ANATOMY LECTURE: CELL AND MICROSCOPE

OBJECTIVES

• Identify and enumerate the different parts of a microscope and its functions
• Describe parts and functions of the cell
• Understand the cell cycle

I. MICROSCOPE

-lab equipment used to magnify things that are too small to be seen
by the naked eye, so finer details can be studied
-uses lenses to enlarge objects at focal plane

Microscopy- technical field; the study, design, and use of

microscopes

a. TYPES
i. OPTICAL
1. Bright-field microscope-most common
compound microscope
-produces a dark image against a brighter
background
2. Dark-field microscope-uses a special
condenser that scatters light to reflect off the
specimen at an angle (a light object is seen on Part Function
a dark background) Condenser Collects and focuses light that
3. Flourescence microscope- tissue sections are illuminates the object being
irradiated with either ultraviolet light or laser, observed
and the emission is in the visible portion of Objective Enlarges and projects the image
the spectrum of the object in the direction of
4. Phase-contrast microscope- uses a lens the eyepiece.
system that produces visible images from 4x (low power for scanning a
transparent objects large area), 10x (medium
power), 40x (high power for
ii. ELECTRON-a type of microscope that uses beam high magnification and 100x
of electrons to illuminate the specimen and (oil immersion)
produce magnified image eyepiece AKA Oculars; further magnifies
-uses electron beams focused by magnetic coils the image (10x) and projects it
1. Transmission Electron Microscopes (TEM) onto the viewer’s retina
-The electron beam pass through the Revolving nosepiece Holds the objectives and allows
specimen them to rotate for viewing
-Uses high voltage electron beam to create an Diaphragm or Iris Controls the amount of light
image coming from the source
-The high resolution: up to 400,000 times Coarse Adjustment Knob Moves the tube for focusing
2. Scanning Electron Microscopes (SEM) with LPO lens
-Does not use electron beam to carry a Fine Adjustment Knob Moves the tube for focusing
complete image of the specimen with HPO lens
-The specimen is coated with metal atoms and Arm Supports the body tube
beam does not penetrate Aperture The hole in the stage for passage
-Permits pseudo-three-dimensional views of of light
the surfaces of the cell Body Tube Separates the eyepiece from the
objectives
iii. SCANNING PROBE-specialized microscope that
Illuminator A steady light source
provide high image magnification for observation
Stage Platform where the slides are
of three-dimensional-shaped specimens
placed
*total magnification= product of the magnifications of the ocular
b. PARTS AND FUNCTIONS
lens and the objective lens

ex. Eyepiece Lens (10x)

X
Objective Lens (100x) = 1000x

c. MICROSCOPE RESOLUTION
-Resolving power
 -ability of the lens to separate or distinguish small -Contents:
objects that are close together; smallest distance between  CYTOSOL: fluid component
2 particles which can still be seen as separate objects  ORGANELLES: metabolically active
-wavelength of light used is a major factor in
resolution** SHORTER WAVELENGTH = GREATER structures; could be membranous or
RESOLUTION non-membranous protein complexes
-maximum resolving power (RP) = 0.2µm; permits good  CYTOSKELETON: determines shape
images magnified 1000-1500 times and motility of eukaryotic cells
 INCLUSIONS: deposits of
II. CELL
carbohydrates, lipids or pigments
-basic, structural and functional unit
-smallest living parts of the body
a. TYPES
i. Eukaryotic- with distinct membrane-limited nuclei
-typically found in all cells of animals (except in mature RBCs)
ii. Prokaryotic- have a cell wall around the plasma
membrane
-lack membranous structures
-typically found in bacteria, archae, algae

