GROUP 1: NEWBORN

DEFINITION OF NEWBORN

A newborn infant, or neonate, is a child under 28

days of age.

PROFILE OF THE NEWBORN

Newborns may look alike, but each has its own

physical attributes and personalities. Some
VITAL SIGNS
newborns are fat and short while some are long a
thin. There are newborns who never give a fuss
whenever they are changed or cuddled, but some
can cry in high decibels whenever you lift them
from their cradles.

The weight of newborns varies according to their

race, genetics, and nutritional factors to
determine if the newborn’s weight is appropriate
for its gestational age, a neonatal

Graph should be used in plotting the newborn’s ADJUSTMENT TO EXTRAUTERINE LIFE

weight. COLOR
Plotting the height and head circumference of the → first 15-30 minutes – acrocyanotic
newborn also helps determine any → after 2-6 hours – quick color changes
disproportions.
TEMPERATURE
Head circumference is measured with a tape
measure drawn across the center of the forehead → falls within first 15-30 minutes after birth
and around the most prominent part of the → from the intrauterine temperature of
posterior head. 100.6°F or 38.1°C after 2-6 hours –
37.6°C
The chest circumference in a mature newborn is
2 cm less than the head circumference. HEART RATE

Chest circumference is measured at the level of → first 15-30 minutes – 180 bpm
the nipple using a tape measure. → it slows to 120-140 bpm

The newborn loses 5% to 10% of its birth weight RESPIRATION

during the first few days of life, then has 1 day of
stable weight, and gains weight rapidly afterward.
The newborn must gain 2 lbs. per month for the
first six months of life
→ irregular in the first few minutes of life
→ slows to 30-60 bpm after 30 minutes
ALERT AND RESPONSIVE TO EXTERNAL
STIMULI

→ first 15-30 minutes of life

BOWEL SOUND
VITAL STATISTICS
→ can be heard after 15 minutes of life
becomes present afterward
APPEARANCE OF THE NEWBORN
RUDDY COMPLEXION
→ refers to a healthy, reddish pink or rosy
coloration of the baby's skin.
→ due to the extra high count of red blood
cells.
PALE AND CYANOTIC NEWBORN
→ signifies poor central nervous system
control
GRAY COLOR
→ in newborn, may indicate infection.
ACROCYANOSIS
→ normal in newborn
→ characterized by bluish discoloration in
the extremities and lips.
CENTRAL CYANOSIS
→ refers to cyanosis found on “central”
parts of the body, including the mouth,
head and torso.
JAUNDICE
→ appears on the second or third day of life
as a result of the breakdown of fetal red
blood cells.
→ Early feeding may diminish physiologic
jaundice
PALLOR IN NEWBORNS
→ a sign of anemia
HARLEQUIN SIGN
→ is characterized by a sudden and striking
color change in the skin of one side of the
baby's body, while the other side remains
normal in color.
VERNIX CASEOSA
→ the white cream cheese-like substance is
washed away in the first bath, but never
rub harshly as it will only come off
gradually.
LANUGO
→ the fine, downy hair that covers the
shoulders, arms and back of the newborn
would be rubbed away by the friction of
the bedding and clothes of the newborn.
MILIA
→ are tiny lumps or blisters that sometimes
come up on babies' faces soon after
birth. They happen when the sweat
glands get blocked.
FONTANELLES
An infant is born with two major soft spots on the
top of the head called fontanelles. These soft
spots are spaces between the bones of the skull
where bone formation isn't complete
ANTERIOR FONTANELLES
close after 12-18 months
POSTERIOR FONTANELLES
close at the end of 2nd month
BIRTHMARKS
HEMANGIOMAS
→ It is a bright red birthmark and are
vascular tumors of the skin which are
considered to be among the most
common vascular birthmarks. strawberry
STRAWBERRY HEMANGIOMAS
→ in the surface of the baby’s skin
CAVERNOUS HEMANGIOMAS
→ deeper into the skin's bottom fatty layer
cavernous
NEVUS FLAMMEUS/PORT-WINE STAIN
→ Muscular purple or dark red lesions.
Generally, appear on the face and thighs.
It is a congenital skin condition that can
affect any part of the body and persists
throughout life.
MONGOLIAN SPOTS APGAR SCORING

