Laboratory Activity 1 - The Microscope FACTORS IN MICROSCOPY

Microscope - instrument designed to produce Magnification – the increase in the apparent size of an
magnified visual or photographic images of objects too object
small to be seen by the naked eye
Ocular Objective Total
Micro - small /Eyepiece Magnification
Scope - view
10x 4x (scanner) 40x

History of Microscope 10x 10x (LPO) 100x

Anton van Leeuwenhoek(1632-1723)
10x 40x (HPO) 400x
- Dutch naturalist and craftsman who made over
500 microscopes throughout his lifetime 10x 100x (OIO) 1000x
- With his microscopes, he observed animalcules,
known today as protozoans and bacteria
Ocular Objective Total
/Eyepiece Magnification

5x 4x (scanner) 20x

5x 10x (LPO) 50x

5x 40x (HPO) 200x

5x 100x (OIO) 500x

Resolution – a measure of the clarity of an image. The

ability of an optical instrument to show two close
objects as separate.
- he was the first scientist to discover bacteria,
protozoa, and many other microorganisms KINDS OF MICROSCOPES
- The early microscopes used by Leeuwenhoek were Light Microscopes - The term light refers to the
described as “simple” since they only had one lens process by which light transmits the image to the eye.
- the first light microscope could only magnify an ● Compound Microscope - an optical instrument with
object more or less 200x (times) its original size. a two-lens system, the objectives and the
- In 1595, the Jansen brothers invented the eyepiece or ocular.
compound microscope. Introduced second lens - It requires that the material being examined
system be sliced thinly enough for light to pass
- Modern through.
compound light - It can magnify the specimen up to 1000 times.
microscopes under
optimal conditions
can magnify
specimen from
1000x – 2000x
(times) its original
size.
● Dissecting Microscope - It permits viewing of
opaque objects. Most dissecting microscopes can
magnify up to 30 times
Electron Microscope - Microscopes that can magnify
very small details with a high resolution.
- Its high magnifying capacity is due to the use of
the electrons rather than light to scatter off
material
- It magnifies at levels of more or less 500,000
times the original size.
● Transmission Election Microscope(TEM) - It uses
a highvoltage electron beam emitted by a
cathode and formed by magnetic lenses
- Using a very thin section of the specimen, this
electron beam can carry and transmit the
information about the internal structure of the
sample.
- It can
magnify the
specimen up to
more or less
200,000 times its
original size.
● Scanning Electron Microscope(SEM) - It makes
use of beam transmission. It produces images by
detecting secondary electrons which are emitted
from the surface due to excitation by primary
electron beam.
- A 3-dimesional image of the specimen’s
surface is seen.
- It can magnify 3,000-10,000 times the
original size.
REMINDERS IN USING MICROSCOPE
● Place the microscope in front of you. It should be
far enough from the edge of the table to keep it
from falling and allow you to view comfortably.
● Always begin your examination with the LPO.
● Be careful in using HPO. Since it is longer, it can
cause the slide to crack if used incorrectly
● Keep both eyes open when observing specimens.
● Adjust the amount of light reaching your eye with
the diaphragm. This is important since it is
difficult to see the details with too much light or
too little light.
● Once the material is in focus, move the slide
slightly
RULES IN WRITING SCIENTIFIC NAMES
Scientific names are composed of genus and species.
- Ex: Pithecophaga jefferyi (eagle) genus
species
The first letter of the genus name should be written
in capital letter; while, the first letter of the species
name should be written in small letter
Scientific names should be italicized when printed, and
underlined when handwritten.
Bubalus mindorensis or Bubalus mindorensis
(tamaraw)
The genus could be abbreviated.
Ex: Chanos chanos→ C. chanos (milkfish)
Laboratory Activity 2 - The Cell CLASSIFICATION OF CELLS
The basic living unit of all organisms Based on fundamental structural elements:
The simplest organisms are composed of single cells Prokaryotes
while humans are composed of trillion of cells

- Lacks nucleus and membranebound organelles

- Their DNA is scattered in the cytoplasm
An average-sized cell is 1/5 the size of the smallest - They are single celled organisms
dot you can make on a sheet of paper using a sharp - Eubacteria
pencil. But despite their small size, cells are complex - Archaebacteria
living structures Eukaryotes

