~aribbean -~

·..Social Studies
for CSEC® Stephenson Brathwaite
Judith Gill
Mark Wilson

OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
 The concept of family
KEY IDEAS
o The family is the first and most basic group in
society.
o Family life is a universal experience but it may
vary from one country or one region to another.
o Not every group of people living in a household is
classified as a family.
~dl·ll};i;ij
Family: A group of people related by blood, marriage or
adoption and who share a common household or residence
and are dependent on one another.
Household: "A group of people sharing a home or living
space who aggregate or share their income, as evidenced
by the fact that they regularly take meals together." Oxford
Dictionary of Sociology
Kinship: Family relationships.
Sibling: A brother or sister.
Family tree: A diagram used to show the relationships
among family members.
Matrilineal: Line of descent traced through the female line.
Patrilineal: Line of descent traced through the male line.
Bilineal: Line of descent traced through both lines.
Figure 1.1: Famil 1es take many forms
Creative writing
Write a story to describe your own family. Use the
introductory story as a model.
•
The family as the "building block of
society"
There is some debate among sociologists as to what
constitutes a family. However, most agree that a
family is a group of people who:
o are related by blood, marriage or adoption
o share a common household or residence
o are dependent on one another.
There are many different types of family structure
found worldwide. These arc mostly formed in two
basic ways: by blood or by marriage. You are born
into your family. This is called a consanguine family
because the members are related by blood. This is
also your kinship group. You and the members of
your kinship group have descended from a common
ancestor. If, however, you marry someone and have
or adopt children, you form a new conjugal family.
Your children would belong to both the original
consanguine family and the conjugal family you
have formed.
0
We. Mve. -tto ct-~.i.idre.-tt. Doe.s tt-~.o.t e.xch-lde. 1As?
O'Ur tt~.ot!-l.e.r "'-ttd .fo.tt-~.e.r o-re. ove.rse.o.s .
Doe.s tMt tt~.e.O.-tt we. o-re. -y.of o. .ft;>.tt~.i£(1?
0
A££ tt-~.e. pe.ople. i-tt tt~.~ sfre.e.t t;\Ye. tt~.~
.f"'tt~.i £.~ - we. "'re. "'£.£ re.£."' t e.d b~ blooa .
Households versus families
Human beings end up in various household
arrangements which may satisfy their needs. All
families live in households but not all household
arrangements can be considered families. Some
households are made up of members who are not
related in any way. For example, a group of university
students may agree to live together and share the
household expenses, but they are not a family.
A sibling family is one in which children are living
together without parents. This is an arrangement
where children are left to take care of each other or
their younger siblings when parents are absent. This
type of household may be supervised by an extended
family member who lives nearby.
Use the definition of family to determine whether
the household arrangements listed below can be
categorized as families :
a Married couple with no children
b Roommates sharing an apartment
Discuss the definitions of "family" and the family types
given in this chapter.
a Do you agree or disagree with the definitions?
b Do the families in which members of the class live
all fit into these definitions?
c How would you change the definitions to
encompass all families?
Answer these questions on the case study below.
1 Name the two family types Victor lived in.
2 Was the living arrangement after his mother left
characterized as a family or a household? What is
the name given to this arrangement?
3 List FOUR difficulties Victor and his eldest sister
might have faced after their mother emigrated.
4 Why do you think Victor's mother made the
decision to emigrate without her children?
5 What might have accounted for Victor's younger
brother becoming involved in drug use?

CASE STUDY
Victor and his siblings Unfortunately, the younger of the two had fallen into
Victor was born into a nuclear family but his father died bad company and was experimenting with drugs when
when he was only four years old. In fact he has very little he left.
memory of him at all. Victor's mother did a good job of
raising him and his three younger siblings. She was well
qualified and earned a decent salary. Victor's uncle filled
in for his absent brother.
When Victor's mother got a job opportunity overseas he
was only 21 , his elder sister was 20 and the two younger
siblings were still attending secondary school. Victor and
his elder sister convinced their mother that they would
cope. They knew their uncle would be there to help them
out. She left the island the day after Victor's 22nd birthday.
Victor and his sister were successful in keeping everyone
together. He had already graduated from college and
was working as a chef. True to her word. his mother sent
money back every month to cover household expenses.
and maintained regular contact.
Victor's two younger siblings joined their mother five
years later when they had both finished their CSEC exams. Figure 1.2: Victor and his siblings

•
 A family tree is a diagram used to show the
relationships among family members. Older people
are shown at the top and younger people at the
bottom. Ancestry can be determined because people
of the same generation are shown on the same
horizontal line.
Lineage or family line refers to a line of descent
traceable to a common ancestor. Family trees can
show the mother's lineage (matrilineal), the father's
lineage (patrilineal), or both family lines (bilineal) of
a person's family. In Figure 1.5 Family tree 1 shows
one side of a family while Family Tree 2 shows two
sides. Lines and symbols are used in family trees to
show relationships. For example, in Family Tree 1
Gaitree (a female) and Khalil (a male) are married
and have two children, a son called Hakeem and a
daughter called Jennifer. Gaitree and Khalil have six
grandchildren and one great grandchild .

Figure 1.3: FamilieS are like a pumpkin vme

Family trees
In the Caribbean we use the word "family" loosely.
Family for us is an all-embracing concept. The
term "pumpkin vine family" is sometimes used
to characterize Caribbean families. Just as the
pumpkin vine grows and spreads so, too, do our
families. We accept members who are scattered far
Figure 1.4: Nuclear families are usually part of a much bigger
and wide, regardless of how they became members family network
of the family. We make no fuss over members who
have entered our kinship group in less than ideal
Research
circumstances. We even accept as family people who
are in no way related to us by blood. We also tend to Construct your own family tree using the two opposite
be uninterested in the details of how we are related as examples. You can work on a family tree for one or
both sides of your family. Start with the people who live
to people. This becomes quite evident when we try to
with you.
explain to someone from outside the region how we
are related to a family member and we realize that
they cannot follow our explanation.
It must be remembered, however, that the
sociological definition of "family" is far different Write a short essay describing your family. Who do you
live wtth. how was your family formed and how do you
from the popular definition. For the purposes of take care of each other? You could use the story you
your study of this subject and the exam ination the wrote at the beginning of this unit as a starting point.
sociological definition must be used .

•
 Figure 1.5: Two family t rees
FAMILY TREE 1
- Divorced
+ Marned
A Male

•
Ga1tree + Khalil
I• Female
II

Chad + Jenmfer Karen + Hakeem -

I Paula

r~~ n ·n
• •• •
Rav1 Maya Keira lmran Marcus Paul

~
•
Matthew

FAMILY TREE 2 + Marned F

A Male 1::

Donna + Peter
. . .. Vanessa + Rav1
• Female

"""'
f.,,

Stacey

•
Joan
.. .
M1chael + Sarah + Jenn1fer

.
Ross

•
M1chael Jr. Ashley

Quick questions
Consider the family trees shown in Figure 1.5, then
answer the questions below.
1 How many grandchildren do Donna and Peter have?
2 How many of Michael's and Sarah's children
are male?
3 What is the relationship between Imran and Marcus?
4 Name Ashley's grandfathers.
5 What is the relationship between:
a Jennifer and Jason?
b Vanessa and Michael?
6 Why is Chad and Jennifer's family in both family trees?
7 How many wives has Hakeem had?
8 How many generations are shown in Family tree 1?
9 Identify ONE difference between the two family trees.

•
 Family types

KEY IDEAS
o Families take many forms.
o Individuals can find love. support. and happiness
in any family or household arrangement.
o People may live in many different types of family
in a lifetime.

Qifl !•IJj,i ;\'1

Extended family: A family composed of more than two
generations of a family, or two generations but including
aunts, uncles or cousins, living together under the
same roof.
Nuclear family: A family including both parents and their
child or children.
Single-parent family : A family unit including only one Figure 1.6: A single·parent family
parent and his. her child(ren).
Reconstituted / reconstructed family: A family unit If the father is absent and therefore does not play his
made up of two adults and their children from previous role the family is matrifocal, and if it is the mother
relationships. who is absent the family is said to be patrifocal.
Joint family household: A type of extended family in which
married children bring their families to live together with Nuclear family
their parents. This is a family composed of both mother and father
Patriarchal family: Family arrangement in which authority living with their child or children. Authority in ..
lies with the father.
the nuclear family may lie with either the mother·
Matriarchal family: Family arrangement in which authority
l' es with the mother.
(matriarchal) or father (patriarchal), or may be
Equalitarian family: A family arrangement in which shared (equalitarian). The status and authority of
authority is shared between mother and father. parents within families may be determined by who
Matrifocal family: A family unit which is headed by a provides family support or is the breadwinner in
mother and lacks a father permanently or for an extended the home. In some families, the breadwinner tends
period of time.
Patrifocal family: A family unit which is headed by a father
and lacks a mother permanently or for an extended period
of time.
Breadwinner: The member(s) of the family who provides
financia l support for the family.

Types of family
Single-parent family
This family type consists of one parent only- a
mother or a father - living with their child or
children. Although only one parent is resident
in the house, this does not always mean that the
other parent does not share the responsibilities of
child rearing and financial support. The parent in a
single-parent family is at times involved in a visiting
relationship. Figure 1.7: A nuclear fam:ly

•
to be more influential in decision making and often
possesses more authority in the family.
Extended family
An extended family is made up in one of two ways:
o Three or more generations live under one roof.
o Two generations of the same family, including
parent(s) and their child(ren) live with other
family members, such as aunts, uncles or cousins,
under the same roof.
Traditionally, Caribbean families lived in extended
family arrangements; this was often done for
economic reasons. In the extended family
arrangement, families shared responsibilities as well
as the household chores. Moreover, people were
more community- and group-oriented and wanted
to be surrounded by their kin. Increasingly today,
however, Caribbean people are more individualistic
and prefer to live independent of their kin.
The joint family is a type of extended family, and
is formed when adult children marry and bring
their families to live in the same household as their
parents. There are thus several nuclear family units
within this extended family. In this household
arrangement authority often rests with the elders
or grandparents, who have the final say in making
major decisions.
Figure 1.8 : An extended family
Reconstituted/reconstructed family
In this family type two adults who have children
from previous relationships come together with
their respective children to form a family. They may
or may not have a child or children together. This
type of family requires a high degree of compromise
and consensus. The two adult partners and their
children may have been accustomed to different
lifestyles. Parents have to navigate such decisions
and dynamics as having children from different sides
share a room and learn to relate to each other as
brother and sister. Consideration must also be paid
to the absent parents of both sets of children.
Who do you live with at present?
2 What type of family is it?
3 Have you ever lived in any other type of family?
If so, name and describe it.
Handling data
1 Draw a tally table and record the family types
people in your class live in.
2 Use the table to produce a diagram (bar chart
or pie chart).
•
 Advantages and disadvantages
of family types

KEY IDEAS Advantages Disadvantages

o All family types have their strengths and Extended family More members are If there IS not enough
weaknesses. able to contnbute money earned among
o Families are started in many different ways; f1nanc1ally. the adults present, the
some are planned and others are a result of fam1ly may have
circumstances. f1nanc1al problems.
o Not all unions have a legal or religious sanction. If adults work together W1th more authonty
o Children have the same rights regardless of the they can all make sure f1gures present 1n a
family arrangement they are born into. children are well household, lines of
superv1sed and adopt authonty can become
pos1t1ve behaviours 1n blurred. If an authonty
the family and in the f1gure is not clearly
~1!•11!1;\1 SOCiety. accepted th1s can lead
Marriage: "A legally recognized relationship between to conflict.
an adult male and female that carries certain rights and Smgle-parent family Children have less May have problems
obligations." Oxford Dictionary of Sociology superv1s1on. They are w1th superv1s1on of
Divorce: "The formal legal dissolution of a legally forced to become more children. Unsupervised
constituted marriage." Oxford Dictionary of Sociology Independent and ch1ldren may engage 1n
legal separation: The legal procedure by which a married self-reliant, preparing behaviOur whtch can be
couple remains legally married while living apart. them for adult life. harmful to them and
They formalize an arrangement through the law courts others around them.
whereby they outline their rights and responsibilities
Smaller fam1ly to May have difficulty
during this period. support. relymg on one source
Annulment: The declaration by the law court that a of mcome, with no
marriage is null and void, as if it never happened in the additional fmancial
first place. help.
Inheritance: The money or property that passes upon
the death of an individual to another. Thi<; may be done Nuclear family The ch1ld has both Although adults of both
through a will, by operation of the law, i.e. laws of intestacy male and female role sexes may be present,
(leaving no will) or by a decision of the law courts. models. th1s does not
necessanfy mean they
play a meaningful role
Later in this section (unit 1.4) you will learn about in the child's life.
the functions of the family. These are the things Table 1.1 : Advantages and disadvantages of family types
which families are expected to do for their members,
especially its dependent members, who are too young
or too old to take care of themselves. Any family ~~ l · o . ·
structure can execute these functions successfully. Hold a light-hearted debate on the question:
However, different types of family structure will have Which family type would you prefer to live in
different advantages and disadvantages. whe n you are a n adult?
Form groups m support of each type of family.
Consider Table 1.1, which shows some of the
advantages and disadvantages of family types, based In your group, compile arguments in support of your
chosen family type and choose a group leader to
on finances, supervision, authority figures and the present your arguments to the rest of the class.
number of role models present. These statements are
Appoint a student to act as judge along with your teacher
of course generalizations and cannot apply to every to determine which group presents the best arguments.
instance of the family type .

•
Types of union
Figure 1.9 : Four d1fferent types of wedd1ng: Chnst1an. Hmdu. Muslim and
There are three basic types of union found in the
Caribbean. They are as follows:
Legal marriage
This union is formed through a legal contract
between two consenting adults. The marriage must
also be registered with the registrar's office of
the Supreme Court. It may or may not include a
religious ceremony. As a result, this type of union
can only be ended by a divorce, the legal ending
of a marriage. Divorce must not be confused with
an annulment, which occurs when the marriage is
declared null and void because it is not legal. In this
instance it is as if the marriage never happened.
Annulments are granted by the law courts if one or
both parties entered into the marriage under false
pretences. For example, if one partner got married using
a false name, this would be grounds for an annulment.
CIVI l.
Common-law or consensual union
In this union, partners live together by mutual
agreement without being legally married. This
union is popular in the Caribbean; in many cases,
partners perform the same roles and functions
as married couples. Many married couples in the
Caribbean begin their relationship in a common-law
union, and then later formalize their union with a
legal marriage. In some countries, after five years, a
common-law partner is entitled to the same rights as
one who is legally married. Likewise, children born
into such a union are entitled to the same treatment
by law regarding inheritance as those born into a
legal marriage.
Visiting relationship
The visiting relationship is characterized by partners
living in separate locations but operating as a family.
 One partner may live with the children as a single
parent or in an extended family arrangement. The
other partner may live alone or in an extended
family arrangement.
This type of union stems from two basic situations:
o A couple may want to remain together but
feel that they are not yet ready for marriage
or cohabitation.
Creative writing
Figure 1.10: A fam1ly gets together
Look at the picture. Can you tell from the picture
alone if the couple is married. living in a common-
law relationship or m a visiting relationship?
2 Write a story about the family in the picture.
Describe what happens prior to the scene shown in
the picture.
CASE STUDY
Ann and Michael
Ann lived with her mother all her life: while in her twenties.
she formed a visiting relationship with Michael. After
four years. Ann became pregnant and she and Michael
became the proud parents of a baby girl. They continued
to reside separately with their respective families. Michael
•
o Some adults want to have children although they
do not have the financial means to set up a home
of their own. These partners either do not want to
or cannot live in an extended family arrangement
with either partner's family.
In more recent times, however, more and more
people are simply choosing not to marry but want to
h ave children together. They may or may not marry
and reside together eventually.
Quick questions
Read the case study below and answer these questions.
1 What family types are described in the case study?
2 What factors might have led Michael and Ann to
form a visiting relationship?
3 Do you think Michael and Ann's first living
arrangements affected their ability to be effective
parents?
4 Why do you think Michael and Ann decided to get
married and form their own nuclear family?
5 If you were Ann's mother. what two bits of advice
would you give to her and Michael to make
sure their new nuclear family arrangement is
successful?
Outside family
The "outside" family occurs when the man has a
second family with a female other than his wife.
It is not unusual to find a Caribbean man engaging
in multiple relationships at the same time. He may
even father children from more than one woman at
the same time. By law, however, he may only legally
marry one woman at a time. This arrangement can be
stressful to all parties involved . There may be feelings
ofbetrayal, neglect and competition. Children in
the outside family may feel in some way abandoned
and neglected.
supported his girlfriend and daughter generously and
took part in day-to-day child-rearing activities. After their
second child was born seven years later. they decided to
live together and then get married. Michael joined Ann in
her mother's home. They are presently building their own
home and will soon form their own nuclear family.
 Functions of the family
KEY IDEAS
o Families are critical to the survival and wellbeing
of members. Without a family, dependent
members of society may not survive.
o Families perform their functions with the support
and reinforcement of other institutions in society.
o Families have a legal responsibility to provide
child care and maintenance.
@frt!•flDiij
Procreation: The biological process of having children.
Socialization: "The process by which we learn to become
members of the society both by internalizing the norms
of the society and also by learning to perform our social
roles." Oxford Dictionary of Sociology
Fertility: The capability to reproduce or have children.
The family serves many functions for its members.
D ifferent families fulfill the different functions with
varying degrees of success. The functions of the
family may be categorized under four basic headings.
Socialization
Satisfaction
of economic of emotional
needs needs
Figure 1 .11: The functions of the fam1ly
Procreation
It is in the family that children are produced.
Procreation means reproduction. Without
procreation there would be no new members of
the human race. Families provide a unit for the
introduction of new members.
In the modern-day Caribbean there are fertility
clinics where couples who are having fertility
problems can go for help. Test-tube babies and
surrogate mothers are becoming a part of Caribbean
life. (See the interview later in this unit.)
Socialization
The family is charged with preparing children to
live as social beings within society. The family does
this by teaching them the values and attitudes
which form the accepted behaviour of the society
and by sanctioning appropriate behaviour. They also
teach children their roles and act as role models for
them. Teaching them basic skills such as personal
grooming and how to undertake responsibilities also
forms part of the socialization process.
The transmission of culture is another important
part of the socialization process. Our culture
shapes how we live and behave. The whole
purpose of socialization is to teach young
members of the family how to fit into society.
Without socialization children will find it hard to
function in the world. Their behaviour will place
them at a disadvantage in most social situations,
and may even lead to serious consequences and
punishments such as expulsion from school
or imprisonment.
There arc other agents of socialization besides the
family. These include the child's school, the church,
and the mass media. Many families see it as their
responsibility to begin the formal education of
their members in readiness for school, although
this has become less necessary in the modern-day
Caribbean as schooling begins earlier and many
children attend preschool and nursery.
Satisfaction of economic needs
The family has a responsibility to provide for
the basic economic needs of its members. These
include food, clothing, and shelter. Some families
engage in business endeavours while the adults in
other families go out to work to take care of their
members. I n some cases even very young members
of the family take part in economic activity,
especially when there is a family business, e.g.
farming or engaging in the retail sector.
Although children help in family businesses there are
laws which prohibit child labour. In most Caribbean
countries it is required by law that children attend
school until a particular age, usually 16.
•
OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
Great Clarendon Street. Oxford OX2 &DP
Oxford Umversny Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the Umvemty's obJective of excellence in re$earch. scholarship.
•nd eduGlllon by pubhshmg worldWJde m
Oxford New York
Auckland Cape Town Dares Salaam Hong Kong Karachi
Kuala Lumpur \1adnd Melbourne Mexico City Na1rob1
'<cw Delhi Shanghai Taipc1 Toronto
With offices in
Argenttna Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece
Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore
~omh Korea Swnzerland Thailand Thrkey Ukraine Vietnam
©Oxford Umversny Press 20 t2
The moral rights of the authors have been assc11ed
D.u.1base nght Oxford Umver>~ty Press (maker)
hr>t published 20t2
All nghts reserved. "o pan of this publlcat1on may be reproduced. stored m a retneval
~y!<, tcm, or transmtttcd. in any form or by any means. without the prior permission m
wntmg of Oxford Umvers1ty Press. or as expressly permmed by law. or under terms
,,greed w1th the appropnate reprographiCs rights organization. Enqu1ries concernmg
reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department,
Oxford Umversity Press. at the address above.
You must not ctrrulate this book in any other bmding or cover and you must 1mpose
this same condtuon on any acqmrer
Bnush Library Cataloguing m PublicatiOn Data
D.lla available
ISBN- 978-019-912949-2
10987654321
Pnnted m Malaysia by Vivar Printing Sdn Bhd.
Paper used in the producnon of thiS book is a natural. recyclable produa made from
wood grown in sustamable forests. The manufacnmng process conforms to the
enviromncntal re~'ltlations oft he country ofongin
Acknowledgements
The publisher and authors would like to thanks the following for permisSIOn to usc
photographs and copyright material:
Cuwr. R. Gmo Santa Maria/Shutterstock: joseph jones: Chris King/OUP: AISPIX/
Shutterstock: Photodisc/OUP: john Wollwerth/Shunerstock: joseph jones: Asia Images
RF!OUP: OUP: p&t: PhotofiiSion Picture !Jbrary/Aiamy/lnd•a Picture: p6b: Steve Prezantf
Corb•s: p7: lhmdad Cxpres~. p4. Steve BlyfAiamy: p9tl: Photogphers D1rect: p9tr:
Mark Wilson: p9bl: Gary RoebuckfAI:uny: p9br: Photogphers Direa: pl2t. RJ lerich/
Shutterstock; p12b: Barbado~ Fertility Centre; pl4: Paria Publishmg: p17: Blend Images/
A1.1my; p iS: ducu59US!Shune.-.tock: p23: Bazuk1 MuhammadfReutersfCorbi~. p24
Mocker/123RF: p28: C. Thatcher/Getty Images; p291: Tnmdad Express: p29r· CorbiS
Rl'fAiamy: p30: Alamy; p3t M.athew Loc.lgeflodgephoto.com(Namyflndla Pucture:
pJJ: Judith Gill: pJ5: Blend lmages1Shutterstock: p37l: Ban ProfAiamy/lndl.l P1cture:
p37r: Tom & Dee Ann McCanhyfCorbts: p37b: Anastacia Wilson: p39 jud1th Gill: p4t
Trinidad Express: p42: Lowne Chtn; p43: jarnediapro.wordpress.com: p50: Jan Sochor/
Alamy: pSI Brooke Fasani AuchinclossfCorbiS p52 & 53: Tnnidad Expre•s: p55: Brennan
!Jnsley/AP Photos: p&l· julbe:m/WiklpediajCreative Commons Licence: p62: Kerry
~t George; p63: Sam Srnckler/Shutterstock: p641. Robert Harding lmagesfMasterfile:
p64r: The Print CollectorfAiamyflndia Picture: p651: Paria Publishing: p65r· Robert
Harding Picture Library Ltd,Aiamy/lnd•a Ptcture: p691: M1kael Eriksson,'Shunerstock
com: p69r: jona~ Ekstromer!Pool/AP Photo: p70: Sipa Press/Rex Fearures; p7t· Peter
Lcask/Aiamy: p72: jun West/Ala my: p73: lhnid,1d Express: p75: CjG TechnologyfAiamy:
p771: BonkersAboutTravei,Aiamy: p77r· Mark Wilson; p78 Trimdad Expres~: p79: Peter
CISolinotAiamy: p83: Dan KltwoodfGetty Image,. p84 AP Photo: p87: Judith Gill: p88t.
Kerry St George: p88b: Chnstopher Futcher/istock: p89: jeff Greenberg/Aiamy: p90tl
MJ Photogr,tphy/Al.lmy/lndi,l Picture: p90tr: Db•mages/Aiamyflndia Picture~: p90bl: MJ
PhotographvJAiam, India Plnure; p90br· Juduh Gill; p91 lvonne WJCnnk/Shutterstock.
p91: Georgios Kollidas/Shutterstock. p91: Morphart Creations tnc.fShutterstock: p9t:
Wiklcommons; piOI: Tim Aylen/AP Photos: p103: Trinidad Express; p l05: M. Timothy
O'Keefe/Aiamyflnd•a Picture: pl 06-pl16: Trinidad Express: pl22 KeystoneUSA-ZUMA/Rex
Feature•: pl23: Custom MediCal Stock Photo/Aiamy: pl27· Andres Lc•ghton/AP Photos:
pl33 \lama W•lson; pl34l:james jonesJr/Shutterstock; pl34r: Mark Wi l ~on; pl35:
Michael Stevenson; p t37 Tnmdad Express: p 140-141 Statistic.lllnstitute of JamaiCa,
pl45 Mark Wilson: p142 Ministry ofEducauon. Tnmdad and Tobago: pl46: Steve
Cavaher/Aiamy: pl49: Getty Images; p1531.1hmdad Express; pi 52: joSonfGetty Images:
p l 53m: Mark Wilson: p153r: Trinidad Express: pi 54 Christopher Pilhtz/Reportage/
Getty Images; p 155: lwokrama lntemational Centre for Rain Forest Conservation and
Development: pi 56: Westend61 GmbH/Aiamy/lndia Picture: p1S7· M1chael Kemp/
Alanlyflndia Picture; pl59 Coogle Maps; pl60: David R. Frazier Phorolibrary, Inc./
Alamy/lndia Picture: pl62· Judith Gill: pl63: liinidad Express: pl65: Kerry StGeorge:
p166: GraceKennedy: pl67: Creauve Commons: pl68: Paria Publishing: pl69: €) \'VHO
2011. pt70 Mml>try ofEducation.lhmdad and Tobago: p173t: Giuliano Bevilacqua/
Rex Features: pl73m· Startraks Photo/Rex l·eatures: pl73b: Tru11dad Express: pl75·182:
Mark W1lson: pl89· Charles Knox Photo/Shutterstock: p19L Frans Lemmen,'Aiamy:
pt921: Howard DaVJesfAiamvilndJ<I Piaure: pl92r-196: Mark Wilson; pl97: Juho l:.tchart/
Sull P1ttures: pl98: I!) Stuan WestmorlandfCorbiS; pl99 Nell Cooper/Aiamyflndia
Picture; p200: Rolf Richardson(AiamyflndJa P1cture: p203: Frans Lemmem(Nan1y: p204
Mark Wilson: p205 BAE lnC'Aiamy: p2061 The Nauon Pubhshmg Company: p206r·
\1ark PetersontCorbts: p207· Umver.1ty of Guyana; p209 OUPILucy Cowdery; p210
Robert Harding lmagesfMasterfile; p212: brandonht/Shutterstock.com; p213t: Creative
Commons: p213b: Getty Images: p214 Bettmann/CorbJS: p216: M Timothy O'Keefe1
Alan1y: p217.Judnh Gill: p218: ~1ark Wilson: p219: Megastocker:Shutterstock; Khcn
Guan Toh/Shutterstock; Adam GolabekfShutterstock: Atlasp•x/Shutterstock: Globe
Thrner LLCfShutterstock; 1.1kov FihmonovfShutterstock: p223t: ruskpp/Shunerstock
p223b: Richard Goldberg/Shutterstock; p227· Reuters/Andrew Winning: p235: David
Brennan/Aiamy: p233: Gerard Cerles/AFP/Getty Images: p240 Time & Life Pictures/Getty
Images: p244 & 248: Mark Wilson: p257: Holger W./Shune rstock; p259: Sandals Luxury
Included® Resorts: p2601 Mark Wilson; p260r: Trimdad Express: p260b: noble IMAGES/
Alamy: p261· Energy Chamber. lhmdad and Tobago; p262: R. Peterkin,'Shutterstock.
com. p263: jllmagesfAiamy: p264: lnternauonal Airport Development Company Ltd.
St Vincent: p265t. liubert Tie~epa/Corbis: p26Sb: As~ociated Press: p266: Ron Buskirk/
Alamy; p267: D1scover Dommica Authority: p270-271• \lark Wilson: p272: Judith Gill;
p274: Steve Allen/Dreamst•me.com: p275: Coogle Maps: p276: Lennox Honychurch:
p277: Mark Wilson: p279: Photo provided by Atlanus. Paradise Island. Bahamas:
p2801 Gerty Images: p280r· Chris jackson/Getty Images: p282: Mark W1lson: p283·
Nassau Guard1an. p284r Steven May/Aiamy; p287· Tatiana Popova Shutterstock: p288:
Barbados Tourism Authonty; p292: john Warburton-Lce Photography/Aiamy: p295-297r:
Mark Wibon: p298t : Freel'oto.com: p298m: Wirelmage/Getty Images: p298b: Kerry St
George: p299t INTI:.RFOTOiAiamy: p299b: KononovjShutterstock: p300: Mark Wilson:
p301 Andrew Holt/Aiamyflnd•a PICture: p302: Schoenberg Center for ElenronicText
and Image: p303. United Kmgdom Government; p3041: ian Poole/Dreamstime: p304r·
Roger BamberfAiamyflndia Picture: p305• D~eu Nalio CheryfAssociated Press: p309
jamaiCa Observer: p31t: DISpute Resolution Foundation, p318b: Suk1 Macdonald, p318t:
Getty Images: p317: Tnmdad Expres~: p313 Mark Wil~on: p3 14: Ryan Bachoo; p315:
UNAIDS: p316: Roger Alexis: p321: AF archJvefAiamy: p323: john Lund/Heather HryCJw/
Blend lmage~,'Corbis: p324 Mark Lyndersay: p325: Tnnidad Express: p327· Sipa Press;
Rex Fe.uures; p326: Calabash lntemauonal Literary l·esnvalfHugh Wnght: p328: Mark
Wilson: p330 SNAP/Rex Features: p333t: Getty Images: p333b: Everett CollecttonfRex
Fearures; p335 Robert Fned/Aiamy: p345: Christopher Pillitz/ln Plcrures/CorbJS; p347:
DreamPlcrures/V~tockfBiend lmage</CorbJS: p35 1: Mdrk Wilson: p349t Fair Tradmg
CommiS>Jon: p349b: Sh•rleyBarenholzfPhotographe.-. D1rea: p355: H•pix/Aiarny: p352:
Mark Wilson: p1~1· Monkey Bu<one" lmages/Shuttcrstock: p358: Randy faris/Corbi•.
p363: Christian Aid/Hannah Morley: p368. \,adim1r WrangeliShutterstock.com
Artwork by: Ceo Parkin. QBS Leammg & Techset
The author and publisher are grateful to the following for permiSSIOn to repnnt
copyright material:
Guardian News and Media Ltd for extract from ·canbbean severs lmk to Privy Council'
by Owen Bowcott. The Guardian 15.2.2001. copyright© Guardian News and Media Ltd
2001.
The Nation Publishing Co Ltd for extract~ from Eduonal. Weekmd .'iauon, 7. t .l005:
'Ganja H1gh' by Tim Slinger. The !\al10n. 22.2.20 t t; and 'Elderly !Jvmg in Fear' by Cheryl
Harewood. The Sunday Sun, 14.8.20 11
Nthough we have made every effort to lrace and contact all copynght holders before
publication thiS has not been posSible in all case,. If notified. the publisher will ree1tfy
any erro.-. or om•ss1ons at the earliest opportumty.
 The functions of the family may overlap and do
not exist exclusively of each other. For example,
socialization includes teaching children how to deal
with all their emotions, from anger to excitement. In
doing so the family is fulfilling both the emotional
and the socialization needs of the child.

