + A)) = ϕ((rm + m0 ) + A)
= (rm + m0 ) + B
= r (m + B) + (m0 + B)
= r ϕ(m + A) + ϕ(m0 + A).
ϕ is an R-module homomorphism.
For m + A ∈ M/A, m + A ∈ ker ϕ ⇔ ϕ(m + A) = B
⇔ m + B = B ⇔ m ∈ B ⇔ m + A ∈ B/A. So we get
ker ϕ = B/A.
If m + B ∈ M/B for m ∈ M then ϕ(m + A) = m + B, which
implies ϕ is surjective.
Hence (M/A)/(B/A) ∼ = M/B.
Problem
1 Let A and B be R-submodules of R-modules M and N,
respectively. Then show that
M ×N ∼ M N
= × .
A×B A B
2 Let R be a ring with 1. Show that an R-module
M = Rx = {rx|r ∈ R} for some x ∈ M, if and only if
M∼ = R/I for some left ideal I of R.

Algebra III-Unit-3
Modules
November 9, 2020
Lecture-3: Generation of Modules, Direct Sums, and Free Modules

Date 02/11/202 Time 11.30 am to 12.30 pm

Let R be a ring with 1.
Definition: Let M be an R-module and let N1 , . . . , Nn be
submodules of M.
1. The sum of N1 , . . . , Nn is the set of all finite sums of elements
from the sets Ni : {a1 + a2 + · · · + an |ai ∈ Ni for all i}. We
denote this sum by N1 + · · · + Nn .
2. For any subset A of M let
RA = {r1 a1 +r2 a2 +· · ·+rm am |r1 , . . . , rm ∈ R, a1 , . . . , am ∈ A, m ∈ Z+ }
(where by convention RA = {0} if A = 0). lf A is the finite

set {a1 , a2 , . . . , an } we shall write Ra1 + Ra2 + · · · + Ran for
RA. Call RA the submodule of M generated by A. If N is a
submodule of M (possibly N = M) and N = RA, for some
subset A of M, we call A a set of generators or generating set
for N, and we say N is generated by A.

3. A submodule N of M (possibly N = M) is finitely generated if
there is some finite subset A of M such that N = RA, that is,
if N is generated by some finite subset.
4. A submodule N of M (possibly N = M) is cyclic if there
exists an element a ∈ M such that N = Ra, that is, if N is
generated by one element
N = Ra = {ra|r ∈ R}.
Remark
1. As 1 ∈ R, we have A ⊂ RA.
2. Verify that for any subset A of M, RA is the smallest
submodule of M which contains A.
3. For submodules N1 , N2 , . . . , Nn of M, N1 + N2 + · · · + Nn is
just the submodule generated by the set N1 ∪ N2 ∪ · · · ∪ Nn
and is the smallest submodule of M containing Ni , for all i.
4. If N1 , N2 , . . . , Nn are generated by sets A1 , A2 , . . . , An
respectively, then N1 + · · · + Nn is generated by A1 ∪ · · · ∪ An .
Remark
5. A submodule N of an R-module M may have many different
generating sets. For instance the set N itself always
generates N.
6. If N is finitely generated, then there is a smallest non-negative
integer d such that N is generated by d elements, and not
generated by less than d elements.
7. Any generating set consisting of d elements will be called a
minimal set of generators for N, and this set is not unique.
8. If N is not finitely generated, it need not have a minimal
generating set.

Example
1 Let R = Z and let M be any R-module, that is, any abelian
group. If a ∈ M, then Za is just the cyclic subgroup of M
generated by a. i.e. Za =< a >.
2 The definition of finitely generated for Z -modules is identical
to that for abelian groups.
3 Let R be a ring with 1. Consider R as left R-module.
1 Then R = R · 1. i.e. R is generated by 1.
2 The submodules of R are precisely the left ideals of R, so
saying I is a cyclic R-submodule of the left R-module R is the
same as saying I is a principal ideal of R.
3 Also, saying I is a finitely generated R-submodule of R is the
same as saying I is a finitely generated ideal.