→ Slate gray patches across the sacrum or According to kids’ health, the APGAR score is a
buttocks and consist of a collection of test given to newborns soon after birth. This test
pigment cells checks a baby’s heart rate, muscle tone, and
other signs to see if extra medical care or
FORCEPS MARKS emergency care if needed.
→ These are circular or linear contusion What does it check?
matching the rim of the blade forceps on
the infant’s cheeks. The APGAR score measures five things to check
→ a baby's health. Each is scored on a scale of 0 to
2, with 2 being the best score:
OTHER APPEARANCES OCCURS IN
NEWBORN 1. Appearance (skin color)
2. Pulse (heart rate)
Permanent eye color appears in the 3rd to 12t 3. Grimace response (reflexes)
month of age. 4. Activity (muscle tone)
The newborn’s external ear is not yet fully formed, 5. Respiration (breathing rate and effort)
and the top part of the external ear should be on
a line drawn from the inner canthus to the outer
canthus of the eye and back across the side of
the head.

The newborn’s mouth must open evenly when he

or she cries.

The newborn’s nose tends to look large for the

face but the rest of the face will grow more than
the nose does.

ASSESSMENT FOR NEW BORN

The primary focus of child nursing is newborn

care, which focuses on giving babies the support
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
and nurturing they need throughout their crucial
initial days of life. Physical examination is done to detect any
observable conditions and physical defects.
Assessment of the newborn immediately starts
the moment he or she is delivered. This assessment is done quickly by the
healthcare provider while noting important
findings and at the same time avoids
TYPES OF ASSESSMENT NEEDED FOR A overexposing the newborn.
NEWBORN
SOME EXAMPLE OF PHYSICAL
EXAMINATION