What are the four functions of the family? List them

Figure 1.12: A family engaged in business
Satisfaction of emotional needs
Families are charged with taking care of their members'
emotional needs in times of crisi as well as on a daily
basis. Many emotional challenges occur throughout
our lives. Some of the greatest challenges any family
member may encounter include the death of a loved
one, divorce, the loss of a job or business, health
issues, and relocation. On the death of a loved one, for
example, family members usually come together as a
source of comfort and strength to each other.
Emotional support helps members of the family to
maintain a sense of stability as they encounter crises
in their lives. The comfort of knowing the family is
there to provide support is often enough to enable
family members to overcome hurdles.
In some families, emotional needs are not met
because one or both of the parents do not think it
necessary or do not know how to offer emotional
su pport. Further on in this section you will find
details of types of abuse and other social issues
encountered in the home.l'vlany of these result from
the inability or unwillingness of parents to provide
for the emotional needs of their offspring.
in order of importance.
2 Discuss your list with the rest of your class. Did you
all list the functions in the same order?
Write an essay describing the Caribbean family. Use
the questions below to help you.
1 Name and describe the type of family structure
found in the Caribbean. How are the strengths
and weaknesses of this family structure shown in
Caribbean society?
2 How are families formed?
3 How do Caribbean families fulfill the four functions?
4 How do you think families in the Caribbean could
change to function better?
On the following page is a report on an
interview with two professionals from the
Barbados Fertility Centre. The format will give you
some idea of how to report on an interview for
your SBA.

Figure 1 .14: An embryologist examming samples at the

Barbados Fertility Centre
Figure 1.13: A fam1ly can comfort 1ts d1stressed members

•
 l.'t r Ullt; l1Ull~ U l U lC fC111Ul)'

Interview
Q How long has the Barbados Fertility Clinic 1 Is there a place for a fertility clinic in Caribbean
been in existence? society? Discuss your ideas with a partner and
A We have been in existence since 2002. think of TWO reasons to support your answer.
2 With your partner. agree on ONE benefit and ONE
Q What services do you offer? drawback of such a facility for Caribbean society.
A We offer tests for male and female infertility.
We carry out in vitro fertilization (IVF) working
with couples and single women who want to Maslow's hierarchy of needs
use donor sperm and eggs. We also have a In 1943, the noted psychologist Abraham M aslow
regular gynaecological clinic. created a much respected theory of human needs,
Q Do you have a select clientele? often represented by a diagram in the form of a
A No, our service is open to all who need it. pyramid. H e suggested that our most basic needs - at
We have a wide variety of clients of different the bottom of the diagram - must be met before we
races and nationalities locally, regionally and can focus on our next level of need. If people cannot
internationally. If someone is working at a low- satisfy their basic needs, such as food and freedom
paying job and wants to access our services we
from disease, they stay at the bottom of the pyramid.
will provide the necessary paperwork for them
to access funds from a financial institution.
Q Can your services be considered to be a
family service?
A Yes, they can. We can help couples who suffer
infertility to have the child they always wanted.
We do not only treat female fertility issues but
male issues as well. We encourage couples
to visit the clinic together. Extended family
members are often supportive of the couple.
EGO
Q Is there a high incidence of infertility in the (the need for self-esteem, power.
recogn1t1on, prestige). These needs
Caribbean? are met through ach1evement,
A There is a higher than average rate of male recogmtion, promotions and bonuses.
infertility - this may be due to the warm climate SOCIAL
or to the use of unregulated pesticides and
chemicals.
Q What is your success rate with IVF?
A The success rate for IVF is typically 25-72%
at the Barbados Fertility Clinic per treatment
cycle; this is 10-13% above the UK average.
However. the success rate is dependent on Figure 1.15: Maslow's hierarchy of needs
many factors. Our recent success rates show
our under-30-year-olds at 72%.
Quick questions
Q Have you had problems with the government
or community because of the services you Use the diagram above to answer the following questions:
offer? 1 Can you identify any of the basic functions of the
A No. we have received all the assistance which family in this pyramid?
the government had to offer and many people 2 What do you think happens to a person who does
not have the needs shown at the bottom of the
are glad to have our services available to them.
pyramid met by their famliy early in life?
There is some objection from religious groups
from time to time, but nothing serious.
Q Are there other fertility clinics in the English-
speaking Caribbean?
A Yes, there is one in Trinidad and Tobago.

II
 Forming families

KEY IDEAS
o To be able to meet its members' needs. a family
requires some planning.
o Not all families are planned.
o Family planning involves more than the use of
contraceptives.
G'1!•tlli;i'l
Courtship: The period before engagement or marriage
when a couple gets to know each other better.
Adoption: The formal legal procedure oftaking someone
else's child as your own.
Research
Research courtship patterns in the Caribbean by
interviewing an older person. Ask them at least
ten questions related to courtship and marriage
in the past. What are their own memories? What
stories did their parents and grandparents tell
them? Write your answers in the form of a story.
This is good practice for doing interviews in
your SBA.
Remember that interviewers should be respectful
and patient. allocating enough time for full answers.

The success of the family planning movement in

the Caribbean h as led to a greater level of decision
making when it comes to when people have children
and how many children they have. There are still
many teenagers, however, who find themselves
becoming parents long before they are ready. If a
family is to be one which successfully caters to the
basic needs of its members, some planning and
preparation is required.

Courtship and marriage

Previous units have dealt with the various family
types found in the Caribbean, but how do people get
to this stage? Traditionally, in the Caribbean, when
a couple met and were interested in each other, they
went through a period of courtship.
It is not unusual to hear stories from the past of
young men riding or walking for miles to get a
glimpse of the young lady they were interested in
or to say a brief hello to her. The young man would
then be expected to approach the girl's family
for permission to court her. If this was granted
they would be allowed to meet socially but with
supervision until they eventually got engaged
and married.
Modern ways of forming families
The modern Caribbean relationship has changed;
couples have much more freedom and make their
Figure 1.16: A courtmg couple :n the 1930s
own decisions about the timing and progress of
the relationship. Couples may develop a sexual
relationship far earlier and consider courtship
and marriage to be theirs to control and regulate.
I n some cases this even happens when the couple
is living in an extended family arrangement.
There remains a high prevalence of common-
law relationships, as young couples often do not
see marriage as a prerequisite for cohabiting.
In the modern Caribbean, some couples opt for
a visiting relationship even when they want to
start a family.

•
Some families are formed in non-conventional
ways, for example through adoption. In the past
it was not unusual for adults to raise children
who belonged to other family members or friends.
In more recent times, adoptions usually include a
legal component which allows couples or single
women to go through the legal process of declaring
a child theirs. In most of the region a single man
is not eligible to adopt. The adopted child has all
the rights of a child which a couple has given birth
to and it is expected that he/she will be treated in
the same way as any biological children of his/ her
adoptive parents.
Some children are also carried by a surrogate
mother. In this instance, the female in a
relationship may be unable to carry a child but
may still be fertile; with the help of a fertility
specialist she and her partner may contract with
another female to carry the fertilized embryo
which is implanted through in vitro fertilization.
The child would have the couple's genetic code
but would spend the nine months of pregnancy
being carried by another female. In other cases,
where the female is infertile, a donor egg may be
fertilized by the male's sperm and implanted in a
surrogate mother.
CASE STUDY
Tara, an adopted child
Tara was born to a drug-addicted mother and a drug-
dealing father. Neither of her parents wanted another
child. Tara's mother already had three children whom she
could not feed and there was no relationship between
the parents.
Tara was put up for adoption and was soon placed in a
home with her adoptive parents. Her adoptive father said
it was an easy choice: Tara's eyes shone and she was
such a beautiful baby that they had to have her as their
own. They decided to maintain contact with Tara's birth
mother. thinking that this would make it easier for Tara to
accept being adopted.
Tara was successful at school and the family got
along well. When she was 13. however, a series of
Quick questions
1 Do you think being adopted could make a
difference to a child's attitude or behaviour towards
his/her parents? What about the parents' attitude or
behaviour towards their adopted child?
2 Read the case study below. Why do you think Tara's
adoptive parents maintained contact with her birth
mother? Do you think this was a good idea?
3 Imagine you are a child care officer at the Child
Care Organization. What advice would you give to
a couple about to adopt a baby? Why do you think
this advice would work?
Most countries in the Caribbean have children's
homes to take care of those children who have
no adult to take care of them. Do some research
on these institutions and write a report on your
findings. The questions below should help you.
a How many children's homes are there in your
country?
b Where are they located?
c How many children live in these homes?
d How many staff members are employed to take
care of the homes and children?
e Which Government agency takes care of
these facilities?
2 Who is allowed to adopt in your country?
circumstances led Tara to reject her adopted parents. Her
adoptive father died and her adoptive mother. under new
financial pressure, became abusive both verbally and
physically - she had always been hot tempered and quick
to use corporal punishment, but this now turned to even
more serious abuse.
When Tara turned 16 she moved out of the house and
went to live with her biological mother. Her mother was
still a drug addict and it did not take long for the
pressures of the environment to lead Tara in a similar
direction.
At age 21, Tara is trying to get her life back together by
enrolling in an evening programme at her former school.
She is working and now has two children of her own.
•
 Handling data
Fill in the questionnaire on the left and share
your answers with your classmates.
2 Construct a tally table showing what age boys
and girls choose as their ideal age to become
parents. Create a bar chart using the data. An
example of a tally table is shown below.

Figure 1.17: Children play at bemg parents 18 mr 5 0

When would you like to become a parent? 19

The questionnaire below seeks to help you figure out
the answer to this question. It is also a good example 20 II II 4
of how a good questionnaire should be structured for
the SBA. 21 mrmr 10

Questionnaire 22
Complete the questionnaire below by filling in the
blanks or placihg a tick in the correct box. 23
Age: _ _ _ __
24
Sex: Male D Female D
What age would you like to be when you 25 mfll 7
become a parent? years old
2 How many children would you like to have? Table 1.2: An example of a tally table

3 What qualifications would you like to have

before you become a parent? _ _ _ _ _ __

Discuss your answers to the SBA questionnaire with

4 What job would you like to have?
a partner.
1 Can you achieve the qualifications. job and living
5 What kind of relationship would you like to be in? arrangements you have described by the age you
married D common-law union D have chosen?
visiting relationship D 2 How could you acquire the three skills you have
listed m question 8 before becoming a parent?
6 Where would you like to be living? 3 Do you need to adjust your plans to make them
with parents D rented home D more realistic? Make any adjustments you
in a home I own D need to. then write out your plan based on the
questionnaire.
7 Describe the home you would like to be living in.
4 What measures would you need to put in place to
make sure you stick to the plan you have outlined?

8 List THREE skills you think you need to develop

before becoming a parent.
1 ----------------
2 -------------------
3 -------------------
 Factors that assist in preparation
for parenthood

KEY IDEAS
o Adults should aim for a state of financial and
emotional stability before having children.
o Family planning is essential to making sure adults
have families they can take care of adequately.

Family planning: The act of deliberately choosing how

many and at what intervals to have children, and the use
of birth control methods such as condoms to implement
those choices.
Contraceptive: A device used to prevent fertilization of the
egg in the female, and therefore pregnancy.

While many children arc not planned, people are

encouraged to give much thought to when and with
whom they have their families. There are several
areas of your life you should take care of before you
think about having children. Most of these factors
Figure 1.18: New parents are expected to put the1r child's
relate to your ability and willingness to take on the needs before the ir own
sacrifice and hard work required to provide for the
basic needs of a family.

Here are some of the factors which should be taken

care of first.
o Education This allows for employability- without
a sound education and/or relevant training a
parent will find it hard to secure employment.
o Employment Parents must provide for the
family's financial needs - raising children is
expensive so reliable employment is essential for
anyone planning to have children.
o Housing Before having children, prospective
parents should secure an adequate, comfortable
place to live. Housing is one of the most basic
needs of all human beings.
o Emotional maturity This is a much harder
requirement to measure. Parents are expected to
put the needs of their child above their own on a
daily basis. This requires a high degree of maturity.
o A peaceful and loving relationship While
some adults opt to have children while not in a
relationship with the other party, this is a very
difficult situation to navigate. A loving and stable
relationship is the ideal circumstance into which
to introduce a child.
Discuss the following statement with the rest of
your class.
We can never be ready for parenthood.
CASE STUDY
Hakeem, a separated father
Hakeem is the father of a four-year-old boy. He is no
longer in a relationship with his son's mother but
shares the financial responsibility for him and sees him
regularly.
When his son was born. Hakeem was faced with a very
hard first year as the relationship with his son's mother
disintegrated and she refused to let him see his son.
She also took him to court on two occasions. first to
establish the amount of money which he was required
to pay in child maintenance. and then to increase
this amount. What angered him was that he was only
awarded two hours' visiting time with his son per week.
Now that his son is older that time has been increased
and he sees his son more frequently. His relationship
with his child's mother has remained hostile.

The Caribbean Family Planning Affiliation
Ltd (CFPA)
The Caribbean Family Planning Affiliation Ltd
(CFPA) is the umbrella organization for the
smaller Family Planning Associations (FPAs)
found throughout the region .
The CFPA has two major roles. Firstly, our
institutional role is to represent our 18 affiliates
at the regional and international councils of
IPPF. Secondly, we provide a forum for our
affiliates and associate members to discuss the
Sexual and Reproductive H ealth problems
facing the region and coming up with solutions.
We institute regional information and education
campaigns on:
o family planning
o teenage pregnancy
o sex education in schools
o cervical and prostate cancer
o HIV/AIDS.
Many ofCFPA's affiliates have a youth advocacy
movement (YAM) - groups of young men
and women who function like a junior arm
of the FPA, are trained by the FPA in sexual
reproductive health (SRH) issues and carry out
outreach work among youth on behalf of the FPA.
Adapted from The International Planned Parenthood
Federation (IPPF) website, http://wvvw.ipp(org
Quick questions
How could Hakeem·s Situation have been avoided?
2 Is the mother of Hakeem's son making the best
decisions for her son? What do you think she
should do in the situation?
3 As a family planning officer. what advice would you
have for a young man in Hakeem's position who is
thinking of having another child? Why do you think
th1s advice would work?
the couple to control when the woman conceives or
becomes pregnant.
Throughout the region there are Family Planning
Associations which, along with the health care
systems, give information, advice and support on
sexual health and reproduction, and assist adults in
planning their families.
Do some research on the Family Planning Association
in your country
1 Where IS 1t located?
2 What services does it offer?
3 What services does it offer for teenagers?
Discuss the following questions with a partner or the
rest of your class.
1 Who should visit the Family Planning Association?
2 Should teenagers be given contraceptives without
their parent's consent?
Contraceptives
The word "contraceptive" literally means "against
conception" or "against pregnancy".There are many
methods of contraception available and they form a
part of the process of family planning. The table on
the right outlines these methods.
It must be noted that most contraceptive methods
do not protect against HIVI AIDS and other sexually
transmitted infections (STi s). Only the male and
female condom have been shown to reduce the risk
of contracting HIV/ AIDS. There is also a possibility
of any contraceptive method failing and resulting
in pregnancy.

Family planning
Family planning is another important way in which
we can make sure we are prepared for parenthood.
Through family planning, parents can consciously
decide when to have children and how many
children to have. Family planning usually involves Figure 1.19: Condoms, one of a range of contraceptive
the use of some form of contraceptive that will allow methods
 1.6 Factors that ass1St n preparanon rorparemnuoo

Type of contraceptive Examples

Stenhzat10n Tuball igation
Divide your class into five groups, and ass1gn each Vasectomy
group one of the types of contraceptive in Table 1.3. Barner method Condom
1 In your group, find out about the effectiveness of Female condom
the contraceptive methods listed in the Examples Diaphragm
column for the type you have been allocated. Sponge
Answer the questions below for each method. Cerv1cal cap
a How effective is it? Intrauten ne methods CopperT
b How does it work? Hormonal IUD
c Does it protect against HIVI AIDS and other
Hormonal methods The P1ll
STis? Implant
d Is it available to people below the age of Rmg
consent? Patch
e Is there any objection to the use of tlus method InJection
by religious groups?
Natural methods Basal Body Temperature (BBT)
2 Prepare a presentation of your findings to deliver Sympto-thermal
to the rest of the class. Use handouts or produce a B1lhng OvulatiOn
multimedia presentation if possible. 'Rhythm'

Table 1.3: Types and examples of contraceptive

 • Characteristics of effective
parents
KEY IDEAS
o Good parenting is central to successful families.
o Life experiences do not always prepare a person
for parenthood.
o There are s pecific skills which make parenting
more s uccessful. Parents should work to improve
these skills.

Abuse: To ill-treat a person in some way- verbally,

physically or sexually.
Neglect: A form of abuse involving inadequate care and
attention pa id to someone or something.
Incest: Sexual relations between close family members.
Generation gap: The issues which occur between people
of different generations because of their varying attitudes,
beliefs and behaviou rs. This is very common between
parents and children.
\.1t.>.ve .fv. .... rl~ B'IA]j _,1A f r-d t01AS
....eet r., s .foods v. .,d co.,h oi.
0
ro re ....,.,d ckrldre., I'M.v. t v,.,d
o.f r-1Ales v,.,d kow ....1Ack
Children learn what they live
drSC1ASS pr-oble ....s ckrldr-e., ev. t
The roles performed by parents in the family
are important, as are those which they expect
children to perform. The behaviour which
parents show their children stays with them t...ev.r-., ....v..,{J wv.{Js
for life and the children themselves will either o.f drsc rp£.,.,,.,
o-1!-l.er- t kv..,
0
behave the same way or make a conscious
cor-po-rv.i. f"'A.,,sk....e..,J
decision to behave differently. It is important
therefore for parents to have the necessary skills Fi gure 1.20: Concept ma p show1ng pare nt1ng skills
to be a good example for their children.

To be effective, parents need to be able to fu lfill all
four fu nctions of the family (see Unit 1.4) and as
a result meet the needs of their families. H owever,
providing for financial needs may prove difficult
for some parents at particular times, e.g. during
a recession or times of unemployment. The other
functions are often seen as less important: although
adults may have the time they often do not have
the skills or ability to provide for the emotional and
psychological needs of family members; others do
not see this as important and consider their job to
be that of providing only for the most basic needs of
food , clothing and shelter.
Copy the concept map above and expand on it, adding
as many examples of the skills shown as possible -
some examples for disciplinary skills have been given
for you. You may find that some of your examples apply
to more than one skill, as shown here. so try to organize
the map so that you can draw connecting lines.
Some importan t skills every parent should possess
are listed below.
o Problem-solving skills Economic, social, or simple
practical problems present themselves to parents on
a daily basis. Parents are constantly called upon to
lead their families - as a result they must be good at

•
 weighing the many options presented to them and
deciding which one is best for their family.
Figure 1.21: Parents need to be good at solving practical
problems
o Communication skills Young children may
be unable to communicate or have limited
communication skills. Parents must therefore
anticipate their needs and pay attention to body
language to figure out their moods or problems.
Parents are also called upon to keep lines of
communication in their families open. Some
parents find it difficult to communicate with their
teenage children because of the generation gap.
Good communication is necessary to facilitate all
four functions of the family and prevent conflict.
Figure 1.22: Good commun1cat1on skills are v1tal for parents
o Socialization skills The success parents have in
carrying out the function of socialization depends
on their ability to lead through example and
direction. Parents must be clear in telling children
what is required of them in terms of behaviour.
Demonstrating or modelling the behaviour
is also crucial, so that the child will recognize
its importance. A child who is not adequately
socialized will find it difficult to function in society.
Figure 1.23: Parents must show the1r child the behav1our
they want
o Disciplinary skills There are many methods of
discipline which parents can use to teach and guide
their children. Knowledge of these methods and
the ability to successfully choose the appropriate
method is central to a parent being a successful
disciplinarian. Parents should also reward children
for good behaviour or their successes. This will
demonstrate to the child that they are not only
interested in them when they behave negatively
but also when they exhibit the desired behaviour.
Fi gure 1.24: A parent needs to choose the ngh t diSCiplinary
methods
o Knowledge of good nutrition Eating the right
food s in the right quantities is important to
good health. Parents, as the decision makers
in their families, must make good choices to
contribute to the lifelong health of themselves
II
 Contents
What's on the CD? vi 2.8 Electoral processes 93
Introduction viii 2.9 First-past-the-post 95
2. 10 Proportional representation 97
D The individual and the family 2. 11
2. 12
How political parties prepare for elections
Factors that influence the outcome of
100
1. 1 The concept of family 02
elections 104
1.2 Family types 06
2. 13 Factors that influence voter participation
1.3 Advantages and disadvantages of family in elections 107
types 08
2. 14 The executive 109
1.4 Functions of the family 11
2. 15 The judiciary 112
1.5 Forming families 14
2. 16 Legislature 115
1.6 Factors that assist in preparation for
parenthood 17 2. 17 Constitutional monarchy 119
1.7 Characteristics of effective parents 20 2. 18 Republicanism 121
1.8 Forms of marriage 23 2.19 Functions of governments 123
1.9 The law and the family 25 2.20 The relationship between citizens and
government as stated in the constitution 125
1. 10 Roles in the Caribbean family 29
2.21 Essentials of good governance 128
1. 11 Changing roles in the Caribbean family 33
2.22 The role of the opposition in ensuring
1. 12 Causes of changing roles 36 good governance 131
1. 13 Effect of changing roles on Caribbean
2.23 Important institutions in promoting
society 39 good governance 132
1.14 Changing roles and male marginalization 41
1. 15
1.16
What are social issues and problems?
Abuse
44
48 EJ Resources
1. 17 Other social problems 51 3. 1 Resources 134
1. 18 The effects of social problems 54 3 .2 Population 136
1. 19 Strategies for dealing with social 3.3 The census 140
problems 56 3 .4 Population density 144
1.20 Caribbean society and culture 60 3.5 Population growth 146
1. 2 1 Culture and change 63 3.6 Birth and death rates 148
1.22 Protecting and developing Caribbean 3. 7 The population pyramid 151
culture 66 3 .8 Population problems 154
1.23 Global recognition of Caribbean culture 69 3 .9 Migration 157
3.10 Internal migration 159
The individual and society 3.11 Caribbean migration 161
3.12 International migration 163
2. 1 Groups 72
3.13 Human resources 165
2.2 Types and functions of groups 76
3.14 Public health and nutrition 165
2.3 Cohesion and social control in groups 79
3.15 Education and human resources 170
2.4 Leadership 82
3. 16 Sports. culture and human resources 173
2.5 Institutions 83
3.17 Jobs and careers 175
2 .6 Basic functions of institutions 87
3.18 Looking for work 177
2 .7 Introduction to government 92
 and their children. Fast food is popular among
most children and is becoming more acceptable
as an option in most households. These and
other processed foods are high in sodium and
preservatives and low in nutrients. The more
traditional dishes, including ground provisions,
and fresh vegetables, fish and meats, are much
better for us. Parents should be educated on the
requirements of a balanced diet; food preparation
skills are also important.
Figure 1.25: Parents need to g1ve the1r ch ildren a balanced diet
o A bility to show love, warmth and deal with
emotional issues One of the four functions
of the family is to maintain and provide for
the emotional and psychological needs of its
members. Parents who do not help children to
deal with emotional challenges can inhibit their
development. The children may look elsewhere
for comfort and solace in times of trouble. This
could lead a vulnerable child into a dangerous
situation such as illegal activity.
Figure 1.26: Parents must show love and wa rmth to
the1r child ren
o Money-management skills Most families rely on
money earned as entrepreneurs, business owners
or employees to provide for the economic needs
of their families. Earning money and budgeting
are two different skills. Parents should be able to
prioritize and take care of needs first, and wants
second, when spending their money.
Place the parenting skills outlined above in two
columns: one column for those skills parents tend to
treat as important; the other column for those they
tend to ignore. Compare your list with one of your
classmates'.
Parents with poor parenting skills
Some parents do not have the skills required to
be good parents. This may lead to other family
members, members of the community, or even
government institutions stepping in to help the
child or children. In some cases children are not
adequately cared for and the result may be neglect or
other forms of abuse. Like any other skill, parenting
skills can be learned and some organizations try to
help parents. This can be difficult, however, when
parents are unwilling.
Quick questions
Where do parents learn their parenting skills?
2 Describe THREE possible outcomes for a family
where both mother and father have poor parenting
skills.
3 Name an organization within your community that
helps parents gain parenting skills. Which skills do
they teach?
4 Which family type do you think makes the job of
parenting easier? Give ONE reason for your answer.
5 Imagine you are a family counsellor. Explain to a
group of parents of teenagers how they can use
the skills listed above to improve the relationship
between them and their child(ren).
 Forms of marriage
Islam and polygamy
KEY IDEAS
o The choice of monogamy or polygamy is a "And if you fear that you cannot act equitably
personal decision but it is also dictated by towards orphans, marry such women as seem good
society's laws.
to you. two and three and four; but if you fear that
o When marriages break up, partners may opt for
you will not do justice between them, then marry
legal separation or divorce.
only one or what your right hands possess: this is
more proper that you may not deviate from the right
course"(4:3).
~ft!·tll' ;\'1 The Holy Qur'an (with English translation and commentary
Monogamy: The practice of being married to only one
by Maulana Muhammad Ali). 7th edition. page xxiii
husband or wife.
Polygamy: the practice of having more than one husband
or wife at the same time, where this is legal. The passage from the H oly Qyr'an describes the
Polyandry: The practice of having more than one husband position which Islam takes on polygamy. Polygyny
at the same time, where this is legal.
is permitted- but not encouraged- by I slam and
Polygyny: The practice of having more than one wife at the
same time, where this is legal. practised by some Muslims in countries where it is
Bigamy: The criminal offence of marrying a person while allowed. In these cases each wife must be treated
still legally married to another. equally, and a second or subsequent wife is taken in a
religious ceremony, often as a solution to a problem
In the Caribbean, people are only allowed to legally such as the first wife's infertility. As outlined above,
marry one person at a time (monogamy). In places the Holy Qyr'an allows Muslim men as many as
where it is legal, if an individual marries more than one four wives, but only on condition that he is able to
person this is called polygamy. Polygamy takes two provide for them and their children equally.
forms: polyandry, where a woman marries more than
one man at the same time, and polygyny, where a man
marries more than one woman at the same time.
The man or woman who purportedly marries more
than one person at the same time where the law does
not permit polygamy could be charged with bigamy.
Having an outside family as described previously
would not qualifY as bigamy in the true sense of the
word: this is because the man in this arrangement is
only legally married to one person.

