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Review Notes on
HUMAN BEHAVIOR &
VICTIMOLOGY
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HUMAN BEHAVIOR. –
It refers to the range of actions and mannerisms
exhibited by humans in conjunction with their environment,
responding to various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or
external, conscious, or subconscious, overt or covert, and
voluntary or involuntary. It is influenced by many factors,
including:1
• attitudes, beliefs, emotions, reasoning
• culture, values, ethics, religion
• authority, rapport, motivation, persuasion,
• genetics, peers, environment.
Human behavior simply refers to the way in which a
person behaves. It refers to the reaction to facts of relationship
between the individual and his environment. Human behavior is
the study of human conduct; the way a person behaves or acts;
includes the study of human activities to discover recurrent
patterns and to formulate rules about man’s social behavior.
Definition of Terms:
1) Behavior. Any act of person which is observable; any
observable responses of a person to his environment;
manner of one’s conduct.
2) Attitude. Position of the body, as suggesting some thought,
feeling, or action; state of mind, behavior, or conduct
regarding some matter, as indicating opinion or purpose;
internal processes.
3) Behavioral Genetics. A field of research in psychology that
aims to determine heritability and to determine how much
of the behavior is accounted for by genetic factors. It began
in England with sir Francis Galton and his study of the
inheritance of genius in families
4) Psychology. The science that studies behavior and mental
processes.
5) Personality. That which distinguishes and characterizes a
person.
6) Character. The combination of qualities distinguishing any
person or class of persons; any distinctive trait or mark, or
such marks or traits collectively belonging to any person,
class or race.
Attributes or Characteristics of Behavior:
1) Overt behavior – behaviors that are observable.
2) Covert behavior – those that are hidden from the view of
the observer.
3) Simple behavior – less number of neurons are consumed in
the process of behaving
4) Complex behavior – combination of simple behavior
5) Rational behavior - acting with sanity or with reasons
6) Irrational behavior – acting without reason/ unaware
7) Voluntary behavior – done with full volition of will.
8) Involuntary behavior – bodily processes that goes on even
when we are awake or asleep.
Aspects of Behaviors:
1. Intellectual Aspect – way of thinking, reasoning, solving
problem, processing info and coping with the environment.
1 www.mbabrief.com
2. Emotional Aspect – feelings, moods, temper, strong
motivational force within the person.
3. Social Aspect – people interaction or relationship with
other people.
4. Moral Aspect – conscience, concept on what is good or
bad.
5. Psychosexual Aspect – being a man or a woman and the
expression of love.
6. Political Aspect – ideology towards society/government.
7. Value/ Attitude – interest towards something, likes and
dislikes.
Molecular Behavior Vs. Molar Behavior
Molecular behavior refers to such things as isolated
muscular movements or glandular secretion or to the
movements of the nerve cells or muscles.
Molar behavior on the other hand refers to the behavior
organized into meaningful sequences or patterns into activities
that satisfy the organisms’ needs, bring it closer to its goals or
help to avoid danger.
Three Levels of Behavior
1. The Vegetative - responsible for nurturing and
reproduction, mostly found in plants, in human beings, for
food and reproduction.
2. The Animal - movement and sensation, mostly the use of
the senses and sex drives.
3. The Rational/Psyche/Human - values and morals, reasons
and the will (purpose and freedom).
Three Faculties of Man
1. Will - the power of conscious deliberate actions; the faculty
by which the rational mind makes choice of its ends of
action and directs energies in carrying out its
determinations.
2. Intellect - the faculty of power of perception or thought, or
power of understanding.
3. Soul - the rational, emotional, and volitional faculties in
man, conceived of as forming an entity distinct from, often
existing independently of his body; the emotional faculty of
man distinguished from intellect.
Instinct - innate (biological - unconscious); life (sexual
wishes). Pleasure principle (libido) or love instinct (Eros); death
(aggressive and embarrassment. Thanatos (death wish or love of
death)
Libido - the instinctual craving of drive behind all human
activities, especially sexual, the repression of which leads to
neurosis.
Approaches in the study of Human Behavior:
1. Neurological - emphasizes human actions in relation to
events taking place inside the body, especially the brain and
the nervous system.
2. Behavioral - focuses on those external activities of the
organism that can be observed and measured.
3. Cognitive - concerned with the way the brain processes and
transforms information in various ways.
4. Psychoanalytical - emphasizes unconscious motives
stemming from repressed sexual and aggressive impulses in
childhood.
5. Humanistic - focuses on the subject’s experience, freedom
of choice and motivation toward self-actualization.
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Assessing Human Behavior (Measures)
1. Descriptive Method (describing the behavior)
• Naturalistic observation - observes the behavior in the
natural setting of the person’s background, e.g. home,
school, church, etc.
• Systematic observation - making use of the adjective
check lists, e.g. skills rating (inventories and
questionnaires) test given by the guidance counsel.
2. Clinical Method - diagnose and treatment of serious
emotional or mental disorders or disturbances.
3. Experimental Method - relationship between variables by
way of experiments. Specimens are required for
comparison and for contrast.
4. Statistical Method - making use of research that were
conducted; measures of central tendencies, mean, median,
mode tests; (the use of the Uniform Crime Report (UCR))
Determinants of Behavior:
1. Heredity – genetic inheritance
2. Environment – socio-cultural inheritance
3. Self – fundamental functioning of the self
structure that we make about ourselves and our world.
These assumptions are based on learning.
Basic Factors Affecting Behavior:
1. Heredity/Biological Factors (nature) – It is the primary
basis of the idea concerning criminal behavior, the concept
that “criminals are born” - Theory of Atavism - born
criminal. It also considers the influences of genetic defects
and faulty genes, diseases, endocrine imbalances,
malnutrition and other physical deprivations that can be
carried out from one generation to another.
2. Environmental Factors (nurture) – refers to anything
around the person that influences his actions. Some
environmental factors are:
a. The family background
b. The influences of childhood trauma
c. Pathogenic family structure – those families
associated with high frequency of problems such as:
✓ The inadequate family – characterized by the inability
to cope with the ordinary problems of family living. It
lacks the resources, physical or psychological, for
meeting the demands of family satisfaction.
✓ The anti-social family – those that espouses
unacceptable values because of the influence of
parents to their children.
✓ The discordant/disturbed family – characterized by
unsatisfaction of one or both parent from the
relationship they have that may express feeling of
frustration. This is usually due to value differences as
common sources of conflict and dissatisfaction.
✓ The disrupted family – characterized by
incompleteness whether because of death, divorce,
separation or some other circumstances.
• Institutional influences such as peer groups, mass media,
church and school, government institutions, NGO’s, etc.
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• Socio-cultural factors such as war and violence, group
prejudice and discrimination, economic and employment
problems and other social changes.
• Nutrition or the quality of food that a person intake is also
a factor that influences man to commit crime because
poverty is one of the many reasons to criminal behavior.
PERSONALITY –
The totality of a person. It embraces moods, attitudes,
and opinions and is most clearly expressed in interactions with
other people.
Components of Personality (According Sigmund Freud)
1) Id. It is that part of the personality with which we are born.