Robert Hooke
British scientist, who observed mass of tiny cavities
from thin slices of cork with his self-made microscope.
He named these structures “CELLS” since these
structures reminded him of the small rooms in a
monastery

Rudolf Virchow
Austrian pathologist concluded that all cells must come
only from pre-existing cells.
The three principles of modern cell theory evolved - Has nucleus that houses the DNA in complex
directly from Virchow’s statements structures called chromosomes
The observations and conclusions of Matthias - Has membranebound organelles
Schleiden (1838), Theodor Schwann (1839) and Rudolf - Plantae
Virchow (1858) established the Cell Theory - Animalia
- Fungi
Cell Theory - Protista
1. Every living organism is made up of one or more
cells. Based on mechanism of obtaining food:
2. The smallest living organisms are single cells, and Autotrophs
cells are the structural and functional unit of - “Self-feeders”
organisms - Uses light energy or chemical energy to
3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells manufacture their own food
- Plant cells use light energy in a process called
photosynthesis to produce food.
 - Chemosynthetic bacteria use inorganic
substance from their surroundings to synthesize Studies of the arrangement of molecules in the cell
organic substance membrane have given rise to the model of its
Heterotrophs structure called fluid mosaic model
- “Other-feeders”
- Derive energy from other organisms
- Organisms that cannot make their own organic
molecules and must obtain them by consuming
other organisms or their organic products

PARTS OF ANIMAL CELL

Major Parts (to be considered an animal cell):

Cell membrane
● The outermost component of a cell
● Encloses the cytoplasm and forms the boundary
between material inside the cell and materials
outside it, hence it is called the “gatekeeper of
the cell”
● Extracellular fluid (ECF) – substances outside
the cell
1. Structure
○ Phospholipid bilayer
○ Hydrophilic heads It was developed by cell biologists S.J. Singer and G.L.
○ Hydrophobic tails Nicholson in 1972
According to this model, a membrane, when viewed from - the most distinct (usually the largest) organelle
above, looks something like a lumpy, constantly shifting usually situated at the center of the cell, bounded
mosaic of tiles. by a double membrane
2. Function
- Protection ● Function
- Transport (diffusion, osmosis, plasmolysis) ○ Controls and regulates the functions of other
- Regulatory function (controls the movement of organelles, thus called the “control center of
substances in and out of the cell) the cell”
- Due to cell membrane’s selective permeability, it ○ Contains DNA
allows some substances to pass through it and ● Parts
prevents entry of others ○ Nuclear envelopeoutermost covering of the
nucleus. It is composed of membrane with
Cytoplasm numerous pores.
○ Nucleoplasm- the granular fluid inside the
nucleus
○ Chromatin- dark-staining body inside the
nucleus. They contain genes that determine the
inherited characteristic of organisms.
○ Nucleolus- the site of synthesis of ribosomal
RNA, which, when transported outside the
nucleus, combines with protein to form the
ribosomes.

● It is the material inside the plasma membrane Ribosomes

and outside the nucleus
1. Structure
- It has gel-sol / colloidal consistency (for
regulated transport of materials in the cell)
2. Function
- It is where organelles are located
- Site of most life processes
It contains the following:
● Cytosol – fluid that suspends the other elements
● Organelles - membrane-bound structure with a
● Structure
specialized function in a cell
○ Small, granular
● Sub-organelles - Non-membranous structures with
● Function
a specialized function in a cytoplasm (Ex:
○ Synthesize proteins
ribosome, centrioles, and cytoskeleton)
● Types
○ Free ribosomes –floating in the cytoplasm
Nucleus
○ Attached ribosomes – located in rough ER
Endoplasmic Reticulum ○ The secretory vesicles are either for export
outside cell, for repair of worn-out parts or for
formation of lysosomal vesicles
Vesicle
● Function
○ Carry substances in and out of the cell
○ Transports food particles needed by the cell
○ Similarly, this excretes materials that need to
be transported out of the cell
● Structure
● Structure
○ Formed by pinching out from Golgi bodies
○ System of narrow tubes and sheets of
○ Contains a variety of enzymes that function as
membrane forming a network throughout the
intracellular digestive systems
cytoplasm
○ Contain enzymes that digest worn-out
○ Its membrane is continuous with nuclear
organelles or waste materials within the cell
membrane
(autolysosomes are called suicide bags. As all
● Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
lysosomes burst, the cell will be digested and
○ with attached ribosomes
become part of extracellular fluid)
○ In-charge of protein synthesis
Peroxisomes
● Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
● Structure
○ without ribosomes
○ Membranous sacs of oxidase enzymes
○ involved in lipid synthesis
● Function
○ Detoxify harmful substances such as alcohol
Golgi Bodies
(Cells that are active in detoxification such as
liver and kidney cells have many peroxisomes)
○ Break down fatty acids, amino acids, and
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)

