THE IMPACT OF EDUCATIONAL INTERPRETERS ON LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT 1

The Impact of Educational Interpreters on Language Development

Karen Ruiz

Department of American Sign Language and Interpreting Education, RIT/NTID

INTP 460.01: Issues in Interpreting, Summer 1, 2023

Instructor: Mani Garcia

June 30, 2023

INTERPRETER IMPACT ON LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT 2

Abstract

Sign language interpreters working in an educational setting are responsible for

facilitating information while also performing other roles within the classroom (Cerney, n.d.;

Winston et al, 2021). Due to the large majority of deaf children having hearing families,

interpreters often take on the role of being language role models and facilitators (Cerney, n.d.).

Considering the obligations and responsibilities of educational interpreters, it is imperative for

them to have a comprehensive understanding of their impact on deaf childrens’ language

development and acquisition. As demonstrated through established research, this awareness can

be brought forth through appropriate interpreter education and training, as well as through

heightened standards for interpreters practicing in an educational setting. Further research

regarding this topic will allow for an improved system of access for deaf individuals and

potentially buffer the adverse effects of language deprivation and language-based exclusion in

mainstream education. To investigate the impact that educational interpreters have on deaf

childrens’ education in mainstream settings, more specifically, language development, I propose

a study in which the performance of interpreters is assessed through assessing the language skills

of deaf children. By measuring the language development of deaf children accompanied by an

interpreter over the course of a school year, the relationship between interpreter skill level and

deaf children’s language development can be understood more in-depth.

Keywords: D/deaf, Educational Interpreting, Language Development, Mainstream Education

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The Impact of Educational Interpreters on Language Development

Educational sign language interpreters have a multitude of roles in K-12 settings.

Considering the nature of the job, they are responsible for interpreting information and acting as

authority figures to students in the class, in which they may be asked to assist the teacher with

classroom activities (Cerney, n.d.; Winston et al, 2021). Additionally, because more than 90% of

deaf children are born to non-signing hearing parents (U.S. Department of Health and Human

Services, 2021), educational interpreters may act as language role models. This is primarily due

to interpreters being either one of the only sources, or consistent sources, of signed language

access (Cerney, n.d.). There are circumstances in which this is not the case, such as when a deaf

child comes from a signing family. However, the former is a fairly common occurrence when

deaf children are placed into mainstream education.

Although previous research has investigated the impact sign language interpreters have

on communication and education outcomes in K-12 settings, there has been little research

regarding their impact on the language development and acquisition of deaf students. As a result

of language-based exclusion and language deprivation being prevalent issues among deaf

individuals (Hall, 2017; Garcia, 2021; Kulkarni & Sommer, 2014), educational interpreters must

understand their impact. A central component of this impact is reliant on appropriate awareness,

training, and experience (Cerney, n.d.; Winston et al., 2021). To explore this issue, I have

developed research methods and I propose a study in which the presence and specificities of this

correlation can be examined through surveys, interviews, and quantitative assessments of

language proficiencies.
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Literature Review

The education and training of interpreters greatly impacts the quality of their

performance, and therefore, the way the students obtain information. Educational sign language

interpreters in the United States have varying certification and qualification requirements,

depending on state, district, or school policies. In the U.S., 42 states require educational sign

language interpreters to take the Educational Interpreter Performance Assessment (EIPA) for

permanent credential (State Requirements for educational interpreters, 2023). This is a tool used

to evaluate the skills of interpreters working with deaf children on a scale of 0 to 5. A score of 0

reflects the presence of no skills, while a score of 5 indicates the presence of advanced skills

(Task12, n.d.). Of the 42 states that require this assessment, 14 require a minimum score of 4.0,

21 require a minimum of 3.5, and 5 require a minimum of 3.0 (State Requirements for

educational interpreters, 2023). The substandard qualifications for educational interpreters, or

lack thereof, put deaf students at a disadvantage compared to their hearing peers.

Langer and Schick (2007; 2004, as cited in Winston et al, 2021, p. 19) find that

interpreters who achieve a score of 3.0 on the EIPA convey roughly 60-70% of information

present in the source language message. This is crucial for interpreters to understand as they may

otherwise misinterpret EIPA scores as adequate because it meets employment requirements. This

is especially true for new interpreters entering the workforce as they tend to be “exceptionally

unprepared for the realities of interpreting in educational settings” (Smith, 2019). This, coupled

with the fact that many interpreters find employment in educational settings as an easy way into

the field (Smith, 2019), can be detrimental to the education of deaf students.