Id is the animalistic self.
2) Ego. The mediator between the ID and the superego. It
refers to the developing awareness of self or the “I”. It is
also known as the integrator of the personality.
3) Superego. The socialized component of the personality.
The Oedipal complex2. –
A term used by Sigmund Freud in his theory of
psychosexual stages of development and is the generic term for
both Oedipus and Electra complexes. It occurs during the Phallic
stage of development (ages 3-6) in which the source of libido
(life force) is concentrated in the erogenous zones of the child's
body. During this stage, children experience an unconscious
feeling of desire for their opposite-sex parent and jealousy and
envy toward their same-sex parent.
1) The Oedipus complex involves a boy, aged between 3 and
6, becoming unconsciously sexually attached to his mother,
and hostile towards his father (who he views as a rival).
2) The Electra complex is a term used to describe the female
version of the Oedipus complex. It involves a girl, aged
between 3 and 6, becoming unconsciously sexually
attached to her father and increasingly hostile toward her
mother.
Alfred Adler. –
An Austrian medical doctor, psychotherapist, and
founder of the school of individual psychology. His emphasis on
the importance of feelings of belonging, family constellation and
birth order. He proposed that contributing to others was how
the individual feels a sense of worth and belonging in the family
and society. His earlier work focused on inferiority, the
inferiority complex, an isolating element which plays a key role
in personality development. Alfred Adler considered a human
being as an individual whole, and therefore he called his
psychology "Individual Psychology".
Inferiority complex is an intense personal feeling of
inadequacy, often resulting in the belief that one is in some way
deficient, or inferior, to others.
It may cause an individual to overcompensate in several
ways. For example, a person who feels inferior because they are
shorter than average (also known as a Napoleon complex) due
to common day heightism may become overly concerned with
how they appear to others. They may wear special shoes to
make themself appear taller or surround themselves with
2 www.simplypsychology.org
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individuals who are even shorter than they are. If this is taken to
the extreme, it becomes a neurosis.
Carl Gustav Jung3. –
A Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who founded
analytical psychology – a term he coined to describe his
research into his new "empirical science" of the psyche.
He expanded on Freud's idea of the personal
unconscious to include what Jung called the collective
unconscious. Jung believed that the human psyche was
composed of three components:
• The ego
• The personal unconscious
• The collective unconscious
The ego represents the conscious mind, and the personal
unconscious contains memories—including those that have
been suppressed. He believed that archetypes come from the
collective unconscious. He suggested that these models are
innate, universal, unlearned, and hereditary. The existence of
these archetypes cannot be observed directly but can be
inferred by looking at religion, dreams, art, and literature. He
identified four major archetypes:
1) The Persona. It’s how we present ourselves to the world.
Over the course of development, children learn that they
must behave in certain ways to fit in with society's
expectations and norms. The persona develops as a social
mask to contain all the primitive urges, impulses, and
emotions that are not considered socially acceptable.
2) The Shadow. An archetype that consists of the sex and life
instincts. The shadow exists as part of the unconscious
mind and is composed of repressed ideas, weaknesses,
desires, instincts, and shortcomings. It is this archetype that
contains all the things that are unacceptable not only to
society, but also to one's own personal morals and values.
It might include things such as envy, greed, prejudice, hate,
and aggression. Jung suggested that the shadow can appear
in dreams or visions and may take a variety of forms. It
might appear as a snake, a monster, a demon, a dragon, or
some other dark, wild, or exotic figure.
3) The Anima or Animus. The anima is a feminine image in
the male psyche, and the animus is a male image in the
female psyche. The anima/animus represents the "true
self" rather than the image we present to others and serves
as the primary source of communication with the collective
unconscious. Jung suggested the influence of the animus
and anima archetypes were also involved in this process.
According to Jung, the animus represents the masculine
aspect in women while the anima represented the feminine
aspect in men.
4) The Self. An archetype that represents the unified
unconsciousness and consciousness of an individual. Jung
often represented the self as a circle, square, or mandala.
Creating the self occurs through a process known as
individuation, in which the various aspects of personality
are integrated. Jung suggested that there were two
different centers of personality: The ego makes up the
center of consciousness, but it is the self that lies at the
3 www.verywellmind.com
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center of personality. Personality encompasses not only
consciousness but also the ego and the unconscious mind.
Jung’s personality type theory
For Carl Jung, there are four basic psychological
functions: to think, feel, sense, and perceive. In each person,
one or more of these functions have particular emphasis. For
example, when someone is impulsive, according to Jung, this is
since their “sense and perceive” functions predominate over the
“feel and think” functions.
Based on these four basic functions, Jung postulated that
there are two main types of character: the introvert and the
extrovert. Each one has specific traits, which differentiate it
from the other.
1) Extrovert character. Characterized by the following traits:
• Their interests focus on the external reality, instead of
their internal world.
• They make decisions by thinking about their effect on
the external reality, instead of on their own existence.
• Their actions are carried out according to what others
might think about them.
• Their ethics and morals are built depending on what
prevails in the world.
• They are people that can fit into almost any
environment but have a hard time truly adapting.
• They are suggestible, easily influenced and tend to
imitate others.
• They need to be seen and acknowledged by others.
2) Introvert character. It has the following traits:
• They are interested in themselves, their feelings and
thoughts.
• They orient their behavior according to what they feel
and think, though it may go against the external reality.
• They don’t worry too much about the effect their
actions might have on their surroundings. They worry
about everything that satisfies them internally.
• They struggle to fit into and adapt to their environment.
However, if they manage to adapt, they will do so in a
creative and complete way.
8 Personality Types
1) Reflexive extrovert. It corresponds with the objective
brainy individuals, whose actions are almost exclusively
based on reason. They only accept as true the things that
they can confirm with enough evidence. They are not
very sensitive and can even be tyrannical and
manipulative towards other people.
2) Reflexive introvert. A person with great intellectual
activity, but who, however, has difficulties relating or
interacting with other people. They tend to be stubborn
and tenacious when it comes to achieving their
objectives. Sometimes they are seen as misfits and
harmless, yet interesting.
3) Sentimental extrovert. The people who fall into this
category have a great ability to understand others and
establish social relationships. However, they struggle to
separate themselves from the herd and suffer when they
are ignored by the people around them. They are very
skilled at communication.
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4) Sentimental introvert. Corresponds with solitary people
who have great difficulty establishing social relationships
with other people. They can be unsociable and
melancholy. They do everything within their power to go
unnoticed, and they like to remain silent. However, they
are very sensitive to the needs of others.
5) Perceptive extrovert. They have a special weakness for