Mitochondrion

Named after Italian physician Camillo Golgi

● Structure
○ Disk-shaped sacs that are stacked-up together
in a flat or cup-shaped array close to ER.
● Function
○ Modify proteins produced in the ribosomes
that pass through the RER
○ Ex: addition of carbohydrates to protein to Powerhouse of the cell
form glycoprotein ● Structure
● Process ○ Enclosed by two membranes
○ The vesicles then start to swell and are ○ The outer membrane which is smooth and
released from the maturing face without folds is readily permeable to solutes
 ○ The inner membrane have many tube-like ○ Direct the formation of mitotic spindle during
infoldings called cristae. cell division
○ Significance: to increase surface area, thus Cilium
providing more space for a more number of ● Structure
enzymatic activities ○ Cylindrical cell structures that extend from
○ Between the cristae is the liquid matrix, the the cell
site of ATP synthesis ○ Composed of microtubules that are enclosed by
● Function the cell membrane
○ Site of cellular respiration (conversion of food ● Function
to ATP, main energy source) ○ Coordinated movement of cilia in the
Cytoskeleton respiratory tract keep lungs clear of debris
● Structure
○ Thin and fibrous Flagellum
● Function ● Structure
○ Maintains shape of the cell ○ Similar to cilia but much longer
○ Cell support (whip-like)
○ Involved in cell division ● Function
○ For locomotion
Types ○ Flagellum of the sperm causes its
1. Microfilaments – involved in cell movement such propelling action
as contraction of muscle cells
2. Intermediate filaments - provide mechanical
support for the cell
3. Microtubules – assist in cell division and
component of cilia and flagella
Microvilli
● Structure
○ Specialized extensions of cells that are
supported by microfilaments
○ Do not actively move
● Function
○ Increases surface area of the cell
Abundant on surface cells of intestine,
kidney, etc. where absorption takes
place

Centrioles
● Structure
○ Rod-shaped bodies made of
microtubules
○ Oriented perpendicular to
each other
● Function
 ○ developed by cell biologists Seymour Jonathan Singer
and Garth L. Nicholson in 1972
○ Current model for the structure of the cell membrane
○ According to this model, a membrane, when viewed from
above, looks something like a lumpy, constantly shifting
mosaic of tiles. A double layer of phospholipids forms a
viscous, fluid “grout” for the mosaic; assorted proteins
are the “tiles”, which can move about within the
phospholipid layers
Animal Cell vs. Plant Cell

Passive Transport
- does not require cell to expend energy
1. Simple diffusion (via gradients)
1.1. Particles tend to distribute themselves evenly within a
solution
1.2. Movement of molecules from high to low
concentrations
1.3. Diffusion continues until all molecules are evenly
spaced (equilibrium is reached)
1.4. Note: molecules will still move around but stay spread
out.
MOVEMENT THROUGH CELL MEMBRANE
1.5. Requirement: Concentration gradient difference in
Plasma Membrane
concentration of solute in a solvent -regulates the
flow of molecules and ions into and out of the cell
1.6. Significance:
1.6.1. It serves as means of transporting substances
such as nutrients and waste products in and out
of the cell;
1.6.2. Diffusion enables oxygen and carbon dioxide
molecules to be exchanged between the air and
the blood in the lungs, and between blood and
tissue cells. *If not enough O2 diffuse in the
cell, the cell cannot function normally.