Handling data
Figure 1.27 : Polygamy is practised 1n some countnes
Should polygamy be legalized in the Caribbean?
1 Take a vote among your classmates to get their
opinions on the question given above. Quick questions
2 Count the votes of male and female students
List TWO similarities and TWO differences between
separately.
the practice of polygamy and that of having an
3 Arrange your results into a table and then a outside family.
pie chart. 2 List TWO advantages and TWO disadvantages of a
4 Write TWO findings based on the data collected. polygamous family arrangement.

•
When marriage fails

Figure 1.28 : Many marnages 1n the Canbbean fa ll

The following statements highlight some of the

issues surrounding divorce. See if you can find 0 We. O'Kl~ lived to e.tV..e.r .for te.'K
0 ~e.~rs1 we.
1-'.e.ve.r ~rrie.d - so tV..e.re. is 1-'.0 1-'.e.e.ll .for tV..e.
information on them as you read on.
CO~rt S fo e. f i1-'.VO£ve.d.
0
0 The. pe.rSO'~-\ w£.\.0 iS V.:IAY'f fV..e. Sf i1-\
I'll,{]

~divorce. IS tv..e. cV..ild. When a couple legally end their marriage and are
divorced there is often much negative emotion as
they try to separate their lives, their property, and
even decide on who should have custody of their
0 :r..t we. bre.~)( ~p :r. will oe.t v..~u o.f children. The couple may decide to have a trial
e.ve.~fV..i -...
0 ~~ OW'~-\. period oflegal separation first, during which they
still continue to share responsibility for all financial
commitments. While legally separated the couple
is still legally married. In some countries there is no
0 :!. 1-'.e.ve.r wor)(e.d .for ~ s~£M'}t SO :!. O~e.ss
provision for legal separation under the law.
:r. wi£.£. 1-\0t oe.t ~1-\~.yv.,,'Ko·
Find the divorce statistics for the last two censuses
taken in your country.

0 Divorce.s ~re. ~£.w~~s 1'-~st~. \

2
3
Is the number of divorces increasing or decreasing?
State THREE reasons why you think this may be
, - - - - - - -- -../ happening.
 The law and the family
KEY IDEAS
o A marriage having "broken down irretrievably"
or "irreconcilable differences" are the only legal
preconditions for divorce used by the law courts
in many Caribbean countries.
o After a divorce both parents are required by law
to continue supporting their children financially.
o Some countries have special law courts dedicated
to family matters.
o Childcare and inheritance should be guaranteed
to all children by law.
G ft«•IOJ!iil'l
Maintenance: A legal arrangement whereby, upon divorce,
either party is made to contribute financially to the welfare
of a former spouse and / or any children of the family.
Domestic violence: Any abusive, violent, coercive, forceful,
or threatening act or word inflicted by one member of a
family or household on another.
Inheritance: Property or other assets passed at the owner's
death to those entitled to receive them, either by a will or
by the laws governing inheritance.
Divorce law
L egally, in many parts of the C aribbean the only
reason people may use to apply to the law courts
for a divorce is "irreconcilable differences". Where
other reasons are allowed, these vary throughout
the Caribbean, but may include infidelity or abuse.
H owever, this is ch anging: read the UNICEF article
on the right for more information on divorce in
the C aribbean.
Answer these questions on the UNICEF article.
1 List the measures being taken in the Caribbean to
make divorce a less hostile experience for families.
2 Do you think "no-fault" divorces are a good idea?
Or should the person who caused the divorce be
given a greater burden of responsibility?
3 How could family counselling and mediation help
reduce the divorce rate?
4 If your country is not discussed in this article.
find out what the law says about divorce in
your country.
Family Law reform in the Caribbean
Less emphasis on judging behaviour in
divorce settlements
In family law, there has been a significant
movement away from judging the behaviour
of family members in settlements and a focus
more on the family's needs and in cultivating
harmonious relations among family members.
In keeping with this trend, some countries
like Barbados have introduced the concept
of "no-fault" divorces. However, in the
OECS countries, there is only a moderate
acknowledgment of this development and most
of them have moved on to a system in which
fault still has some role to play in matrimonial
matters. In Antigua and Barbuda, for example,
the 1997 Divorce Act creates a mixed-fault
system. It introduces 12 months of separation as a
basis for proving breakdown of marriage, similar
to Barbados which has no-fault divorce, but adds
the fault facts of adultery and cruelty as evidence
of breakdown as well. In both St Kitts & Nevis
and Montserrat, the Matrimonial Causes Acts
of 1948 establishes that the moral quality and
conduct of the husband and wife are decisive in
matrimonial matters.
Introducing alternative dispute resolution
In most of the OECS countries and Barbados,
efforts are made to encourage partners seeking
divorce to consider reconciliation and to undergo
marriage counselling. For example, Antigua and
Barbuda have introduced the concept of mediation
in divorce matters on issues relating to custody of
children and property. I n addition, some countries
have introduced a social service component to
help in addressing family matters and others
have introduced family courts, outside of the
magistrate's courts, to deal with family disputes.
•
 When all attempts at reconciliation fail and the
marriage is legally ended through divorce, an
agreement is made through the law courts for
upkeep of the family: this is called maintenance or
alimony. This may be paid by either the ex-husband
or the ex-wife to the other partner. The partner who
pays maintenance is usually the one who contributed
more to the marriage financially and/or has the
greater means.
In determining how the marital property is to be
divided, and how much maintenance is to be paid,
the courts must consider the following:
o the income of the parties involved
o the financial responsibilities of the parties
involved
o the contribution of each party towards the
marital property
o the age of the individuals and their children Fi gure 1 .29: Divorce IS espec1ally hard on children
o the health of the parties involved
o how the divorce settlement will affect the earning There are also physical changes; one or both parents
potential of the individuals. may have to move to a new location. Children may
have to adjust to their parents having shared custody,
If the woman has never worked away from the
which could mean living in two separate families.
home, this does not mean that her contribution to
Parents may also go on to form new families where
the family is not considered. The law also treats
their children from a previous marriage may or may
couples who have been living in a common-law
not be welcomed or feel comfortable.
relationship for five years or more consecutively
in the same way as it does a married couple. All family members may blame themselves for the
Some married couples separate legally but situation, including the children. Emotionally it
never divorce. may cause extreme reactions, with family members
turning to destructive behaviour such as drug
All children under the age of 18 must be provided
and alcohol abuse, gambling, or promiscuity. Ties
for in a divorce settlement. Children over 18 must
between children and parents may become strained,
also be provided for if they have special needs or a
and in some cases even severed, as they try to
disability or are still at an educational establishment,
negotiate their new arrangement.
up to age 21 in many Caribbean countries. All
children, whether born inside or outside marriage, Divorce is especially hard on children, who may
are treated equally before the law. not know all of the details surrounding the decision
made by their parents. They may feel rejected,
Effects of divorce on family members alienated, or depressed; they may even blame
Even the most amicable divorce has an effect on themselves for the divorce. It is important for parents
family members. Divorce means major changes for to keep lines of communication open with their
everyone involved. Fmancially it may mean changes children. Parents should try to keep children out of
to their standard of living. What partners could afford any hostility between them.1hey should also allow
to do together, they may not be able to do apart. themselves and their children time to heal after a
This means they may have to change their lifestyle family breaks up. Counselling may be necessary to
or get accustomed to a lower standard of living. help with this process .

•
 1.9 The 1aw·ana me ramuy

Quick questions Child protection

There are many reasons why people want to get
divorced. Make a list with the help of your classmates.
Quick questions
Draw up a table with three columns. headed "Mother".
"Father" and "Children". In each column. write at
least TWO ways in which each family member might
be affected by divorce. Discuss your list with your
classmates.
Family law
Laws exist which protect the family and its members
in social situations. These laws are essential to protect
the vulnerable, ensure equality and deal with conflicts
between family members when they arise. It is not
enough for society to assume that all families will
function as they should or handle conflicts as they
should. For this reason we need laws to protect and
deal with problems in as fair a manner as possible.
Throughout the Caribbean there are laws relating to
child care, inheritance, divorce, and domestic violence.
These laws vary, however, and in some cases are not
well enforced. Figure 1.30 gives a breakdown of the
cases dealt with by the Trinidad and Tobago family
magistrates court.
Most Caribbean countries are signatories to the United
Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, which
aims to protect children. Most countries in the region
also have laws for the protection of children, and there
is legislation in the Caribbean relating to:
o the registration and nationality of children
o the legal age relating to schooling, consent
to sexual relationships, employment, and marriage
o protection from abuse and neglect
o provision for the basic needs of children
o when the state may take custody of a child
if necessary
o provisions for disabled and other children with
special needs.
This legislation is enforced through the law courts and
supported by many state agencies. These laws should
be applied without discrimination, a goal which
Caribbean governments are trying to achieve.
Inheritance
In most islands of the Caribbean there are laws
governing inheritance. In Jamaica, for example, the
Inheritance (Provision for Family and Dependants)
Act 1993 allows certain members of a deceased
person's family to make an application to the court
for financial provision out of the property left by
the deceased . In Barbados, the inheritance laws are

Aug 05 > Feb 06 > Aug 06 > Feb 07 > Aug 07 > Feb 08 > Aug 08 > Feb 09 >
Jan 06 July 06 Jan 07 July 07 Jan 08 July 08 Jan 09 July 09

---- Other children's

1ssues
Ma1ntenance
0
1 161
0
1.120
0
1,080 1.26 5
0
1.317
0
1.295 1.121
0
1.831

-- Delmquency
Common ·law
119
13
98
2
80 107 90 94 64
3
83
0

----
relat1onsh1ps
DomestiC 180 209 197 245 226 263 212 371
Custody 572 598 563 690 674 737 583 1.035

-- Total 2.04 5 2.027 1.921 2.309 2.308 2,390

Figure 1.30: Breakdown of cases b rought t o the Trm1dad and Tobago fam1ly
1.984 3,320

magistrates ' court (Source: Tr intdad and Toba go annual court report , 2009)
 governed primarily by the Succession Act, Cap. 249
of the Laws of Barbados, which is modelled on the
Iri sh Succession Act 1965.
If the deceased person has made a will, this is
followed in accordance with the laws. If there is no
will, the law of intestacy for the particular country
will be followed. The box below shows the intestacy
laws for Dominica.
Inheritance law in the Caribbean does not discriminate
against children born outside marriage and serves to
protect the interest of all family members.
Domestic violence
Figure 1.31: Family arguments can escalate
to domest1c v1olence
The law courts treat domestic violence like any
other form of violence. There is, however, a need
for protective orders for victims from time to time.
Many people across the Caribbean complain that
the courts do not do enough to protect them against
spousal abuse. More preventative measures need
•
to be taken to make sure violent offenders do not
continue their violence or carry out their threats of
greater violence.
This topic is covered in more detail in units 1.15-19,
which deal with social issues and problems.
~~J)~J)J)J)J)~J)
CASE STUDY
Dominican law and intestate succession
If a person domiciled in Dominica dies without leaving
a will, his/her property is inherited in accordance with
the Intestates Estate Act 1958, as follows:
o The surviving spouse has priority and keeps a life
interest in the property.
o If there are any children (under the age of 18) the
property is left on trust for them (including adopted
or illegitimate children who were accepted by the
intestate or who lived with or were maintained by
the intestate).
o If there are no children. the parents or other
relatives are entitled to inherit, according to a
prescribed priority. Firstly, parents will inherit. Then
brothers and sisters will inherit if they are of whole
blood. Afterwards grandparents inherit. then uncles,
aunts and finally relatives of half blood.
Find out the laws related to the family in your
country. How do they compare to the laws in
another Caribbean country? What could be added
to improve the1r ability to protect children?
2 Is your country a signatory to the United Nations
Convention on the Rights of the Child? Follow the
link on the CD to v1ew this convention. Which of the
articles do you think are most important?
3 Search local or regional newspapers online to
identify legal cases involving children. How does
the law work to protect them?
Quick questions
Is there a family court in your country?
2 Write two statements about the data shown in
Figure 1 30, on the Trinidad and Tobago family
magistrates' court
 1.10 Roles in the Caribbean family
KEY IDEAS
o Each individual plays a variety of different roles in
their lifetime.
o The roles we play are dependent on the status
we hold.
o For a role to exist there must be someone with
whom to perform the role.
o The roles that family members play vary over time
and from one group to another.
o The functions of the family are carried out when
family members perform various roles.
o Not all family members execute their roles
successfully.
. dt•tl!i;i'i
Role: "The behaviour expected of someone because of
their particular social position." Adapted from Oxford
Dictionary of Sociology
Status: The social position held by an individual in a
particular situation.
Figure 1.32: Fam1ly members shop for school suppl1es
I ndividuals find themselves in many social positions
and therefore fulfill many roles every day. When
you awake in the morning you are at home and
have the status of daughter or son to your parents,
brother or sister to your siblings. On arrival at school
your status changes and you now play the roles of
classmate, student leader, and friend.
Your status as a student and that as your parent's
child are very different; however, you are expected to
perform roles associated with them both on a daily
basis. Likewise, the roles attached to being a paren t
form only one part of your parents' lives. The activity
which follows should help you clarify the concept of
status and role.
Quick questions
The table below shows the statuses and roles that Peter
holds in his daily life. Complete the table. then construct
one of your own showing the different social statuses
you occupy and the roles they require you to play. This
will help you to clarify the difference between your
status and role in different situations.
Status Role
Soc1al pos1t1on held Expected behav1ours
Father Love, care for, superv1se, support and
diSCI pi me chlld(ren)
Husband
Son
Employee
Football capta1n
Relig1ous leader
Table 1.4 : Statuses and roles
Roles of various family members
In Unit 1.4 we discussed the four basic functions of
the family: procreation, socialization, the satisfaction
of emotional needs, and the satisfaction of economic
needs. These functions encompass the basic needs of
the family. It is these needs which determine what
responsibility family members should have towards
each other and therefore what roles they play.
Parents are responsible for meeting these needs for
their children. They are also expected to take care of
each other, if they are in a relationship.
Where grandparents are present, their responsibility
is to assist parents where possible- with supervision
of children, decision making, and in some cases
even financially. The presence of grandparents also
allows for the transmission of culture to the children
in the home. In addition, grandparents can act as a
stabilizing influence, because of their age and the
many experiences they have had. In this way they
bring great wisdom to the family.
•

Figure 1.33: Fam1l1es prov1de mutual support 1n t1mes of trouble
Children have a responsibility to obey their parents
and assist them in any way possible in the home.
They may take part in family businesses, where they
exist, or they may simply try to conserve the family
resources. Older children often help with household
responsibilities, varying from washing and cooking
to supervising younger siblings.
How these duties are split among the various
members of the family is determined by the
needs and wants of the family, and also by what is
considered to be acceptable in the society.
Relationships
1he relationship which family members share
differs from one family to another. Parents share
a relationship which should be one of mutual
cooperation and respect. They should share in the
upbringing of children through decision making and
providing for their needs. Parents should also share
an intimate relationship.
The relationship parents share is quite different from
that which they have with their children. While
there should also be mutual respect and cooperation
in the parent-child relationship, authority rests with
the parent and the child is expected to be respectful
and obedient. This can be easily achieved when
parents work to provide the basic necessities for
children and show interest in their everyday lives.
Parents should also create opportunities to interact
with their children on a recreational level, whether
through sports or some other shared interest.
Factors affecting family relations
In an ideal world, all families would satisfY the four
basic functions and in so doing cater to the needs of
their members. I Iowever, all families face challenges.
Family relations can be affected by internal factors-
those originating within the family- or external
factors - those which come from outside the family.
Internal factors
o Poor communication skills: At times, family
members find it difficult to communicate
with one another. Teenagers, especially, may
have this difficulty due to the generation gap.
Communication may become hostile and
counterproductive, making every issue seem much
bigger than it really is.
o Poor money management skills: The amount of
money earned is not always the problem: financial
hardship may arise if adults have difficulty
differentiating between their wants and needs and
make poor use of the money they have earned.
Figure 1.34: Parents should share respons1bil1ty for raismg
the1r ch1ldren

o D ifferent views about raising children: Each
parent may have a different view of how children
should be socialized, guided, and disciplined.
o Different expectations: This can relate to roles
partners expect each other to play. Some adults
do not discuss beforehand what they expect of each
other within the family, and problems occur when
they discover that their expectations are different.
o Excessive demands on children: Some children
have to take on the role of parents in the home.
CASE STUDY
When relationships within the family fail
Figure 1.35: Children may be damaged by the1r parents'
behaVIOUr
Answer these questions on the case study above.
1 What do you think Kelvin's mother and father could
do to improve their relatiOnship with their son?
2 How would you describe the relationship between
Kelvin's parents? How has their relationship with
each other affected Kelvin?
3 What are some of the problems which may result
from the problematic relationships in this family?
4 What do you think are some of the factors which
may be standing in the way of Kelvin's parents
fulfilling their responsibility to him?
. 10 Roles m"Lne t.-anooei:iltlatuuy
This may be more than they arc capable of, and
cause disappointment and resentment.
o Irresponsible behaviour: When members
refuse to take responsibility for their family
commitments or to live up to agreements made
they can greatly disappoint their family. Drug and
alcohol abuse encourages irresponsible behaviour.
o Prolonged illnesses and other physical or
mental health issues: This can be stressful for the
whole family.
Not all families have ideal relationships. In fact. some
family members find themselves living with people
who fulfill none of their basic needs or wants. Meet
Kelvin, a 12-year-old boy who comes from a materially
comfortable home -however, he does not get to enjoy it.
His parents divorced when he was four and they remain
hostile towards each other, even though his father has
moved overseas. His mother sees Kelvin as a burden and
leaves his upbringing to his grandparents, who are elderly
and disabled.
Kelvin has a beautiful bedroom at his mother's house,
all the modern gadgets any young person could desire,
but spends little time at home with his mother. For
most of the year, he lives with his grandparents in a
dilapidated house. Kelvin's father does not like the
situation but thinks Kelvin's upbringing is his mother's
responsibility; besides. he does not think he would
be able to manage his son on his own. Kelvin is afraid
of his mother; he is depressed and anxious most of
the time. He is not doing well at school and struggles
with his school work.
External factors
o Unemployment or financial problems: When
adult members cannot provide for the basic
needs of their family, this can lead to stress and
arguments. There is often a sense of fear and
disappointment among dependent members.
o Interference by outside i ndividuals, family
or friends: Families often have a level of input
from outsiders, which can be positive or negative.
There are times when advice from outsiders can
be counterproductive and families need to look
within to solve their problems.
•
3.19 Rights and responsibilities 179 4.20 The role of citizens. businesses and
3.20 Employee or entrepreneur? 180 government in the integration process 252
3.21 Employment and unemployment 183 4.21 Areas of regional cooperation 255
3.22 Why some countries have high
unemployment 183 Tourism
3 .23 Why some people have no job 185
5.1 Tourism in the Caribbean 258
3.24 Reducing unemployment 189
5 .2 The host country 263
3.25 Natural resources 191
5.3 The source country 267
3.26 Resources and development 195
5.4 Tourism and the economy 269
3.27 Pollution and climate change 200
5 .5 Careers in tourism 271
5 .6 Tourism and the physical environment 274
Integration 5. 7 Land use and beach access 277
4.1 Introduction to integration 206 5 .8 The social and cultural environment 280
4.2 Major challenges facing the Caribbean 5 .9 National and international policies 283
region 208 5 . 10 Challenges for tourism 287
4 .3 The West Indies Federation 212 5 . 11 Cooperation and technology 291
4.4 The Caribbean Free Trade Association
(CARIFTA) 215
Communications
4 .5 The Caribbean Community (Caricom) 218
4.6 The Caribbean Common Market 220 6.1 Ways of communicating 296
4 .7 Globalization and trade liberalization 222 6 .2 Non-verbal communication 298
4 .8 The Caricom Single Market (CSM) 224 6.3 Written communication 301
4 .9 The Caricom Single Economy (CSE) 228 6 .4 Media for interpersonal communication 303
4. 10 The governing structure of the 6.5 The right medium for a message 307
Caribbean Community (Caricom) under 6.6 Dialogue and communication breakdown 308
the Revised Treaty 230 6.7 Media ownership 312
4. 11 Functions of the Caricom secretariat 233 6 .8 Mass media in the Caribbean 316
4 . 12 The West Indies Associated States Council 6.9 National. regional and global media 321
of Ministers (WISA): the Eastern Caribbean 6.10 Our cultural heritage 324
Common Market the Organization of
6.11 Regulation and media freedom 329
Eastern Caribbean States (OECS); and the
Organization of Eastern Caribbean States 6.12 Protection of creative work 332
Economic Union 234
4 . 13 The governing structure of the
Organization of Eastern Caribbean States II Consumer affairs
(OECS) under the revised Treaty of 7.1 Categories of consumers 336
Basseterre 236 7.2 Factors which influence consumer
4 . 14 The Association of Caribbean States demand for goods and services 338
(ACS) and CARIFORUM 237 7.3 How consumers use modern technology
4. 15 Regional factors that promote integration 239 to conduct transactions 341
4 . 16 Extra-regional factors that promote 7 .4 How the consumer can protect
integration 241 him/ herself 343
4.17 Factors that hinder regional integration: 7.5 The role of government and other
governanceissues 242 agencies in educating and protecting
4.18 Other factors hindering regional consumers 348
integration 245 7.6 How consumers practice thrift 351
4. 19 The benefits of regional integration 248 7. 7 Reasons for saving 353
o Excessive demands from work, recreational or
volunteer organizations: These leave other family
members with more to do, neglected, or unable to
fulfill the roles left by the absent member.
Many of these factors can be dealt with or
eliminated if the parties involved are willing to solve
them and have the skills to do so, or if they will
allow a neutral external party to help in resolving
them. Any problem can be solved, but the best
method is to try to avoid problems in the first place
by choosing a partner wisely, discussing expectations
beforehand, planning your family and working on
problems when they first arise. Families should also
be willing to ask for help when they need it.
In a small group, plan and act out scenes involving
Kelvin. his parents. and the school counsellor. Give each
member of the family an opportunity to express how they
feel in this situation and allow time for the counsellor to
give some advice. Remember that a problem such as this
cannot be dealt with in one short meeting.
In groups, act out each of the following scenarios for at
least two minutes. After each roleplay, those watching
should give their opinion on whether the situation could
have been handled differently and. if so. how.
1 Mother comes home after a long day at work to find
teenagers watching TV and the house in a mess.
2 A parent who is sole breadwinner tells the family
that they have been laid off.
3 A teenager explains to a parent that a cousin has
been pressuring them on many occasions to use
alcohol.
4 A young couple discusses the roles they expect
each other to play after their marriage.
5 A grandparent gives a parent advice on how to
handle a delinquent child.
6 A teenager explains to a parent how the excessive
amount of time they are expected to help out with
siblings and around the house is affecting them.
 Changing roles in the Caribbean
1.11 family

KEY IDEAS 0 ~e.-tt tl.-ad w0\11.e.-a tl.re. di ..P-fe.re.-ttt tl.-ttd t~ -14.St

o The status which a person holds may require p.£u.{r dr.f·fe.re.-ttt role.s i-tt tke. .ft~-.,...,£(1'
different combinations of roles at different
points in time.
o There are many factors which cause roles to
change; some of these may be internal to the 0 Th.e.re. t~-re. .S0\1I.e. role.s tktl. t tl.re. be. tte.r
individual. Other causes may be external, coming
from the family or wider society. Ctl.rrie.d o1At b)t wo......e.-tt &~.-ad rt JS be.st
o To provide for the four basic needs of the family, )(e.p't tktl.t Wtl.~ .
members must fulfill the necessary roles which
their status prescribes. In some families males
and females have different roles, while in others
most roles are shared. e A-x(rtki-tt t1. ~-tt Ctl.-tt do t1.
0Ctl.-x wo~-x
do be.tte.rl

Think about your own family. Copy and complete

the table below by listing the activities which you
believe make up the roles of the males and females
in the Caribbean household.
G _______
Ckridre.-a sko1Ald be. se.e.-tt &~.-ad -ttof ke.t~-rd. ...,/\

2 Discuss your list with a classmate.

a Compare your lists. Discuss any similarities
and differences.
b Who determines which roles are for males and
which are for females?
c Do you think that certain roles are best
performed by a particular sex?