objects, to which they can even attribute magical
qualities, though they may do so unconsciously. They
aren’t passionate about ideas, but rather about the way
these ideas take the shape of concrete things. They seek
out pleasure above all things.
6) Perceptive introvert. It’s a type of personality commonly
found in artists and musicians. Perceptive introvert
people put special emphasis on sensory experiences.
They give color, shape and texture great value. They
belong to the world of shapes as a source of internal
experiences.
7) Intuitive extrovert. Corresponds to the typical
adventurer. They are very active and restless. They need
a lot of stimuli all of the time. They are tenacious when it
comes to achieving their objectives, and once they do,
they go right on to the next goal quickly forgetting the
previous one. They don’t care much about the well-being
of those around them.
8) Intuitive introvert. They are extremely sensitive to the
most subtle stimuli. Corresponds to the type of people
who can almost guess what others are thinking, feeling or
willing to do. They are imaginative, dreamers and
idealists. They struggle with “keeping their feet on the
ground.”
William Sheldon4. –
An American psychologist and physician who was best
known for his theory associating physique, personality, and
delinquency. Sheldon classified people according to three body
types, or somatotypes:
a) Endomorphs. – Rounded and soft, were said to have a
tendency toward a “viscerotonic” personality (i.e.,
relaxed, comfortable, extroverted);
b) Mesomorphs. – Square and muscular, were said to have a
tendency toward a “somotonic” personality (i.e., active,
dynamic, assertive, aggressive); and
c) Ectomorphs. – Thin and fine-boned, were said to have a
tendency toward a “cerebrotonic” personality (i.e.,
introverted, thoughtful, inhibited, sensitive).
He later used this classification system to explain
delinquent behavior, finding that delinquents were likely to be
high in mesomorphy and low in ectomorphy and arguing that
mesomorphy’s associated temperaments (active and aggressive
but lacking sensitivity and inhibition) tend to cause delinquency
and criminal behavior.
4 6
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NEEDS, DRIVES, MOTIVATIONS
Drives are aroused state that results from some biological
needs. The aroused condition motivates the person to remedy
the need.
Needs are the triggering factor that drives or moves a person to
act. It is a psychological state of tissue deprivation.
Motivation on the other hand refers to the causes and “why’s”
of behavior as required by a need.
A need is a requirement of some material (such as food
or water) that is essential for survival of the organism. When an
organism has a need, it leads to a psychological tension as well
as a physical arousal that motivates the organism to act to fulfill
the need and reduce the tension. This tension is called a drive.
1) My body needs nutrients to survive. 2) This need
results in psychological and physiological discomfort, AKA a
drive: hunger. 3) As a result of my hunger, I order take-out. My
motive for doing this is that I want food. The concept is: need->
drive -> motive -> resulting action.5
Types of Human Needs:
Biological or Biogenic Needs:
1) food – hunger: the body needs adequate supply of
nutrients to function efficiently. “An empty stomach
sometimes drives a person to steal.”
2) air – need of oxygen
3) water - thirst
4) rest – weary bodies needs this.
5) sex – a powerful motivator but unlike food and water, sex is
not vital for survival but essential to the survival of the
species.
6) avoidance of pain – the need to avoid tissue damage is
essential to the survival of the organism. Pain will activate
behavior to reduce discomfort.
7) stimulus seeking curiosity – most people and animal is
motivated to explore the environment even when the
activity satisfies no bodily needs.
Psychological (psychogenic or sociogenic) needs.
1) love and affection
2) for security
3) for growth and development and
4) recognition from other human beings.
Abraham Harold Maslow.6 –
An American psychologist who was best known for
creating Maslow's hierarchy of needs, a theory of psychological
health predicated on fulfilling innate human needs in priority,
culminating in self-actualization. To better understand what
motivates human beings, Maslow proposed that human needs
can be organized into a hierarchy.
These are the five categories of needs according to
Maslow:
1) Physiological. It refers to basic physical needs like
drinking when thirsty or eating when hungry. The most
essential of our needs. If someone is lacking in more
5 psychology.stackexchange.com
Hoper, Elizabeth (Feb. 24, 2020). www.thoughtco.com
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than one need, they’re likely to try to meet these
physiological needs first.
2) Safety. Once people’s physiological requirements are
met, the next need that arises is a safe environment.
Our safety needs are apparent even early in childhood,
as children have a need for safe and predictable
environments and typically react with fear or anxiety
when these are not met.
3) Love and Belonging. This need includes both romantic
relationships as well as ties to friends and family
members. It also includes our need to feel that we
belong to a social group. Importantly, this need
encompasses both feeling loved and feeling love
towards others.
4) Esteem. Involves the desire to feel good about
ourselves. It involves feeling self-confidence and
feeling good about oneself. Also, feeling valued by
others; that is, feeling that our achievements and
contributions have been recognized by other people.
However, when their esteem needs are not met, they
may experience what psychologist Alfred Adler called
“feelings of inferiority.”
5) Self-Actualization. Refers to feeling fulfilled or feeling
that we are living up to our potential. One unique
feature of self-actualization is that it looks different for
everyone. For one person, self-actualization might
involve helping others; for another person, it might
involve achievements in an artistic or creative field.
Essentially, self-actualization means feeling that we
are doing what we believe we are meant to do.
FRUSTRATION, CONFLICT, ANXIETY
Frustration. –
The unpleasant feelings that result from the blocking of
motive satisfaction. It is a form of stress, which results in
tension. It is the feeling that is experienced when something
interferes with our hopes, wishes, plans and expectations. It
occurs when a person is blocked in the satisfaction of his needs.
A person faced with frustration becomes anxious and restless,
and he tries to seek means of relieving these anxieties. He tries
to engage in various forms of activities that are intended to
satisfy his needs and reduce his tensions.
Common sources of frustration:
1) Physical Obstacles – are physical barriers or circumstances
that prevent a person from doing his plan or fulfilling his
wishes.
2) Social Circumstances – are restrictions or circumstances
imposed by other people and the customs and laws of
social living.
3) Personal shortcoming – such as being handicapped by
diseases, deafness, paralysis, etc. which serves as a barrier
to the things one ought to do.
4) Conflicts between motives
Reactions to Frustrations –
People differ in the way the react to frustrations. An
individuals’ way of reacting to frustrations is sometimes known
as his coping mechanism. Generally, people faced with
frustration react it in one of two ways:
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1) by fighting the problem in a constructive and direct way by
breaking the obstacles barring him from his goal, or by
getting angry and become aggressive; and/or
2) by running away (flight) from the problem, by sulking,
retreating, becoming indifferent, and by giving up without a
fight.
These reactions to frustrations are sometimes called fight-
flight reactions.
Defense Mechanism –
The unconscious techniques used to prevent a person’s
self-image from being damage. When stress becomes quite
strong, an individual strives to protect his self-esteem, avoiding
defeat. We all use ego defense mechanism to protect us from
anxiety and maintain our feeling of personal worth. We
consider them normal adjustive reactions when they are used to
excess and threaten self-integrity. The term was first used in
Sigmund Freud’s paper “The Neuro-Psychoses of Defence”
(1894).
Among the more common defense mechanisms are:
1) Denial of reality. Protection of oneself from unpleasant