● selectively isolates the cell’s contents from the

external environment
● regulates the exchange of essential substances
between the cell’s contents and the external
environment to maintain homeostasis
● Provides protection and support for the cell
● Fluid Mosaic Model
 3.3. Tonicity - It refers to the relative concentration of
solutes in the water inside and outside the cell.
Normal water level of cell is 0.9
3.3.1. Hypertonic - Water leaves the cell. Cell shrivels
(crenate)

2. Facilitated diffusion (via carriers)

2.1. Substances require a carrier protein for passive 3.3.2. Isotonic - Influx of water equals the efflux of
transport of substances water. No change in cell shape.
2.2. Transports lipid-insoluble and large substances (ex:
glucose)

3.3.3. Hypotonic - Water enters cell. Cell swells and

even bursts (lysis)

2.3. movement is from an area of high concentration to an

area of greater concentration to area of lesser
concentration
4. Filtration

Active Transport
- require cell to expend energy
- uses ATP to move molecules against a concentration
gradient (from lower concentration to higher
concentration gradient)
3. Osmosis
- Ex: Na+K + pump
3.1. simple diffusion of water
- Bulk Transport - particles are transported in large
3.2. highly polar water molecules easily cross the plasma
amounts or in bulk without actually passing or crossing the
membrane through aquaporins
membrane. Uses cellular energy
1. EXOCYTOSIS
➢ Moves large or bulk substances (hormones or wastes) out
of the cell
➢ Substances are carried in a membranous vesicle
➢ Vesicle migrates to plasma membrane
➢ Vesicle combines with plasma membrane
➢ Material is emptied to the outside of the cell
2. ENDOCYTOSIS
➢ particles are transported in large amounts or in bulk “into
the cell”
➢ the cell membrane invaginates to form a vesicle containing
the material to be taken by the cell.
➢ The vesicle then moves into the cytoplasm
○ Phagocytosis

■ “Cell eating”
■ the particle to be engulfed is in solid form or
chunks of matter.
■ Example: WBC and some other cell types
phagocytize bacteria, cell debris, and foreign
particles

○ Pinocytosis

■ “Cell drinking”
■ the particle to be engulfed is in liquid form or a
droplet of extracellular fluid
■ Cell membrane folds around and brings liquid into
cell.
■ The membrane around the liquid pinches off and
forms a vesicle.
○ Receptor-mediated endocytosis

■ selectively concentrate specific molecules inside a

cell
■ Plasma membranes bear many receptor proteins on
their outside surfaces, each with a binding site for
a particular molecule
■ Example: cholesterol and growth factors
Laboratory 3: The Cell Cycle 1. Interphase
MITOSIS
- cell duplicates into two genetically identical daughter
cells
- From one parent → production of two (2) daughter
cells
- Occurs in body cells or somatic cells
- Maintenance of the chromosomal number of the
parent cell

➢ 90% of cell life cycle

➢ prepares for duplication if triggered
➢ Nuclear envelope and nucleolus are visible
➢ Chromosomes are not visible under light microscope
Why do cells divide? ➢ Centrosome replicate
● For reproduction Divided into 3
○ Perpetuation of species phases:
○ asexual reproduction - one-celled organisms G1 = 1st Gap (Growth)
● For growth - cell grows
○ from fertilized egg to multi-celled organism S = DNA Synthesis
○ Increase in size - copies chromosomes
● For repair & renewal G2=2nd Gap (Growth)
○ replace cells that die from normal wear & - prepares for
tear or from injury division
Overview of Mitosis - cell grows more
Cell Cycle - produces organelles,
- The cell cycle is a repeated pattern of growth and proteins, membranes
division that occurs in eukaryotic cells S phase: Replicating DNA
Cell Cycle Checkpoints ● Synthesis phase of Interphase
- These are surveillance mechanisms that monitor the - dividing cell replicates DNA
order, integrity, and fidelity of the major events of - must separate DNA copies correctly to 2
the cell cycle. daughter cells
- These include: - each daughter cell gets complete identical copy
a. growth to appropriate cell size ● DNA is organized in chromosomes
b. replication and integrity of the chromosomes, - double helix DNA molecule
and - wrapped around histone proteins. Like thread on
c. their accurate segregation at mitosis spools
- DNA-protein complex = chromatin. Organized into
long thin fiber
- condensed further during mitosis
2. Prophase ➢ Formation of cleavage furrow
➢ Karyokinesis
○ Division of nuclear material
○ Cell’s chromosomes are equally divided between
the two daughter cells
○ Results in formation of two daughter nuclei
6. Cytokinesis