→ APGAR SCORING → HEIGHT

→ PHYSICAL EXAMINATION → WEIGHT
→ EYES

A health professional will check the appearance

and movement of the baby's eyes.
They're looking for cataracts, which is a clouding
of the transparent lens inside the eye, and other
conditions.
HEART
The healthcare professional will check the baby's
heart. This is done by observing the baby, feeling
the baby's pulses, and listening to their heart with
a stethoscope.
Sometimes heart murmurs are picked up. A heart
murmur is where the heartbeat has an extra or
unusual sound caused by a disturbed blood flow
through the heart.
HIPS
Some newborns have hip joints that are not
formed properly. This is known as developmental
dysplasia of the hip (DDH).
Left untreated, DDH can cause a limp or joint
problems.
TESTICLE (MALE NEWBORN)
Baby boys are checked to make sure their
testicles are in the right place.
During pregnancy, the testicles form inside the
baby's body. They may not drop down into the
scrotum until a few months after birth.
CARE FOR NEWBORN
According to WHO, Babies have the right to be
protected from injury and infection, to breathe
normally, to be warm and to be fed.
ESSENTIAL NEWBORN CARE INCLUDES:
• Immediate care at birth (delayed cord
clamping, thorough drying, assessment
of breathing, skin-to skin contact, early
initiation of breastfeeding)
• Thermal care
• Resuscitation when needed
• Support for breast milk feeding
• Nurturing care infection prevention
• ❖ assessment of health problems
• Recognition and response to danger
signs
• Timely and safe referral when needed
GROUP 2: INTRODUCTION TO
PSYCHOANALYSIS OF SIGMUND FREUD
Overview of Psychoanalytic Theory of Sigmund
Freud
Sigmund Freud's theory suggests that human
behavior is influenced by unconscious memories,
thoughts, and urges by which is influenced by the
psychic energy so called "libido". He also
proposes that the psyche comprises three
aspects: the id, ego, and superego.
Under the Psychoanalytic Theory; there's
underlying various theories such as:
• Drives and Libido
• Theory of Personality
• Theory of Psyche
• Theory of Dream Analysis
• Theory of Defense Mechanism
• Theory of Religion
• Theory of Female Psychology
• Psychosexual Theory
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY: BASICS
The theory stated that the source of human
behavior, thoughts, and actions originated from
psyche energy called libido
An Unfalsifiable theory which explains human
personality as a series of stages that is formed
through inner conflicts.
It discusses about how unconscious conflicts
occur between components of the human mind –
the id, ego, and superego.
Freud also added that our levels of
consciousness also affect the components of
human mind.
DRIVES AND PSYCHIC ENERGY
Sigmund Freud suggested that psychic energy is
generated by the libido, however, this libido or
libidinal energy (psyche energy) is limited and
certain amount is available for utilization at any
point. These libidos are released through
biological means known as drives which has two
parts: a biological need and a psychological
need.
Freud believed that people continuously generate
psychic energy. This psychic energy can be used
by the three components of personality: the id, the
ego, and the superego.
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY: THEORY OF
PSYCHE
Freud stated that human mind is structured into
two main parts: the conscious and unconscious
mind. Freudian psychology compares the mind to
an iceberg.
• The tip of the iceberg that is actually
visible above the water represents just a tiny
portion of the mind, while the huge expanse of ice
hidden underneath the water represents the
much larger unconscious.
In addition to these two main components of the
mind, Freudian theory also divides human
personality into three major components: the id,
ego, and superego.
COMPONENTS OF HUMAN MIND:
Id - the source of libidinal energy (psyche
energy). Stated as the most primitive part of the
personality that is the source of all our most basic
urges and identified as entirely unconscious.
Controlled by the cathexis and ant cathexis.
Ego - the component of personality that deals
with reality and helps ensure that the demands of
the id are satisfied in ways that are realistic, safe,
and socially acceptable.
Superego - the part of the personality that holds
all of the internalized morals and standards that
we acquire from our parents, family, and society
at large.
LEVELS OF CONSCIOUSNESS:
Consciousness (Active Conscious) - consists
of all those things we are aware of, including
things that we know about ourselves and our
surroundings.
Preconscious (Memory Conscious) - consists
of those things we could pay conscious attention
to if we so desired, and where many memories
are stored for easy retrieval. These are memories
that are available for recall and easily capable of
becoming conscious
Unconscious (Passive Memory) - consists of
those things that are outside of conscious
awareness, including many memories, thoughts,
and urges of which we are not aware. These are
hidden memories that we have, at some point,
tried to forget.
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY: THEORY OF
PERSONALITY
According to Freud, there are a few different
factors that affect personality and he suggested
that our mental states were influenced by two
competing forces:
• Cathexis - was described as an investment of
mental energy in a person, idea, or object
MECHANISM OF CATHEXIS FORCES
Since the id does not distinguish between a
mental image and reality, it may not create direct
action to satisfy a need. Instead, the id may
simply form an image of the desired object that
satisfies in the short term
Because of this, the ego is able to capture some
of the energy dispersed by the id. When this
energy becomes associated with an ego-related
activity, it becomes known as an ego cathexis
which now involves seeking out activities that are
related to the need.
• Anticathexis - involves the ego blocking the
socially unacceptable needs of the id. Repression