reality by refusal to perceive or face it. Simply by avoiding
something that is unpleasant, or in denial, the ego shuts
itself off from certain realities.
2) Fantasy. The gratification of frustration desires in imaginary
achievement. Paying attention not to what is going on
around him but rather to what is taking place on his
thoughts.
3) Projection. Placing blame for difficulties upon others or
attributing one’s own unethical desires to others in an
effort to prevent ourselves being blamed. A mother may
deny her hatred for the child is through projection. That is
the mother’s ego may pretend that the child hates her. The
mother thus projects her unacceptable emotions onto the
child.
4) Rationalization. The use of excuses an individual to him
and to others. Attempting to prove that one’s behavior is
justifiable and thus worthy of self and social approval. It is
also an elaborate justification for what were obviously
illogical or immature actions.
5) Reaction Formation. It occurs when someone tries to
prevent his submission to unacceptable impulses by
vigorously taking an opposite stand. Preventing dangerous
desires from being expressed by exaggerating opposed
attitudes and types of behavior and using them as barriers.
A step beyond denial is reaction formation, in which the
ego changes unacceptable love into acceptable hate (or
vice versa). If a mother hates her child - a feeling she must
deny conscious awareness of - the mother may
6) Displacement. Discharging pent-up emotion on objects less
dangerous than those that initially aroused the emotion.
7) Emotional Insulation. Withdrawal into passivity to protect
self from hurt.
8) Isolation/Intellectualization. Serves to cut off the emotions
from a situation which is normally is full of feeling.
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9) Regression. Revert from a past behavior or retreating to
earlier developmental level involving less mature responses
and usually a lower level of aspiration. Example is falling
back to childish behavior patterns; some respond to stress
by overeating or by drinking too much.
10) Sublimation. A process by which instinctual drives,
consciously unacceptable, are diverted into personally and
socially accepted channels. Example is gratification of
frustrated sexual desires in substitutive men sexual
activities.
11) Identification. Increasing feeling of worth by identifying self
with person or institution. The person can associate himself
with something or someone to elevate position. Or it is a
process whereby an individual without conscious
awareness, satisfied frustrated desires by psychologically
assuming the role or some of the traits of another person.
12) Introjection. Incorporating external values and standards
into ego structures so individual is not at their mercy as
external threats. The acceptance of others’ values even
they are contrary to one’s own assumption.
13) Undoing. Apologizing for wrongs, repentance, doing
penance and undergoing punishment to negate a
disapproved act.
14) Sympathism. Striving to gain sympathy from others. The
person seeks to be praised by relating faults or problem.
15) Acting out. Reduction of the anxiety aroused by forbidden
desires by permitting their expression. The individual deals
with all his impulses by expressing them.
16) Substitution (displacement). A process by which an
unattainable or unacceptable goal, emotion or object is
replaced by one that is more attainable or acceptable.
17) Repression. The ego blocks off threatening thoughts or
desires and thus keeps them from sweeping into the
spotlight of consciousness.
CONFLICT. –
It refers to the simultaneous arousal of two or more
incompatible motives resulting to unpleasant emotions. It is a
source of frustration because it is a threat to normal behavior.
Types of Conflicts:
1) Double Approach Conflict. A person is motivated to engage
in two desirable activities that cannot be pursued
simultaneously.
2) Double Avoidance Conflict. A person faces two undesirable
situations in which the avoidance of one is the exposure to
the other resulting to an intense emotion.
3) Approach-Avoidance Conflict. A person faces a situation
having both a desirable and undesirable feature.
4) Multiple Approach- Avoidance Conflict. A situation in
which a choice must be made between two or more
alternatives each of which has both positive and negative
features. It is the most difficult to resolve because the
features of each portion are often difficult to compare.
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ANXIETY. –
An intangible feeling that seems to evade any effort to
resolve it. It is also called neurotic fear. It could be intense; it
could be low and can be a motivating force.
PSYCHOLOGY OF CRIME
(Criminal Psychology)
Criminal BehaviorFormula: C = T + S
R
Where: C – Crime/Criminal Behavior (the act)
T – Criminal Tendency (Desire/Intent)
S – Total Situation (Opportunity)
R – Resistance to temptation (Control)
Types of Behavior:
1) Normal Behavior – the standard behavior, the socially
accepted behavior because they follow the standard norms
of society.
2) Abnormal behavior – behaviors that are deviant from social
expectations because they go against the norms or
standard behavior of society.
Causes of Abnormal Behavior:
1) Anxiety (psychological perspective). Stressful situations
that if become extreme, it may result to maladaptive
behavior.
2) Faulty Learning (behavior perspective). The failure to learn
the necessary adaptive behavior because of wrongful
development. This usually results to delinquent behavior
based on the failure to learn the necessary social values and
norms.
3) Blocked or distorted personal growth (humanistic
perspective). Presumably, human nature tends towards
cooperation and construction activities, however, if we
show aggression, cruelty or other maladaptive behavior,
the result may be an unfavorable environment.
4) Unsatisfactory interpersonal relationship. Self-concept in
early childhood by over critical parents or by rigid
socialization measures usually cause deviant behaviors
among individuals because they are not contented and
even unhappy on the kind of social dealings they are facing.
5) Pathological social condition. Poverty, social
discrimination, and destructive violence always result to
deviant behavior.
Primary, Predisposing, Precipitating, Reinforcing
Causes
Regardless of one’s theoretical orientation, several
terms are in common usage regarding causes of abnormal or
criminal behavior.
1. The Primary Cause – used to designate the condition
without which the disorder would not have occurred. The
main reason of the existence of the disorder.
2. The Predisposing Cause – a condition that comes before
and paves the way for a possible later occurrence of
disorder under certain conditions.
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3. The Precipitating Cause – a condition that proves too much Monophobia - being alone
for the individual and triggers the disorder. Nyctophobia - darkness
Ocholophobia - crowds
4. The Reinforcing Cause – a condition that tends to maintain
maladaptive behavior that is already occurring. 2) Somatoform Disorders - Complains of bodily symptoms
that suggest the presence of physical problem, but no
organic basis can be found. The individual is pre-occupied
MAJOR GROUPS OF ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR with his state of health or diseases. Somatoform disorders
are grouped as:
The three major groups of abnormal/criminal behavior are:
a) Hypochondriasis – the excessive concern about the
1. The Neurotic Behaviors state of health or physical condition (multiplicity about
2. The Psychopathic Behaviors illness).
3. The Psychotic Behaviors
b) Psychogenic Pain Disorder – characterize by the
report of severe and lasting pain. Either no physical
THE NEUROTIC BEHAVIOR – basis is apparent or the reaction is greatly in excess of
what would be expected form the physical
The group of mild functional personality disorders in abnormality.
which there is no gross personality disorganization, and the
individual is not required for hospitalization. People with c) Conversion Disorders (Hysteria) – a neurotic pattern
neurotic behaviors are sometimes called psychoneurotic. in which symptoms of some physical malfunction or
loss of control without any underlying organic
Further, neurosis embraces a wide range of behaviors abnormality.
that are considered the core of most maladaptive lifestyle. Basic
to this neurotic lifestyle are: Sensory Symptoms of Hysteria:

