STATISTIC REFRESHER
, yes/ no/ maybe, male/female) appears on the X -
SCALES OF MEASUREMENT
Con nuous scales – Theore cally possible to divide
any of the values of the scale. Typically having a wide
range of possible values (e.g. height or a depression
scale).
Discrete scales – Categorical values (e.g. male or
female).
Error – The collec ve influence of all of the factors on
a test score beyond those specifically measured by the
test.
Nominal Scales – Involve classifica on or
categoriza on based on one or more dis nguishing
characteris cs; all things measured must be placed
into mutually exclusive and exhaus ve categories
(e.g., apples and oranges, DSM-IV diagnoses, etc.).
Ordinal Scales – Involve classifica ons, like nominal
scales but also allow rank ordering (e.g. Olympic
medalists).
Interval Scales – Contain equal intervals between
numbers. Each unit on the scale is exactly equal to any
other unit on the scale (e.g. IQ scores and most other
psychological measures).
Ra o Scales – Interval scales with a true zero point
(e.g. height or reac on me).
DESCRIBING DATA
Distribu ons – A set of test scores arrayed for
recording or study.
Raw Score – A straigh orward, unmodified accoun ng
of performance that is usually numerical.
Frequency Distribu on – All scores are listed
alongside the number of mes each score occurred.
Frequency distribu ons may be in tabular form as in
the example above. It is a simple frequency
distribu on (scores have not been grouped). Grouped
frequency distribu ons have class intervals rather
than actual test scores.
A histogram is a graph with ver cal lines drawn at
the true limits of each test score (or class interval),
forming a series of con guous rectangles.
Bar graph – Numbers indica ve of frequency appear
on the Y -axis, and reference to some categoriza on
(e.g.
axis.
Data illustrated in a frequency polygon are expressed
by a con nuous line connec ng the points where test
scores or class intervals (as indicated on the X -axis)
meet frequencies (as indicated on the Y -axis).
TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION
If a distribu on has 2 fairly equal high points, it is
bimodal distribu on.
Any distribu on with two or more high points is called
a mul modal distribu on.
A distribu on with values of all about the same
frequency is a rectangular distribu on.
THE NORMAL CURVE
- The normal curve is a bell-shaped, smooth,
mathema cally defined curve that is highest
at its center. Perfectly symmetrical.
- Area Under the Normal Curve.
- The normal curve can be conveniently divided
into areas defined by units of standard
devia ons.
SKEWNESS
- It is the nature and extent to which symmetry
is absent.
- Skewness is an indica on of how the
measurements in a distribu on are
distributed.
- A distribu on has a posi ve skew when
rela vely few of the scores fall at the high end
of the distribu on.
- Posi vely skewed examina on results may
indicate that the test was too difficult.
- More items that were easier would have been
desirable in order to be er discriminate at the
lower end of the distribu on of test scores.
- A distribu on has a nega ve skew when
rela vely few of the scores fall at the low end
of the distribu on.
- Nega vely skewed examina on results may
indicate that the test was too easy.
- In this case, more items of a higher level of
difficulty would make it possible to be er
 discriminate between scores at the upper end
of the distribu on.
KURTOSIS
- It refers to the steepness of a distribu on in
its center is kurtosis.
- Distribu ons are generally described as
platykur c (rela vely flat), leptokur c
(rela vely peaked), or—somewhere in the
middle—mesokur c.
MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
Central Tendency – A sta s c that indicates the
average or midmost score between the extreme
scores in a distribu on.
Mean – Sum of the observa ons (or test scores), in
this case divided by the number of observa ons.
Median – The middle score in a distribu on.
Par cularly useful when there are outliers, or extreme
scores in a distribu on.
Mode –The most frequently occurring score in a
distribu on. When two scores occur with the highest
frequency a distribu on is said to be bimodal.
The mean (arithme c average) is the sum of all the
scores divided by the number of scores in the data.
- It is typically the most appropriate measure of
central tendency for interval or ra o data
when the distribu ons are believed to be
approximately normal.
- It is denoted by the symbol X (pronounced “X
bar”).
The median is the midpoint of the scores in a
distribu on when they are listed in order from
smallest to largest.
- If the total number of scores ordered is an odd
number, then the median will be the score
that is exactly in the middle, with one-half of
the remaining scores lying above it and the
other half of the remaining scores lying below
it.
- When the total number of scores ordered is
an even number, then the median can be
calculated by determining the arithme c
mean of the two middle scores.
- If the pieces of data is odd, then the median is
the value exactly in the middle of the ordered
list.
o Data: 26, 9, 31, 35, 17
o Ascending Order: 9, 17, 26, 31, 35
o FORMULA: (n + 1) / 2
o SOLUTION: (5+1) / 2 = 3 or 3rdvalue
on the list
o ANSWER: Md = 26
- If the pieces of data is even, then the median
is the mean of the two middle data values in
the ordered list.
o Data: 26, 9, 31, 5, 35, 17
o Ascending Order: 5, 9, 17, 26, 31, 35
o FORMULA: (n + 1) / 2
o SOLUTION: (5+1) / 2 = 3.5 (denotes
value between 3rd & 4th posi on)
o ANSWER: Md = 21.5
Mode. It refers to the most frequently occurring score
in a distribu on of scores.
- This refers to the value or item in a
distribu on with the most number of cases or
highest frequency.
- This can be:
o Unimodal (e.g. 20,18, 18, 18, 17, 16,
11)
o Bimodal (e.g. 4, 4, 7, 11, 6, 5, 8, 5, 2)
o Inexistent (e.g. 9, 2, 15, 4, 6, 1, 5, 13)
Variability is an indica on of the degree to which
scores are sca ered or dispersed in a distribu on.
Measures of variability are sta s cs that describe the
amount of varia on in a distribu on.
 - Range-difference between the highest and the
lowest scores.
- Interquar le range –difference between the
third and first quar les of a distribu on.
- Semi-interquar le range –the interquar le
range divided by 2
- Average devia on –the average devia on of
scores in a distribu on from the mean.
- Variance-the arithme c means of the squares
of the differences between the scores in a
distribu on and their mean.
- Standard devia on –the square root of the
average squared devia ons about the mean. It
is the square root of the variance. Typical
distance of scores from the mean.
variables does not imply causa on but it does aid in
predic on.
Pearson r: A method of compu ng correla on when
both variables are linearly related and con nuous.
Once a correla on coefficient is obtained, it needs to
be checked for sta s cal significance (typically a
probability level below .05).
By squaring r, one is able to obtain a coefficient of
determina on, or the variance that the variables share
with one another.
Spearman Rho: A method for compu ng correla on,
used primarily when sample sizes are small, or the
variables are ordinal in nature.