➢ Chromatin condenses – visible chromosomes under

light microscope
➢ Spindle fibers cross cell to form mitotic spindle
➢ Nucleolus disappears
➢ Nuclear membrane breaks down
➢ Centrosomes move away from each other
➢ Cell’s cytoplasm divides
3. Metaphase
➢ Cells pinch off into two separate identical daughter
cells
➢ Nuclear membrane starts to form

➢ Chromosomes align along middle of cell

○ metaphase plate (meta = middle)
○ Nuclear membrane disappears completely
○ spindle fibers coordinate movement
○ helps to ensure chromosomes separate properly
4. Anaphase

➢ Cohesin proteins are cleared which allows the two

sister chromatids to part from each other
➢ The two chromosomes begin moving toward opposite
poles as kinetochore shortens
➢ The cell lengthens as nonkinetochore microtubules
lengthen
5. Telophase(Karyokinesis)
➢ Chromosomes arrive at opposite poles
○ daughter nuclei form
○ nucleoli form
○ chromosomes disperse
➢ Spindle fibers disintegrate
Laboratory Activity 4: Animal Tissues and Organs - Shape of cells
● Tissues - group of cells with similar structure and
function that have similar extracellular substances
located between them
● Histology- the microscopic study of tissues
Types of Tissues
A. Epithelial Tissue (Epithelium)

➢ Squamous - flattened
➢ Cuboidal - cube-shaped
➢ Columnar - column-like

1. SIMPLE SQUAMOUS
● Location - Single layer of flat cells
○ Body coverings - Usually forms membranes
○ Body linings - Location: Air sacs of the lungs, kidney glomeruli, lining
○ Glandular tissue of heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels.
● Functions - Function: Allows passage of materials by diffusion and
○ Protection filtration.
○ Absorption
○ Filtration
○ Secretion
● Cells fit closely together and often form sheets
● The apical surface is the free surface of the tissue
● The lower surface of the epithelium rests on a basement
membrane
● Avascular (no blood supply) 2. SIMPLE CUBOIDAL
● Regenerate easily if well nourished - Single layer of tightly packed cube-like cells
- Location: Kidney tubules, ducts and small glands, and
Classification of Epithelial Tissues surface of ovary
- Based on the number of cell layers - Function: Secretion and absorption

3. SIMPLE COLUMNAR
➢ Simple—one layer - Single layer of elongated cells
➢ Stratified—more than one layer - Location: Lines digestive tract, mucusproducing goblet
cells, gallbladder, and excretory ducts of some glands
- Function: Absorption, enzyme secretion
4. PSEUDOSTRATIFIED 7. Stratified columnar—surface cells are columnar, cells
- Single layer, but some cells are shorter than others underneath vary in size and shape
- Often looks like a double layer of cells, but they are 8. TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM
not. - Shape of cells depends upon the amount of stretching
- Sometimes ciliated, such as in the respiratory tract - Lines organs of the urinary system
- Location: Lines bronchi, uterine tubes, and some
regions of the uterus.
- Function: Propels mucus or reproductive cells by ciliary
action.

B. Connective Tissue
● Found everywhere in the body
● Includes the most abundant and widely distributed
tissues
● Functions
5. STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS ○ Binds body tissues together
- Cells at the apical surface are flattened ○ Supports the body
- Consists of many layers of cells ○ Provides protection
- Found as a protective covering where friction is ● Two main elements
common ○ Ground substance—mostly water along with
- Location: Lines esophagus, mouth, and vagina. adhesion proteins and polysaccharide molecules
Keratinized variety lines the surface of the skin. ○ Fibers
- Function: Protects underlying tissues in areas subject ■ Produced by the cells
to abrasion. ■ Three types
● Collagen (white) fibers
● Elastic (yellow) fibers
● Reticular fibers
1. OSSEOUS TISSUES / BONE
- Composed of
- Bone cells or osteocytes that lie in lacunae
(cavities) Hard matrix of calcium salts (calcium
phosphate and calcium carbonate)
STRATIFIED EPITHELIUM - Large numbers of collagen fibers
- Stratified cuboidal and columnar - Location: Bones
- Rare in human body - Function: Supports, protects, provides lever system
- Found mainly in ducts of large glands for muscles to act on, stores calcium and fat, and
6. STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL forms blood cells.
- This type of epithelium is usually confined to the lining
of the larger excretory ducts of exocrine glands such
as the salivary glands.
- two layers of cuboidal cells
 5. DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE (Dense Fibrous Tissue)
- Main matrix element is collagen fiber •
- Fibroblasts are cells that make fibers
CARTILAGE
- Locations
- A hard yet flexible tissue that supports structures
- Tendons—attach skeletal muscle to
such as the outer ear and forms the entire skeleton of
bone
animals such as sharks and rays
- Ligaments—attach bone to bone at
- Cells called chondrocytes lie within spaces called
joints
lacunae that are surrounded by a rubbery matrix that
- Dermis—lower layers of the skin
chondroblasts secrete.
- This matrix, along with the collagen and/or elastin
fibers, gives cartilage its strength and elasticity.
2. HYALINE CARTILAGE
- Most common type of cartilage
- Composed of
- Abundant collagen fibers
- Rubbery matrix
- Location: Forms embryonic skeleton; covers ends of
long bones; and forms cartilage of nose, trachea, and
larynx.

6. LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

a. Areolar Tissue
3. ELASTIC CARTILAGE - Most widely distributed connective
- Provides elasticity tissue
- Location: External ear, epiglottis - Soft, pliable tissue like “cobwebs”
- Function: Maintains a structure’s shape while - Functions as a packing tissue
allowing great flexibility. - Contains all fiber types
4. FIBROCARTILAGE - Can soak up excess fluid (causes
- Highly compressible edema)
- Location: Intervertebral disks, pubic symphysis,
and disks of knee joint.
- Function: Absorbs compression shock.
 b. (Adipose Tissue) a. Red Blood cells or Erythrocytes
- Matrix is an areolar tissue in which fat globules - Disk-shaped with thick edges
predominate - Nucleus is lost during
- Many cells contain large lipid deposits development
- Functions - Live for 120 days
- Insulates the body - Function: transport O2 to tissues
- Protects some organs b. White Blood cells or Leukocytes
- Serves as a site of fuel storage - Lack hemoglobin
- Larger than erythrocytes
- Contain a nucleus
c. Granulocytes -
i. Neutrophils - -most common -remain in blood for
10-12 hours then move to tissues - capable of
phagocytosis

c. Reticular Connective Tissue

- Delicate network of interwoven fibers
- Forms stroma (internal supporting network) of
lymphoid organs
- Lymph nodes ii. Eosinophils - reduce inflammation
- Spleen
- Bone marrow

iii. Basophils - least common; release histamine

d. Agranulocytes - without granules

i. Monocytes - largest; produce macrophages
7. BLOOD / VASCULAR TISSUE
- Blood cells surrounded by fluid matrix called blood
plasma
- Fibers are visible during clotting
- Functions as the transport vehicle for materials

ii. Lymphocytes - immune response - several

different types (T cells and B cells) - lead to
production of antibodies
C. Muscle Tissue
● Function is to produce movement
Three types
1. Skeletal muscle
a. Under voluntary control
- Contracts to pull on bones or skin
- Produces gross body movements or facial
expressions
- Characteristics of skeletal muscle cells
- Striated
- Multinucleate (more than one nucleus)
- Long, cylindrical

2. Cardiac muscle
a. Under involuntary control
- Found only in the heart
- Function is to pump blood
- Characteristics of cardiac muscle cells
- Cells are attached to other cardiac muscle cells
D. Nervous Tissue
at intercalated disks
● Composed of neurons and nerve support cells
- Striated
● Function is to send impulses to other areas of the
- One nucleus per cell
body
● Irritability
● Conductivity

3. Smooth muscle
a. Under involuntary muscle
- Found in walls of hollow organs such as stomach,
uterus, and blood vessels
- Characteristics of smooth muscle cells
- No visible striations
- One nucleus per cell
- Spindle-shaped cells
 - Site where exchange of materials between
blood and tissues takes place