Role of the male Role of the female

(father, brother, uncle, (mother, srster, aunt,
grandfather) grandmother)

Table 1.5 : Roles of males and females

The following comments were made by members of a

Caribbean commuruty What would you say in reply to
each one? Discuss your responses with your classmates. Figure 1. 36 : Women often still play tradrtronal roles in the family
 Traditionally the Caribbean woman has been as
hard-working as her male partner. In the past, people
believed that men's and women's roles should be
determined by the facts that men were physically
stronger and women were the ones who carried
and breast-fed children: the strong man should be
the "hunter and gatherer" for his family, acting as
breadwinner. The woman, meanwhile, would stay
at home, care for and nurture her children, and
be there to do the same for her partner when he
returned home. Women sometimes earned money
at home by doing washing, cooking, rearing animals,
growing food, or using handicraft skills, but their
earnings were always seen as secondary to their
partner's income.
Trad1t1onal roles ass1gned to men Traditional roles ass1gned to women
Head of the household Counsellor
Breadwmner Attending to the rehg1ous needs of
D1sclpl1nanan the fam1ly
Protector Domest1c dut1es (cookmg, washmg,
F1nal deCISIOn maker cleaning)
Soc1ahzing agent
Child reanng
Supplement family mcome
Table 1.6: The trad1t1onal roles of men and women
'Tie the heifer but loose the bull.'
Guyanese proverb
Traditionally, girls would follow in their mother's
footsteps and learn how to care for the home and
family, while boys would be prepared for the world
of work and care for the yard, garden, or animals.
Boys were allowed a lot more freedom and were
encouraged to develop a sense of independence
and boldness as they went out into the world. Girls
were encouraged to stay at home, and be quiet and
reserved so that they might attract a good husband.
Working individually, prepare some points in
agreement with or agamst the following statement.
Boys should be given more freedom than girls.
2 Divide into small groups, making sure that both
sides of the argument are represented. Discuss
the statement in your group. Have any of the group
members changed their position by the end of
the diSCUSSion?
•
These roles have changed considerably over the years
and roles are now a lot less clearly defined. Physical
strength is no longer a dividing factor as workplaces
become more mechanized. In the past the man was
expected to be the chief breadwinner in the family; in
recent times many women are earning the same as or
more than men. This means that men no longer have
the advantage over women economically. Women
are also more involved in the workforce and the
proliferation of support agencies has made it easier
for both partners to develop their careers while the
household and children are cared for in other ways.
Below is a list of the many services which make
it easier for parents to be away for home for long
periods, while still accomplishing their many duties.
o Child minder or day care centres
o Laundromats/dry-cleaning services
o Cooks, restaurants, fast-food restaurants
o Breakfast programmes
o School canteens
o Mter-school collection services
o After-school supervision services
o Summer camps
o Summer schools
There are still certain expectations of women and
men in society, which vary from one country to
another and even within cultures and religious
groups, but there is no disputing that the roles
Quick questions
Do you think that men and women should
have the same role in the family? Construct
a simple pie chart to indicate the response
of the class to this question. Remember to
include a segment for those who are unsure of
their position.
2 Can the many agencies and services available
substitute for the mother and father in the
home? Give reasons to support your answer.
3 List TWO ways in which you think changing
roles in the family have affected children.
4 What are the TWO main ways that changing roles
are affecting the stability of the Caribbean family?
5 Has the change in roles affected males or
females more? Explain your answer. giving at
least two examples.

ascribed to the status of mother and father, husband
and wife, have changed.
There has been great debate over the position of the
Caribbean male in the family, his roles as father, and
Gender and family in the Caribbean
by Janet Brown
Studying the Caribbean family structure
In 1988- 9, a University of the West Indies
(UWI) survey of Caribbean services for children
highlighted the need for increased involvement
of fathers with their children . . . Seven hundred
low- income and working-class fathers in four
Jamaican rural and urban com munities were
interview ed on a wide range of topics related to
their children and family life, their behaviours
and aspirations. A series of eight discussions
on topics relevant to men's family roles were
conducted with men and women in these
same communities.
The m ain conclusions included the following:
o Although women remain the primary
caregivers of children, men contribute more to
family life than they are credited for.
o M en are active with their children and perform
domestic chores, but do not feel enhanced
by these tasks: financial provision is a key
requirement of"manhood, .
Summarize in one paragraph the findings of the
article on fathers m Jamcuca.
2 Do you agree with the views expressed? Give at
least TWO reasons for your answer.
3 a Which of the eight conclusions do you agree
with?
b Which do you disagree with?
c Give a reason for your answers to both a and b
above.
4 Can the findings in the survey conducted be
applied to all Caribbean men? Is there anything
about the group being surveyed that determines
whether it can be seen as representative of all
Caribbean males?
1. ri t::rrangmgr01es lll me c;cn ru-uecu 1 ldlTlJPf
his success at carrying out these roles . The article
below gives the results of a survey carried out in
J amaica. Read it carefully and answer the questions
which follow.
o M ost men aspire to be good fathers and have
clear ideas of what a good father should be;
however, many express their inability to fulfill
this ideal.
o Being a father has strong personal meanings for
a man and is part of his self-definition, often
aiding his maturation.
o A child's relationship with his/her father is
often linked to the father's relationship with
the child's mother; when their relationship
breaks down, the relationship with the child
often does too.
o A man's "outside, children (who live with other
women) appear more psychologically vulnerable
than his "inside, children (wh o live with him).
o Strong mother-son bonds are common, and
a man's financial and other obligations to
his mother and siblings sometimes compete
with his responsibilities for his partner(s)
and children.
o The context of poverty, limited education and
high unemployment narrows men's capacities
to fulfill their roles as responsible providers for
their families; without financial support, men
may be denied other family roles.
Figure 1.37 : Fathers have a v1tal role 1n the family
•
 1.12 Causes of changing roles
to invest in male education, because men were
KEY IDEAS expected to be the leaders in society. This has
o There are many factors which cause roles to
changed somewhat, however: at present in the
change. Some causes are deliberate, while others
occur by chance. Caribbean women seem to be more driven to
o Sometimes roles change because of factors pursue higher education than men.
internal to the individual. At other times there may
Among the student body at the University
be external factors, corning from the family or
wider society. of the West I ndies, fema le enrollment was
substantially higher than male enrollment in
2009-10 . Figure 1.42 shows the steady increase
in the ratio of females to males at the UWI
since 1988.
Rights: Those things to which all human beings are
entitled, equally and without prejudice, e.g. freedom
and justice.
Industrialization: The introduction of manufacturing and
mechanization on a large scale into a society.

There are several reasons why there has been a

change in the roles performed by Caribbean men
and women within families. Below is a list of
reasons.

1 Greater recognition of women's rights

The struggle for women's rights in the region
dates back to the early 20th century. Although
the fight for equality by Caribbean women is
by no means over, the inequalities which did
exist are lessening and have led to women being
less isolated in the home and more active in all
spheres of life.
These changes have resulted in women having
greater opportunities at all levels of education and
in the job market. Laws have also been amended
to reduce discrimination against women and to
protect them in family and social situations. As a
result, women have become more powerful in the
home, and share a much more equitable status
with Caribbean men. Women now play a greater
role in decision making and leadership both
within and outside the home.
2 Increased educational opportunities for women
Gaining educational opportunities has been
a struggle for both men and women in the
Caribbean. Traditionally the preference has been
Figure 1.38: More women tha n men are now enrol lmg for
h1gher educat1on
3 Increased number of women in the workplace
As women become more highly educated,
the opportunity for employment has also
increased. Women can now be found in every
field of work and the number of women at the
higher levels of employment has also increased.
This has led to greater economic power for
women and greater power in interpersonal
relationships.
The difference in pay received by men and women
is becoming smaller. On average men are still
paid more than women; there are also still more
men in the highest levels of employment, where
salaries are higher. However, there has been a
great improvement on the situation a decade or
two ago.

II
4 Increased industrialization
Physical strength is no longer a prerequisite in
the workplace. With increased mechanization,
women often engage in jobs which were
traditionally reserved for men.

Figure 1.40: Many Caribbean fam1l 1es have money to spare

7 Increase in leisure- time activities

Figure 1.39: Increased mechanization means that less phys1cal
strength is needed m many JObs
5 Increased standard ofliving
Greater wealth has contributed to the
preponderance of nuclear families. With more
money to spare, couples are more likely to
move out on their own and set up their own
households. Smaller family units have meant that
the roles performed by both males and females
have changed: there is no longer a grandfather
or aunt to help out, so mothers and fathers have
to carry out all the duties and responsibilities
themselves, at least until their children are
old enough to help them. The increase in the
standard of living and smaller families also means
that parents have to rely to a greater extent
on agencies and services for assistance in the
upbringing of their children.
The increase in disposable income in the
Caribbean means that families have more
money to spend. Coupled with the increase in
the number and variety of leisure-time activities
available, e.g. sports events and competitions,
fetes and shows, this means less time is spent at
home. Activities which take place at night are
especially concerning as this is the time usually
reserved for family. The home and family are no
longer the focal point for many adult members of
the family. This behaviour may also lead members
to neglect their roles in the family.
8 Later retirement age
If grandparents are working or socializing, they
arc not available to assist with childrearing and
supervision; some are simply not interested in
taking care of grandchildren. More parents also
seem to reject the involvement of grandparents in
their children's daily lives.

6 The desire for a greater number of material

possessions
A desire for material possessions has driven
many families to concentrate on earning more
to facilitate their lifestyles. The income of both
partners is needed to satisfY the family's material
desires. This often means that parents spend less
time with their children. Figure 1.41: H1gher educat1 on mcreases spendmg power

•
 40000 ------------------
35000

30000

c
Ql
25000
E
ec 20000 -- ~----

w
15000

10000

5000

Figure 1.42: Un ivers ity of the West lnd1es on ·campus univers1ty enrollment by sex 1948-2009 (Univers1ty of the West lnd1es
Statistical Rev1ew. Academic Year 2008-09)

Quick questions
Look at F1gure 1.42 and answer the following questions.
1 Make FOUR statements to descnbe the data shown
in the graph.
2 In which academic year was the number of male
and female graduates the same?
3 Which sex has the highest number of graduates in
the academic year 2008-09?
4 Explain THREE factors which you think would
account for there being more female than male
students at the University of the West Indies since
the early 1980s.
5 What evidence do you see in your society that
reflects the situation shown in the chart above?
Figure 1.43: Un1vers1ty students at t he University of th e
6 What effect is this disparity in university enrollment
West lnd1es
likely to have on Caribbean family life in the future?
7 Imagine you are the head of a men·s organization
in your country. What TWO suggestions would
you make to the University of the West Ind1es to
increase male enrollment? Why do you think your
advice would work?

•
 Effect of changing roles on
1.13 Caribbean society
KEY IDEAS
o As roles change so too does society.
o Not all changes in roles have positive effects for
society.
o If society does not change to accommodate
changing roles, the results may be social disruption.
. d!•lltlii'i
Role conflict: A situation in which a person is expected to
play two roles which are not consistent with each other.
Identity crisis: A crisis in one's sense of self.
Double burden: The term used to describe the workload of
many adults, mostly women, who do full-time work but still
assume responsibility for unpaid domestic duties.
The effects of changing roles in the Caribbean family
have been both negative and positive. No culture is
static- that is to say, it does not stand still or remain
the same. Changes, therefore, are inevitable, and these
changes affect the people who experience them.
and practices which may not be acceptable to the
family or society.
Negative effects of changing roles
There are also negative effects of the changing roles
in the Caribbean family. These effects are manifested
in the youth of our communities. Wayward and
delinquent behaviour and loss of cultural practices and
values have been the result of change. There are many
factors which have led directly to these negative effects:
1 Parents and, in many instances, grandparents no
longer focus on the home. Many of our children
are latch-key children, who let themselves
into the house in the evening and are left
unsupervised, in some cases for long periods, until
their parent or guardian returns home from work.
Those families that are not fortunate enough
to have access to supporting agencies are more
likely to face this problem and the resultant social
issues. Their children are likely to face longer
periods unsupervised.

Positive effects of changing roles 2 The increase in recreational activities available has
The positive effects of changing roles include a greater led to members of the family spending more and
level of equality between men and women. There is more time away from home. Less contact time
an increasing number of women who are now sole means less time to pass on culture and traditions
breadwinners, or share financial responsibility within to children. It also means less time to guide, offer
the home. H omes are therefore more likely to be direction to, and discipline children. This shift of
egalitarian, where authority is shared between mother focus away from the home is detrimental to family
and father, instead of patriarchal, where the male is life and the family's youngest members, its children.
the sole authority figure.1he result can be greater self-
esteem, confidence, and independence among women,
as they explore new avenues and take on positions of
power and authority.
Caribbean children have also been required to
become more independent and self-reliant from
an earlier age. This may result in better preparation
for adult life, making them better equipped for the
global market place.
On the whole, families are less inward looking than
in the past. This means that they can be enriched
by other members of the society and other cultures,
leading to increasing tolerance and diversity. This
can be a doubled-edge sword, however, as with
rigure 1.44: Le1sure activ1t1es increas mgly take place ou ts1de
new and enriching experiences come cultural beliefs the home
 3 The fact that families are spending less time
together and relying more on external agencies
to assist in child care and supervision has led to
poor transfer of culture. The best way to transfer
or maintain cultural traditions and practices is for
the family to make them a part of their daily life.
When child care and rearing are left to strangers
the family cannot control what influences shape
its young members. The involvement of these
external agencies can be detrimental when they
do not promote the same cultural values as those
promoted in the home.
4 Sociologists argue that greater involvement in
the workplace has resulted in a "double burden"
for women. Women are expected to continue the
traditional role within the home while working
similar hours to their partners. The case study
below focuses on this double burden.
Quick questions
Read the case study below and answer the following
questions.
1 In what proportions would you say the household
duties are split between Barbara and Troy?
2 Explain how Barbara's life demonstrates the "double
burden··.
3 Do you think this arrangement is fair to Barbara?
Give reasons for your answer.
CASE STUDY
The double burden
Figure 1 .45: A woman's "double burden "
Barbara works full time. as does her husband Troy:
they earn similar salaries. However. the responsibility
II
In this activity using the case study, two student
volunteers roleplay a conversation between Barbara
and Troy. They discuss how the household duties
are divided between them. The rest of the class asks
questions to help them come up with a plan to deal
with the unequal distribution of housework.
The negative effects of the way in which men and
women relate to each other are a genuine concern
in the Caribbean. The roles of men and women have
become so blurred it has led to identity crisis. The
roles which were traditionally performed by one sex
or the other are not considered to be shared roles,
to be performed by both men and women. Identity
crises occur as we experience internal struggles when
trying to determine what roles and behaviour we
should adopt.
Wrapped up in our sense of who we are is our
purpose in society. As Caribbean societies change,
each individual is called upon to play more and more
roles on a daily basis. Parents struggle to balance
their parenting responsibilities with the demands
of work. They often have to determine which role
is more important, as they are surrounded by many
social expectations. 'TI1ese issues will find a natural
resolution; we must, however, seek to understand
these issues better and increase our awareness of how
we can cope with and adapt to these changes.
for the home and children rests almost completely
with Barbara.
Barbara and Troy leave home together at 6 a.m. every
morning and return at 5 p.m., but Barbara's day begins
much earlier. She gets up at 4:30 a.m. to prepare breakfast
and make sure everything is ready for the day ahead. Upon
arriving home in the evening, she cooks, serves dinner and
cleans up after the meal. She always tries to do whatever
she can to prepare for the following day but is often too
tired to do much. Before going to bed she checks over the
children's homework if Troy does not feel like doing it or
goes out for a drink or to play dominoes with his friends.
Troy sees taking care of the yard to be his responsibility,
but this is done quite easily in a couple of hours at the
weekend. Troy's position is simple: his mother did it so he
does not see why Barbara complains.
 Changing roles and male
1.14 marginalization
This is at the centre of much confusion in Caribbean
KEY IDEAS society, as roles become less and less assigned to a
o As roles change so too does the society.
gender and more and more the work of any member
o Poor performance is not always a result of
marginalization.
of the family. There is some resistance to these
changes - more so from males than from females.

Male marginalization
Ci'd!•lttt;ij "Marginalization" means to keep at the outer limits
Sex: The division of human beings into male and female
based on secondary sexual characteristics.
or the edge of society. Since Professor Errol Miller
Gender: The different characteristics, roles and behaviours
presented his "male marginalization" thesis in the
a culture or society assigns to males and females. 1980s there has been much debate as to its validity
Male marginalization: The social process of assigning and truth.
men to the fringes of society; exclusion or discrimination
against males, based solely on their sex. There are several perspectives on this argument. Some
theorists believe that the Caribbean male is being left
behind as women go into further education in larger
Sex refers to a person's physical make-up: at birth the
numbers. Others believe that men are simply seeking
doctor declares the baby to be either male or female.
alternative routes to success. It is believed that
Gender, however, refers to the role we assume, how
changes in Caribbean society and roles have affected
we behave, and whether it is considered male or
males much more than females. The following articles
female behaviour in our society. This results in the
give the views of three Caribbean intellectuals on the
term "gender roles", and the belief that certain roles
issue of males in Caribbean society.
belong to males and others to females.

Figure 1.46: Young Caribbean males often spend their free t1me groups

•
1n
7.8 Benefits of credit unions to consumers
in the region 355
7 .9 Strategies to deal with the effects of
devaluation. depreciation. and inflation 357
7. 10 The effects of globalization and trade
liberalization on consumers 359
7. 11 How consumers can contribute to the
sustainable development of the region 360

Research in Social Studies

8. 1 Research in Social Studies: School Based
Assessment (SBA) and Paper 03/2 364
8.2 Choosing an area of research 366
8.3 Planning your investigation 367
8 .4 Collecting data 370
8 .5 Presenting and analysing data 374
8 .6 Findings and recommendations 377
8 .7 Writing and presentation 378
8 .8 Paper 03/ 2: alternative to the
School-Based Assessment 380
8 .9 Paper 03/2: practice 382

Exam-style questions 383

Glossary 390
Index 400
Errol Miller, Professor
ofTeacher Education
at the University of the
West Indies, Jamaica,
coined the terms "male
marginalization" and
"men at risk" in the late
1980s and early 1990s, in
his book Men at Risk.
In coming to this
position, Professor
Miller made the Figure 1.47: Professor
following points: Errol Miller
Professor Eudine Barriteau wrote a paper entitled
"Re-examining Issues of Male Marginalization
and Masculinity in the Caribbean: The Need for
a New Policy Approach". In this paper she asked
the question:
How does one measure male marginalization?'
In answering this question she states that for
men to be marginalized "There would have to
be unequal access to and distribution of material
resources and power". Her analysis of gender
found that:
o There are no state policies or legislation that
currently deny or previously denied men access.
o There are no government-sponsored types
of discrimination against men, and men,
like women, have equality of access to the
educational resources of the country.
o There are no state policies that deny men access
to resources or opportunities for economic and
social advancement.
Her findings have led her to issue a few warnings
about the whole issue of male marginalization:
o We should be careful about moving from
particular disadvantages and prejudices that may
exist, to a generalized position that boys and
men are doomed to conditions of marginality
and irrelevance in Caribbean societies.
o Men in poorer families do not have a central
position in the family.
o The roles held by men and women are being
reversed in a small but increasing number
of households.
o Boys are not interested in participating in and
doing well in the educational system.
o A decreasing number of men are employed
in the highest paying and most prestigious
occupations.
o Men's earning power is decreasing in relation
to women's, especially in white-collar
occupations.
o There are proportionately more unemployed
young women than there are unemployed
young men. Unemployed young women,
however, do not hang out on the block or town
squares, neither do young men spend free time
working in their yards or around their homes.
o Males receive many conflicting messages in
constructing masculinity and gender identity.
It is therefore not surprising that "while many
public commentators bemoan the fact that girls
are taking over academic performance, none of
them say to young men that they need to put in
100% effort in school".
o The prevailing gender ideologies define
femininity as less valuable than masculinity. It is
popularly believed that women have everything
to gain by acquiring characteristics associated
with the masculine, while men have everything
to lose.
Barriteau further states that after centuries of
denial and exclusion, Caribbean women are
gaining entry into the public sphere and are
acquiring skills that were once legally or culturally
out of bounds. As a group, women already have
the skills to perform effectively in the domestic
sphere. Boys and men must now learn to value
those skills and to see them as necessary for the
organization of life.
 Barry Chevannes rejects
Miller's theory regarding
the marginalization of
the black or any other
male. H is reasons for this
position are as follows:
o Men continue to
dominate in positions
of power and authority
throughout most
institutions.
o I n a study of the 1997
CXC exams, it was
found that, while more
females than males sat the exams, young men
performed slightly or clearly better than young
women in 19 out of 35 subjects at the grades 1
and 2 levels. These were primarily science and
technology subjects.
o In the 1990s, "men have been graduating with
consistently higher rates of first-class honours
but consistently lower rates of upper and lower
second-class honours".
o There is a "gender bias" when it comes to
Figure 1.48: Professor choosing subjects, with males choosing the
Barnngton Chevannes
more technologically and vocationally based
subjects and females preferring the liberal arts
and humanities.

Articles adapted from Male Marginalization in the Caribbean, Issue 1.

Read the three articles above and answer the
following questions.
1 What is male marginalization?
2 In one paragraph. outline the views of Professors
Errol Miller, Eudine Barriteau and Barry Chevannes
on male marginalization. Do these three Caribbean
intellectuals support the idea that males are being
marginalized?
3 Explain TWO points made by each professor on
male marginalization.
4 What are your views on male marginalization?
Which professor do you agree with?
Divide into two teams. one to argue that male
marginalization in the Caribbean is a myth. the other
taking the position that it is a reality.
Using the article to help you. do some further research
and prepare an argument on the question:
Male marginalization in the Caribbean: myth
or reality?
After hearing the arguments on both sides. hold a
class vote to determine which team presented the
strongest argument.

•
1.15 What are social issues and problems?
KEY IDEAS
o All societies battle with social issues and
problems but they may not share the same social CASE STUDY
issues or problems. The Clark family
o Not every social issue is a social problem.
o Every social problem is a social issue.
o HIV 1AIDS is one of the most universal and serious
social problems facing the region.

Q ii«•tl!iiij
Social issue: These are questions which are discussed
within a society. No negative connotation is implied . They
may include such issues as:
o "s changing technology impacting family structure? If
so, how?"
o "What are the principal impacts of g.oba lization on
Caribbean societies?"
o "Should the laws against marijuana be repealed?"
Social problems: A term used to describe many undesirable
conditions and behaviours in society. These behaviours
lead to social disorganization and therefore create a need
for change by deliberate social action on the part of the
government or other groups in the society.
Sexually transmitted infections (STis): Previously known
as venereal diseases (VD), these infections are passed
from one person to another through sexual intercourse. In
some cases these infections may also be passed through
the use of infected needles, contact with contaminated
blood, or from infected mother to child during pregnancy
or childbirth.
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV): A sexually
transmitted disease. HIV disables the immune system and,
if untreated. can lead to AIDS. Treatment with antiretrovi ral
(ARV) medication slows the progression of t he disease.
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS): A disease
of the immune system caused by the HIV virus. This disease
leaves the body susceptible to infection and can be fatal.
If treated it can revert to HIV, which can be managed l ike
other chronic illnesses.
Many social problems result from social issues;
however, not all social issues are social problems.
Social issues are questions which we discuss and
debate in society; they are not necessarily negative,
but may simply be occurrences which are contrary to
the traditional or expected ways of life in a society.
Social issues become social problems when they
have far- reaching consequences which are damaging
to society.
Figu re 1.49: Even extended famil ies can have soci al issues
to resolve
The Clarks are a typical Caribbean family. When granny
Edwina started to have difficulty carmg for herself, even
with their help. they tried using government assistance.
and someone visited twice a week to help Edwina take
care of her home and her clothing. This was not enough.
Her son and his wife finally convinced her to move into
their home. There she was surrounded by love and had
the whole family to assist her. She was also close to her
three grandchildren, whom she adores. Not all elderly
people are as lucky: some suffer abuse at the hands of
strangers or their own children. This is only one of the
social problems the modern Caribbean faces.
For example, social issues may result in the
development of gangs in a community: how
they affect members of the community, and gang
violence, arc social problems. If a group of people
choose to withdraw from society and live in
seclusion, using the land to provide for their basic
needs, their actions may be considered a social
issue but are not necessarily a problem to anyone
else in the society; however, this choice of lifestyle
could become a social problem if, for example,
those involved create a public health hazard by not
keeping sanitary surroundings.
 0 :r. 13 wi-l.e."!'l :r. .flrst tool( Or1A~s. ~
Wt.\S
.fne.'Jo\OS 01.\re.O ~. :r. W01Aio £i)(e. to sfop "!'lOW b1At
:r. .fee.£. .t•s too £.1.\te. .for ~.
0 :r. 1.\t~~- es, :r. f ive r'Jo\ 1.\ 1'l1ArSt'Jo\ "'-o~~~.e,
0
"J. "'-1.\Ve. 1-\0 c"'-i£ore.'Jo\ 1 1.\1-\0 1-\0"!'le. o.f t~~-[j
re.fo.trve.s Wl.\1-\teo to t~Ke ~ i"''l wi-l.e"''l
:r. broKe ~~~.{j "'-'P 1.\1-\0 1-\e.e.oe.o c~re..
0 There. 1.\re. iots o.f ~os O'Jo\ IV sl.\zrr1'l Zj01A
0
s"'-o1Aio protect Jt01Arse.£.f. :r. a,ue.ss ~~~.{j bi
0
brot"'-e.r orO"''l •t £is'te1'l - "'-e. or eo io.st 15e.~r. He.
co"''ltr~cte.o A:r.DS ~1-\0 wt.\S too ~S{.u;\~o to o .for
tre.~t~"''lt .
0 i Are the three lists the same?
G :r..f 1.\ ~1'l iove.s [j01A "'-e. w01AiO "!'leVer bet>.t
~01A. ~~ wi.fe. wiH 1'lO't S1A·He.r £i)(e. 111.~ t~~.Ct"'-e.r. :r.
wr££ 1-\e.Ve.r krt 111.~ wt.fe..
Social problems are those circumstances within a
society which cause dysfunction, create difficulties,
or stop members of the society from enjoying full
happiness and harmony with each other. Some of
these problems are listed below.
o Teenage pregnancy
o Street children
o Substance abuse
o Juvenile delinquency
o Sexually transmitted infections (STis)
o Child abuse
o Poverty
o Desertion
o Suicide
o Incest
o Domestic violence
o Trafficking in people
o Inadequate care and concern of the aged and
those with special needs
Working in a small group. answer the following
questions for one or two of the social problems
listed above. A member of each group should
present your answers to the class.
a What is it? Name and describe each problem.
b How does it manifest itself in your society?
c How does it affect the individual. family, and
society?
d How can it be prevented?
e How can it be dealt with when it occurs?
Can it be eliminated?
2 a Divide your class into three groups. Each group
should place the problems listed above in order.
starting with the one which has the greatest
impact. focusing on the following:
o Group one: impact on society
o Group two: impact on the region
o Group three: impact on the individual
b Compare the three lists and answer the
following questions:
ii How do they differ?
iii Why do they differ?
c Work together to construct one list. ranking
the soc1al problems. again starting with the one
which has the greatest impact.
This activity will help you to figure out how much you
know about social problems. The following units will
provide many of the answers to the questions above.
Sexually transmitted infections (STis) in
the Caribbean
A sexually transmitted infection (STI) is usually
caught from a sexual partner who is infected.
Certain infections can also be acquired in other ways.
For example, HIV can also be transmitted through
infected blood contained in needles used to inject
drugs. An HIV-positive woman can pass the virus
•
 to her baby during pregnancy or delivery, or through
breast-feeding. The virus can also be transmitted
through contaminated, unscreened blood supplies.
H IV is but one of the many sexually transmitted
infections to be found in the Caribbean. See
Table 1. 7 for details of some of these diseases.
All of these infections have something in common:
they can be hazardous to the health of the infected
person and their partner. If left untreated, or if
incurable, they are a danger to future partners. STi s
can lead to embarrassment and social ostracism
(being excluded by members of the society).
I ndividuals sometimes stay away from their friends
or family or avoid treatment because of this. No STI
should be ignored and they should all be diagnosed
or treated with a doctor's care and attention.