Submodules of a finitely generated module need not be finitely
generated:
Example
Let F be a field and R = F [x1 , x2 , . . .], the polynomial ring in
infinitely many variables x1 , x2 , . . .. Consider M = R, a module
over R. Then M cyclic as M = R · 1. The submodule N of M (i.e.,
2-sided ideal) generated by x1 , x2 , . . . cannot be generated by any
finite set.
Justification:
Suppose A = {a1 , a2 , . . . , an } generates N.
Let nk be the largest positive integer such that each ai can be
express using x1 , x2 , . . . , xnk .
Then M is generated by x1 , x2 , . . . , xnk , a contradiction.

Example
Let R be a ring with 1 and let M be the free module of rank n
over R. For each i ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n} let ei = (0, 0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . , 0),
where the 1 appears in i th position. M is generated by
{e1 , e2 , . . . , en }, as
n
X
(s1 , s2 , . . . , sn ) = si ei .
i=1
If R is commutative then this is a minimal generating set.

Example
Let F be a field and V be a vector space over a field F and let T
be a linear transformation from V to V . Make V into F [x] module
via T .
1 Then V is a cyclic F [x]-module (with generator v ) if and only
if V = {p(x)v |p(x) ∈ F [x]}, that is, if and only if every
element of V can be written as an F -linear combination of
elements of the set {T n (v )|n ≥ 0}.
2 This in turn is equivalent to saying {v , T (v ), T 2 (v ), . . .} span
V as a vector space over F .
3 For instance if T is the identity linear transformation from V
to V or the zero linear transformation, then for every v ∈ V
and every p(x) ∈ F [x] we have p(x)v = αv for some α ∈ F .
4 Thus if V has dimension > 1, V cannot be a cyclic
F [x]-module.

Definition
Let M1 , M2 , . . . , Mk be a collection of R-modules.
M1 × M2 × · · · × Mk = {(m1 , m2 , · · · , mk )|mi ∈ Mi }. Then
M1 × M2 × · · · × Mk is a R-module and it is called direct product
of M1 , M2 , · · · , Mk .
Remark
1 It is evident that the direct product of a collection of
R-modules is again an R module.

2 The direct product of M1 , M2 , . . . , Mk is also referred to as
the (external) direct sum of M1 , M2 , . . . , Mk and denoted
M1 ⊕ M2 ⊕ . . . ⊕ Mk .

Prop: Let N1 , N2 , . . . , Nk be submodules of the R-module following
are equivalent:
1 The map π : N1 × N2 × . . . × Nk → N1 + N2 + · · · + Nk
defined by π(a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) = a1 + a2 + · · · + ak is an
isomorphism of R-modules.
2 Nj ∩ (N1 + N2 + · · · + Nj−1 + Nj+1 + · · · + Nk ) = {0} for all
j ∈ {1, 2, . . . , k}.
3 Every x ∈ N1 + N2 + · · · + Nk can be written uniquely in the
form a1 + a2 + · · · + ak with ai ∈ Ni .
Proof: (1) ⇒ (2). Suppose (1) holds and (2) fails.
Let aj ∈ Nj ∩ (N1 + N2 + · · · + Nj−1 + Nj+1 + · · · + Nk ), with
aj 6= 0.
Then aj = a1 + · · · + aj−1 + aj+1 + · · · + ak for some aj ∈ Nj ,
and 0 6= (a1 , · · · , aj−1 , −aj , aj+1 , · · · , ak ) ∈ ker π.
A contradiction.

Proof: (2) ⇒ (3). Suppose (2) holds.
If for some module elements ai , bi ∈ Ni we have
a1 + a2 + · · · + ak = b1 + b2 + · · · + bk
then for each j we have
aj −bj = (b1 −a1 )+· · ·+(bj−1 −aj−1 )+(bj+1 −aj+1 )+· · ·+(bk −ak ).
The left hand side is in Nj and the right side belongs to

N1 + N2 + · · · + Nj−1 + Nj+1 + · · · + Nk .
Thus
aj − bj ∈ Nj ∩ (N1 + N2 + · · · + Nj−1 + Nj+1 + · · · + Nk ) = {0}.
This shows aj = bj for all j, and so (2) implies (3).
Proof: (3) ⇒ (1). Observe that the map π is a surjective R-module
homomorphism.
Then (3) simply implies π is injective, hence is an
isomorphism, implying (1).
Definition
If an R-module M = N1 + N2 + · · · + Nk is the sum of submodules
N1 , N2 , . . . , Nk of M satisfying the equivalent conditions of the
proposition above, then M is said to be the (internal) direct sum
of N1 , N2 , . . . , Nk , written
M = N1 ⊕ N2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ N k .