1. Anesthesia – loss of sensitivity

1) Neurotic Nucleus – the faulty evaluation of reality and the
2. Hyperesthesia – excessive sensitivity
tendency to avoid rather than to cope with stress. It is
3. Hypesthesia – partial loss of sensitivity
characterized by anxiety, avoidance instead of coping, and
4. Analgesia – loss of sensitivity to pain
blocked personal growth.
5. Paresthesia – exceptional sensations
2) Neurotic Paradox – the tendency to maintain the lifestyle
Motor Symptoms of Hysteria
despite its maladaptive nature. It is characterized by
unhappiness and dissatisfactions.
1. Paralysis – selective loss of function
2. Astasia-abasia – inability to control leg when
Neurotic Behaviors:
standing
3. Aphonia – partial inability to speak
1) Anxiety disorders - These are commonly known as
4. Mutism – total inability to speak
“neurotic fear”. When it is occasional but intense, it is
called “panic”. When it is mild but continuous, it is called
3) Dissociative Disorders - A response to obvious stress
“worry”. They are considered as the central feature of all
characterized by:
neurotic patterns. They are characterized by:
a) Amnesia – Partial or total inability to recall or
Anxiety disorders are grouped as:
identify past experiences.
a) Obsessive-compulsive disorders – When an individual
• Brain pathology amnesia – total loss of
is compelled to think about something that he do not
memory and it cannot be retrieved by simple
want to think about or carry out some action against
means. It requires long period of medication.
his will.
• Psychogenic amnesia – failure to recall
stored information and still they are beneath
b) Asthenic Disorders (Neurasthenia) – An anxiety
the level of consciousness but “forgotten
disorder characterized by chronic mental and physical
material”.
fatigue and various aches and pains.
b) Multiple Personality – Also called “dual
c) Phobic Disorders – the persistent fear on some objects
personalities”. The person manifests two or more
or situation that present no actual danger to the
symptoms of personality usually dramatically
person.
different.
Examples:
c) Depersonalization – Loss of sense of self or the
so-called out of body experience.
Acrophobia - high places
Agoraphobia - open places
4) Affective Disorders - The affective disorders are
Algophobia - pain
“mood disorders”, in which extreme or inappropriate
Astraphobia -storms, thunder, lightning
levels of mood – extreme elation or extreme
Claustrophobia - closed places
depression. Forms of affective disorders:
Hematophobia - blood
Hydrophobia - water
Mysophobia - contamination/germs
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a) Neurotic affective – also called “neurotic mania”,
characterized by overactive, dominating, and
deficient in self-criticism.
b) Neurotic depression – sadness and dejection
(grave sadness), the individual often fails to
return to normal after a reasonable period of
time resulting to high level of anxiety and lowers
self-confidence and loss of initiative.
c) Major depressive disorders – also called “severe
affective disorders” with the following
classifications:
• Sub-acute major depressive disorders –
symptoms of this depressive disorder include
loss of enthusiasm, feeling of dejection,
feeling of failure and unworthiness, fatigue
and loss of appetite.
• Acute major depressive disorder – symptoms
include mild hallucinations, feeling of guilt,
want to be alone, and increasingly inactive.
• Depressive stupor – a severe degree of
psychomotor retardation, almost
unresponsive, refuse to speak, and
confusions or hallucinations.
PSYCHOPATHIC BEHAVIOR –
The second groups of abnormal behaviors typically
stemmed from immature and distorted personality
development, resulting in persistent maladaptive ways of
perceiving, and thinking. People with psychopathic behaviors are
also called sociopaths or psychopaths. Some common
characteristics are:
✓ absence of a conscience
✓ emotional immaturity
✓ absence of a life plan
✓ lack of capacity for love and emotional involvement
✓ failure to learn from experience.
Further, they are generally called “personality or
character disorders”. These groups of disorders are composed
of the following:
PERSONALITY DISORDERS –
Disorders of character, the person is characterized as a
“problematic” without psychoses. This disorder is characterized
by disrupted personal relationship, dependent or passive
aggressive behavior.
Types of personality disorders:
1) Paranoid Personality – characterized by suspiciousness,
rigidity, envy, hypersensitivity, excessive self-importance,
argumentativeness, and tendency to blame others for one’s
own mistakes.
2) Schizoid Personality – characterized by the inability to form
social relationship and lack interest in doing so. The person
seem to express their feelings, they lack social skills. They
are the so-called “loners”.
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3) Schizotypal Personality – characterized by seclusiveness,
oversensitivity, avoidance of communication and
superstitious thinking is common.
4) Histrionic Personality – characterized by immaturity,
excitability, emotional instability and self-dramatization.
5) Narcissistic Personality – characterized by an exaggerated
sense of self-importance and pre-occupation with receiving
attention. The person usually expects and demands special
treatment from others and disregarding the rights and
feeling of others.
6) Borderline Personality – characterized by instability
reflected in drastic mood shifts and behavior problems. The
person usually displays intense anger outburst with little
provocation and he is impulsive, unpredictable, and
periodically unstable.
7) Avoidant Personality – characterized by hypersensitivity to
rejection and apprehensive alertness to any sign of social
derogation. Person is reluctant to enter social interaction.
8) Dependent Personality – characterized by extreme
dependence on other people – there is acute discomfort and
even panic to be alone. The person lacks confidence and
feels helpless.
9) Passive-Aggressive Personality – characterized by being
hostile express in indirect and non-violent ways. They are
the so called “stubborn”.
10) Compulsive Personality – characterized by excessive
concern with rules, order, and efficiency that everyone does
things their way and an ability to express warm feeling. The
person is over conscientious, serious, and with difficulty in
doing things for relaxation.
11) Anti-social Personality – characterized by continuing
violation of the rights of others through aggressive, anti-
social behavior with out remorse or loyalty to anyone. It is
the “psychopathic behavior”.
CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR –
The disorder used to describe the behavior of a person
who commits serious crimes from individual to property crimes
and the disobedience of societal rules in general. “Dissocial
personality” is the term used to refer to these individuals,
particularly those who violate law and practice “crime as a
profession”. As a study, criminal behavior refers to the human
conduct focused on the mental processes of the criminal: the
way he behaves or acts including his activities and the causes
and influences of his criminal behavior.
Criminals are classified as:
Based on Etiology
1. Acute Criminal – a person who violate a criminal law
because of the impulse or fit of passion.
2. Chronic Criminal – person who acted in consonance of
deliberated thinking.
Based on Behavioral System
1. Ordinary Criminal – lowest form of criminal career
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2. Organized Criminal – high degree of organization to
enable them to commit crimes without being detected.
3. Professional Criminal – highly skilled
Based on Activities
1. Professionals
2. Accidental – situational crimes
3. Habitual – continue to commit crime because of
deficiency of intelligence, lack of control
Based on Mental Attitudes
1. Active Criminals – due to aggressiveness
2. Passive Inadequate Criminals – Commit crimes because
they are push to it by reward or promise.
3. Socialized Delinquents – normal in behavior but
defective in socialization process.
According to Clinard and Quiney:
1) Violent personal crime - murder, assault, rape, etc..
2) Occasional property crime - auto theft, shoplifting, check
forgery and vandalism.
3) Occupational crime - embezzlement, fraudulent sales, false
advertising, price fixing, black market activity, prescription
violation, anti-trust violation
4) Political crime - treason, sedition, espionage, sabotage, etc.
5) Public order crime - drunkenness, vagrancy, disorderly
conduct, prostitution, etc.
6) Conventional crime - robbery, larceny, burglary, and gang
theft
7) Organized crime - racketeering, organized prostitution, etc.
8) Professional crime - shoplifting, pick pocketing, forgery,
counterfeiting, etc..
Types of multiple murders:
1) Serial murder - several victims in three or more separate
incidents over weeks, months, or years
2) Mass murder - the killing of four or more victims at one
location within one event (en masse- in group)
3) Spree murder - involves killing at two ore more locations
with almost not time to break between murders.
• Genocide - systematic killing of people or nation
committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part a
nation, ethnical, racial, or religious group.
• Massacre – It refers to the indiscriminate killing of
people in random without distinction.
PSYCHOTIC BEHAVIOR –
The group of disorders involving gross structural defects
in the brain tissue, severe disorientation of the mind thus it
involves loss of contact with reality. People suffering from
psychotic behaviors (psychosis) are also called psychotic. They
are regarded as the most severe type of mental disorder. A
psychotic has tensions that disturb thinking, feeling and sensing;
the perception of reality is distorted. He may have delusions
and hallucinations.
1) Organic Mental Disorders – This occurs when the normal
brain has been damage resulted from any interference of
the functioning of the brain.
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Types of Organic Mental Disorders:
a. Acute brain disorder – caused by a diffuse impairment
of the brain function. Its symptoms range from mild
mood changes to acute delirium.
b. Chronic brain disorder – the brain disorder that result
from injuries, diseases, drugs, and a variety of other
conditions. Its symptoms include impairment of
orientation (time, place, and person), impairment of
memory, learning, comprehension and judgment,
emotion and self-control.
Groups of Organic Mental Disorders:
a) Delirium – the severe impairment of information
processing in the brain affecting the basic process of
attention, perception, memory and thinking.
b) Dementia – deterioration in intellectual functioning
after completing brain maturation. The defect in the
process of acquiring knowledge or skill, problem
solving, and judgment.
c) Amnestic Syndrome – the inability to remember on
going events more than a few minutes after they have
taken place.
d) Hallucinosis – the persistent occurrence of
hallucinations, the false perception that arise in full
wakefulness state. This includes hallucinations on visual
and hearing or both.
e) Organic Delusional Syndrome – the false belief arising
in a setting of known or suspected brain damage.
f) Organic Affective Syndrome – the extreme/severe
manic or depressive state with the impairment of the