Symptoms Dtsease outcome

Genital ltchtng or ttngllng of Outbreaks are No known Table 1. 7 lists five STis. Do research on the following
herpes the gemtal regton, usually recurrent and cure; list and construct a similar table.
followed by very patnful; other parts treatment wtth o Genital warts
pamful sores that of the body may be an antlvtral o Hepatitis B
last a few days to a affected drug makes o Crabs
few weeks; may also outbreaks less o Scabies
mvolve headache severe o Trichomoniasis
and fever
Chlamydia Posstble yellowtsh Untreated chlamydta Ant1 btottcs
vagmal dtscharge, may cause pelvtc
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and
pamful unnahon, inflammatory Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
lower abdommal disease (PID) or (AIDS)
pam; spottmg after scarred falloptan
sex or bleedtng
between penods;
tubes, which may
result in ectoptc
0 YO'L{ Cl.\.'"~ot te..l£ i.f {.1. per-so'" rs ''".fe.cte.d
may have no (tubal) pregnancy or ~ .£ool(i~~ lt\t tlt..e.~t~.; t~t..is Cit\~ o~ilJ be.
symptoms at all Infertility de.te.r-~t~.i'"e.d blJ It\ blood test.
Gonorrhea Posstble vaginal Same as chlamydia Anttbtottcs
dtscharge and
burntng or pam on
unnatton; may be no 0 H:r.\1/A:r.DS, !i)(e. otlt..e.r- ST:r.s, C{.l.'"'"ot be.
symptoms at all
co'"tr-Mte.d tkr-o1A~k socilt\.£ co'"tlt\ct, e. .~ . sklt\Ki'"():
Syphilis Stage 1: Posstbly Untreated syphilis Antibtottcs lf..{.I.~S 1 1ASi'"~ flt..e. S{.l.ltl.e- fw.fkYOO~t~.1 slt..{.l.n'"~ {.1. ....e.fil.
pam less sore on may cause health
OY dn'"/( 1 lf..1AOO''"o' 0Y Srftr'"O '"e.Xf t o SOIOI.e.O~e. .
Infection stte and problems involving
swollen glands internal organs, and
Stage 2: Skm rash on somet1mes death
hands or soles of H IV is the STI which is most feared, because it is
feet lasttng several
months
currently incurable and could eventually lead to death
Stage 3: Heart, if left untreated. However, drugs called antiretrovirals
nervous system, and (ARVs) are designed to interrupt the virus' ability
other internal organs to replicate itself Today treatment allows people to
may be affected
live healthy lives with the virus. H IV treatment is
HIV/ AIDS lnternalmfectton Within 3-5 years of No known available free of charge through the public healthcare
wtth HIV may have no 1nfectton wtthout cure; drug
symptoms; anttretrovtral drugs, treatment
system of most Caribbean countries.
eventually vanous opportuntsttc 1mproves This virus attacks the immune system, the body's
1nfectlons develop 1nfect10ns may occur; survtval rate
1f left untreated, system of defence against foreign organisms such
HIV/AIDS will as bacteria, viruses, or fungi. This leaves the body
reduce ltfe vulnerable to organisms that are usually kept under
expectancy
control by a healthy immune system. During the
Table 1.7 : STis found m the Canbbean, therr symptoms, course of everyday contact, the general public poses
outcome. and treatment a greater risk to a person living with HIVI AIDS

•
rather than the other way around. This is because
a simple infection could be fatal to a person whose
immune system is compromised. If left untreated, Handling data
HIV will develop into AIDS. At this stage the Using the data given in Table 1.8, draw a dual
virus is very destructive and can result in a slow bar chart showing the adult HIV prevalence in
and painful death. Drugs are available to slow the 2001 and 2009 for the countries listed.
progression of the infection, in many cases free 2Write THREE statements about the data shown.
of charge. Despite this there is still a great deal of 3 Give TWO reasons why you think some
stigma and discrimination associated with HIV. territories have a higher rate of HIV than
others.
"Stigma and discrimination" refer to commonly held
4 Give TWO reasons that could account for
negative attitudes and actions directed toward HIV-
the difference in prevalence among the
positive people. This is one of the main obstacles to countries listed.
achieving full access to prevention, treatment, and 5 Give TWO reasons why the status in some
support services. It is important for friends, family countries is decreasing or stable while it is
members, communities and governments to treat increasing in others.
people living with HIV with equality and respect
so that all people feel secure about being tested and
accessing treatment and care. Reg1ons of the world Adult HIV prevalence
1n 2001
It is important to remember that HIV can be passed
Afnca 5.00%
on in four ways:
Canbbean 1.00% 2
1 through unprotected sex Eastern Europe and Central As1a 0.80% 3
2 through a blood transfusion with infected blood Central and South Amenca 0.50% 4
(blood collection banks in the Caribbean screen North Amenca 0.50% 4
blood for HIV/ AIDS) South and South East As1a 0.30% 6
3 from mother to child while in the uterus, during Oceama 0.30% 6
birth, or through breast-feeding Western and Central Europe 0.20% 8
4 through contact with contaminated blood. Middle East and North Afnca 0.10% 8
East As1a 0.10% 10
Country
Table 1 .9: Adult HIV prevalence and rank 1ng, worldw1de
(UNAIDS Global Report on AIDS 2010)
The Bahamas 3.10% 3.10% Stable
Barbados 0.50% 1.40% Increased Mter sub-Saharan Mrica, the Caribbean - including
Belize 2.20% 2.30% Increased all islands in the region - has the highest reported
Cuba 0.10% 0.10% Increased prevalence ofHIV in the world, as shown in
The Dom1mcan RepubliC 0.90% 0.90% Stable Table 1.9. Cuba has the lowest rate (0.1 per cent of
Guyana 1.40% 1.20% Decl1ned the adult population infected), while the Bahamas
Ha1t1 2.60% 1.90% Declmed has the highest reported prevalence (3.1 per cent
Jama1ca 1.90% 1.70% Decl1ned of the adult population). The Joint United Nations
Suriname 1.00% 1.00% Stable report on HIV/ AIDS states the following:
Tnmdad and Tobago 1.20% 1.50% Increased o In recent years, there has been a slight decline in
Table 1 .8: Adult HIV prevalence 1n the Caribbean *(UNAIDS new HIV infections in the region, from 20 000 in
Global Report on AIDS 2010) 2001 to 17 000 in 2009.
o AIDS-related deaths in the Caribbean region
fell from an estimated 19 000 in 2001 to 12 000
in 2009.
 1.16 Abuse
KEY IDEAS
o Social problems take many forms and can affect
List the social issues/problems William had
every facet of life.
experienced by the time he was 19.
o All social problems are difficult to deal with for 2 Who tried to help William to deal with his many
the individual or group experiencing them. problems?
3 What could he have done differently to avoid being
imprisoned?
a d«·ttt,in 4 What could William do to get out of his situation?
5 How could we as a community help William and
Abuse: The improper, illegal, or harmful use of a substance.
The physical, sexual, or psychological maltreatment of a others in his position in their time of need?
person.
Substance abuse: The use of substances, whether legal or
illegal, to the detriment of the self or others around you,
e.g. illegal drugs, alcohol, prescription drugs.
Ll fe·threaten1ng
Child abuse: "The maltreatment or injury of a child by an 1llness
adult or adults. Such abuse can be physical, emotional,
sexual, or a combination of all three." Oxford Dictionary of
Sociology
Domestic violence: Any abusive, violent, coercive, forceful,
or threatening act or word inflicted by one member of a sex
family or household on another.

CASE STUDY
William
By the time he was 19, William seemed to have Spendmg large
experienced every social problem under the sun. He sums of money
was in prison for stealing: he did not think he was on habit
a criminal. but a victim of circumstance. Born to a
cocaine-addicted mother and a violent father with a Poor family
/ T•
criminal record. he was the only one in his immediate relat1onsh1ps
family to finish secondary school. His teachers had high Figu re 1.50 : Concept map - substance abuse
hopes and tried their best to help him and his sisters
with books. school uniforms and lunch. They even
helped him find his first job while he was still at school.
They knew he had to support himself.
Copy the concept map above and expand it. adding as
Things went downhill fast for William in the two years
many consequences as possible. Some possible results
after leaving school. He was a father by age 17. His
of substance abuse have already been added for you.
family put him out and he moved in with his girlfriend
after a short period on the streets. When he lost his job
he once again found himself homeless as his girlfriend's
mother did not want him to live there any longer. He
Substance abuse
experimented with drugs - he knew he should not have There are many substances which human beings
done. but he felt desperate. At the back of his mind was abuse, with the aim of creating certain desired effects
his responsibility to support his baby girl. As he saw within the brain and body. Many of these substances
It he was no criminal but he had no choice. or so he are illegal, such as marijuana and cocaine, but
thought at the time. He used a weapon and stole a bag others are legal, including alcohol and prescription
from a lady and was sent to prison for two years.
medication. Whether legal or illegal, they can have

•
a devastating effect on the individual, the family, and
the society. Table 1.10 lists some of the legal and
illegal drugs which are abused in the Caribbean.
Legal drugs Illegal drugs
Alcohol Man Juana
Tobacco Coca1ne; crack-coca1ne
Prescnpt10n medication Heroin
Performance-enhancing drugs Hallucinogens, e.g. LSD
Club drugs, e.g. ecstacy
Tabl e 1.10 : Legal and illegal drugs used 1n the Canbbean
Whether legal or illegal, substance abuse is
particularly destructive because it destroys the body
and in many cases the ability to reason and think
clearly. Teenagers who use drugs may stunt their
mental development and will definitely disrupt
their education.
Many teenagers think that drugs can be used
recreationally without any serious effect. Drug use
can stop or slow the development of the brain in
teenagers, cause mental issues for users, and lead to
addiction to even stronger drugs. Drug use should be
avoided at all costs.
What are some of the negative effects of the drugs
listed in Table 1.10 on the brain and body?
2 Find out the minimum fines for possession of the
illegal drugs listed in Table 1.10 in your country.
Creative writing
Write a story starting with the words: "I brought many
social problems on my family when I started using
drugs as a teenager. .:·
Domestic violence
Domestic violence is violence in the home, whether
it is directed at male or female members of the
family. Children who witness domestic violence are
themselves victims of abuse even if it is not directed
at them.
Domestic violence takes many forms, including
physical, emotional and sexual abuse. There are many
reasons why people resort to violence in the home.
These may include:
o drug use and abuse
o financial stress
o poor coping skills
o mental illness
o poor communication skills
o learnt behaviours (some abusers were abused
themselves).
Whatever the reason, violence is never the solution
to life's challenges and should be stopped. Some
victims of domestic violence are too afraid or
ashamed to report it. In other cases, when they do
try to press criminal charges against the person
inflicting the abuse, they may then withdraw them
through fear or even as a result of pressure or bribes
from the offender.
The issue of domestic violence can be difficult to
deal with because many people refuse to get
involved in what they considered to be a family's
personal affairs. However, we have a duty and
a responsibility to protect and look out for all
members of our community.
Child abuse
Child abuse is the ill treatment of a minor,
whether physically, verbally or sexually, or the
neglect of a minor. Child abuse may be at the
hands of parents or any other member of society.
No child should experience abuse; however, it
happens far too frequently.
As a form of domestic violence, the causes of child
abuse are very similar to those listed above. Other
causes of child abuse may include poor parenting
skills: some parents abuse children because they
are stressed and do not know how to handle a
difficult situation. Some parents believe that corporal
punishment is acceptable and use it excessively.
Others are simply selfish, focusing on their own
needs and neglecting those of their children: for
example, leaving children unsupervised for long
periods while they go out socially.
The person who sexually abuses a child is termed
a "paedophile" (someone who is sexually attracted
to children). There is research indicating that
this condition cannot be reformed and in some
countries internationally paedophiles are made to
register and are kept track of to make sure that they
do not reoffend.
•
Child abuse takes many forms, including the Country S1tuat10n
following: Antigua· Barbuda A2006 study reported that 26% of children
aged 11-16 had forced sex 1n the1r home, school,
o Physical abuse: This is excessive beating causing or commumty.
physical harm and, at its extreme, even leading Barbados There were 1,076 new allegations of child abuse
to death. between 2005 and 2006, w1th a h1gh level of
o Sexual abuse: The age of consent varies around reports from children aged 12-16.
the region: in most cases it is 16 years of age. Bntlsh V1rg1n Islands For 48% of adolescent g1rls and 32% of boys the
Children below the age of consent cannot give first sexual encounter was forced. Child neglect
permission to anyone to have sex with them. Any often occurs dunng fest1val t1me.

adult who has sex with someone below the age of
consent can therefore be charged with statutory
rape. Child abuse may also take the form of
incest, where children are forced to have sex with
a family member.
o Verbal abuse: This is the use of words that wound
the child's spirit or are in some way destructive to
their happiness or development.
o Neglect: If the child is not provided with the
basic needs of food, clothing or shelter, or is left
unsupervised, this is deemed child abuse. Street
children suffer neglect and often other types of
abuse. These children may have been abandoned
or run away from home. They form their own
networks to help each other and often depend on
the generosity of strangers to survive. This places
them in dangerous situations.
The UNICEF magazine entitled Children in Focus,
September 2009, provides a brief situational analysis
of child abuse in the region. A summary is given in
T able 1.11.
Dommican Republic Child sexual abuse const1tutes 87% of pollee
child abuse cases.
Montserrat Child sexual abuse compnses the majOrity of
cases reported to the pollee and more frequently
occurs between teens and older men.
St Vmcent and the Since 2006 there has been an mcreasing
Grenadmes number of reports of incest involving girls.
In 2007, of 511 cases of child abuse reported,
only 47 v1ct1ms actually rece1ved care and
support.
St K1tts·Nev1s On average 200 cases of child abuse are reported
to the child protection serv1ces yearly. Neglect
compnses 62%, phys1cal abuse 20%, sexual
abuse 8%, and abandonment 1%.
St Luc1a Major concerns relate to the 1ncreas1ng reports of
ch1ld abuse and neglect smce 1999, particularly
in the reported cases of child sexual abuse.
Turks and Ca1cos Available data shows that sexual and phys1cal
abuse was a S1gn1f1cant problem 1n the 2002/3
penod but the number of reported mc1dents has
fallen s1nce.
Table 1.11: UNICEF sttuattonal analysts of chtld abuse m
the Canbbean (UNICEF magazme Children m Focus.
September 2009)

With your teacher's

help. arrange a talk
with a child care
officer. Find out
details of the child
abuse situation m
your country.
2 Read the entire
UNICEF magazine
on child abuse. (You
will hnd a link on the
CD accompanymg
this book.)

Fi gure 1.51: Street children are vulnerable to abuse and exploitatton

1.17 Other social problems

KEY IDEA
o What one country or community considers a
social problem may be accepted in another.

~d«•tl!i;i'l
Street children: Children who have been abandoned or
have run away from home and now live on the streets and
fend for themselves.
Alternative lifestyles: Choosing to live in a way which is
different from the rest of the society: for example, living in
a commune or cooperative settlement, or same-sex couples
forming families.
Trafficking in people: The recruitment and transportation
of people by means of threats, the use of force, coercion,
or deception, for the purpose of exploitation; the control
and movement of human beings for purposes of profit and
exploitation.
Teenage pregnancy: Pregnancy during a girl's teen years.
Usually the pregnancy is unplanned and the girl has not
completed her secondary school education, nor is she
financially independent.
Poverty: Not having enough money to take care of the basic
needs of food, clothing, and shelter; the state of being poor.
Suicide: To end one's own life.
Juvenile delinquency: The participation in illegal acts by a
minor: for example, drug use, violence, or theft.
Desertion: Abandoning a duty or responsibility, such as
that of parent or spouse.

Figure 1.52: Teenage pregnancy may be a soc1al problem

Teenage pregnancy
Problems may arise if a girl becomes pregnant
in her early years, when she has not acquired the
emotional maturity or sense of responsibility needed
to look after a baby. Usually, the pregnancy is
unplanned, secondary school education has not been
completed, and the young mother has no financial
independence. There may be no stable relationship
with the father; he, too, may not be emotionally or
financially ready to take on his responsibilities. Teen
pregnancy remains a concern in the Caribbean,
especially in the face of the HIV/ AIDS epidemic.
Teenage pregnancy is a social problem which can be
very complex.
o If the girl is below the age of consent, the father
of the child can be charged with statutory rape.
o Becoming pregnant means the teenager could
have been exposed to HIV and other STis.
o Her education and home life can be severely
disrupted.
o If she is not supported by her family or the
child 's father the state will be called upon to
offer support.
o The child may not be well cared for due to the
teenager's inexperience.
Teenage pregnancy may sometimes occur because of
teenagers' ignorance about their reproductive systems
and contraceptives. Other causes are curiosity, sexual
abuse, and poor decision-making which may be due
to drug use and abuse.

•
 What's on the CD?
Welcome to your Caribbean Social Studies for CSEC" course. The
material on the CD-ROM has been specially written to support your
learning. Everything in the book and CD- ROM has been designed to
help you prepare for your examination and achieve your best.

--~ ~-i·

Caribbean DfJD II~IID

Social Studies
lor CSEC DIIDDDEJII 1
Wolcomelo Y<U Coribbeon Soclol Studies I<><
Caribbea n ' CSEC CO-ROM

Social Studies
On lhls CO.ROM )'00 Will find

CSEC.Style exam pepen

lotenlctJYe~questJons

PowerPotnt presenlatiOOS

Clod here f()( content

..... ....-.....
~
Practice exam Student book exam-styl e quesh on answers

papers !HOI\IIOUAl ANO

QUUTIQllt
r~llY

Two full CSEC-style

practice papers for the
' " ' - ' ' " ' ' ' ' ' " ' ' '" 1,...,.,..,. ,., .,,.,..,., ~CI
most effective
revision.

Answers to exam- ..., _ _ _ ,.... _ _ , _ _.,.. ,,... 1 _ . ........ , ...... ,~( )

style questions
Every question from ~~~, .• _,.._., ....... '-"' ~ ~I

the exam-style
questions at the end ... ..... _.., ...

of the book, and the . _. , -ou·,--,_.. •CJ

practice papers on the

CD-ROM, has a model
answer included to aid
--..-...- •
• c_.. understanding and - - - .. r t.l_. • ,.

enhance learning.
Pregnant teenagers should be helped and supported
in order to prevent further social problems for them
and society at large. More importantly, however,
teenage pregnancy is completely preventable if
teenagers are educated about their bodies and
empowered to make sensible choices in relation to
sexual activity, and protected from sexual predators.

Concern for the aged and disabled

Every society has dependent members who should
be cared for by those of us who are able bodied.
Just like children, the disabled and the elderly may
require some form of assistance at one point or
another. More and more Caribbean countries are
becoming ageing populations. Being in a position
of dependence makes these members of our societv Fi gure 1.53: Traditionally. families care for their ol der
more susceptible to abuse and ill-treatment. , members

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
CASE STUDY

Elder abuse: two examples

Elderly living in fear
The elderly man, who hails from the south of the island, said
he was no longer the king in his home. His son had taken
over. In addition to a government pension. Lester receives a
pension from abroad, having spent many years in Canada.
That pension has also become his son's bounty, as he is
aware of exactly when the pension cheques are due.
Lester disclosed that the abuse "has been going on for
some time now", but that he had no idea who to turn to
for help. "He beats me and takes away the money. I don't
know what to do or who to turn to. I am a pensioner. and I
cannot understand why my own flesh and blood does this
to me," he lamented.
The day that we found Lester. he had been beaten and
"robbed" of a portion of his pension. Lester said the threats
he received from his son were real, so both he and his
wife lived in constant fear.
Sunday Sun (Barbados), 14 August 2011
Stiffer laws and penalties for the abuse of
elderly; property abuse most prevalent
Of all the abuse the elderly are exposed to. Rouse (Director
of the Division of Ageing Dr Jennifer Rouse) said that
property abuse was the most prevalent, followed by
financial , emotional, verbal, sexual, physical. and medical.
Property abuse. Rouse disclosed, occurs most of all by
close relatives. "We are finding persons across the board
who are almost imprisoned in their own homes through
their adult children, in-laws. and relatives. They are now
made to sign over their property under the guise that their
relatives would take care of them."
Rouse scud having signed over property the elderly
person is carted off to the garage, now converted into a
one-bedroom flat, while the children would migrate or
rent the palatial house. "Many of these cases are under-
reported. Some of the older persons believe if they report
the abuse they would be evicted and put into a home,"
Rouse stated.
Rouse spoke about senior citizens who signed over
property and ended up in a home where a cheque is
tendered for their care. "They don't receive any visits
or phone calls from their children which is. virtually,
abandonment and neglect." In a matter of weeks, Rouse
said, the elderly person would become withdrawn and
reclusive.
Sunday Guardian (Trinidad and Tobago), 4 December 2011
 1.1

Some concerns which must be looked at for the While many consider this social problem to be new to
elderly include: the Caribbean, it was human trafficking which made
the Caribbean such a diverse region demographically.
o health care
Africans brought to the region up to the early 19th
o supervision and care
century were victims of human trafficking.
o housing
o financial assistance Modern-day trafficking takes the form of the forced
o protection from fraud movement of persons to work in the sex industry and
o protection from crime and abuse. other exploitative forms of employment. Caribbean
governments are working to meet international
Traditionally these needs would be addressed by
standards for fighting and preventing human
family members: it is the fact that they are not
trafficking.
always met which creates a social problem.
While many elderly members of our society are
active and self-sufficient, there are others who
become dependent and require the care and
attention of others in order to survive and function .
In these cases the saying "Once a man and twice
a child" holds true, and we must see the care and
protection of the elderly as a priority.

Interview an elderly person in your district. Ask them

to list the main challenges faced by the elderly. How do
they feel about elder abuse?

Human trafficking
Trafficking in people is defined by the United
Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNOD C) as
"the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring,
or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of
force or other forms of coercion."This is explained in
the form of a diagram in Figure 1.54.

Figure 1.55: Poverty is one of many soc1al problems

ACT MEANS PURPOSE
Recruitment Threat or use Explo1tat1on,
of force mcludmg:
Transport
Transfer Coercion • prostitution
of others This chapter has looked at several social problems and
Abduct1on
Harbounng issues; do some research on the social problems listed
Fraud · sexual
Rece1pt of exploitation = TRAFFICKING below for a better understanding of the topic.
persons Decept1on
• forced Working in a small group. prepare a presentation to
+ Abuse of + labour
power or be delivered to your class. Choose one of the social
vulnerability • slavery or problems listed, and explain what it is and how it
Similar occurs in the Caribbean:
G1v1ng pract1ces
payments or o suicide
· removal of o juvenile delinquency
benef1ts
organs
o poverty
o desertion.
Figure 1.54: Elements of human traff1ckmg (UNODC webs1te)
 1.18 The effects of social problems
o People faced with social problems may find it
KEY IDEAS difficult to succeed at school or work. The ability
o Social problems affect the individual. the family,
to concentrate, to complete tasks, and to work
and society at the same time but in different ways.
o If left untreated some social problems can be with others are all important skills for any student
destructive to a society. or employee, but they all could be affected by
social problems. For example, drug abuse can lead
to an inability to function at school or work, and
Social problems have many effects. These can be
may therefore result in the user being expelled
considered from three perspectives: effects on the
from school or fired from their job.
individual, on the family, and on society. Some of
the effects of a problem occur on all three levels. For
example, an alcoholic may face personal financial
problems which affect his/ her family; alcoholism can
also affect a country's economy because addiction
can reduce a person's productivity in the workplace.

Effects on the individual

Social problems may impact on individuals in
extreme ways.
o Social problems may affect the person's health,
and can lead to suffering and even death; for
example, domestic violence may lead to one
partner murdering another after many violent
encounters. Social problems may also affect
the individual's physical or mental health; for
example, people who are abused may suffer
from medical problems as well as social and Figure 1.57: Add1cts often beg for money to buy drugs

psychological problems. They may find it difficult
to form loving personal relationships.
o Relations with other people may be affected.
In extreme cases, social problems can lead to
the affected member being abandoned by the
family, who cannot cope. For example, a pregnant
teenager may find that her relationship with her
parents is affected, in some cases beyond repair.

Effects on the family

If we consider the family to be the building block
of society, anything that affects the family will affect
the society. Some social problems can be dangerous
to the continuation of a stable and successful society.
The following are some possible effects.
o Family members may be unhappy because of
social problems exhibited by members. In extreme
cases this could lead to the breaking up of the
family, by separation, divorce, or the ejection of
Figure 1.56: Soc1al problems can cause d1ff1culties at school one or more members from the family home.

•
 are facing reduce their ability to be at their best
at work; for example, domestic violence can affect
an employee's attendance and productivity in the
workplace. This has a cost for any society.