Definition
An R-module F is said to be free on the subset A of F if for
every nonzero element x of F , there exist unique nonzero
elements r1 , r2 , . . . , rn of R and unique a1 , a2 , . . . , an in A such
that x = r1 a1 + r2 a2 + · · · + rn an , for some n ∈ Z+ .
In this situation we say A is a basis or set of free generators
for F .
If R is a commutative ring then the cardinality of A is called
the rank of F .
Free modules over noncommutative rings need not have a
unique rank (See Problem 27, page 358, ABSTRACT
ALGEBRA, by Dummit, Foote).
Note: 1. In the direct sum of two modules, say N1 ⊕ N2 , each element

can be written uniquely as n1 + n2 ; here the uniqueness refers
to the module elements n1 and n2 .
2. In the case of free modules, the uniqueness is on the ring
elements as well as the module elements.
Example
If R = Z and N1 = N2 = Z/2Z = Z2 , then each element of
N1 ⊕ N2 has a unique representation in the form n1 + n2
where each ni ∈ Ni , however n1 (for instance) can be
expressed as n1 or 3n1 or 5n1 . . . etc., so each element does
not have a unique representation in the form r1 a1 + r2 a2 ,
where r1 , r2 ∈ R, a1 ∈ N1 and a2 ∈ N2 .
Thus Z/2Z is not a free Z-module on the set {(1, 0), (0, 1)}.
Similarly, it is not free on any set.

Definition
1 A finite sequence a , a , . . . , a of elements of an R-module M
1 2 n
is
Pn called linearly independent if for any r1 , r2 , . . . , rn ∈ R,
i=1 ri ai = 0 implies r1 = r2 = · · · = rn = 0
2 A finite sequence is called linearly dependent if it is not
linearly independent.
3 A subset B of an R-module M is called a basis if
1 M is generated by B.
2 B is a linearly independent set.

Theorem: For any set A there is a free R-module F (A) on the set A and
F (A) satisfies the following universal property: if M is any
R-module and ϕ : A → M is any map of sets, then there is a
unique R-module homomorphism Φ : F (A) → M such that
Φ(a) = ϕ(a), for all a ∈ A, that is, the following diagram
commutes.
When A is the finite set {a1 , a2 , . . . , an },

F (A) = Ra1 ⊕ Ra2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Ran ∼ = R n.
Proof: Let F (A) = {0} if A = ∅.
If A is nonempty let F (A) be the collection of all set functions
f : A → R such that f (a) = 0 for all but finitely many a ∈ A.
We make F (A) into an R-module by defining the following
operations.
(f + g )(a) = f (a) + g (a) and (rf )(a) = r (f (a)) for all
a ∈ A, r ∈ R and f , g ∈ F (A).
Verify all that all the R-module axioms hold.
Identify A as a subset of F (A) by a map a 7→ Ia , where
(
1 if x = a
Ia (x) =
0 if x ∈ A − {a}.
For f ∈ F (A) suppose f (ai ) = ri 6= 0 for i = 1, 2, . . . , n and

f (a) = 0 for all a ∈ A − {a1 , a2 , . . . , an }.
Then f ≡ r1 Ia1 + r2 Ia2 + . . . + rn Ian .
Each f ∈ F (A) has a unique expression as above.
Suppose ϕ : A → M. Define Φ : F (A) → M by
n n
!
X X
Φ r i I ai = ri ϕ(ai ).
i=1 i=1

By the uniqueness of the expression for the elements of F (A)
as linear combinations of the ai we see easily that Φ is a well
defined R-module homomorphism (the details are left as an
exercise).
By definition, the restriction of Φ to A equals ϕ.
Finally, since F (A) is generated by {Ia |a ∈ A} once we know
the values of an R-module homomorphism on A its values on
every element of F (A) are uniquely determined, so Φ is the
unique extension of ϕ to all of F (A).
When A is the finite set {a1 , a2 , . . . , an },
F (A) = Ra1 ⊕ Ra2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Ran .
Since R =∼ Rai for all i (under the map r 7→ rai ) the direct
sum is isomorphic to R n . i.e. F (A) ∼ = R n.

Corollary
1 If F1 and F2 are free modules on the same set A, there is a
unique isomorphism between F1 and F2 which is the identity
map on A.
2 If F is any free R-module with basis A, then F ∼
= F (A). In
particular, F enjoys the same universal property with respect
to A as F (A) does in above Theorem.