cerebral function.
g) Organic Personality Syndrome – the general
personality changes following brain damage.
h) General Paresis – also called “dementia paralytica”, a
syphilitic infection of the brain and involving
impairment of the CNS.
2) Disorders Involving Brain Tumor –
A tumor is a new growth involving abnormal
enlargement of body tissue. Brain tumor can cause variety
of personality alterations, and it may lead to any neurotic
behavior and consequently to psychotic behavior.
3) Disorders Involving Head Injury –
Injury to the head because of falls, blows, and
accidents causing sensory and motor disorders; and mental
disorder such as:
a) Retrograde Amnesia – the inability to recall events
preceding immediately the injury.
b) Intra-cerebral Hemorrhage – gross bleeding at the site
of damage.
c) Petechial Hemorrhage – small spots of bleeding at the
site of damage.
These injuries may also impair language and other
related sensory motor functions and may result to brain
damage such as:
a) Auditory Asphasia – loss of ability to understand
spoken words.
b) Expressive Asphasia – loss of ability to speak required
words.
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c) Nominal Asphasia – loss of ability to recall names of
objects.
d) Alexia – loss of ability to read.
e) Agraphia – loss of ability to express thoughts in
writing
f) Apraxia – loss of ability to perform simple voluntary
acts.
4) Senile and Pre-senile Dementia
a) Senile Dementia – mental disorder that is
accompanied by brain degeneration due to old age.
b) Pre-senile Dementia – mental disorder associated with
earlier degeneration of the brain.
5) Mental Retardation –
Mental disorder characterized by sub-average
general functioning existing concurrently with deficits in
adaptive behavior. It is a common mental disorder before
the age of 18. The person is suffering from low I.Q, difficulty
in focusing attention and deficiency in past learning.
Levels of Mental Retardation
- Mild Mental Retardation (I.Q. 52-67) - “educable”
- Moderate Mental Retardation (I.Q. 36-51) - “trainable”
- Severe mental Retardation (I.Q. 20-35) - “dependent
retarded”
- Profound Mental Retardation (I.Q. under 20) – life
support retarded”.
• Idiot – an offensive term in a now disused
classification system for somebody with an IQ of about
25 or under and a mental age of less than 3 years.
• Imbecile – somebody with an IQ between 25 and 50
and a mental age of between 3 and 7 years.
• Moron – an offensive term that deliberately insults
somebody's intelligence.
6) Schizophrenia and Paranoia
Schizophrenia – refers to the group of psychotic
disorders characterized by gross distortions of reality,
withdrawal of social interaction, disorganization and
fragmentation of perception, thoughts and emotion. It also
refers to terms such as “mental deterioration”, “dementia
praecox”, or “split mind”.
Paranoia – the same as “delusions”, “impaired
contact with reality”. A psychotic behavior characterized by
delusion of apprehension following a failure or frustration.
OTHER GROUPS OF HUMAN DISORDERS
A. Addictive Groups of Disorders - This group of disorders
includes substance use, obesity, and pathological gambling.
1) Substance Use (Alcohol and Drug Abuse)
Alcoholism or “problem drinking” is an addictive
source of human disorders.
2) Extreme obesity – also known as “habitual over
eating” is an addictive form of disorder. It is a life
threatening disorder, resulting in such conditions as
diabetes, high blood pressures and other
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cardiovascular diseases that can place an individual at
high risk of heart attack.
3) Pathological gambling – is an addictive form of
disorder, which does not involve chemically addictive
B. Sexual Deviations or Dysfunction – These are characterized
by abnormal sexual desires or acts that are also known as
sexual perversion. Examples of these are:
1) Bestiality – Sexual desire to animals
2) Homosexuality – Sexual desire to the same sex.
3) Lesbianism – A referring to a homosexual woman.
4) Pedophilia – Sexual desire to children.
5) Sodomy – Intercourse through the anal orifice i.e.
penis to anus
6) Prostitution – Engaging sexual intercourse or other
sexual acts in exchange for money. Legally, only
women may commit the crime of prostitution.
7) Masochism – Sexual gratification by enduring pain
inflicted upon one’s own self. This is the opposite of
sadism.
8) Sadism – Sexual gratification obtained by inflicting
pain upon the partner.
9) Exhibitionism – Indecent exposure of one’s private
organs to others
10) Voyeurism – Sexual gratification is obtained by
peeping on naked person/s person doing sexual thing.
A peeping tom commits the crime of unjust vexation.
11) Sadism – Sexual gratification is obtained by inflicting
pain to the sex partner.
12) Transvestism – Sexual gratification is obtained by
wearing clothes of the opposite sex and as such.
13) Fetishism – Projection of desire towards objects.
14) Incest – Sexual intercourse between relatives whose
marriage is prohibited by law.
15) Necrophilia – Sexual gratification with a corpse. A
person who shall knowingly have sex with a corpse
commits no crime. But, if what he knows is that the
victim is alive, unknown to him that that the victim is
dead, he commits Impossible Crime.
VICTIMOLOGY
Victimology. –
A branch of criminology that scientifically studies the
relationship between an injured party and an offender by
examining the causes and the nature of the consequent
suffering. Specifically, victimology focuses on whether the
perpetrators were complete strangers, mere acquaintances,
friends, family members, or even intimates and why a particular
person or place was targeted.7
Victimology studies the victims rather than the
offenders. It analyzes a victim’s characteristics, role in the
criminal justice system, psychological state, and factors that
increase their chance of being targeted.8
Victim. –
A victim is defined as a person who has suffered physical
or emotional harm, property damage, or economic loss because
of a crime. A victim of crime is not just a party in criminal
proceedings, they play a vital role in the criminal justice process.
7
www.britannica.com
8 elawtalk.com
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Their testimony is a very important part of the prosecutor’s case
against the accused.
Offended party is a broader term, not just referring to
the victim or the one who directly suffered the harm or loss but
to her immediate relatives such as victim’s spouse, parents,
children, grandparents, grandchildren.
Victimization. –
Refers to the process of being victimized or becoming a
victim. The field that studies the process, rates, incidence,
effects, and prevalence of victimization is called victimology.9
The outcome of an individual or institution’s intentional
action to exploit, oppress, or harm someone else. It also includes
destroying or illegally acquiring someone else’s property or
possessions. These actions can cause psychological, emotional,
physical, sexual, or economic harm to the victim.10
Revictimization. –
A situation in which the same person suffers from more
than one criminal incident over a specific period.11
The term revictimization refers to a pattern wherein the
victim of abuse and/or crime has a statistically higher tendency
to be victimized again, either shortly thereafter or much later in
adulthood in the case of abuse as a child. This latter pattern is
particularly notable in cases of sexual abuse. While an exact
percentage is almost impossible to obtain, samples from many
studies suggest the rate of revictimization for people with
histories of sexual abuse is very high. The vulnerability to
victimization experienced as an adult is also not limited to sexual
assault and may include physical abuse as well.
Self-victimization. –
It is also called “victim playing”. It is the fabrication of
victimhood for a variety of reasons, such as to justify real or
perceived abuse of others, to manipulate others, as a coping
strategy, or for attention seeking.
Also known as playing the victim, victim card.
The fabrication or exaggeration of victimhood for a variety to
reasons such as to justify abuse to others, to manipulate others,
a coping strategy, attention seeking or diffusion of
responsibility.12
Theories of Victimology13:
• Victim Precipitation Theory
• Lifestyle Theory
• Deviant Place Theory
• Routine Activities Theory
1) Victim Precipitation Theory.
Some victims initiate the confrontation that leads to
their victimization, whether actively or passively. Studies
have found that people who have an impulsive personality,
9 En.wikipedia.org
10 elawtalk.com
11
www.lawinsider.com
12 n.wikipedia.org
13 Elawtalk. elawtalk.com
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rendering them as abrasive or obnoxious to others, may
have a higher victimization rate. The reason is that
impulsive people are antagonistic, making them more likely
to be targeted.
• Passive precipitation. The victim unconsciously
behaves in a way or has specific characteristics that
instigate or encourage an attack. Passive precipitation
is typically the result of a power struggle. People who
are likely to encourage a crime passively include
minorities, political activists, members of LGBTQ+, and
other individuals who lead an alternative lifestyle.
• Active precipitation. That is when the victim engages
in threatening or provocative actions. It is
controversial because many argue whether it is ever
okay to “blame” the victim for the occurrence of a
crime. This is true, especially in rape cases where
flirtation may have been present. However, there was
no consent to sexual intercourse. For this reason, we
must be cautious when discussing active participation
since it does not apply to every case.
2) Lifestyle Theory
It maintains that criminals target individuals due to
their lifestyle choices. Many victims’ options expose them
to criminal offenders and situations where crime is likely to
occur. Examples of lifestyle choices that may raise one’s risk
of victimization include:
a) Walking alone at night.
b) Living in the “bad” part of town.
c) Being promiscuous.
d) Drinking in excess.
e) Doing drugs.
f) Associating with felons.
This theory shows a correlation between the
lifestyles of victims and offenders. Both tend to be
impulsive and lack self-control, making the victim more
likely to put themselves in high-risk situations and the
offender more likely to engage in an unlawful act.
3) Deviant Place Theory
The more often a victim visits a dangerous place, the
more likely they will be exposed to crime, which raises their
chance of being victimized. The victim does not play a role
in encouraging the crime but is still prone to being a victim
because they live in a socially disorganized high-crime
location.
4) Routine Activities Theory
It assumes that there must be three factors present
for a crime to occur. These are:
a) The availability of suitable targets, including homes
that contain high-value items that are relatively easy
to obtain.
b) The absence of capable guardians. Lack of
guardianship such as the police, a homeowner,
neighbors, friends, and relatives can increase the
probability of a crime. A target that is undefended and
attractive is the holy grail for a motivated criminal.
However, if a target is well-defended by capable
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guardianship, even the most seasoned criminal may