A research study by Deborah Cates and Julie Delkamiller investigated the impact of sign

language interpreter skills on education outcomes in K-12 settings (Winston et al., 2021, p.19).
INTERPRETER IMPACT ON LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT 5

In this study, the EIPA was used as a measure of interpreter skill. In order to study how

interpreter skills impacted education outcomes, four instructional conditions were fabricated.

These conditions involved direct instruction in ASL, direct instruction using simultaneous

communication (SimCom) in sign and English, interpreted instruction from English to ASL with

an interpreter who scored 3.0 on the EIPA, and interpreted instruction from English to ASL with

an interpreter who scored 4.0 on the EIPA. The participating deaf students were given pre- and

post-tests that would be used to evaluate learning. The results of this study showed that direct

instruction in ASL yielded the best learning outcomes, followed by direct instruction in

SimCom, then interpreted instruction with the interpreter that scored 4.0 on the EIPA. The results

for the fourth condition, interpreted instruction from an interpreter with an EIPA score of 3.0,

showed that no learning had occurred.

This study provides evidence that qualified interpreters are needed in educational

environments where direct instruction is not available. Additionally, it shows that interpreters can

have an impact on the education of deaf students, which leads to further questions about which

areas of education and student development interpreters have an impact on and how. This

research study is limited by its lack of comprehensive language profiles on each of the

participants as information regarding language proficiencies and communication methods was

not collected. Likewise, this study is limited by its small sample size (n=6) and inconsistent

participant attendance. Now that the existence of interpreter impact on education has been

established, it is imperative to begin focusing on interpreter involvement in the language

development of deaf children.

Language role models are vital for language development in young children (Cerney,

n.d.). If a child’s parents are unable to perform this role, another individual such as a language
INTERPRETER IMPACT ON LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT 6

facilitator will have to assume this responsibility. Language facilitators differ from interpreters in

that interpreters facilitate communication, not language. It is, however, important to note that

language facilitation requires fluency in the target language and proper education regarding

language acquisition and teaching methods. As a result, it can be difficult to find an ideal and

available candidate that fits these criteria in regard to ASL. Taking this into account, interpreters

often assume this role, despite not being properly trained to do so (Cerney, n.d., p. 9-10).

In the event that the duty of a language role model is not assumed early on by someone in

the child’s life, language deprivation occurs (Hall, 2017). According to Hall (2017), “ the

exclusion of a fully accessible visual language such as sign language, appears to be a more likely

cause of poor language outcomes in deaf people” (p. 963). With more than 90% of deaf children

being born to hearing parents (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2021), the

majority of which are non-signing, language deprivation is a prevalent issue within the Deaf

community. Furthermore, the phenomenon of language-based exclusion, which refers to “any

circumstance in which language serves as the basis for real or perceived rejection by others”

(Garcia, 2021; Kulkarni & Sommer, 2014) occurs even when language deprivation does not.

Although interpreters only create an “illusion of inclusion,” as described by Caselli et al. (2020),

it is nevertheless important for interpreters to do their part in supporting the language needs and

development of their deaf students.

Materials and Methods

The proposed study investigates the impact that interpreters have on the language

development of deaf children in K-12 settings. Following the recruitment phase, demographic

information will be collected from all participants. Comprehensive language profiles of each of

the participating students will then be compiled through language proficiency tests. Next,
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interpreters will work with the students for the school year and students will be reassessed for

language proficiency once the school year is over. Quantitative data from the pre-and post-

language proficiency tests will be examined for statistically significant differences, while

qualitative data from interviews and surveys will be thematically analyzed.

Sample

The participants for this study will include 15 deaf students and their designated

educational interpreters. The students must attend mainstream schools and use an interpreter the

majority of the time while in school. This limitation is implemented to focus on how language

development is being influenced by interpreters, rather than by other factors. Interpreters must

have taken the EIPA within the previous calendar year to ensure the relevance and accuracy of

scores.

Informed Consent

Participants will be provided with a copy of the HSRO-approved, written English,

informed consent form. Consent forms must be signed by a parent or legal guardian for any

participants under 18 years of age.

Enrollment Procedures

The research team will begin recruitment by contacting interpreting agencies and Boards

of Education in New York State affiliated with educational interpreters and request that

information regarding this study be passed on to the interpreters. The information given to the

agencies and Boards of Education will include what the study is aiming to achieve, the

requirements and responsibilities of the participants, incentives for participation, and how to

contact the research team if interested. For the interpreters who have been approached through

agencies, they will be asked to pass on information to the parents or guardians of the students
INTERPRETER IMPACT ON LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT 8

they work with. Otherwise, for students and families contacted through Boards of Education they

will be asked to pass on the information to their designated interpreters. If interested they can

contact the research team for further information and to confirm participation. Once participation

is confirmed for both parties, demographic information will begin being collected through survey

questionnaires.