Remark
1 If F is a free R-module with basis A, we shall often
(particularly in the case of vector spaces) define R-module

homomorphisms from F into other R-modules simply by
specifying their values on the elements of A and then saying
“extend by linearity”.
2 When R = Z, the free module on a set A is called the free
abelian group on A. If |A| = n, F (A) is called the free abelian
group of rank n and is isomorphic to Z ⊕ Z ⊕ · · · ⊕ Z. (n
times).

Algebra III-Unit-3
Modules
November 9, 2020
Lecture-4: Finitely generated Free Modules

Date 09/11/202 Time 11.30 am to 12.30 pm

Definition
An R-module M is called simple or irreducible if M 6= {0} and {0},
M are the only R-submodules of M.
Example
A field or a division ring R regarded as a module over itself.

Theorem Let R be a ring with 1, and let M be an R-module. Then the
following statements are equivalent:
1 M is simple.
2 M 6= {0}, and M is generated by any x ∈ M − {0}.
3 M ∼
= R/I , where I is a maximal left ideal of R.
Proof: (1) ⇒ (2)
Let x ∈ M − {0}. Then Rx is a non-zero R-submodule of M.
As M is simple M = Rx.
Proof: (2) ⇒ (1)
Let {0} =6 N an R-submodule of M. Let 0 6= x ∈ N. Then by
(2) M = Rx ⊂ N. Hence, N = M, proving that M is simple.
(For rings without 1, (2) in general, does not imply (1)).
Proof: (3) ⇒ (1).
Let f : M → R/I is an R-module isomorphism and N ⊂ M be
a submodule of M. Then f (N) is a submodule of R/I .
As R/I is simple f (N) = {0} = I or R/I .
As f is an isomorphism, N = {0} or N = M, proving M is
simple.
Proof: (1) ⇒ (3)
Because RM = M 6= {0}, there exists x ∈ M − {0} such that
Rx 6= {0}.
But Rx is an R-submodule of M. Because M is simple,
Rx = M.
Define a mapping f : R → Rx by f (a) = ax.
f is an R-homomorphism of R regarded as an R-module to
M, f is clearly surjective.
Let I = ker f . Then by the first isomorphism theorem for
modules R/I ∼ = Rx.
Because R/I is simple, it follows that the only left ideal of R
that contains I properly is R alone.
Thus, I is a maximal left ideal of R.

Theorem: Let M be a free R-module with a basis {e1 , e2 , . . . , en }. Then
M∼ = R n.
Proof: Define a mapping φ : M → R n by
n n
!
X X
φ ri e i = ri fi ,
i=1 i=1
where fi = (0, . . . , 0, 1, 0 . . . , 0) ∈ R n .
Pn Pn 0
i=1 ri ei = i=1 ri ei , implies, by the linear independence of
the ei0 s, ri = ri0 for i = 1, 2, . . . , n. Hence φ is well defined.
It is easy to show that φ is R-module homomorphism and
bijective.

Theorem: Let M be a finitely generated free module over a commutative
ring R. Then all bases of M are finite.
Proof: Let (ei ), i ∈ I, be a basis of M, and let {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } be a
set of generators of M. Then each xj can be written as
nj
X
xj = αij ei , αij ∈ R.
i=1
Thus, the set S of those ei ’s that occur in expressions of all

the xj ’s j = 1, 2, . . . , n, is finite.
See that S is a basis of M and I is a finite set.

Theorem: Let M be a simple R-module. Then HomR (M, M) is a
division ring.
Proof: Let 0 6= φ ∈ HomR (M, M).
Consider the R-submodules ker φ and Im φ of M.
If ker φ = M, then φ = 0, a contradiction. Thus, ker φ = (0),
so φ is injective.
Further, if Im φ = (0), then φ = 0, a contradiction.
Therefore, Im φ = M, which implies φ is surjective.
Hence, φ is bijective, which proves that φ is invertible.