hesitate to attack. 16) Others. Like: planting of evidence, incriminating innocent
persons, illegal recruitment, scam.
c) The presence of motivated offenders who have
criminal intent and the ability to act on their plan. For Victim advocacy.14 –
example, a substantial number of jobless teenagers. If
there is a lack of motivated criminals in an area, the An essential branch of the criminal justice system as it
crime rate is likely to be lower than the rate in an area ensures that victims of a crime have someone to turn when
with significantly more motivated offenders. dealing with the aftermath of the situation. No one should have
to go through seeking justice and rebuilding their lives by
If all these variables are present, a crime can occur, themselves, and crime victim advocates are there to make sure
and the risk of victimization will increase. However, if that isn’t the case. The support they provide for victims takes
one or more of the variables are absent, then a crime some of the weight off the victim’s shoulder by ensuring that
is unlikely to happen. they don’t become overwhelmed trying to navigate an
unfamiliar process by themselves.
Examples of Victimization:
Crime-victim advocates
1) Physical Assault. Physical injuries (serious, less serious,
slight), child abuse by physical or emotional abuse, Advocates work to support the victim as they deal with
mutilation, maltreatment. these challenges by providing them with emotional support,
2) Sexual Assault. Rape, acts of lasciviousness, acts of professional advice, helpful resources, and referrals to other
lasciviousness with consent of the offended party, professionals. Advocates also ensure that the victim does not
seduction, abduction, child abuse by sexual abuse. feel overwhelmed by the criminal justice system; they help
3) Destruction of property. Arson, malicious mischief, animal navigate the victim and aid them with any issues that may occur
abuse. along the way.
4) Bullying. Cyber, physical, or verbal.
5) Deprivation of property. Robbery, theft, estafa or What makes a Good Crime Victim Advocate?
swindling, carnapping, cattle rustling.
6) Gossips. Libel, cyber liber, oral defamation, intriguing a) strong interpersonal skills
against honor, unjust vexation. b) strong sense of empathy and compassion
7) Exploitation. Pornography, human trafficking, prostitution, c) seek to understand what happened from the victim’s
slavery. point of view, using their perspective to determine the
8) Domestic and/or Family Violence. Violence against women best support method.
and their children (VAWC) such as: physical abuse, d) caring and have a big heart
psychological or emotional abuse, sexual abuse, economic e) can readily put himself/herself in other’s shoes
abuse. f) willing to do everything in their power to help those
9) Road Accident. Homicide, physical injuries, damage to who are suffering.
property through imprudence or negligence.
10) Gang, fraternity violence. Hazing, rape, homicide, Qualities Crime-Victim Advocates
mutilation, physical injuries.
11) Hate Crime. A crime against a person or personal property a) Good Communicator
where the primary motivation for the crime is based on the b) Organized
offender’s bias against a race, religion, disability, ethnic c) Empathetic and Compassionate
origin, or sexual orientation is considered a hate crime. d) Responsible
12) Homicide. Murder, parricide, infanticide, homicide, e) Analytical
abortion, including attempted or frustrated stages. f) Trustworthy
13) Deprivation of liberty. Kidnapping, illegal detention,
arbitrary detention, unlawful arrest, abduction. Types of victims15