MAICA OBSERVER~
~ATE Of'iM~RGENC~
~~k~ JAMAICA oBsERVER.-
\::fiJ Monday May 24 2010 -

GUNMEN BATTLE COPS FOR

Figure 1.58: Dru g abuse IS a ma)or cause of soci al problems
~~~!~~~ c?~ THE STREETS
Control Of The s&e:t 11i1iough Response
~s oAnarchy
o Treating or dealing with social problems may
GLEANER Maio~~
'.londa)
be an expense the family cannot afford, and
could even lead to it being unable to provide for THE Police Stations Set
Attack On StatSeh· t Civilian Slain
the basic needs of its members. For example, Ablaze Cop 0 '
Downtown Lockdo"n ,__,_ _..,..._ __
the parents of a juvenile delinquent may have
to pay high legal fees as a result of their child's ~ THE GLEANER Tu<'<la\ \fJ) 25
criminal activity. AU Out War A .- . ~ow
Deepens Cs TIV?h Assault
Fierce Gunfi ~t :sualhes Rise
Effects on society 5
att/e Kingston
A society which experiences excessive amounts of
UPDATE: Eight cops shot. two k.illed, woman wounded {
some social problems can be unsettled or unstable,
leading to the population being discontented and ...
..}_n St Andrew; State of Emergency remains

UPDATE: West Kingston men mount more barricades

unhappy. For example, the chronic and persistent Police advise law-abiding citizens in Tivoli Gardens
poverty in some Caribbean countries has led citizens and Denham Town to evacuate
to migrate to more comfortable locations where they
can experience a better quality of life. Fi gure 1 .59: State of emergency headl1nes

The expense to government of dealing with social

In extreme cases, some social problems may lead
problems is astronomical. The reduction of any one
to disruption and even the declaration of a state
of the social problems discussed previously would
of emergency, as in 2010 in Jamaica and 2011 in
lead to great savings to government.
Trinidad and Tobago, due to violence and crime.
Social services are the benefits and facilities which
are provided by the government of a country to meet
the needs of its population. Social services include
welfare, child care centres, health care facilities and Have a class debate to discuss the following statement:
educational institutions. These services vary from Social problems involving abuse of all types
one country to another and are often dependent on affect women more than men.
the financial capability of the government and its Form two groups. with group one preparing an
beliefs regarding how much should be done to help argument in support of the statement and group two
the population. Social services are often stretched to against it. Make a list of points. then use these to write a
their limits, in part because of social problems. speech to be delivered by one member of the group.
After the speeches have been given. your teacher and
I\1any social problems lead to loss of productivity in some appointed students should decide which group
the work force. People who are experiencing social presented the best argument.
problems often cannot work, or the difficulties they

•
 Strategies for dealing with social
1.19 problems
KEY IDEAS
o Many social problems can be prevented or
minimized with preventative measures or early
intervention.
o Social problems may be tackled at many levels
by individuals, groups, countries. regions. or
internationally.
o Strategies for dealing with social problems can be
very expensive and time consuming.
Societies have always had social problems. What
varies is the extent and severity of the social
problems societies have to contend with. Some
social problems seem to appear in most societies: for
example, teenage pregnancy or poverty. These issues
can be handled, minimized, and even eliminated
with successful government programmes and
commu nity action. Other social problems, however,
are extremely destructive and far-reaching and can
spiral out of control: for example, the HIV/ AIDS
pandemic (a pandemic is a worldwide epidemic).
Many possible remedies are listed below; however,
most of them hinge on a change of attitude among
members of the population. 1he first suggested
remedy, education in schools and the mass media, is
therefore very important.
A'YL 01A'YI.Ce crt preve'l'ltJO'YL IS worfk
t~. po1.4'11.d o.f C.'!Are.
Benjamin Franklin
The saying above is perhaps the perfect way to deal
with social problems. Preventing these problems
saves governments, families, and individuals much
time, suffering, and money. Below are some methods
used to combat social problems.
Education
Education is a very impo rtant tool in changing
people's beliefs a nd positions about social
problems. Education can be directed at select
target groups, such as school-aged children or
parents, pregnant mothers, and so on . Educatio nal
•
programmes in schools, for example, can help
reduce the incidence of teenage pregnancy, drug
abuse, juvenile delinquency, STis, and even human
trafficking. Education can also be carried out
using the mass media, community groups, and
social agencies.
CASE STUDY
Women's Centre of Jamaica Foundation
(WCJF)
The WCJF has seven main centres and six outreach
stations where they offer a programme for adolescent
mothers. The mandate of the programme is to help
girls aged 17 years and under who have dropped out
of school due to pregnancy continue their education.
The centre allows pregnant teenagers to study at the
women's centre nearest to them until they have had
their baby and can return to school. The centre also
provides counselling and training in parenting skills for
both adolescent mothers and fathers. The WCJF works
alongside the Government of Jamaica.
Look at the CD which accompanies this book for the
link to a video on the WCJF.
Quick questions
Should teenagers be allowed to continue their
education at school while pregnant?
2 What are some of the pros and cons of them
remaining in school?
Individual and community efforts
The prevention and cure of social problems must
be seen as the responsibility of all members of the
community. In fact, many individuals and families
successfully deal with social problems privately.
It would be impossible for national governments
to handle every problem which occurs. Family
members and community leaders are also in a
much better position to address these issues
because they would be the first to see them as
they unfold and will know the individuals and
issues personally.

As a class, write a list of community-based
organizations in your country which help deal with
social problems.
2 Do research. individually or in a small group. on
one of these organizations and write a report on
how they help members of society to deal with
particular social problems.
3 Try to visit at least one of these organizations or
have someone come in to talk to the class.
Passing laws and rules
I n some cases only the fear of a hefty fine or
imprisonment will deter people from behaviour
which is dangerous to others and to society at
large. Laws and rules can only work, however, if the
authorities have the power and will to enforce these
laws so that those who break them know that there
will be unpleasant consequences.
Equally important is the support of the general
public. This is where the use of more than one
strategy may help: for example, public education
used along with laws can lead to greater success in
dealing with many social problems.
Discuss the following question with a partner.
Do you think a change in the law would help
prevent abuse of the elderly? If not, what will?
CASE STUDY
Stiffer laws and penalties for the abuse of
the elderly in Trinidad and Tobago
Owners and operators of private geriatric homes in
T&T beware! Stiffer laws and penalties will be imposed
by August 2012, to protect and safeguard the country's
most vulnerable, the elderly, a population that numbers
in the vicinity of 156 000 or 12 per cent of citizens in
the country.
The warning comes from the Director of the Division of
Ageing Dr Jennifer Rouse, as the People's Partnership
Government moves to put Jaws in place to guard against
people who are institution-housed and those over age
65. Under Offences and Penalties in the Homes for Older
Money
Money must be invested in the fight for the
prevention and cure of social problems. Many
non-governmental agencies play a part in this
fight, with funding often provided by international
organizations, which help both governmental and
non-governmental agencies in their campaigns
against social problems. Examples include the Pan-
American Health Organization (PAHO), the World
Health Organization (WHO), and the United
Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF).
One serious problem needing a great deal of money
is HIV/ AIDS, which must be attacked at the
source with education, prevention, and treatment.
Individuals can take steps to reduce the risk of
contracting HIV.These steps are:
o abstaining from sexual activity
o being faithful to one partner
o using condoms consistently and correctly to
reduce the risk of becoming infected
o regular testing to know one's status
o not handling other people's blood.
AIDS is no longer considered a death sentence since
antiretroviral treatment became available. Provided
free of charge to residents of some Caribbean
countries, it is paid for by the governments at a high
cost to the taxpayer. Other social and economic costs
to our countries include the cost of care for AIDS
orphans, loss of work days due to illness, and the cost
of hospital and outpatient care.
Persons Act 2009 regulations, Rouse said any licensee.
manager, or employee of a home for older people who
willfully assaults, ill-treats, neglects, or exposes the
elderly and fails to provide food. care, or lodging is liable
to a fine of $25 000 and imprisonment for two years.
Should the person continue with his/her offence, a further
$25 000 fine will be imposed for every day or part thereof.
The home owner must also have evidence of liability
insurance in the sum of $100000, which will require
high premiums. The home owner's licence can also be
suspended. revoked and the owner disqualified for a
period determined by the court.
Sunday Guardian (Trinidad and Tobago), 4 December 2011
 CASE STUDY
Tackling HIVI AIDS: an expensive undertaking
As discussed earlier, HIV1AIDS is one of the modern
social problems facing the Caribbean. According to The
Joint United Nations Programme on HIVI AIDS (UNAIDS),
from 2008 to 2009, 12 Caribbean countries spent a total
of US $497 million in response to HIVI AIDS. Local sources
6 . Soc1al protect1on and soc1al serv1ces
excluding orphans and vulnerable children
5. Incentives for human resources
4. Programme management and
admin1strat10n strengthenmg
3. Orphans and vulnerable child ren
Figure 1.60: Ca ribbean A IDS spend ing profile, 2008 (UNAI DS)
Handling data
Construct a table based on the data shown in
the pie chart. Place the items of spending in
order. starting with the area on which most
money is spent.
2 What is the largest percentage of the money
spent on?
3 What is the smallest percentage of money
spent on?
4 Why do you think the report suggests that
more than 21 per cent of the money should be
spent on prevention?
5 Where do you think the money spent on AIDS
comes from?
6 Describe THREE steps that could be taken to
reduce spending on AIDS.
Some of the measures taken to prevent H IV/ AIDS
and care for those who are infected include:
o public education in the mass media
o educatio n in sch ools
o health care for those who arc infected
o distribution of condo ms
•
(both government and private sector) contributed only
US $155 million or 31 per cent of the money spent. The
remainder came from outside the Caribbean, including
US $18 million contributed by United Nations agencies.
Figure 1.60 shows how money was spent in the region in
2008 to fight HIV /AIDS.
7. Research excluding opera! ons
research
1. Prevention
2. Care and treatment
o counselling
o screening of all blood do natio ns
o encouraging voluntary testing
o voluntary testing of p regnant mo thers
o provisio n of antiretroviral drugs .
Cooperating for practical remedies
G overnments of the regio n work individ ually a nd
collectively to battle social problems. Thro ugh
organizations such as C aricom and the OECS, and
in conjunction w ith o ther international agencies
such as UNICEF, they p lan collectively, seek funds
internationally, and execute collective plans.
The Regional Security System (RSS) is an example
of intra-reg io nal cooperation in the fight against
social problem s. R ead the case study on the next
pag e fo r more ab out the RSS.
Some social problems are no t as prevalent in the
Caribbean as others or are a result of the changing
face of Caribbean life. I n som e cases the social
agencies and the p rovisio ns needed to cope with,
change, or eliminate these issues have no t yet
b een developed or implemented. In other cases
governments have not yet acknowledged the extent
of these social p roblem s.
CASE STUDY
The Regional Security System (RSS)
The RSS was created out of a need for collective response
to security threats, which were impacting on the stability
of the region in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Members
include Antigua-Barbuda, Barbados, the Dominican
Republic, St Lucia. St Vincent and the Grenadines, St
Kitts-Nevis. and Grenada. The organization is governed
by a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) signed in
January 1985 and updated in 1992. The RSS is a fast-
moving organization that does not get caught up in the
long processes other governmental organizations must
follow. It is therefore ideal for reacting in crisis situations.
Since its inception. the RSS has taken part in many
operations. including:
o 1983 - The Grenada Intervention Operation
o 1989-2004 - Assisted after five hurricanes in six
Caribbean countries
o 1994- Internal security in St Kitts-Nevis (prison
uprising situation)
o 1998 - Operation WEEDEATER in St Vincent and the
Grenadines (eradication of some cannabis cultivation)
Research
This project is an excellent practice for your School
Based Assessment (SBA). In fact. with your teacher's
permission it may be developed into an SBA.
Develop a research question based on one of the
social problems discussed in this section. Your
question should be simple and manageable.
1 Do research on the social problem you have
chosen and write a short essay describing it.
2 Interview someone who has either experienced
the issue first hand or is a professional dealing
with social problems. Your interview should
include at least ten questions. Present your
interview as a case study in the form of a story.
3 Develop a series of at least ten true and false
questions to find out if the people in your community
or school know about the social problem you are
investigating. You may ask them using a grid sheet
as shown in the SBA seCtion of this book. Your grid
sheet should be included in your report.
o 2003 - Operation BORDELAIS in St Lucia (transfer of
prisoners to new prison)
o 2009 - Mobilized and deployed firemen from RSS
member states to assist St Lucia fire service
o 2010 - Mobilized and deployed the Caribbean Disaster
Relief Unit (CDRU). aerial support by RSS Airwing, and
coordination of relief supplies m Haiti.
• .. L~~t ~'!A-1-tM-')1· 1 ~tt.ore. fkA1t 10 o-Nic.e.r_g
~tf~cf..o..e.d to fu Dr1A(Y S'~1A~d, A11tr-7t1A11
1A11if1 Re.7tro~£ Se.c.itArif~ ~lJ~fe.~t~. ( RS~, ~11d
t~t..e. &roodos De..fe.""ce. Force. se.16e.d 2p92
pi&t11 f s .fro~t~. se.ve.r~R. spots 011 t~t..e. is£~11d.
The N at ion (Barbados), 22 February 2011
One 32-year-old man was arrested and charged in
conneCtion with the cultivation of over 26 4-foot (1 metre)
plants at his address. That operation included the use of
the RSS surveillance aircraft.
Presentation and marking
Present your findings in a report. using the following
guidelines.
a Include:
o your essay (10 marks)
o your case study (story) (10 marks)
o a copy of your grid sheet. (10 marks)
b Include at least TWO accurate and
correctly labelled diagrams. (6 marks)
c Explain what you have found out
from your interview, your survey, and
your research. (10 marks)
d Make THREE recommendations on
how this social problem can be dealt
with in your school or community. (6 marks)
e Marks will be awarded for presentation.
spelling and grammar. good structure.
and plarming. (8 marks)
TOTAL 60 marks
 1.20 Caribbean society and culture

KEY IDEAS DIS IS MY TRUE CULTURE IN DE

o All societies have a culture. CARIBBEAN
o Within any one society there may be many So now you see
cultures. What I really mean
DIS IS MY TRUE CULTURE IN DE
CARIBBEAN
c;trt«•tt!1iij .
Culture: Culture is all the customs, ideas, behav1ours,
and beliefs of a society that have been passed on from
All uh de talk bout culture
generation to generation. Driving me mad
Ah taking it harrrd
All uh de talk bout culture
At the most basic level, culture includes everything Driving me mad
about the way people live- not only recreational Ah taking it harrrd
activities such as singing and dancing, but the way Show we some castle in my skin
we work, study, dress, speak, walk, eat, and even our By George Lamming
religious practices. For my viewing
Or something hot
Culture By Derek Walcott
Instead of dat trash
Allah dis talk bout culture
Like Sanford and Mash
Driving me mad
We got to stare dem in their face
Ah taking it hard
And show dem we cultural base
All ah dis talk bout culture
Driving me mad
Ah taking it hard I mean rock stones and sticks fuh wickets
DAT IS MY CULTURE
Ah mean, how dem expect
And marble cricket
To have culture plan
For Caribbean man DAT IS MY CULTURE
From North American Flying fish floating pun cuckoo
We need to start here at home DAT IS MY CULTURE
Fry bake and rice and stew
Then we will no longer roam
DAT IS MY CULTURE
I mean
So now you see
Leaving de chile wid granny
DAT IS MY CULTURE What I really mean
Going court fuh de chile money DIS IS MYTRUE CULTURE IN DE
DAT IS MY CULTURE CARIBBEAN
Mix match in de latest fashion So now you see
DAT IS MY CULTURE What I really mean
And love-making wid a passion DIS IS MY TRUE CULTURE IN DE
CARIBBEAN
DAT IS MY CULTURE
Lyrics from Culture by Anthony "Mighty Gabby"
So now you see Carter, a Barbadian calypsonian and cultural ambassador
What I really mean for Barbados

•
 Creative writing
Write a new verse for the calypso Culture, outlining
elements of your county's culture.

There is no single Caribbean culture and residents

Figure 1.61: "Mighty Gabby", Barbadian calypson1an
Quick questions
List FOUR elements of Barbadian culture that the
artiste outlines.
2 What are the TWO main threats to local culture
outlined in this calypso?
3 How does the calypsonian say we should protect
our culture?
would argue that customs and patterns of behaviour
vary tremendously throughout the region. Visitors,
however, often comment that they see more
similarities than differences; this may be because of
their perspective as outsiders.
One of the great similarities we share in the
Caribbean is the common origin of most of our
population, and the common circumstance under
which we arrived in the region. Table 1.12 gives a
brief synopsis of the main groups of people found
in the region. It also includes the system oflabour
under which Caribbean people first operated and the
main influences of their culture.

-·!
Amenndian Indigenous to the
Canbbean
System of labour
Communal soc1ety; cooperative
communities
o
o
o
Family - communal livmg and ownership- Canb Reserve Dom1n1ca
Craft- basket weav1ng and ceramic pottery
Food -use of cassava, pepperpot, barbeque
European England, Spain, Colonized the Canbbean 1n the 17th o Architecture- great houses, plantations, fort1f1cat1ons
France, century and brought other Europeans o Languages- English, French, Span1sh, Portuguese, Dutch
Netherlands, as indentured servants o Relig1on- Christ1an1ty (Roman Catholic and Anglican church)
Portugal o Sports- cncket
o Government- parliament (Westmmster model) and legal system
o Society- family structures, cloth1ng, courtship, and mamage customs
o Education- school systems and structure
Afncan WestAfnca Forced m1gratlon; worked as slaves 1n o Traditional relig1ons - Voudun, Orisha, Sp1ntual Bapt1st
the Caribbean from the 17th century o Mus1c- use of the drum, dancing, tuk band; this Influences most
until Emancipation in 1834 Canbbean mus1cal forms- calypso, reggae, cadence, zouk
o Language- story telling, Anancy stories
o Food - cou cou, use of ground prov1s1ons
o Fam1ly patterns - respect for elders, commun1ty hvmg, central role of
women
o Games- warri, st1ck·lick1ng
o Language- dialects and Creole have many grammatical structures and
intonations of Afncan languages
As1an lnd1a Came as mdentured workers from 1838 o Rehg1on- HindUism and Islam
to 1917; recent m1grants smce 1950s o Fest1vals- Hose1, D1Vai1/Deepavah, Eld-ai·Adha, Eld·ai-Fitr
o Food- roll, curry, doubles
o Music- tassa drum, chutney
o Language- Hmd1, Urdu
o New words 1n Caribbean English, e.g. roti

Chma Came as indentured workers 1n the o Food- chlcken-m-the·rough, Jerk chow mem
1850s; recent m1grants since 1980s o R1ce production

Table 1.12: Some of the vanous groups m the Canbbean and the1r contnbut1on to Canbbean culture

•
 Interactive multiple-choice tests
Test your knowledge on every chapter of the book with interactive
multiple-choice tests that encourage reflection and revision.

....,____ __________ _
~. II

Caribbean [[<,_[-[ I ~

_
Social Studies · . Individual and lho fomiy
..,

_,
_ _,_
0
0
._._, 0
~.....,
0

-
Ind ividual and the lamlly
Weblinks
A list of useful links for every chapter to provide additional
,....,....._ •.,.c
...
• ..._~

.... ,..I',..6a.,.t.- ,........,.... _ .._ _

background information on each topic.
~ .•."""'~-IJ'J'

,..,.,.o&ao.._._,..._.o~
IM .. IJ!Iolo,.l .............

..,..__._. _
~HJV.o.Jll\-1
_.._.._....__~·M ..IHJ\ ... ......__,.

__
....,. ............. _.....,__.._.._.........,._••• ,•• ,u n _ . - ..,.

.... ,

.........
...
..
...... . . . . - a.ldMo . . . . . .

._.., ....., .... _....... ..,.. .....

............ft ...............·(IW!Wrft

,.._............
__...,... ___.......,,,1
.......... PowerPoint presentations
, , .. Odwr __... ,....._
,......_~.

A presentation for each chapter, covering the key points, for

--
.~ ... --.. ...... ... ~,
.... ....... _.. .......... ,....._,.... ...... ,... ..._ . ..

..... ....................." - ... ~ ..... -

......--....
llt~lw~wtdl--.1~•
~-..,,_a»
~

!
... llt. .
o~~~.~
you to check your understanding or refresh your memory of
specific topics.

IK•r ...... - ... ~•---·

.................__ ,...._..,._....,
...,_

.........."=-"
hPooll
. ,__ ........
I.U~ ..... . _ . . .•• ~,s.lllft
'""""~ Caribbean Social Studies tor csEc·
c-6ollfr-o
a.., - ...- .....__.1111...

- KEY
A male
e remale
+ married

[ John ~J r Ashley e
~

A family tree is a diagram used to show the

relationships among family members.
• Older people are shown at the top and
younger people at the bottom .
• Persons of the same generation are
shown on the same horizontal line.

•
 CASE STUDY
Caribbean heritage
Figure 1.62: An ethnically mixed group
"I consider myself to be Caribbean. My father was born in
Guyana to a Hindu Indian mother and a Roman Catholic
Portuguese father. My mother is from Dominica and is part
Carib. part African. and part French European. As if that
were not enough I was born when they were working in
Jamaica and have spent the first 15 years of my life in five
Find your country's last census report and use it to help
you answer the following questions.
1 List the ethnic groups found in your county
2 Are there any other groups that came to your
country, or formed m your country. other than those
•
different Caribbean islands. My parents both travel with
their work."
"I consider myself Caribbean: I have relatives of every
race. religion. and nationality. I enjoy all of the festivals
and celebrations associated with my mixed heritage.
I wish I could claim all of the national holidays as well!"
shown in Table 1.12? If so. copy and expand the
table to include them.
3 Expand on the list of ways in which the ethnic groups
have influenced the culture of your country.
 1.21 Culture and change

KEY IDEAS Kweyol (Creole)

o Culture is not static, it is dynamic and changes This French-based language is also influenced
with time and circumstance. by English and Mrican languages. It is widely
o Migration and the mass media have led to greater used in the islands of Dominica, St Lucia,
cultural awareness and diversity throughout the
Martinique, Guadeloupe, and Haiti, although
Caribbean.
with some variation. Haitian Kweyol is less
like that of Dominica and St Lucia, which are
almost identical.
* it«•tlli;l'i
Cultural diversity: The variation in cultural practices found Kweyol developed out of the need for the
within a specific place (the world, a region, or country). This enslaved Mricans to communicate. It serves in
extends to all aspects of life, including social structures.
part as a symbol of resilience and resistance. This
language was once considered unacceptable but
Caribbean culture is an amalgam or combined and is now celebrated as a treasure of the Caribbean.
modified form of the cultures of all the groups which Try some of the phrases below; your French
make up the region. The many cultures which have teacher may be able to help you:
met here have produced many new elements: below
you will find two examples, the steel pan and the English Kweyol French
Kweyollanguage. What IS your name? Saki non'w? Comment t'appelles
tu?
Throughout the Caribbean new forms of language
My name 1s Paul. Non mwen se Paul. Je m'appelle Paul
have developed. Whether we call them patois,
Good day, s1r. Bon JOU, M1sye. Bonjour, mons1eur.
Kweyol, or nation languages, these dialects are
Good afternoon Bonn apwe m1di. Bon apres-m1d1.
derived from the European languages brought by
the colonizers. They have been changed and include Good mght. Bon swe. Bonne nUit.
other elements such as Mrican and Amerindian I am thirsty. Mon swet. J'ai SOif.
words, structures, and intonations. The box on the I am hungry. Mon fen. J'a1 fa1m.
right gives some information on Kweyol (Creole), Today IS a beautiful Jodi se yon bel jou. II fa1t beau
day. au]ourd'hui.
the patois used in Dominica, St Lucia, and Haiti.
This is an example of something new being created It IS ra1n1ng. Lapli ka tonbe. II pleut.
out of many contributing cultures. It is very hot today. I byen cho JOdi. II fa1t tres chaud
aU]OUrd'hUI.
Where can I find a Wela mon sa tape Ou se trouve une
church? yon h§glize? eglise?

Tabl e 1.13: Some phrases in English, Kweyol and French

There are many Kweyol words in daily use in

some other Caribbean countries, including:
zaboca - avocado pear
doudou/doux doux- darling
fete- party
tanty- aunty
bagasse - sugar cane waste
yu te - young man
Figure 1.63: The island of St Lucia , where Kw{lyol (Creole) IS
widely spoken

•

CASE STUDY
The steel pan as an example of new
Caribbean culture
African and Indian
drumming traditions
are strong in
Caribbean music.
At times. drums
were banned by the
colonial authorities.
who feared that
they would lead
Figure 1.64: A steel band tn act1on
to rebellion.
excitement. and disorder; but drums. percussion music,
and creativity could not be suppressed. In Trinidad
and Tobago, bands would beat a rhythm on bamboo
sticks (tambu-bamboo), bottle-and-spoon. brake drums.
biscuit tins, and graters.
From 1947. bands used the 55-gallon (208-litre) metal
drums which were used at that time to store and
transport oil. They found that the top of the drum could
be beaten and tuned, to give musical notes. Some of the
steel bands formed in the 1940s survive today. Names
were taken from Hollywood films about the Second
World War - Desperadoes, Invaders. Renegades.
Casablanca. Pan music developed a wide musical range
and a world-wide reputation- the Casablanca Steel
Orchestra performed a classical recital with a pianist
and trained singer. A steel band was one of the main
attractions at the Festival of Britain in 1951.
From the 1960s, steel bands enjoyed official recognition
and support. Today, there are flourishing steel bands
across the Caribbean, and in countries such as
Switzerland. Sweden, and Japan.
Research
Conduct an interview with the oldest member
of your family. Ask them at least ten questions to
find out how culture in your family, community,
and island has changed. It is important that you
develop your questions carefully and show respect
and patience as you conduct your interview. This
will serve as good practice if you decide to use an
interview to gather data for your SBA.
The family and culture
Family patterns, too, are a part of our culture.
Table 1.12 in Unit 1.20 lists some of the main ethnic
groups found in the Caribbean and the basis under
which they entered the region or developed here. The
ancestral homes of Caribbean people and the ways in
which they ended up in the Caribbean have affected
the way in which family patterns have developed, and
also how well ancestral customs have been preserved.
There is a large, active Amerindian population in
Guyana and Belize; however, the Amerindians have
had little influence in Caribbean islands due to their
genocide by the Europeans - the Carib reserve of
Dominica and "Black Caribs" of St Vincent and the
Grenadines being notable exceptions. There has been
greater cultural retention in Guyana and Suriname,
despite the fact that Europeans colonized the region.
The Europeans were in a position of power and not
only practised their culture but attempted to impose
it on all whom they controlled.

Wke.-x :L w~s v.t ~1Ac1Ar~po .:J1A-x1or

.Seco-xdv.r~ ScV..oo£ 1 tke.)t ~s}(ed .for st1Ade-xts
to piv.~ ~-x. :L d1d-x 't ~-xow ~bo1At ~1Asic 1 b1At
:L w~-xfed to fY]r· :L .fo1A-xd :L w~s c~tcV..1-x
tke. t1A-xe rev.£ .f~st. :L w~1-tted to t~ ~ b,~
0
b~-xd. At .flrst :L w().S SC().red 1 b1At :L we-xt fa
f'l,..().se :r.:r.. The ().Y'Y'().-x~er 1s !Soo sie SV..().rp. He
0
is (). ~e-xi1As. Now :L V..~ve bee-x wit'V.. tke..... te-x
(je~rs. There Me 2...00 peopie wdk tke b().1-td
().Y'01A-xd C.().r-xiv().£ 1 ().-xd 2...0 o.f 1AS pi().lt tw1ce ().
wee/(1 to CMY')t tke b().-xd tl.-l.ro1A~/.ol. .Yt-..e ~ev.r.
The~ ().re i1~e (). seco-xd .f().~1l.~ to ~. We
we-xt to B().rb().dos1 to A-xti~1A(). 1 to G-er~M\~
.for tv..e 2...00l. wor1d C.1Ap.
~

Figure 1.65: In the Bnt1sh Canbbean. slavery was legal until 1834

•
Mricans came with little or no material culture
(objects you can see and touch) but brought their
memories and traditions. These memories and
traditions were infused into the practices they were
expected to adopt by their enslavers. A cruel twist to
the story of Mrican culture is the development of
a new culture on the plantation, forced on them by
their enslavers.
Slaves were viewed as property, family life was
discouraged, and slave owners often sought to
divide families. Family life was attacked to make the
enslaved population weak; they often sold members
of a family or encouraged males to impregnate
several females instead of forming a family with one
female. Males were discouraged from taking charge
of or taking care of their offspring. These practices
have led to a level of instability in Afro- Caribbean
families today, which some blame on the family
patterns under slavery.
Figure 1.66: As1an indentured migrants of the early 20th century
Some aspects of traditional A sian family patterns
were transferred to the Caribbean wholesale, as
indentured immigrants from India and China
brought their traditions intact. Unlike most Afro-
Caribbean families, some I ndian and Chinese
families can trace their ancestry back to their village
of origin. Cultural practices have changed over the
years, however, as is the case for all groups.
Indian family patterns and religious practices are
intricately intertwined, whether Hindu or Muslim.
I ndian food, dance, music, and culture are integral
to I ndian family life. I ndian culture has also become
a vibrant part of the culture of those countries of
the region where there is a high concentration of
Indo-Caribbean people.
CASE STUDY
The Garifuna
Figure 1.67: A Ganfuna group drumming on a beach
The Garifuna are an ethnic group with both Amerindian
and African heritage. Their African ancestors were the
human cargo of a slave ship which was wrecked in the
Grenadines in 1675; they mixed with the Amerindians
who were then the main ethnic group on the island.
The Garifuna fiercely resisted British colonial rule
until most were captured and shipped to the island
of Roatan. off the coast of Honduras. Today, there are
Garifuna in Belize, Honduras. Guatemala. Nicaragua.
and St Vincent and the Grenadines (where they are