is the most common form of Anticathexis, it
serves to keep undesirable actions, thoughts, or
behaviors from coming into conscious
awareness.
DEFICIENCY IN ANTICATHEXIS FORCES
Repressing unwanted id urges takes a
considerable investment of energy. Because
there is only so much energy available, the other
processes may be shortchanged without the
energy used in the process of anticathexes.
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY: THEORY OF
DEFENSE MECHANISM
"I believe we are in harmony with the teachings of
general pathology in assuming that this
development involves two dangers, inhibition and
regression. In other words, with the universal
tendency of biological processes toward
variation, it must necessarily happen that not all
preparatory phases of a given function are
equally well passed through or accomplished"
(Freud, 1917.)
Defense mechanisms are psychological
strategies that are unconsciously used to protect
a person from anxiety arising from unacceptable
thoughts or feelings. According to Freudian
theory, defense mechanisms involve a distortion
of realty in some way so that we are better able
to cope with a situation.
Sigmund Freud (1894, 1896) noted a number of
ego defenses which he refers to throughout his
written works. His daughter Anna Freud (1936)
developed these ideas and elaborated on them,
adding ten of her own.
DEFENSE MECHANISMS BY SIGMUND
FREUD & ANNA FREUD
• Repression - an unconscious defense
mechanism employed by the ego to keep
disturbing or threatening thoughts from becoming
conscious which Anna Freud also called
“motivated forgetting,”
• Denial - proposed by Anna Freud which
involves a refusal to accept reality, thus blocking
external events from awareness.
• Projection - proposed by Anna Freud in which
an individual attributes unwanted thoughts,
feelings and motives onto another person.
• Displacement - the redirection of an impulse
(usually aggression) onto a powerless substitute
target. The target can be a person or an object
that can serve as a symbolic substitute. It is the
Freudian explanation for many of our feelings of
inferiority, guilt, and depression.
• Regression - proposed by Anna Freud whereby
the the ego reverts to an earlier stage of
development usually in response to stressful
situations. It function as a form of retreat, enabling
a person to psychologically go back in time to a
period when the person felt safer.
• Sublimation - originally proposed by Anna
Freud; takes place when we manage to displace
our unacceptable emotions into behaviors which
are constructive and socially acceptable, rather
than destructive activities.
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY: THEORY OF
DREAM ANALYSIS
The unconscious mind played a critical role in all
of Freud's theories, and he considered dreams to
be one of the key ways to take a peek into what
lies outside our conscious awareness
Freud called dream as "the royal road to the
unconscious" and believed that by examining
dreams, he could see not only how the
unconscious mind works but also what it is trying
to hide from conscious awareness.
Freud believed the content of dreams could be
broken down into two different types:
• Manifest content of a dream included all the
actual content of the dream—the events, images,
and thoughts contained within the dream.
• Latent content, on the other hand, is all the
hidden and symbolic meanings within the dream.
Freud believed that dreams were essentially a
form of wish fulfillment.
"We call such a constant relationship between a
dream element and its interpretation symbolic.
The dream element is itself a symbol of the
unconscious dream thought" (Freud, 1917)
Some of Latent [Dream] Content by Sigmund
Freud on his lecture of "Symbolism of Dreams"
• Many symbols [in dreams] represent the
womb of the mother rather than the female
genital, as wardrobes, stoves, and primarily
a room
• Jewels and treasure are also
representatives of the beloved person in the
dream
• Blossoms and flowers represent the female
genitals, or more particularly, virginity
• Birth is regularly expressed in dreams by
some connection with water; one plunges
into the water, or comes out of the water,
which means one gives birth to, or is born
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY: THEORY OF
RELIGION
Freud theorized that religious beliefs are
essentially delusions, and also that turning away
from these types of ideologies is preferable
because religion does not lead to happiness and
fulfillment; in fact, it is a belief structure not based
on evidence.
He believed that people tend to depict their idea
of a "God" based on the qualities and traits of the
father figure in their life and that these qualities
changed as their relationship with their father
changed.
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY: THEORY OF
FEMALE PSYCHOLOGY; EMPHASIZING THE
ANALOGY BETWEEN THE ATTITUDE OF THE
TWO SEXES."
Freud's perspective on women was, and
continues to be, one of his most controversial.
One of his theories relating to female psychology
is known as the Electra complex, a term coined
by Carl Jung, also sometimes referred to as penis
envy.
The Electra complex is a psychoanalytic term
used to describe a girl's sense of competition with
her mother for the affection of her father. It is
comparable to the Oedipus complex in males.
The Electra complex develops during the phallic
stage of psychosexual development. The phallic
stage occurs between the ages of three to six,
during which time daughters spend more time
with their fathers, flirting and practicing sexual
behaviors without sexual contact.
Like many other Freudian ideas, the notion of the
Electra complex was controversial, both in his
own time and today. Freud did admit that he knew
less about the development of girls than boys.
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY:
PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY
Freudian theory suggests that as children
develop, they progress through a series of
psychosexual stages. At each stage, the libido's