1. PLASMA MEMBRANE
- Cell membrane or Plasmalemma
- Separates the cytoplasm from the external
environment
*Contains INTEGRINS: links cytoplasmic
cytoskeletal filaments and extracellular
matrix components
*Cell Differentiation- a specialization process which multicellular - Limiting membrane; selective barrier;
organisms, such as humans, undergo regulates passage of materials into and out
-cells synthesize specific proteins, change shape, and assume of the cell
specialized functions -recognition and regulatory functions
- Maintains constant cytoplasmic ion content
- Could only be viewed under electron
microscope
- Composition:
1. PHOSPHOLIPIDS
Phospholipid components:
a. Phosphatdiylcholine
b. Phosphatidylethanolamine
c. Phosphatidylserine
d. Sphingomyelin
--phosphatidylcholine, sphingomyelin-
abundant extracellularly
--phosphatidylethanolamine,
phosphatidylserine- abundant intracellularly
2. CHOLESTEROL
3. PROTEINS
4. CHAINS OF OLIGOSACCHARIDES

b. PARTS AND FUNCTIONS - PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER: fundamental

i. CYTOPLASM
structure of cell membrane; due to the
-Gel - like substance composed of 70 - 90% water
amphipathic nature of phospholipids
-Usually transparent
* Amphipathic: contains polar (water-soluble;
-Resides between the plasma membrane and nucleus
head; charged) and non-polar (water insoluble;
-Most metabolic activities occur here
tails; uncharged) portions
 -- Polar head is in contact with water while non-
polar tails are directed away from water
 SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
-anastomosing network of intercommunicating channels
or cisternae
Note: All protein synthesis begins on polyribosomes
that are not attached to the ER
-continuous with rough ER
-Three major activities: (1) lipid biosynthesis, (2)
detoxification of potentially harmful compounds, and
(3) sequestration of Ca++ ions.

- FLUID-MOSAIC MODEL: used to

describe the structure and behaviour of
molecules in the cell membrane
- functions:

2. ORGANELLES  GOLGI APPARATUS

-Bodies embedded in the cytoplasm -completes posttranslational modifications
 MITOCHONDRIA
-packages and addresses proteins synthesized in the
-are membrane-enclosed organelles for aerobic
RER
respiration and production of adenosine
-where proteins and other molecules made in the ER
triphosphate (ATP)
undergo modification and maturation and then are
-elongated structures 0.5–1 m in diameter sorted into specific vesicles -Transport vesicles
-contains own nucleus emerging from the RER move toward and fuse at the
-number of mitochondria is related to the cell's
energy needs -accumulates in cytoplasmic regions
where energy utilization is more intense
-Parts:
-Innermost matrix
-Intermembrane space
-Outer membrane - sieve-like, containing
transmembrane proteins called porins that
form channels through which small
molecules readily pass
-Innermembrane - selectively permeable to
the small molecules required by
mitochondrial enzymes
-Cristae (infoldings of the innermembrane;
project into the matrix that increase the
membrane's surface area; the number of
cristae in mitochondria also corresponds to
the energy needs of the cell)
NOTE:
- Mitochondrial inheritance is maternal
RIBOSOMES
 small electron-dense particles, about 20 x 30 nm in size
 intensely basophilic
 forming face of the Golgi, merging with the first of
several flattened Golgi cisternae
** Peripheral membrane proteins important for directed
vesicle fusion are the golgins.
 LYSOSOME
-from the Golgi apparatus
-cellular oraganelles that contain acid hydrolase
enzymes
-site of intracellular digestion and turnover of cellular
components
-processe incoming and outgoing materials
-engulfs disfunctional organelles (autophagy)
 PEROXISOME
-also called microbodies
-membrane-bound organelles that contain oxidative
enzyme (eg. Catalase)
 PROTEASOMES
-similar to lysosome but with NO membrane
-Degrade denatured non-functional polypeptides.
 2 perpendicularly placed centrioles
surrounded by proteins make up a
3. CYTOSKELETON
centrosome
- network of proteins that
B. Cilia and Flagella
determine the shape of the cells
-Special arrangement of microtubules is
- play a role in the movement of
responsible for their beating
organelles, cytoplasmic vesicles
-Possess the axoneme structure (2 central
or the entire cell
microtubules surrounded by 9 peripheral
 MICROTUBULES microtubular doublets)
-Fine tubular structures
Cilia- moves substances over cell surface
-Outer diameter of 25nm
Flagella- propels sperm
-With a dense wall, 5nm thick
-Hollow lumen
 MICROFILAMENTS
-Thickest!
(ACTIN)
-Functions as a framework along which
-Globular subunits organized into a double-
organelles and vesicles move within a cell
stranded helix
-Composed of protein subunits called
-Found in almost every cell
tubulin (α and b)
-Predominant in muscle cells and in cells
-13 protofilaments arranged in parallel =
that move by changing shape (eg.
microtubule
Phagocytes)
-Composed of actin which allows cellular
motility and most contractile activity in cells
-Usually concentrated as networks of actin
filaments and abundant free globular G-actin
subunits near the cell membrane and in
cellular extensions
-Microvilli – extensions that increase a cell’s
surface area for improved cellular
-Functions: absorption
 Maintains cell shape  INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
 Movement of chromosomes -Functions as the cytoplasmic link between
 Movement of secretory granules the extracellular matrix, cytoplasm and
 Beating of cilia and flagella nucleus
 for intracellular transport of membranous -Most stable!
vesicles, macromolecule complexes and -Vary in protein subunit structures
organelles -Eg. Keratin, Vimentin, Desmin, GFAP,
Neurofilaments
A. Centrioles
-Rod-like structure 4. INCLUSIONS
-Composed of 9 microtubular triplets at - composed mainly of accumulated
right angles with each other metabolites and other substances
-Pinwheel arrangement not enclosed by membranes
- often transitory
- have little or no metabolic activity
which distinguishes them from organelles