known as Black Caribs). In Belize. they make up almost
5 per cent of the population: many live in the Dangriga
district. where Garifuna Settlement Day is celebrated
on 19 November.
Garifuna culture is derived from African, Amerindian.
and European elements. but has developed an identity
of its own. The Garifuna language is mainly Amerindian.
with some English. Spanish. and French words.
However. it is less widely spoken than before. and this is
affecting the identity of the Garifuna as a people.
Most Garifuna are Catholic. but traditional African and
Amerindian beliefs remain strong. Cassava flour and
bread is made using long-established Amerindian
techniques.
Punta is one form of Garifuna music. using drums
and percussion: 20th-century musicians such as
Andy Palacio evolved punta-rock. adding guitars and
other instruments. The Garifuna culture has fostered
many talented craftspeople and painters. whose work
documents their history and culture.
In Belize the Garifuna contribute at all levels of society,
working as farmers, business people. and professionals.
There are Garifuna communities in New York and Los
Angeles, which retain many elements of their culture.
•
 Protecting and developing
1.22 Caribbean culture
KEY IDEAS
o A deliberate effort is needed to protect and
preserve our cultural traditions and practices.
o Culture can be protected and developed at any
level of society, from the home to the government.
o Efforts must be made to assist the development of
our culture.
The practice of protecting and preserving our culture
is everyone's responsibility. Families may introduce
new members to their customs and practices. The
community may work to preserve local practices
and family traditions. The government and regional
organizations work to develop and preserve our
culture through positive legislation, policy, and actions.
There are many organizations which are dedicated
to the preservation of culture throughout the region.
Regionally, governments have ministries dedicated
to culture. This shows recognition of the value of the
local culture, both to its people and as a commodity
which can be marketed and used in tourism. Below
are a few examples of these organizations found
throughout the region:
o Regional Task Force on Cultural Industries-
Caricom
o l\Iinistries of Culture - in various islands of the
Caribbean
o Carib Reserve Council- D ominica
o Commission for Pan-African Affairs- Barbados
Research
Write a list of organizations which are dedicated to
protecting and developing culture in your country. Find
out more about the work of this organization by:
o organizing an interview with a leader at one of
these organizations. or
o having your teacher arrange to have an official from
one of these organizations speak to your class.
Some organizations have been created to foster
connections to original culture sources. For example,
the Commission for Pan-African Affairs CPAA (in
this context 'pan' means 'global') seeks to maintain
and strengthen links to the ancestral homeland of
Afro-Caribbean people. Read the case study on the
next page for more about the CPAA.
Discuss the following questions with a partner.
1 Are there any similar organizations in your country
which are dedicated to highlighting the heritage of
an ethnic group?
2 Are these groups necessary or do they promote
cultural division?
Factual writing
As Minister of Culture. write an address to a group
on the Importance of protecting and developing local
culture. Give TWO practical examples that can be
used on the family or community level to promote
local culture. Explain why you think your suggestions
might work.
Almost every Caribbean country has street festivals:
for example, Trinidad Carnival, Crop Over in
Barbados, and Nlashramani in Guyana. These
stimulate creativity and celebration, with music, dance,
and spectacular costumes, always developing and
innovating, and drawing on many cultural influences,
both local and worldwide. Adults and children, local
people, and visitors all take part. These festivals often
receive support and assistance from government
organizations and private sponsors. They also promote
tourism, bringing thousands of visitors to the region
every year; many Caribbean people who live overseas
also choose this time for a visit home.
Below is a list of governmental and non-
governmental activities and organizations found in
the region that promote and develop our culture:
o government-sponsored events: competitions,
shows
o carnivals and festivals, for which the government
and commercial sponsors may provide finance
and support
o national libraries, museums, and archives
o privately sponsored events: theatre, concerts,
shows, exhibitions
o recording studios, and movie and television
productions
]~~~~~~~~~]~~~~]~~~~~
CASE STUDY ell
Commission for Pan-African
Affairs, Barbados
Below is an interview conducted with officials at the Pan-
African Commission (CPAA). Barbados. This interview
serves as an example of the way in which interviews can
be presented in your School Based Assessment.
Q When was the CPAA formed?
A The Commission for Pan-African Affairs was formally
launched on 25 November 1998 by the Government
of Barbados.
Q Why do you think the CPAA is important to Barbados?
A In a post-colonial nation where the majority of the
population is of African descent. the work of the
Commission for Pan-African Affairs is important
in re-educating the people about their heritage.
Re-education is important because people of African
descent were labelled as inferior beings. This labelling
has had a negative impact, not only on how they have
been treated by others. but also on how they treat
themselves and perceive themselves.
Q Who finances the CPAA?
A The CPAA, as a government agency, is funded by the
government of Barbados.
Q How many staff members do you have?
A The CPAA has nine members of staff.
Q What is the mandate of the CPAA?
A The CPAA's mandate is to address and help correct
the deficiency in national institutions and cultural
life in terms of the relative dearth of relationships,
exchanges. and interactions with institutions of the
continent of Africa and the wider African Diaspora.
It is also expected that the CPAA would add a new
dimension and new value to the existing complex of
international relationships and interactions and would
Factual writing
Make a list of cultural groups and activities in your country.
Choose ONE and answer the questions below.
1 How often does this activity occur?
2 Who sponsors this activity?
3 How does this activity help with the protection and
development of your country's culture?
o religious schools, clubs, and groups
o botanical gardens, national parks, agricultural
exhibitions.
assist m developing the African-deprived segment of
the Barbadian cultural village.
Q What would you say are your biggest successes
to date?
A Barbadians today are more aware of their African
heritage. This is evident through the establishment of the
schools' African awareness programme. The CPAA gave
support in the conceptualization of this programme.
which is organized by the Ministry of Education during
Black African Heritage Month every February.
There has been an increase in the number of Pan-
African organizations and the emphasis on African
aesthetics and themes by musicians. visual artists,
and performing artistes. Artistes who participated in
and benefited from the biennial Ghanaians festival
PANAFEST have contributed to this development.
The CPAA catalysed the establishment of the 'Afrikan
Caribbean Network', a joint initiative between the
African Union (AU) and the Caribbean NGOs. which
was formed in Barbados to advance the process of
closer ties between Africa and the Diaspora.
The CPAA conducted African studies courses.
The CPAA introduced and sponsored the concept of a
Season of Emancipation.
After ten years of research the CPAA has introduced
the Mabalozi Programme in primary and secondary
schools in Barbados. Teachers are trained to address
the issue of inferiority and low self-worth by building
the self-esteem of children of African descent by using
the Nefertari Re-Ma'at approach.
Q Are there other organizations of this type in
the region?
A To my knowledge there is no other government agency
like the CPAA in the region. Other organizations that
address Pan-African issues are non-governmental.
4 Write a short statement to the citizens of your country
outlining the importance of the cultural activity you
have chosen. Explain to them TWO ways in which
they can help with the development of this particular
cultural activity. Say why you think these suggestions
would work.
•
 CASE STUDY
CARIFESTA: Caribbean Festival of Arts
1 What is CARIFESTA?
CARIFESTA- the Caribbean Festival of Arts- is the
region's roving, multidisciplinary, mega arts festival
which attracts a wide range of creative artists from
various Caribbean and Latin American countries.
2 What was the idea behind CARIFESTA?
CARIFESTA was the culmination of an idea that
started in 1970 when participants at an Artists' and
Writers· Convention in Guyana complained about
the absence of an appropriate vehicle to showcase
the rich cultural heritage of the region and at the
same time give recognition to its outstanding artists
and art forms. They voiced their disappointment to
the then Prime Minister of Guyana. Hon. Linden
Forbes Sampson Burnham. who decided that
Guyana would initiate the process by organizing
the first CARIFESTA.
3 Who organizes and owns CARIFESTA?
Each CARIFESTA host country establishes a
management committee which, along with the
CAR!COM Secretariat and representatives of the
Regional Cultural Committee (RCC). is responsible for
the organization of the festival in its territory.
No one person or persons owns CARIFESTA. It is a
project of the RCC and can be considered 'owned'
by the people of the region and in particular the
artistic community.
4 How many CARIFESTAs have been held, when
and where?
To date. eight CARIFESTAs have been hosted by seven
countries: Guyana (1972).Jamaica (1976). Cuba (1979).
Barbados (1981). Trinidad and Tobago (1992 and
1995). St. Kitts-Nevis (2000). Suriname (2003). Trinidad
and Tobago (2006). and Guyana (2008).
Research
Has CARIFESTA ever been held in your country?
If so. when?
2 Visit the Caricom website to find further
information on CARIFESTA.
3 Investigate public awareness of CARIFESTA.
a Do an informal survey among 20 young people
you know to find out how many of them have
heard of CARIFESTA.
•
5 What does CARIFESTA mean for the region?
From its inception in 1972. CARIFESTA has reinforced
the common social and historical bonds of the region's
peoples. CARIFESTA is considered a manifestation of
Caribbean culture and Caribbean identity and a tool to
strengthen our Caribbean-ness.
6 What are the objectives of CARIFESTA?
The main objectives of CARIFESTA are:
o to establish and celebrate the arts
o to maximize people's participation in the arts
o to deepen the awareness and knowledge of the
diverse aspirations within the Caribbean community
o to positively advance our culture at home.
throughout the Diaspora. and in the world
o to foster a vision of Caribbean unity
o to expose children and Caribbean youth to the arts
o to encourage excellence
o to promote the development of cultural industries
and merchandising.
7 What are some of the main elements of CARIFESTA?
CARIFESTA will highlight several aspects of the
performing, literary, visual. and other arts including:
o a grand market
o a cultural industries trade fair
o a book fair
o a film festival
o a youth component
o a fashion component
o a visual arts festival and exhibition
o symposia
o super concerts
o community festivals
o signal events.
(Adapted from the Caricom website)
b Ask the same question of 20 people over
40 years old.
c Draw two diagrams to show the results of your
informal survey.
d Are the results the same? Why do you think
you got the results you did?
e Give ONE suggestion of how CARIFESTA can
be made more high profile.
 Global recognition of
1.23 Caribbean culture
KEY IDEAS
o Caribbean culture has had an international impact
in many areas, including music and literature.
o Although many Caribbean countries are
independent, our culture is still influenced by that
of the former colonizers and by other areas of the
world, such as the USA, Africa. and India.
o Some cultures have tended to dominate others
due to the positions of power some groups have
found themselves in. This domination may have
been by chance or deliberate.
Jamaica to set the standard for these styles of music.
This has provided Jamaica with great recognition and
financial gain.
This is not the only example of Caribbean culture
having a global impact. Trinidad's Carnival draws
on many cultural traditions and has given rise to
C aribbean street festivals in London, New York,
Toronto, and elsewhere. A famous Mas (Carnival)
designer Peter Minshall created designs and used his
expertise in the opening ceremonies of the Barcelona
and Atlanta Olympics.

Figure 1.68: The Jama1can m us1c1an Bob Marley IS famous

worldwide

Choose one of the images in this unit or an aspect of

Caribbean culture. Do some research on the subject
and answer the following questions.
1 What makes this individual or aspect of our culture
uniquely Caribbean?
2 Why is this individual or aspect of our culture
considered important to worldwide recognition of
Caribbean culture?
3 How widely known is this individual or aspect of
Caribbean culture?

Figure 1.69 : V. S. Naipaul rece1v1ng the Nobel pnze for

There is no better example of the influence of
Caribbean culture on a global scale than Bob
M arley and Jamaican dancehall culture. Reggae and
dancehall are identifiable and recognized worldwide.
The worldwide following continues to look to
l1terature, 2001
The C aribbean has also been recognized for many
of its writers and authors. D erek W alcott and V. S.
Naipaul, winners of the Nobel prize for literature

•
 in 1992 and 2001 respectively, stand as proof of
this. Other Caribbean authors ofboth fiction and
non-fiction have worked to document our story and
develop the Caribbean tradition of story-telling.
Figure 1. 70: Derek Walcott rece1ving the Nobel pnze for
literature, 1992
Write a list of regional singers. dancers, writers, and
artists who are known internationally; include the
countries they are from.
2 Select ONE from the hst and do research on them
based on the following question
How has this individual or gr oup made
Caribbean culture known internationally?
Cultural influence and change
The international exposure and success of many
Caribbean art forms have also led to the introduction
of new ideas and influences, making our cultural
practices richer and more diverse. For example,
•
whereas Jamaican dancehall and Trinidad and
Tobago calypso have become famous internationally,
many international flavours have also been added to
these cultural expressions, making them even more
exciting and internationally accepted.
There are some elements of external cultures,
however, which a society may reject. This may
be because they are unsavoury, are totally
opposite to what is considered to be right, or
carry with them a criminal or negative element.
There is only so much, however, that any country
can do to stop its citizens from being exposed
to cultural practices deemed undesirable.
Governments can take action against such
elements, but these actions can only go so far
and will only be successful if the people of the
country are in support of them.
A common language, our close proximity to the
USA, and our historical ties to England have left
us with a strong connection to these two countries
and their cultures. The mass media and increased
travel have led to increased influence from external
cultures. People of the Caribbean are more aware of
and influenced by external cultures than ever before.
This has made it easier for us to communicate with
other people regionally and internationally. It has also
exposed us to new ideas and experiences. Caribbean
culture has changed and will continue to change;
however, the groups, organizations, and agencies
mentioned previously are charged with protecting
and developing that which is distinctly Caribbean.
Dlvtde the class into groups and prepare and present
arguments for and against the followmg topics. You may
use as many topics and groups as you wish. Individuals
not involved in the debate may act as judges:
o Topic 1: Canbbean culture must be allowed to
change and grow. leaving the past behind us.
o Topic 2: Film censorship boards should not be
allowed to determine which movies are suitable for
local audiences. People can choose for themselves.
o Topic 3. New groups should be expected to accept
the culture of the country they enter; not expect the
country to change to accommodate their culture.
o Topic 4. Caribbean society and culture are more of
a salad than a melting pot.
o Topic 5: Singers should not be barred from
performing locally - creativity requires freedom
of expression.
The individual
and society
 Introduction
Caribbean Social Studies for CSE~ has been written This book was prepared jointly by three authors:
for students taking CSEC Social Studies
o Stephenson Brathwaite wrote the sections on
examinations, whether as full-time or part-time
Individual and Society, Regional integration and
sn1dents. This book is up to date with the latest
Consumer Affairs.
syllabus changes. The authors have kept the text
current by including some of the most recent trends Mr Brathwaite is an experienced Social Studies
and developments taking place in the region. teacher and examiner.
o Key ideas at the start of each chapter o Judi th Gill wrote the sections on I ndividual and
o Clear and concise definitions in keeping with the the family, I ndividual and Society and Research in
syllabus Social Studies.
o A variety of activity boxes to assist in Ms Gill is a teacher and Head of General Studies,
understanding the topics covered who worked in the Barbadian public school
o Sample SBA questions and answers system for over 16 years before moving to
Bermuda to work in the high school system there.
o Sample CSEC-style examination papers and
answers o M ark Wilson wrote the sections on Resources,
o Multiple regional case studies Tourism, and Communications.
The SBA section has been given special attention, Mr Wilson is based in Trinidad and has worked
with provisions made for candidates who are since 1992 as a Caribbean researcher and writer.
~equired to do alternative paper 03/2. Care has been
The authors and publisher would like to thank
taken to identify and explain the skills needed to do
Ms Trudy Dyer from the Hampton School for Girls
research in Social Studies and present many
in St. Elizabeth, Jamaica as well as Jason McCollin
opportunities to practice these skills throughout the
from the St Leonard's Boys Secondary School,
entire text.
Barbados and Barbara Lodge Johnson, Lecturer in
The CD which accompanies this text book is also Law at Hugh Wooding Law School, Trinidad for all
very useful, including: their valued contribution towards the development
o Interactive multiple choice questions of the book.
o Power Point presentations on each section of the The CSEC Social Studies 2010 syllabus is covered
book as follows:
o Web links to topics and case studies discussed in Chapter CSEC syllabus section
the text. 1his will allow you to do further research 1 Individual and the 1-70 A: 1-10 Individual, family and soc1ety
and update factual information as new regional family
events occur. 2 IndiVIdual and 71·132 A: ll-261ndlvldual, fam1ly and
o Answers to the CSEC-style questions prese nted SOCiety SOCiety
in the back of the text 3 Resources 133-204 B (1): 1-13 Sustamable development
and use of resources
4 Integration 205-256 B (i1): 1-10 Regional IntegratiOn, C1:
11 Commumca!ion
5 Tounsm 257-294 C3: 1-12 Tounsm
6 Commun1cat1on 295-334 Cl:l-10
Communication
7 Consumer affa1rs 335-362 C2: 1-12 Consumer affa1rs

•
 Groups
then qualify as a social group. An organized social
KEY IDEAS group will often have at least some the following
o We join various groups throughout our lifetimes.
o Not every congregation of people can be
characteristics.
classified as a social group. o Regular meetings: Members of social groups
o All groups may be classified using specific headings.
meet and interact frequently. This is the reason
o Social groups may be formal or informal.
for the existence of groups: to interact and satisfy
a basic need or desire.
o A structure: In social groups there is usually
Qd!•ttt;t;l'l some level of organization, although this is much
Social group: Formed when two or more people come more evident in formal than in informal groups.
together repeatedly. There must be some level of
In formal groups the structure is even written
permanence and a shared purpose; group members
usually also have some characteristics in common.
into the group's by-laws or rules. Some youth
Voluntary membership: Members who are free to choose groups and organizations have basic posts of
whether or not to be part of a group, as when students president, vice-president, secretary, and treasurer,
choose which club or group to join. and other people assist these key leaders. These
Involuntary membership: Members who do not choose to leadership figures have roles and members know
join a group but are forced to do so, as when prisoners are
how to relate to them.
forcibly incarcerated by the law courts.
Formal group: A social group with a formal structure,
o Goals: All groups have goals, or a particular result
membership requirements, and formally chosen leadership. or achievement towards which they are striving.
Informal group: A social group with no written rules or The goals of some groups may be clearer than
membersh·p requirements. Informal groups are more others, and some may be more complicated than
spontaneous and activities and leadersh i p, if any, may others, but they all have goals. In informal groups
change regularly.
the goal may be as simple as finding a place to
play cricket until sunset.
I Iuman beings are by nature gregarious; that is to
say, most of us prefer to be in groups. We are born
into a group called a family and seem to spend most
of our lives moving from one group to another.
Groups are important to satisfy many of our wants
and needs. If we consider that most human beings
live in groups, work in groups, and spend our leisure
time in groups, it is not too hard to appreciate how
important groups are to our existence.

Characteristics of groups
Not every gathering of people with similar
characteristics is a social group. They may be a social
category/classification: for example, expectant
mothers waiting at a doctor's office are all in the Figure 2.1: A volunteer group painting a house
same place and have something in common, but it
would take more than that to make them a social o M embership: Membership in groups may be
group. They are also in each other's presence only voluntary or involuntary; that is, we choose to join
temporarily, making them a transitory group. Were some groups but we find ourselves in other groups
the doctor to form a parenting group, and the not of our choosing. Our family is an example of
women in his waiting room joined, they would a group to which we do not choose to belong.
o Common symbols or m arks ofidentity: These
are very important for group identification. They
also give group members a sense of pride and
belonging. Uniformed groups such as the Cadets,
Girl Guides, and Scouts have uniforms which,
along with the symbols they carry, serve as marks
of identity. There are some groups, however, that
prefer to be anonymous and encourage members to
hide their membership. In these cases identifYing
symbols may only be known to group members.
These characteristics are not as evident in informal
groups as they are in formal ones. For example, while
Scouts may clearly have all of these characteristics, a
group of children who play together after school may
change their rules and purpose from one day to the
other. Examples of informal groups include a group
of friends playing a game, a group that takes the bus
together on a regular basis, and a group of friends
eating lunch and hanging out together daily. All
groups have these characteristics to some degree.

Handling data
1 Examine the characteristics of groups given
above. Which of the eight characteristics do
you think an informal group would display
most prominently?
2 Copy and complete Table 2.1.
a Name a formal group in your school
and community. Outline how each of the
characteristics is shown. The first one has
been done for you.
Figure 2.2: A un1form serves as a group's mark of ident1ty
b Expand the table to include as many groups
o C ommon need s, interests, and values: G roups as you like.
are formed and exist because people feel a need
for them. Members tend to gravitate towards
these groups because they serve some purpose in Characteristic Football team
their lives, even if this need is simply to belong or Structure Coach and manager
make friends. make dec1s1ons
Captain leads on the
o Rules and regulations: These determine the way field and helps p1ck team
group members interact and how the group pursues
Goals To Improve skills and
its goal. Rules also outline the sanctions, rewards, w1n games
or punishments to be used when they are kept or Membership Voluntary
broken. Rules may or may not be written down. (voluntary/
o Established patterns ofbehaviour: Many social mvoluntary)
groups serve the purpose of promoting socially Group symbols Umform, colours,
acceptable behaviour. This may be achieved by crest, flag
teaching and demonstrating the behaviour which Mam rules L1sten to coach and
is required within the group. Groups may also cap tam
Obey the rules of
exert pressure on members to conform. We will the game
look at this again in Unit 2.3. Unfortunately, Do your best
some social groups also have established patterns Wear umform
of negative behaviour. Don't break club rules
o Membership requirements: Some social groups Pattern of behaviour Play with skill
EnJOY the game
are more exclusive than others, but formal social
Good sportsmanship
groups have requirements for membership. This is
Membership Football sk1ll,
important as it prevents elements that may prove requirements diSCIPline, age group
destructive to the group's common aim from
joining and helps keep the group focused. Table 2.1: Group characteristics
 Persona non grata
(Totally unacceptable, unwelcomed person)
Read each of the comments below and answer
the questions which follow.
f)
G-ro1Aps sko'!Ald 1-tOt be. tAilowe.d to ¥-e.e.p
o1At ~""'- w~ttrAt krAppe.""'e.d to e.B1A£Al ri ~ttts?
0 :r._,... 1-tO otke.r pltAce. kfAve. :r. e.ve.r se.e._,... so
0 01Ar ;;tr01Ap o-xl]t P.Cce.pt s pro·fe:ssio'l\rAls .
Cft~tte.r pe.op'te. j1Ast WO'I\ 't .fit i'l\ .
0 to so~ ~~-xts.
J:..f (1.01A do1-t 't lAMe. tke. n kt e.£Ar, fj01A
0 0
CfA'I-\ 't M'l-\a 01At witk 'lAS) we. (....(Aye. P.'l-\ Hot.P.ae.
to prote.c t.
0 :r. kope. tke.lJ 1<e.e.p tkis sckool .for tke.
be.st st1Ade.-xts. Co1Ald lJ01A ~~ i-xe. P.li.
0
tkose. rowdlJ ck1ldre.'l\ .fro~ tow-x co~i-x to
0
tkiS are.P.t sckool?
•
Groups and technology
Groups have taken on a whole new dimension
because of the technology available in the modern
world. A case in point is the way in which social
media have removed barriers of time and distance
and brought many people back together.
Consider the following comments in relation
to the page on a social media website of the
Foundation Old Scholars' Association (FOSA) of
the Christ Church Foundation School, Barbados.
0
~'1\}t
0e.1-te.rP.tiO'I\S SkP.r11-\0 fke.1r sto1" 01-t
't~tte. srA~ 1ss1Ae.. :r.t's re..fre.sk11-t .
0
f) M[i. S01-t rA-xd :r. botk V1s1t P.1-td 'lASe. tke.
P.ssociP.tio-x 's PfAoe. - we. ~lJ jo11-t d1.f.fe.re.1-tt
tkre.P.ds b'!At we. e.1-td 1Ap ~e.t11-t 11-t re.i£At1o-x
0
0 This pP.~e. kfAs P.llowe.d ~ to re.co-x1-te.ct
w1tk P. fne.1-td :r. ktAve. 1-tot se.e.-x si1-tce :r.
fe..ft sckool ove.r 2.0 l)e.tAr s P. o.
0
0 Aitk01A~ :r. P.~ livi1-t;;t so .fP.r P.wfAJj :r.
CP.1-t .st1£F.' !<e.ep i1-t t01Ac"'- witk ~]t .for~e.r
sckool-.fne.-xd kc!< Itt~ P.1-td plfP.-x ~lJ
VfACP.fi01-t to tAtfe.~ tke. fA1-t1-t1A£Af Y"e.'!A'I-\101-t.
ThfA1-tKS to tke. SOCrP.£ -xe. tworK11-t3" pP.~e. J:.
.fe.e.l i1-tcl1Ade.d .
0 11.-l.e-re. rs 1-tO .fP.ste.r wP.lJ to re.P.ck
~~be.rs or fP.SS 01At 11-t.for~t1o-x tkfA-x o-x
tkrs pP.~e. . :r.t kP.s ke.lpe.d bri-x~ 1-te.w li.fe. to
tke. £ASSOCI fA t101-t.
:r..f lJo1A wP.-xt to K1-tOw wkP. t 's
kP.ppe.1-tl1-t~1
cke.cK tke. FOSA fP.3"e. .
 Make a list of the types of discrimination implied in
the statements in the first column on the opposite
page.
2 Why do you think people try to restrict group
membership?
3 Do you think groups should be allowed to restrict
membership based on ethnicity, religion, or sex?
Explain the reason for your answer.
4 Under what circumstances might it be necessary to
restrict membership?
Figure 2.3 : Soc1al med1a can help keep people connected
Quick questions
1 Do an informal survey among your classmates.
a How many of them belong to an online
group?
b How many of them have friends who they
do not see in person who belong to these
groups?
2 List TWO advantages and TWO disadvantages
of online groups.
3 Are online groups any different from those
groups which are not online?
4 List TWO ways in which the move to online
groups has changed the way people interact.
5 Do online groups hinder or improve
membership in other groups?
•
 Types and functions of groups
KEY IDEAS
o Groups have distinct functions in society.
o There are several basic ways in which groups can
be classified.
~d«•tlt1 ;\j
Primary group: A bas1c group, which is usually small, and
whose members interact with one another face to face
frequently and intimately.
Secondary group: A larger group with a more formal
structure and less frequent and intimate interaction
between ts members.
Peer group: Group made up of members of the same age or
social status. Members may be very loyal to peer groups.
Interest group: A voluntary association also known as
a pressure group with specific and narrowly defined
goals, organized by members, and seeking to influence
legislature, government agencies, and public opinion .
Also known as a lobby group, party group, political action
committee, or social movement.
Adapted from Oxford Dictionary of Sociology
Types of groups
Figure 2 .4: A Scout troop IS an example of a formal. or
secondary. group. whereas a fam1ly IS an mformal, or
pnmary, group
•
Groups can be classified in a number of ways:
looking at the group's characteristics should make it
easy to classify the group.
Formal vs informal groups
Formal groups have written rules and sanctions,
criteria for membership, and a clear organizational
structure with an elected or appointed leadership
and specific goals. Informal groups are much more
relaxed: membership and goals may vary as there
are no set criteria; there is no stated organizational
structure and activities may vary from one day or
hour to the next. All informal groups are primary
groups, whereas all formal groups are secondary
groups.
You may find an informal group displaying the
features of a formal group from time to time, but a
formal group will never adopt the behaviours of an
informal group.
Primary vs secondary groups
The important factors in determining whether a
group is primary or secondary are:
o the size of the group - primary groups are
generally smaller
o whether members see each other on a regular
basis- this happens in primary groups; in
secondary groups members may be in totally
different locations and never meet face to face
o the level of intimacy which the members share -
in a primary group the relationship between
members is close and friend ly while in a
secondary group it is impersonal and formal.
Since secondary groups tend to allow for less
intimacy among members than primary groups,
members of a secondary group may not know
each other.
A simple example is your class, which is a primary
group. You know all of the members and see them
on a regular basis. Your school, on the other hand,
is a secondary group. It is much larger and has
a clear formal structure. You may go to school
for years and never meet every other student at
your school.
Smaller informal but more exclusive groups of
friends called 'cliques' may form within groups.
Members of cliques are usually people who get along
well or simply like each other's company. A clique
is a primary group and allows members the type of
intimacy they may not find in the group as a whole.