pleasure-seeking energy is focused on a different
part of the body.
• The oral stage: The libidinal energies are
focused on the mouth.
Oral; birth to one year; libido is centered in the
mouth; leads to thumb sucking, smoking, nail-
biting, and other oral behaviors when stressed; id
period.
• The anal stage: The libidinal energies are
focused on the anus.
Anal; one to three years; libido is centered on the
anus (defecation); methods of potty training may
cause obsessive tidiness, stubbornness,
swearing, and one’s attitude toward authority;
ego period.
• The phallic stage: The libidinal energies are
focused on the penis or clitoris. Three to six
years; libido is centered in the genitals; leads to
erotic attraction, jealousy, fear of rejection;
Oedipus complex period/Electra complex period.
• The latent stage: A period of calm in which little
libidinal interest is present. six years to puberty;
dormant period leads to the channeling of sexual
energy into studies, friends, and pastimes; ego
and superego period.
• The genital stage: The libidinal energies are
focused on the genitals. puberty to adult; libido is
centered on shared sexual pleasure rather than
selfish (phallic stage); finding the right partner or
sexual perversions; superego period.
Talk Therapy: Bertha Pappenheim Case
(Patignan nalang po sa ppt sorry po)
Conclusion:
Even if Freud’s original theory is no longer
universally accepted, modern psychoanalysis
has developed from his research and writings.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, Erikson’s Stages of
Development, Piaget’s Cognitive Theory of
Development, and Kohlberg’s Moral
Development theories all have their roots in
Freud’s original version.
GROUP 3: PSYCHOSOCIAL AND
DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES
ERIK ERIKSON
Erik Homburger Erikson was a German-American
psychoanalyst known for his theory on
psychological development of human beings. He
coined the phrase identity crisis. Despite lacking
a university degree, Erikson served as a
professor at prominent institutions, including
Harvard, University of California, Berkeley, and
Yale. A Review of General Psychology survey,
published in 2002, ranked Erikson as the 12th
most eminent psychologist of the 20th century.
OVERVIEW OF HIS WORK
Erikson believed that personality developed in a
series of stages. Erikson’s theory described the
impact of social experience across the whole
lifespan. Erikson was interested in how social
interaction and relationships played a role in the
development and growth of human beings.
Erikson's theory was based on what is known as
the epigenetic principle. This principle suggests
that people grow in a sequence that occurs over
time and in the context of a larger community.
8 STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
STAGE 1 :TRUST VS. MISTRUST
•This stage begins at birth and lasts until a child
is around 18 months old.
•The most important period of a child's life, as it
shapes their view of the world as well as their
overall personality
Children who learn to trust caregivers in infancy
will be more likely to form trusting relationships
with others throughout the course of their lives
STAGE 2: AUTONOMY VS. SHAME AND
DOUBT
Children are just starting to gain a little
independence at this point in development. They
are starting to perform basic actions
independently and make simple decisions about
their preferences. By allowing kids to make
choices and gain control, parents and caregivers
can help children develop a sense of autonomy
For example, during this stage, children begin to
assert their independence, by walking away from
their mother, picking which toy to play with, and
making choices about what they like to wear, to
eat, etc.
STAGE 3: INITIATIVE VS. GUILT
At this point in psychosocial development,
children begin to assert their power and control
over the world through directing play and other
social interactions.
Children who are successful at this stage feel
capable and able to lead others. Those who fail
to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt,
self-doubt, and lack of initiative.
Central to this stage is play, as it allows children
to explore their interpersonal skills through
initiating activities.
The child begins to assert control and power over
their environment by planning activities,
accomplishing tasks, and facing challenges.
STAGE 4 : INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY
• Erikson’s fourth psychosocial crisis, involving
industry (competence) vs. Inferiority occurs
during childhood between the ages of five and
twelve. In this stage, children start to compare
themselves with their peers to gauge their
abilities and worth
• Children are at the stage where they will be
learning to read and write, to do sums, and to do
things on their own. Teachers begin to take an
important role in the child’s life as they teach
specific skills. At this stage, the child’s peer group
will gain greater significance and become a major
source of the child’s self-esteem.
STAGE 5 : IDENTITY VS. CONFUSION
The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during
the often turbulent teenage years. During this
stage, adolescents search for a sense of self and
personal identity, through an intense exploration
of personal values, beliefs, and goals.
Teens need to develop a sense of self and
personal identity. Success leads to an ability to
stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role
confusion and a weak sense of self.
STAGE 6: INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION
Young adults need to form intimate, loving
relationships with other people. Success leads to
strong relationships, while failure results in
loneliness and isolation. This stage covers the
period of early adulthood when people are
exploring personal relationships
During this stage, we begin to share ourselves
more intimately with others. We explore
relationships leading toward longer-term
commitments with someone other than a family
member.