Procedures and Measures

This study will include two phases, one of which will take place before the school year

and the other, after. For phase one, demographic information requested from interpreters can be

found in the Appendix. Additionally, the Appendix also contains demographic information

requested from students. Parents or guardians may fill out this information if the student is

unable to complete it on their own. Once demographic information is collected, the students will

then be assessed for their initial proficiency levels in English and ASL using an English language

proficiency test, ASL sentence reproduction test (ASL-SRT), and ASL comprehension test

(ASL-CT). The Test of English Language Learning (TELL) will be used to assess English

language skills but will be adjusted to accommodate the deaf students’ communication methods

(Monsen, 1981; Pearson). This means that the pronunciation and audio portions of these tests

may be modified to be written text. The ASL-SRT and ASL-CT will assess language proficiency

in ASL (The Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 2016). These allow for baseline

proficiency levels to be measured and a more comprehensive language profile to be collected for

each student.

For phase two, the interpreters will then work with these students for the school year,

uninterrupted by the research team, after which the student’s language proficiencies will be

reassessed. To gather further information about the impact and role interpreters played in the
INTERPRETER IMPACT ON LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT 9

students’ language development, the interpreters and students will be interviewed. The

interpreters will be asked about any deliberate work they did with the students, if any, to develop

language skills in either ASL or English (see Appendix). The students will be interviewed

regarding their thoughts and opinions on whether their interpreter impacted their language

development (see Appendix). Parents or guardians will be present during student interviews and

interpreters will be provided. Using quantitative data from the language proficiency assessments

and qualitative data from the interviews allows for a mixed method, multi-perspective view of

interpreter impact on language development to be analyzed.

Compensation

Interpreters will receive $10 for participating in this study, while students will receive

$30, issued to their parents or guardian. Students' compensation is higher due to their additional

responsibilities in phase 1. Additionally, all participants will receive $10 per half hour while

participating in the interviews.

Data Analysis Plan

Each student’s results from their language proficiency pre-tests will be compared to their

results from the post-tests. The statistical analysis used to compare these scores will be a t-test,

which will analyze the scores for statistically significant differences from the pre-test to the

post-test. This will allow me to see if language development occurred with each student.

Additionally, the information gathered through the demographic surveys and interviews will be

thematically examined for a deeper understanding of how the participating interpreters may have

influenced the language development of the students.

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Discussion

It is important for educational interpreters to understand and accept that their work can

impact the future of their students in many different ways as seen in previous research (Caselli,

2020; Cerney, n.d.; Deaf students and English Learner Services, 2019; Smith, 2019; Winston et

al, 2021). This study allows for a deeper understanding of interpreter impact, potentially

revealing some unknown factors that play into the language development of deaf children in

mainstream schools. Furthermore, once interpreters become aware of their impact, more

education and training may be developed to better support the language needs of deaf children

and support teachers working with deaf students. Additional training would be beneficial for

both teachers and interpreters or any adult working with deaf children. Additionally, education

regarding this topic would allow interpreters to be more cognizant of their work and further

analyze it to create the best product for the student.

Limitations

This study is limited with respect to sample size and sample location. The sample size for

this study is fairly small and cannot represent the population of deaf students in mainstream

education. All participants will be recruited from New York State, which has no standardized

requirements for educational interpreters. This may limit the number of certifications and

qualifications the participating interpreters hold. This also, however, allows for a diverse range

of credentials to be assessed for influence on the language development of deaf children.

Another potential limitation of this study is the practice effect, which refers to the improvement

of performance due to repetition (American Psychological Association, 2023). This means that

test scores may increase from the pre-test to the post-test due to students taking the same tests

twice, rather than because language development is occurring.

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Future Directions

Further research would be needed to compare these results to the typical language

development of hearing children in public schools and deaf children attending residential deaf

schools. Such comparisons would lead to a clearer picture of interpreters and mainstream

education's impact on the language development of deaf children. Additionally, similar research

or replicated studies with interpreters and students in other areas would be needed to support the

study's findings.
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References

American Psychological Association. (2023). Apa Dictionary of Psychology. American

Psychological Association. https://dictionary.apa.org/practice-effect

Caselli, N. K., Hall, W. C., & Henner, J. (2020). American sign language interpreters in public

schools: An illusion of inclusion that perpetuates language deprivation. Maternal and

Child Health Journal, 24(11), 1323–1329. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-020-02975-7

Cerney, B. (n.d.). Language acquisition, Language Teaching, and the interpreter as a Model for

Language Input. Handandmind.org. Retrieved June 6, 2023, from

http://handandmind.org/LgAcquisition.pdf

Deaf students and English Learner Services. National Deaf Center on Postsecondary Outcomes.