14) Stalking/Harassment. A crime is considered stalking or According to the degree of their contribution:
harassment if it is experienced at least on two separate
occasions, the person being stalked feared for their safety 1)
or that of a family member, and it includes at least one of
the following behaviors. It may result to crimes like VAWC,
child abuse, violation of RA No. 9344 (CICL), RA No. 11313 2)
(Safe Spaces Act), RA No. 9995 (Anti-Voyeurism Act), RA No.
7877 (Anti-Sexual Harassment). 3)
4)
15) Terrorism (Domestic/International). Terrorism refers to any
activity that involves a violent act or an act dangerous to 5)
human life that is a violation of the criminal laws of the
United States or any State, or would be a criminal violation
if committed within the jurisdiction of the United States or 6)
any State and appears to have the purpose of:
• intimidating or coercing a civilian population;
• influencing the policy of a government by intimidation
or coercion;
• affecting the conduct of a government by
14
assassination or kidnapping.
15
Completely innocent victims. E.g., small infants/children
who are raped or murdered or kidnapped without their
realizing what is being done to them
Victims with minor guilt. Such as pregnant women who go
to quacks for abortion and pay for it with their lives
Victims as guilty as offenders
Victims more guilty than the offenders. Like those who
provoke others to commit crime
The most guilty types of victims who commit offences
against others and get harmed or killed themselves. E.g., a
rapist who gets killed by his victim who acts in self-defense
Simulating or pretending victims. E.g., as paranoids,
hysterical and senile persons) who give evidence in the
courts to obtain sentence against an accused person.
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According to Walter Reckless (1961):

1) shock and pain,
1) Reporting victim. One who is unwilling to report because 2) removing pain,
he/she fears reprisals or social consequences of doing so 3) avoidance and humiliation, and
2) Non-reporting victim. One who does not bother for the 4) adaptation.
consequences of reporting his victimization but is rather
interested in getting the offender punished or getting some All victims, however, do not experience the same level of
relief for his suffering. shock and pain, the same level of humiliation and avoidance,
and the same problems of finding substitute sources of
According to Fattah (1967): adjustment.

1) non-participating,
2) latent,
3) provocative,
4) participating, and
5) false victims.

According to Wolfgang (1967):

1) primary victimization, involving personalized or

individual victims,
2) secondary victimization, where the victim is an
impersonal target of the offender (e.g., a thief in a
department store, a person travelling without a ticket
on a roadways bus, etc.)
3) tertiary victimization, which affects the public or the
administration of society
4) mutual victimization, which concerns those victims
who themselves are offenders in a given mutually
consensual act E.g., adultery
5) no victimization, which is an act of negligible
significance where there is no immediately
recognizable victim.

According to Von Hentig (1948)

1) victims whose injury may be the price of a greater

gain, e.g., in abortion
2) victims who bring about the detrimental result partly
by their own concurrent effort, e.g., prostitutes.
3) victims who provoke or instigate the offence, e.g., by
challenging the opponent to kill him if he can and in an
emotional state of mind, the opponent accepts the
challenge and attacks.
4) victims who desire the injury.

Hentig has further classified the attitudes of victims as:

1) lethargic attitude
2) submissive or conniving attitude
3) cooperative or contributory attitude
4) provocative or investigative attitude

Adjustment Phases of victims

The adjustment of victims after being stigmatized (i.e.,

raped, molested, kidnapped, beaten, harassed) to new life and
their taking up new roles involve several phases, although there
is much intermeshing of these phases. The phases seem to
follow a sequence. Bowl has identified four phases of ‘recovery’:

1) shock,
2) protest,
3) despair and a
4) long interval of adaptation.

Following Bowlby and Mukesh Ahuja (1996), we may

identify following four phases in female victims’ adjustment to
life after stigmatization:

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