STAGE 7: GENERATIVITY VS. STAGNATION

Adults need to create or nurture things that will

outlast them, often by having children or creating
a positive change that benefits other people.

Success leads to feelings of usefulness and

accomplishment, while failure results in shallow
involvement in the world.

Those who are successful during this phase will

feel that they are contributing to the world by GROUP 4: COGNITIVE THEORY
being active in their home and community.
TERMINOLOGIES
Those who fail to attain this skill will feel
COGNITIVE:
unproductive and uninvolved in the world.
- Pertaining to the mental processes of
STAGE 8: INTEGRITY VS. DESPAIR
perception, memory, judgment, and reasoning
The final psychosocial stage occurs during old (Collins dictionary). Comes from the word
age and is focused on reflecting back on life. "Cognition" which is thinking.

Look back on the events of their lives and THEORY:

determine if they are happy with the life that they
- An idea or set of ideas that is intended to explain
lived or if they regret the things they did or didn't
facts or events (britanica dictionary)
do.
PERCEPTION:
Older adults need to look back on life and feel a
sense of fulfillment. a well lived life could give - Defined as our recognition and interpretation of
sense of peace and readiness to leave the world, sensory information.
while a life full of regret could lead to fear of
leaving the world without accomplishing things ATTENTION:
that they should have well live life= integrity, life
- Is the concentration of awareness on some
full of regrets = despair
phenomenon to the exclusion of other stimuli.
ERICKSON’S STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL
MEMORY:
DEVELOPMENT
- Defined as the faculty of encoding, storing, and
retrieving information (Squire, 2009).

LANGUAGE:

- The ability to communicate through spoken or

written words.

PROBLEM-SOLVING:

- The ability to identify and solve problems using

available information.
DEFINITION OF COGNITIVE THEORY
Cognitive theory attempts to explain human
behavior by studying the mental processes
involved when trying learn and understand.
The cognitive theory definition asserts that the
way people behave is a product of the information
they gather externally and the way they interpret
that information internally.
MAIN APPROACH
> The study cognitive development
Developed by Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget
Piaget's goal was to observe and explain the
processes used by infants and children to
become individuals capable of reasoning and
thinking.
He concluded that people use mental frameworks
called schemas to build their internal senses of
reality.
COMPONENTS OF COGNITIVE THEORY
According to Piaget, cognitive theory involve
three components.
1) the brain uses schemas (mental frameworks)
as building blocks toward knowledge.
2) the brain uses adaptation processes like
assimilation and accommodation to move
between stages.
3) children experience universal stages of
development with regard to cognition.
ELEMENTS OF COGNITIVE THEORY
Three Elements of Cognitive Theory
PERCEPTION
the ability to capture, process, and actively make
sense of the information that our senses receive.
It is the cognitive process that makes it possible
to interpret our surroundings with the stimuli that
we receive throughout sensory organs.
ATTENTION
the ability to choose and concentrate on relevant
stimuli. Attention is the cognitive process that
makes it possible to position ourselves towards
relevant stimuli and consequently respond to it.
MEMORY
involves the process of acquiring, storing, and
recalling information. memory refers to the
continued process of information retention over
time. It is an integral part of human cognition,
since it allows individuals to recall and draw upon
past events to frame their understanding of and
behavior within the present.
DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESS (4 STAGES)
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: THE THEORY
OF JEAN PIAGET
IMPLICATIONS OF COGNITIVE THEORY IN
SOME ASPECTS
Educational Implications of Jean Piaget Theory of
Cognitive Development
1. It helps in understanding one’s intelligence as
the function of one’s ability to adapt or adjust to
one’s environment.
2. It highlighted the importance of drives and
motivation in the field of learning and
development.
3. It provides valuable information and advice on
curriculum planning and structuring the schemes
of studies. In other words, an ideal curriculum
should provide the appropriate experiences at the
proper time.
4. It proves quite valuable to teachers and parents
for making them aware of the nature of the
thought processes of the children at a particular
level of maturation or chronological age.
5. The major contribution of Piaget’s theory is its
analysis and suggestions of the optimal
conditions for an individual’s learning and
development by introducing the concept of
assimilation, accommodation and equilibration.

6. It considers both physical and social

experiences as quite indispensable for one’s
intellectual development, it has placed a major
responsibility on teachers, parents and others
directly or indirectly connected with the education
and the welfare of children to arrange for the must
appropriate and stimulating environment for their
children.

7. It has advocated the need of child-centred

education by saying that the educational
experiences must be built around the learner’s
cognitive structure.

8. The teaching learning process should not be

limited to the used of verbal communication, but
should involve other symbolic expression and
means for the communication of ideas suited to
the circumstances and nature of the learner.

9. The teacher must try to emphasize discovery

learning rather than teaching or telling each and
every parts of information to the students. They
should try to set up environments in which the
students can have a wide variety of experiences
for self or discovery learning.