(2019).

https://nationaldeafcenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Deaf-Students-and-English-Le

arner-Services-8.13.19ENGLISHWEB.pdf

Garcia E. Language-Based Exclusion and Deaf Mental Health- Introduction and Conceptual

Foundations. Deaf Lives 360 - Deaf Studies Today! 2021 Digital Conference. UVU

ASL & Deaf Studies , Online.

Hall, W.C. What You Don’t Know Can Hurt You: The Risk of Language Deprivation by

Impairing Sign Language Development in Deaf Children. Matern Child Health J 21,

961–965 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-017-2287-y

Kulkarni, M., & Sommer, K. (2014). Language-based exclusion and prosocial behaviors in

organizations. Human Resource Management, 54(4), 637–652.

https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.21637
INTERPRETER IMPACT ON LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT 13

Monsen, R. B. (1981). A usable test for the speech intelligibility of deaf talkers. American

Annals of the Deaf, 126(7), 845–852. https://doi.org/10.1353/aad.2012.1333

Pearson. (n.d.). Test of English language learning. TELL.

https://www.pearsonassessments.com/store/usassessments/en/Store/Professional-Assessm

ents/Academic-Learning/Brief/Test-of-English-Language-Learning/p/100001182.html

Smith, Melissa B. (2019). Chapter 1: At First Glance: Taking a look at Deaf Education and

Interpreting in K-12 Classrooms. In More than meets the eye: Revealing the complexities

of an interpreted education (pp. 1–12). essay, GALLAUDET UNIV Press.

State requirements for educational interpreters. National Association for Interpreters in

Education. (2023, May 2). https://naiedu.org/state-standards/

Task12- eipa frequently asked questions. EIPA FAQs. (n.d.). Retrieved June 8, 2023, from

https://www.taese.org/cms/index.php/eipa-registration/eipa-faqs

The Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, Volume 21, Issue 1, January 2016, Pages

64–69, https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/env051

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2021, March 25). Quick statistics about

hearing. National Institute of Deafness and Other Communication Disorders.

https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/statistics/quick-statistics-hearing#:~:text=More%20tha

n%2090%20percent%20of%20deaf%20children%20are%20born%20to%20hearing%20p

arents.&text=Approximately%2015%25%20of%20American%20adults,over%20rep

ort%20some%20trouble%20hearing.

Winston, E. A., Fitzmaurice, S. B., Cates, D., & Delkamiller, J. (2021). The Impact of Sign

Language Interpreter Skill on Education Outcomes in K-12 Settings. In Advances in

educational interpreting (pp. 19–30). essay, Gallaudet University Press.

INTERPRETER IMPACT ON LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT 14

Appendix

Demographic Survey For Interpreters:

1. Age

2. Race

3. Ethnicity

4. Gender

5. Education

6. Years of experience interpreting

7. Years of experience in educational interpreting

8. EIPA score

9. Certifications/Qualifications if any

Demographic Survey For Students:

1. Age

2. Race

3. Ethnicity

4. Gender

5. Hearing status/identity

6. Use of hearing assistive technology

7. Communication methods

8. Grade level in school

9. Use/dependency on interpreters in school

10. Family background (i.e. deaf/signing family?)

INTERPRETER IMPACT ON LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT 15

Interview Questions For Interpreters:

1. Describe your role(s) in and out of the classroom with the student(s).

2. Was there deliberate work done with the student in regard to language development? If

so, explain this in detail.

3. Do you feel as though you have played a part in the student(s)’ language development? If

so, how?

4. How do you feel you could better support the language needs and development of deaf

students in the future?

Interview Questions For Students:

1. Do you feel as though your interpreter supported your ASL language development? If so,

in what ways?

a. Did they expose you to new signs?

b. Did they reinforce and/or help you better understand ASL grammar? If so, in what

ways?

2. Do you feel as though your interpreter supported your English language development? If

so, in what ways?

a. Did they expose you to new English words?

b. Did they reinforce and/or help you better understand English grammar? If so, in

what ways?

3. How do you feel your interpreter could have better supported your language needs and

development?