Sca erplot – Involves simply plo ng one variable on

STANDARD SCORES
A standard score is a raw score that has been
converted from one scale to another scale, where the
la er scale has some arbitrarily set mean and
standard devia on.
the X (horizontal) axis and the other on the Y (ver cal)
axis. Sca erplots of no correla on (le ) and moderate
correla on (right).
Strong nega ve correla ons form a ghtly clustered
diagonal line from top le to bo om right.

- Z-score - conversion of a raw score into a

number indica ng how many standard
devia on units the raw score is below or
above the mean of the distribu on.
- T scores - can be called a fi y plus or minus
ten scale; that is, a scale with a mean set at 50
and a standard devia on set at 10.
- Stanine - a standard score with a mean of 5
and a standard devia on of approximately 2.
Divided into nine units.
- Normalizing a distribu on - involves
“stretching” the skewed curve into the shape
of a normal curve and crea ng a
corresponding scale of standard scores.
META-ANALYSIS
Meta-analysis allows researchers to look at the
rela onship between variables across many separate
studies.
Meta-analysis-a family of techniques to sta s cally
combine informa on across studies to produce single
es mates of the data under study.
The es mates are in the form of effect size, which is
o en expressed as a correla on coefficient..

CORRELATION AND INFERENCE

A coefficient of correla on (or correla on coefficient)

is a number that provides us with an index of the
strength of the rela onship between two things.

Correla on coefficients vary in magnitude between -1

and +1. A correla on of 0 indicates no rela onship
between two variables.

Posi ve correla ons indicate that as one variable

increase or decreases, the other variable follows suit.

Nega ve correla ons indicate that as one variable

increases the other decreases. Correla on between