 FAT DROPLETS
-accumulation of lipids
 GLYCOGEN GRANULES
 -aggregates of carbohydrate polymers -consists of DNA and associated proteins
 LIPOFUSCHIN -Combination of DNA and proteins that
-materials that accumulate from residual make up the nucleus of a cell
bodies after lysosomal digestion -Double-helical DNA associated with
histones and nonhistone proteins
ii. NUCLEUS -Primary protein components are histones,
-Contains the genome of the cell which are coiled strands of DNA
-(somatic cells)- has 46 chromosomes Heterochromatin Euchromatin
 22 pairs of autosomes Condensatio Condensed Dispersed
 1 pair of sex chromosomes n
-(sperm cells and egg cells) each contains: Activity Transcriptionally Transcriptionally
 23 chromosomes inactive active
 A copy of each autosome Appearance “darker” “lighter”
 And either a male (x) or a female (y) sex Electron Coarse granules Finely dispersed
chromosome microscope Basophilic lumps granular
*Chromosome – ordered structure contaning genes Light Lightly stained
(DNA) and associated proteins (i.e. histones) microscopy basophilic areas
-Contains enzymatic machinery for repair of damaged Function -Package DNA into
DNA and for its replication smaller volume to
fit in cell
-Contains enzymes needed to transcribe DNA and yield
-Strengthen DNA to
messenger RNA (mRNA) allow mitosis and
-Information center meiosis and prevent
-Most conspicuous organelle found in a eukaryotic cell DNA damage
-Where DNA replication and RNA synthesis occur -Control gene
-rounded or oval structure; usually at center of cell expression and
-Components: DNA replication
 NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
-Nucleosome
-separates nucleus and cytoplasm
 Basic structural unit of
-isolates and protects cell’s DNA that may
chromatin and histone
potentially damage its structure or interfere
 Has core of 8 small
with its processing
histones
-Made up of 2 parallel unit membranes
 Basic unit of chromatin
separated by a narrow (30-50nm) perinuclear
packaging
space; together they make up the nuclear
 Consists of DNA coiled
lamina
around (2) H2A, (2) H2B,
1. Outer membrane-polyribosomes
(2) H3, (2) H4
are attached indicating continuity of the
 Packaged together by h1
nuclear envelope with the ER
 Structure that produces
2. Inner membrane - meshwork of
initialorganization of free
fibrous proteins called nuclear lamina
double stranded DNA in
-help stabilize nuclear envelope
chromatin
-Form when lamins assemble as a lattice
 DNA associated with
adjacent to inner membrane
nucleosome resembles a
-Contain binding sites for chromatin
long string of beads
*At sites where both membranes fuse, the
 “beads on a string”
resulting lipid free spaces that contain nuclear
 Wide variety of enzymatic
pore complex, which regulates the
function
bidirectional transport between nucleus and
cytoplasm
c. CELL CYCLE
 NUCLEOLUS
i. INTERPHASE
-specialized region of chromatin
-cell period during which nutrients needed for mitosis are
-Spherical accumulated
-Highly basophilic structure present in nuclea -non-dividing phase and longest part of the cell cycle
of cells active in protein synthesis
-The intense basophilia is due to *entry into each phase cycle is controlled proteins called
hetochromatin cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases, which phosphorylate
-Consists of portions of 5 pairs of and acivate many proteins needed for phase specific functions
chromosomes that contain genes that code for 1. G1 (PRESYNTHESIS)
rRNA -longest phase
 CHROMATIN -time gap between mitosis and DNA replication
 -RNA and protein organelle synthesis occurs - End product: Four genetically different haploid cells
-actve synthesis of RNA and proteins that control cell cylces
-includes proteins that control the cell cycle and the cell 1. MEIOSIS I
volume is restored to its normal size -End product: 2 non-identical haploid daughter cells
-1st control checkpoint ensures everything is ready for DNA  PROPHASE 1
synthesis -homologous (same type) chromosomes
2. S (DNA SYNTHESIS) pairs up lengthwise (synapsis) forming 23
-period of DNA replication and histone synthesis pairs of chromosomes (diploid)
-two centromeres form mitotic spindle as
-beginning of centrosome duplication
they migrate to the end poles and the nuclear
3. G2 (POST-DNA DUPLICATION)
envelope breaks down
-relatively short -homologous chromosomes exchanges
-gap between DNA duplication and next mitosis genetic material (cross-over)
-DNA cell will continue to grow and produce new proteins  METAPHASE 1
-proteins required for mitosis accumulate at this phase -Chromosomes line up to the equatorial
-2nd control checkpoint to determine if the cell is now ready plate
to enter mitosis and divide -Forms attachment to the spindle fibers
4. G0 phase made by the centromeres
-quiscent phase or post mitotic phase  ANAPHASE 1
-cells are not continuously dividing whether temporarily or -Chromosomes of each pair move to the
permanently opposite poles of the cell
APOPTOSIS -No centromere division taking place
-refers to programmed cell death  TELOPHASE 1
-single cell drop out; occurs one at a time -Chromosomes decondenses and nuclear
membranes reform (cytokinesis)
ii. MITOSIS (CELL DIVISION)
-parents cell divides producing 2 daughter cells, each with type and
amount of DNA identical to the parent cell