Layers
● Tunica adventitia (tunica externa) – outermost layer
with loose connective tissues
● Tunica media - middle layer with smooth muscle cells
● Tunica intima (tunica interna) – innermost layer with
elastic fibers and smooth muscle cells
ORGANS
● Endothelium – layer of squamous cells. It serves as the
- body structures formed by several groups of tissues
lining of the lumen.
forming specific functions
ORGANOLOGY
- science that deals with the structure and functions of
organs
Blood Vessels
- Tubes for passageway of blood
- Three kinds:
a. Artery - thick walled blood vessel
- carries oxygenated blood to different parts of
the body
- Blood flow is spurting

b. Vein - thin walled blood vessel

- carries unoxygenated blood from different
parts of the body to the heart
- Blood flow is oozing
c. Capillaries - Small blood
vessels
- Connect arteries and
veins
Skin Layers
● Function - Intestine consists of folds called villi.
○ For protection ● Tunica serosa – The visceral peritoneum covering the
○ For respiration and water absorption in amphibians gastrointestinal tract
● Tunica muscularis- layer of smooth muscles
● Stratum longitudinale – outer layer of longitudinal muscle
fibers
● Stratum circulare – thicker inner circular layer of muscle
fibers
● Tela submucosa– layer of connective tissue with blood
vessels and nerves
● Tunica mucosa – composed of simple columnar epithelium
lining the lumen.
○ Contains goblet cells that secrete intestinal juice
for digestion
EPIDERMIS
● Stratum corneum– outermost layer made of squamous
cells. It is capable of molting or shedding off of skin.
● Stratum germinativum (Stratum Malpighi)- consists of
columnar cells. It contains chromatophores for skin
pigmentation
DERMIS
● Stratum compactum - consists of compactly arranged
connective tissue
● Stratum laxum (stratum spongiosum)– made up of
loose connective tissue.
○ It contains:
■ Cutaneous gland Stomach
■ Mucus gland ● J-shaped digestive organ
■ Poison gland ● Function: Site of partial digestion of food
■ Blood vessels and nerves

Layers
Small intestine
- Stomach consists of folds called rugae.
● Long coiled tube of
● Tunica serosa – The visceral peritoneum covering the
digestive tract
gastrointestinal tract
● Function:
● Tunica subserosa – layer between tunica serosa and
○ For site of final
muscularis. It is composed of connective tissue with
digestion and
longitudinal muscle fibers
absorption of food
 Kidney
● Main excretory organ
● Bean-shaped
● Function: To remove nitrogenous waste through the
uriniferous tubules

● Tunica muscularis- layer of smooth muscles

● Stratum longitudinale – outer layer of longitudinal muscle
fibers
● Stratum circulare – thicker inner circular layer of muscle
fibers
● Tela submucosa– layer of connective tissue with blood
vessels and nerves
● Muscularis mucosa – found in the innermost submucosa. ● Renal corpuscle of Malpighian body
It contains longitudinal muscle fibers. ● Made up of cavities of uriniferous tubules; and
● Tunica propia – layer between muscularis mucosa and ● The cavities of Bowman’s capsule contain the blood
tunica mucosa. Connective tissue supporting the gastric capillaries, the glomerulus.
gland.
● Tunica mucosa – composed of simple columnar epithelium Reproductive organs
lining the lumen. - These are gonads
- produce gametes or sex cells
Liver - produce hormones for development of secondary
- Largest gland in the body sexual characteristics
- Function: Secretes bile, an emulsifier for fat digestion Ovary
- It is made up of polygonal cells (liver cells) that are - Female gonad
separated by spaces called blood capillaries or - Sac-like structure containing round bodies, the egg
sinusoids. cells.
Theca externa - Outer covering
Theca interna - Inner covering
Mesovarium - Mesentery

Cavities or spaces
found in liver are:
● Blood vessel
● Bile duct
● Arterioles
● Bile capillary
Testes
- Male gonad: Mainly composed of seminiferous tubules
Spinal Cord
Seminiferous tubules
- Posteriorly connected to the brain
- Contain blood vessel, nerves, and cells of Leydig
- Enclosed in vertebral column
- Cells of leydig – interstitial cells producing sperms and
hormones
PARTS
● Central Canal – the
central cavity
● White mater – outer
mass
● Gray mater – inner mass
● Dura mater- outer
portion
● Pia mater – inner portion

● Visceral peritoneum - outer covering

● Tunica albuginea - inner covering
● Mesorchium – Mesentery. It contains blood vessels
and kidney tubules, vasa efferentia