Theorem: Let M be a finitely generated free module over a commutative
ring R. Then all bases of M have the same number of
elements.
Proof: Equivalently, we show that the if R m ∼ = R n then m = n.
Suppose R m ∼ = R n and m < n.
Let φ : R m → R n be an R-isomorphism, and let ψ = φ−1 .
Let (e1 , e2 , . . . , em ) and (f1 , f2 , . . . , fn ) be ordered bases of R m
and R n respectively.
We take φ(ei ) = nj=1 aji fj and φ(fj ) = m
P P
k=1 bkj ei .
Let A = (aji ), B = (bkj ) be an n × m and m × n matrices.
Then
m X
X n
(ψ ◦ φ)(ei ) = bkj aji ek , 1 ≤ i ≤ m.
k=1 j=1
Pm Pn
As ψ = φ−1 we have ei = k=1 j=1 bkj aji .
Hence nj=1 bkj aji = δki .
P

   
b11 b12 ··· b1n a11 a21 ··· a1m
 b21 b22 ··· b2n   a21 b22 ··· a2m 
B=  and A =  .
   
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
 . . . .   . . . . 
bm1 bm2 ··· bmn an1 bn2 ··· bnm
Then BA = Im and AB = In , where Im is the m × m identity
matrix.
B
Take A0 = [A O] and B 0 = = Im , be n × n augmented
O
matrices, where each of O is a matrix of 0 of appropriate size.

0 0 0 0 Im O
Then A B = In and B A = .
O O
This implies det(A0 B 0 ) = 1, and det(B 0 A0 ) = 0.
As A0 and B 0 are n × n square matrices over a commutative
ring, det(A0 B 0 ) = det(B 0 A0 ), which is a contradiction.
Hence, m ≥ n. Similarly we can show that n ≥ m.
This proves m = n.

Definition
The number of elements in any basis of a finitely generated free
module M over a commutative ring R with 1 is called the rank of
M, written rank M.
Problem
Let M be a finitely generated free module over a commutative ring
R and let K be a sub module of M. Then show that M/K is a free
R-module.

Theorem: Every finitely generated module is a homomorphic image of a
finitely generated free module.
Proof: Let M be an R-module with generators x1 , x2 , . . . , xn .
Let ei ∈ R n be the n-tuple with all entries 0 except at the ith
place, where the entry is 1.
Then {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } are linearly independent over R and
generate a free module R n . Define a mapping φ : R n → M by
n n
!
X X
φ ri ei = ri x i .
i=1 i=1
Because
Pn each element x ∈ R n has a unique representation as
i=1 ri ei , φ is well defined.
Show that φ is an R-homomorphism of R n onto M. If K is
the kernel of φ then R n /K ∼
= M.

Thank You

ProfPawale Sem III Algebra III Unit 3 Lect

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Algebra III-Unit-3

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale

Lecture-1: Definition and Examples

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

If the ring R has a 1 then we have

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Every R-module M has the two submodules M and {0}.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

1 Let R be a ring. Then M = R is a left R-module.

R n = {(a1 , a2 , . . . , an )/ai ∈ R for all i}.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

(αA + βB)(v ) = α(A(v )) + β(B(v )).

Let p(x) ∈ R, p(x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 ,

p(x)v = (an T n + an−1 T n−1 + · · · + a1 T + a0 )(v )

This makes V into an F [x]-module.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Tor(M) = {m ∈ M/rm = 0 for some non-zero r ∈ R}.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale

Lecture-2: Quotient Modules and Modules Homomorphisms

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

ϕ(nx) = ϕ(x + x + · · · + x) (n times )

Suppose n < 0, then ϕ(nx) = ϕ((−n)(−x)) =

(ϕ + ψ)(m) = ϕ(m) + ψ(n) for all m ∈ M.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

(r ϕ)(m) = r (ϕ(m)) for all m ∈ M.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Since M is an abelian group under + the quotient group

(r1 r2 )(x + N) = (r1 r2 x) + N

The other axioms are similarly checked. It remains only to show π

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Observe that (a + b) + B = a + B for a ∈ A and b ∈ B, and

Proof: Define ϕ : M/A → M/B as ϕ(m + A) = m + B for all m ∈ M.

respectively. Then show that

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale

Lecture-3: Generation of Modules, Direct Sums, and Free Modules

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

RA = {r1 a1 +r2 a2 +· · ·+rm am |r1 , . . . , rm ∈ R, a1 , . . . , am ∈ A, m ∈ Z+ }

(where by convention RA = {0} if A = 0). lf A is the finite

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

If R is commutative then this is a minimal generating set.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

R-modules is again an R module.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

then for each j we have

The left hand side is in Nj and the right side belongs to