2. MEIOSIS II
-End product: 4 non-identical haploid daughter cells
 Prophase 2
1. PROPHASE
-Haploid chromatins condense into
-chromatin condenses into chromosomes
chromosome while the two centromeres form
-centrioles move to opposite ends of cell
spindle fibers again
-nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappear
2. METAPHASE  Metaphase 2
-chromosomes align in the center in association with the spindle -Chromosomes line up parallel to the
fibers equatorial plate
-Microtubules (spindle fibers) attaches to
3. ANAPHASE
-chromatids separare to form 2 sets if identical chromosomes each sister chromatid of the chromosome
-chromosomes move toward the centrioles at each end  Anaphase 2
4. TELOPHASE -Centromeres divide forming 2 independent
-chromosomes dispers chromosomes that move to the opposite poles
-nucleolus and nuclear envelope form of the cell
-cytoplasm begins to divide, forming 2 cells.  Telophase 2
-Chromosome again decondenses and
iii. MEIOSIS nuclear membrane reforms
- A two step nuclear cell division in which the parent cell
divides to form daughter cells with half the genetic material of
the parent (haploid)
- Happens after the DNA replication during the Interphase
References:
 Step-by-step video:
http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/animations/conten
t/meiosis.html
 Photos:
http://afjh.org/jdmoon/bio%20pages/biounit7.html