For example, you may find a small group of friends
(a clique) within a larger primary group (a class)
within a much larger secondary group (a school).

Other classifications
There are other headings under which groups can be
classified. These include peer group, pressure group
and interest group.
Figure 2.6 : Protesters may be members of a pressure group

On the political level interest groups pressurize

Figure 2.5: An elderly peer group
Peer groups are made up of people of similar age
and/or social circumstance. Members of peer groups
tend to develop intimate relationships. They are very
important for teenagers, who often gain an identity
from the peer group they associate with. Teenagers
will at times do almost anything to please their peer
group. The peer group is often more important to
teenagers than any other group. Teenagers experience
peer pressure within these groups - this may be
negative or positive. For example, a peer group may
influence members to stay in school and do well,
while another may encourage members to skip
school or drop out altogether to engage in negative
activity such as using illegal drugs.
The interest group in the context of Social Studies
is not simple a group of people who have a particular
focus. It is a more formal grouping of people with a
specific common interest who seek to increase their
influence or effect change that will benefit them.
or lobby the legislature and government agencies
in order to influence public policy, or campaign
to change public opinion; in this context interest
groups are also known as pressure groups. Trade
unions are interest groups. Pressure groups may be
formed out of the need to deal with a particular
problem: members share a desire to effect change
to remedy the problem. For example, the disabled
community may form a pressure group to persuade
government to pass legislation to make all public
places wheelchair accessible. An interest group may
represent any segment of the population, such as
students, children, the elderly, and so on.
Quick questions
Write a list of the groups which members of your
class belong to. Classify each group usmg at least
TWO of the classifications listed above.
2 Are there more formal than informal groups in the
list? Are there more primary than secondary groups?
3 Which group appears most often?
0 :r C\111. C\ £o....,.er - otV..er tV..C\....,. ~~~-~ .fC\.,._.£~
:r C\111. ......ot ,......terested ,...... C\......~ or01Aps.
e ~~
t J _ . .
P"re....,. s 111-C\oe 111-e jOI....,. so 111-C\....,.~ 0r01ApS
C\t scJ,...oo£ :r lt..C\rd£~ lt..Me t1~~~-e to lt..C\....,. 01At
0
o....,. tv..e b£ocK.

•
 t~~.~ (Xlre-...ts die.d w,fv..,..,. two we.e.l(s o-f
0 WIM.-...
e.~>.c.k otke.r 1 :r do-...'t !(-...ow wkl>.t :r wo-uld kt\ve.
do-...e. w1tko-ut tke. s-upport o.f t~~.~ te.t\t~~.tt~.Afe.s.
3 Groups give members a sense of belonging
0 ~~ .fne.-...ds IA.elpe.d t~~.e. to -A-...d t\ -...ewjob
.fb.st ~e.t\r. :rt se.e.t~~.s :r kM be.e.-... pre.pt>.n-...~ t~~.~
C\pplict~.tio-...s ,-...correctll
Functions of groups
4 They provide a social structure for members
5 Groups provid e opportunities for members to
rigure 2.7: A school soc1al group
Groups exist because they are needed in society.
The five basic functions of all groups are as follows.
1 They are important in helping people to survive
and function in society. For example, the family is
essential to dependent members, such as the very
old, the young, the differently able or those with
special needs.
2 They provide security and comfort. This function
is clearly seen in the family, or in groups such
as neighbourhood watches.l\tlany Caribbean
residents arc now more at risk of crime and
violence. The response has been a formalized
system of relating to each other in order to
increase vigilance. Neighbourhood watches offer
a level of security and comfort to residents.
and identity. Group members provide a sense
of companionship for each other. Peer groups
provide this function for members. Members
often seem to have many things in common and
therefore it is easy for members to be comfortable
and at ease.
and serve as an agent of social control. This is
achieved through rules, sanctions, rewards, and
punishments. For example, schools encourage
students to join groups such as the Scouts and
Girl Guides. Such groups assist young people
in developing discipline and teach pro-social
behaviour.
problem-solve. This is often achieved through
cooperation, sharing ideas, and learning
vicariously through others' experiences.
Sports t eams often provide members with
a lot more than skills on the field: they also
provide members with leadership skills and
teach them how to function and cooperate
with each other.
Quick question
Choose a social group in your school or community
and describe how it provides the five functions listed
above for its members.

•
 Cohesion and social control
•
In groups
KEY IDEAS
o Groups have their own methods of control and
organization.
o Group dynamics must be monitored by those in
charge of to preserve harmony.
laws: Rules which have been set out by the state.
Norms: Unwritten rules that define acceptable behaviour
in particular situations; for example, in the Caribbean
children are raised by their parents in most cases.
Mores: Norms central to regulating human behaviour
from a moral standpoint. Many are enshrined in law
and breaking them carries heavy sanctions, e.g mores
prohibiting murder and incest.
Folkways: Customs which relate to the culture of a
particular group. In some Caribbean countries many people
celebrate Carnival; however, if you choose not to there will
be no penalties attached.
Negative group: A group whose aims, interests, and
behaviours are contrary to the social norms and morals of
the community, or are even illegal.
Societies have cultures and so do groups; within
g roups people tend to behave in similar ways and
adopt similar practices. Keeping groups cohesive
CASE STUDY
Teambuilding for cohesion
Figure 2.8: A dance troop IS a team w1th 1ts own culture
"The dance troop was made up of 30 members who
were all passionate about dance. Their instructor.
Mr Campbell, is proud of their successes in winning
(together) requires effective control, leadership,
cooperation, authority, commitment, and loyalty.
Many techniques are used to maintain stability
within groups; these include laws, rules, folkways,
mores, norms, and customs. Customs are practices
followed by people of a particular group or region.
Students in most schools look forward to the day
they graduate; this encourages them to stay in school
and to meet the criteria for graduation.
Read the case study below and answer the following
questions.
1 List at least ONE example of norms. mores.
a folkway and a law at work in this group.
2 Examine a group you belong to and list examples of
ways in which norms. mores. folkways. and laws are
practised or upheld.
3 Compare your list with a classmate's: discuss how it
is similar and how it is different.
When methods of control in groups do not work,
some groups resort to sanctions or punishments.
Sanctions are used in order to deal with the offender
and demonstrate to other members the consequences
of their actions. Negative sanctions may include
awards in local competitions. including the annual
national arts festival which takes place during carnival.
"Mr Campbell explains: 'Members must follow a
strict code of discipline; without it we would not be
so successful.'
"Practice is mandatory twice a week and more often
when preparing for a performance. All members
have to be successful at school in both academics
and behaviour. 'We live like a family, celebrating
birthdays and other significant milestones. My
dancers understand that they have to show respect
to everyone they encounter and most importantly
respect themselves and their talent. They have to live
right; no drugs. alcohol or foul language is tolerated.·
Mr Campbell explains.·
•
 fines, suspension, or expulsion from the group.
Additional physical exercise is used in some sports
groups as a negative sanction. Positive sanctions are
called rewards and include awards, prizes, or simple
public recognition. Many Caribbean schools reward
students at an official speech day and prize-giving
ceremony. Model students such as prefects are often
rewarded with additional privileges.
Rules Folkways Norms Mores Laws
Place the methods of control above in order. starting
with the most severe. Consider the penalties attached
to breaking each method of control to help you create
your rank order for its members.
Factual writing
As principal of a secondary school. make a speech to
leaders in your school.
1 Suggest THREE rules which groups in your school
should all have in common.
2 Outline THREE ways in which groups can
encourage members to obey school rules.
3 Explain to group leaders why groups are important
to teenagers· development.
Present your speech to your class.
· In any sttuat ton tnvolvtng human 1nteract10n
people will from t tme to t tme be called upon to
gtve tn to the wtshes of ot hers In groups each
member has an op1 n10n bu t must constde r t hat
ot hers do as well. Leaders have the responstbtlt ty
of medtattng and maktng sure that no one
person ts allowed to dominate and that no group
members are tgnored
Compromise Competit ion
\ Conflict
• Conf lict occu rs tn most human tnteracttons.
Groups stnve to keep conflt ct under control or
put thtngs in place to prevent confltct and deal
wtth tt whe n it arises.
Figure 2 .9 : Four elements affecttng group dynamt cs
II Quick questions
List TWO situations in which group members may fmd
it difficult to compromise.
2 Descnbe ONE situation in whtch conflict threatened a
group's ability to meet its goals. How was the situation
handled in the group?
•
Group dynamics
"Group dynamics" refers to the attitude of group
members, the ways in which they interact and
behave. In any successful group the dynamics must
be monitored by those in authority. Group members
must also be aware of the way in which their attitude
and behaviour affect the feelings of other members
and the success of the group.
Understanding how group dynamics work allows
us to make plans for changes within groups before
problems occur. Good leaders will identify and stop
anti-social behaviour before it becomes problematic.
Some groups actually charge some members with
making sure that group dynamics remain positive.
In some clubs there is actually a special member
appointed to the position of Sergeant-at-Arms. This
leader keeps order and imposes fines on members
who violate rules.
Four clements which should be monitored and
dealt with in groups are compromise, competition,
conflict, and cooperation. Figure 2.9 deals with these
elements in greater detail. Answer the questions
which follow to gain a better understanding of these
four important elements.
· Group members often compete for power or
pnvt lege tn groups. Thts ts somettmes
encouraged to tm prove performance.
Competttion must, however, be controlled to
v ~
preven t nega ttve effect s. Weaker members of
the group should al so be protected or gtven
concessiOns dunng compet tttOn.
Cooperation/
\ ·Grou p mem bers must work wtth ot hers tn order
~ _/ to achteve goals. Many groups have regu lattons
to make sure mem bers work well wtth each
other.
3 List TWO negative and TWO positive effects of
competition in a named group.
4 Explain how your school rules help foster cooperation
among students and between staff and students.
J)']J)J)J)J)']J)J)'] Quick questions
Read the case study on the left. then answer the
CASE STUDY following questions.
A negative group 1 What type of group is the gang?
It all started when Michael made friends with Jason and 2 List TWO ways in which Michael may have gotten
started hanging out on the block. He soon gave in to the the money to support his lifestyle.
peer pressure and made the decision to start smoking 3 What should Michael have done differently in order
and gambling with the other boys. His behaviour became to avoid the situation he found himself in?
a problem when the money his parents gave him proved 4 What advice should Michael's parents give to him in
insufficient to keep him in the game. By this time he was order to help him improve his situation? Give ONE
smoking daily, his grades started to slip, and his parents reason why you think their advice may work.
were at their wits' end.
This was no ordinary group he was hanging out with: the
boys were members of a gang. They had a leader with
a criminal record. colours and symbols. and a specific
purpose. The leader insisted that each member must be
able to provide a certain amount of money weekly. If they
could not, he would set them up in business selling
drugs so that they could make the money.
By the time Michael realized how well organized they
were and the danger which lay ahead, he was already
addicted to drugs and had been kicked out of school.
To him, the easier choice was to continue in this
destructive lifestyle.

•
 The individual
and the family
CASE STUDY
Ross is a happy seven-year-old. He is the only child in his
home - he lives with his mummy Stacey. aunty Joan and
grandparents Donna and Peter. who adore him. They live in
a beautiful village close to a river and their home is quite
comfortable. Ross spends lots of time with his cousins
Michael, Ashley and Jason who live three streets away. The
adults in his home take care of the chores and pay all the
bills quite easily. They are all employed except for Joan.
who is still at university. Even Ross has chores - he helps
his grandfather Wlth the animals and washes the breakfast
dishes every morning. You will meet Ross's family again later
in this section. when you examine their family tree.
 Leadership

KEY IDEAS
o All groups have leaders.
o Leadership may be constant or may change
regularly.
o Not all leaders are skilled or dedicated enough to
carry out their jobs.

~d «·tll1 ;i'i
leader: Someone who directs or guides a group or
institution.

So~~~.e pe.opfe. ~re. bor.-y. (}re.~ t 1 so~~~.e

~ck:e.ve.
0re.~f.-y.e.ss 0
~..Y.d otke.rs f..l..~ve. re.~f.-y.e.ss
tf..l..r1Ast 1AfX'..Y. tke.t>t. .

Twelfth Night, \Villiam Shakespeare

Leadership is a very important element in any

group. For this reason we should choose leaders
with good character traits. A leader should be
honest, trustworthy, reliable, and disciplined, and
should have integrity. A good leader should also be
hardworking and selfless and be willing to place the
needs of the group first. To be a leader an individual
must have authority. Where does this authority come
from? H ow does a leader use this authority? These
two questions will be answered in this unit.
Central to a successful group is good leadership.
Different types of groups and situations require
different types of leader- for example, the type
of leadership needed in a recreational group is
quite different from that needed in an emergency
situation. There are three basic types of leader:
most people will find themselves oscillating from
one to the other as time passes and situations
change. We all have a dominant leadership style.
Read the following text and determine what your
leadership style is. Figure 2.10: D:fferent s:tuat:ons require different types
of leader

•
o D emocratic leader: This type of leader
encourages feedback from group members.
He/she likes to share authority, letting group
members take part in decision making and
running the group. This type ofleader tends to
make members comfortable. Group members
tend to feel a greater sense of belonging and
ownership in the group and this means the group
can be very successful.
o Autocratic leader: This leader is not necessarily
interested in the views of other group members
and sees decision making as their responsibility
alone. This leader may be very successful and is
especially useful in emergency or life-threatening
situations where there is no time for discussion.
Autocratic leaders are also useful when group
members are required to follow exact instructions.
o Lai ssez-faire leader: The French term laissez-
foire means to "leave alone". The laissez-faire
leader takes the approach that "anything goes"-
members not only participate in decision making
but may virtually take over decision making in
the group. Group members may like this form of
leadership in the short run because they get to do
as they please. However, group members do not
necessarily respect this type of leader in the long
term as they are more likely to be unsuccessful
and to fail at completing tasks or achieving goals.
On the other hand, the laissez-faire leader may be
effective if group members are highly skilled and
educated and do not need much direction.
Authority
To become a leader an individual must gain the
position in some way and the position carries
authority - the legitimate right to exercise power.
There are three basic ways in which a leader may
gain authority, as outlined below.
o Traditional authority: This type of authority
is gained from tradition, custom, or social
habits. It is also related to religious leaders, who
may ascend to positions of authority through
custom. Hereditary authority is another example:
authority is passed down through blood lines
from one generation to another (e.g. a king
or queen). There is no consideration of the
suitability of the candidate or the existence of
better candidates for the post. Historically, it
was believed that kings and queens drew their
authority from the fact of being descendants of
prominent historical or religious figures, or being
chosen by God.
Traditional authority has two major weaknesses.
Firstly, it is hard to question because of its
connection to religious or social beliefs; secondly,
it does not lead to the placement of the best
or most suitable candidates in positions of
leadership. The monarch of England is the head
of state for some Commonwealth Caribbean
countries. This position and authority are
traditional and hereditary.
Figure 2.11 : The royal family has hereditary au thonty
o Rational-legal authority: This is based on
the acceptance of the system of appointing a
leader. If the leader is elected we may not have
voted for the person but the fact that we accept
the election process should mean that we will
accept the winner of the election. For example,
most parliamentarians in the region have gained
their position as a result of elections which are
provided for by the constitution of their countries.
o Charismatic authority: This type of authority
derives from the personality of the leader. A
charismatic leader has a magnetic personality, is
interesting to listen to, and quite often seems to
be an attractive figure. This type of leader will
gain authority because their followers come to
believe it is their divine right or destiny to lead.
The leader with charismatic authority is able to
convince followers of their right to lead. Many
leaders of all types are charismatic but not all
have charismatic authority. A democratically
elected leader may be charismatic. Hereditary
leaders may also be charismatic.
 & Quick questions
CASE STUDY Complete the table to explam the type of leader
described and the type of authority they have. then
James Warren "Jim"Jones: a notorious answer the questions which follow.
charismatic leader
Leader Type of authority Type of leader
Historically, Jim Jones is the
The coach selected the
most notorious charismatic
cricket captam after
leader in the Caribbean.
watch1ng all the players at
He was the leader of
tnals. The new captam does
the "People's Temple not listen to team members
Agricultural Project" in and JUSt g1ves orders.
Jonestown. Guyana. An
The kmg IS a poor leader-
American preacher. Jones he has no leadership skills
relocated his group from and has failed to complete
the USA in the early 1970s, any task expected of h1m.
forming a commune in
The debat1ng soc1ety runs
the forests of Guyana. In
well, ma1nly because the
1978 he told his followers
members elected a good
that they needed to kill president. She listens to
themselves as an act of members and allows others
Figure 2.12: J1m Jones,
"revolutionary suicide". On to make dec1s1ons. Her warm
cult leader
18 November Jones and personality makes her more
over 900 of his followers, including children, committed likeable.
mass suicide by consuming Kool-Aid laced with the When the pnme m1n1ster was
poison cyanide. They all died on the spot. appomted we thought he was
the best person for the JOb.
He seems unable to make the
important decisiOns needed
to run the country and allows
h1s m1n1sters to do as they
Research further information about Jim Jones and
please.
the mass suicide described in the case study
above. Table 2.2: The charactenst1cs of leader s
2 Should we follow leaders unconditionally? Give What type of leader do you think you would be?
reasons for your answer. After you have answered the question. do a small
3 Are charismatic leaders dangerous? Give reasons survey. Ask at least ten members of your family and
for your answer. close friends what type of leader they think you
4 Write a list of THREE charismatic leaders. one local. would be. Compare their answers to your own belief
one regional and one International.
about yourself. Are the results the same?
5 "All popular leaders need charisma." Is this 2 What type of leader do you prefer to work With?
statement true? Give reasons for your answer.
Give reasons for your answer.
3 Do a quick survey of FIVE leaders m your school.
community, and country. What type of leaders are
they?
4 Think of ONE famous leader you admire and ONE
Imagine you are a teacher training the prefect body you do not admire. Do some research to figure out
at your school. Write a speech explaining the three their leadership style.
leadership styles. Suggest the one which you think
would be most successful for them to adopt as
prefects. Explain why you think this choice would be
most successful.
 Institutions
KEY IDEAS
o Institutions serve particular purposes in society.
o Institutions are formal social groups.
o Social institutions are important to the
maintenance of society.
o Institutions serve a central role in maintaining the
status quo in society.
\311!•1i%1ilj
Institution: A society or organization created to address
the concerns and needs of a given human community
and promote order and cooperation among its individual
members.
This book began with an examination of the family,
then looked at groups; now we move to a more
complex form of group called an institution. By
the end of this section you should be able to define
institutions, explain their purposes in society, and
understand the way they function. You should
also be able to see government as an example of
a political institution and understand the way
it works.
There are two types of institution:
o social norms
o organizations.
They are both very important to the functioning of
society. Social norms make all institutions possible
and therefore are central to making organizational
institutions work.
Social norms as institutions
Some social norms, or practices within society, can
be considered institutions: they are as important to
the development and maintenance of the society as
structural institutions such as schools and hospitals.
An example of an institutional social norm is the
family: in Caribbean societies we live in family units
and rely on them to protect and provide for us.
Social institutions have something in common with
institutional structures in that both tend to endure
over time. To a certain extent, social institutions are the
basis on which institutional structures are built, since
they influence the way in which society works and
form the basis for the development of organizations.
Our culture is a social institution and, like all social
institutions, it is made up of norms, mores, and values.
Social norms as institutions can be modified: for
example, the family has changed over time; families
now rely more heavily on the community, with many
of the duties previously carried out by the family now
being carried out by external agencies.
Find out about the Kibbutzim of Israel. How do they
raise their children? Is their institutional practice of
family life different from ours?
Organizations as institutions
Unlike social norms as institutions, organizations
are more tangible and visible, and therefore easier
to identify. An institutional organization is a
formal group within society, and has the following
characteristics.
o Hierarchical structure: Institutions have formal
organizational structures: this is necessary because
institutions tend to be large and members may
be in different locations, so it is important that
the structure is clear and detailed. Members
know where they stand in relation to the lines of
authority. Figure 2.14 shows an example of the
organizational structure within a school.
Princ1pal
~
Deputy principal
I
!
Heads of department
1
Year heads
I
Teachers
~
Prefects
!
Students
Figure 2.13: Basic school organizational structure
•
 o Serve a specific function: Institutions develop
because of a particular need in society and they
endure for the same reason. The way in which
this need is serviced may vary over time; the
institution adapts to match the changing need.
For example, schools provide education and
have done so for centuries, but today children
begin school much younger and stay in school
much longer. l\lodern schools teach new
subjects such as information technology and use
different teaching methods. Schools have also
taken over many educational roles previously
carried out by the home or community. The
primary objective remains, however: schools
educate students.
o Have written rules: Institutions are formal
groups, based on certain agreed laws or rules.
These written rules keep leadership and members
in place and functioning, and help maintain the
group. In some groups changing these rules can
be a very long and drawn-out procedure.
o Fixed sanctions: The stability of any social
institution relies on its ability to keep members
compliant with the rules. When members do not
obey the rules some institutions may use negative
sanctions or punishments. In extreme cases
negative sanctions can be very strict and costly to
members. Positive sanctions or rewards are used
to encourage those members who do something
positive for the good of the group, or who obey
the rules or exhibit model behaviour.
•
o Have specific symbols and rituals: These are
very important in distinguishing members
of institutions from other members of the
community. The uniform of our respective police
forces is a mark of their membership in an
institution and carries symbols that identify their
rank within that institution.
o They endure over time: I nstitutions exist
as a result of demand within the society.
Consequently, institutions tend to endure over
time, even though they may change as their
functions change.
Quick questions
The organizational structure for a school has been
given in Figure 2.13. Try drawing the organizational
structure for another institution in your society
(e.g. a religious or community organization).
2 Gtve TWO instances in which school rules help
keep your school running smoothly.
3 Name ONE negative and ONE positive sanction
which are used in your country to help keep the
society stable.
4 What would happen if an institution like the family
did not exist in our society? What is ONE of the
greatest problems that might be created?
5 Give ONE reason why members of an institution
would choose to keep their symbols or rituals a
secret from non-members.
 Basic functions of institutions
Functions of economic institutions
KEY IDEAS
o There are five basic functions of institutions.
o Each type of institution serves a specific function
in society.

The basic functions of organizational institutions

which exist in most societies are:
o economic
o educational
o recreational
o religious
o political.

These are shown in Table 2.3. Together, these

institutions may serve as the bedrock for some other
organizational structures. Just as the functions of Figure 2.14: A Credi t Un1on IS an example of an economic
the family mean that members are taken care of, so InStitUtiOn

institutions take care of the needs of society.

The family is charged with providing for the social
Type of Example Add your own examples and economic needs of its members; likewise, these
institution here needs must be satisfied on a societal level. Economic
Economic Banks institutions help members of the society to manage
Educational Schools and maximize their finances. The most popular and
Social/recreational Community centres well-known economic institutions in Caribbean
Religious Churches society are commercial banks and credit unions.
Political Government Most countries also have a central bank, which
serves to regulate other financial institutions. There
Tabl e 2.3 : Types of mst1tut10n are traditional economic institutions as well - see the
panel on the next page.

Copy and extend Table 2.3 by adding examples from

your community.
2 What is the difference between a group and an List the commercial banks and credit unions which
institution? operate in your country.
2 Are there any indigenous or local banks or credit
unions in your territory?
3 List the services offered by banks and credit unions
in your country. Are there any differences m the
services offered?
4 What is the difference between a bank and a
credit union?

•
 Traditional economic institutions
o Meeting turn - Barbados
o Sou-sou- Trinidad and Tobago
o Partner -Jamaica
o Syndicate - Belize
o Box hand - Guyana
o Asue -The Bahamas
o Gift club - Bermuda
Known by many names in different parts of the
region, the tradition of saving and helping each
other cooperatively is an economic institution.
In this system of saving, each member is
expected to contribute equal amounts of money
for an agreed period of weeks/ months . Each
participant is entided to one "hand", which
means they receive the total sum of money
in one specific week or month. The "meeting
turn" lasts as many weeks/months as there are
people involved. Members usually plan to take
their "hand" when they have a large financial
commitment to meet: for example, back-to-
school expenses, travel, or a wedding.
This economic institution has assisted many
poor individuals in meeting a large financial
commitment when they could not have borrowed
the money from a large financial institution.
Figure 2. 15: Educat1on takes place 1n the home as well as
at school

be delivered by anyone. The process of socialization

1 Is there a practice of meeting turns or sou-sou. or
a similar system, in your community? Ask older
members of your family about it.
2 Why do you think these people do not go to the
bank for a loan?
3 Other than savings, what other purpose does this
practice serve for those who use it?
Functions of educational institutions
Education begins in the home, but is usually
completed in a formal educational setting.
Education can be formal or informal, and all
educational institutions provide formal and informal
education. Formal education is the structured and
planned delivery of knowledge or skills by skilled
professionals in a school environment. Informal
education, conversely, can occur anywhere and can
involves informal education as children are taught
the norms of the society. In schools we follow the
stated curriculum, but other behaviours are also
taught- such as discipline, reliability, and how
to work with others. Both formal and informal
education are essential to our development.
Educational institutions should:
o provide academic knowledge and investigation
o train students for the job market
o teach pro-social behaviour and a good work ethic
o provide students with the discipline needed for
the world of work
o encourage students to develop an enquiring and
analytical mind
o assist students in becoming good problem solvers,
creative, and inventive.

•
.
 Which of the functions of educational institutions Divide the class into two groups, with group one
listed is most important? Give a reason for your preparing a list of points in support of the statement
choice. below. and group two arguing against it. Then have a
2 Does your school perform all of these functions? debate in which members of each group present their
points.
Online education is not a good method of
Figure 2.16 shows the steps in the formal education for Caribbean people.
educational process. Where are you in this diagram? Your teacher and a student who is not assigned to any
one of the groups can act as the judges.
Univers1ty
+
co
......
...._
\0
.....
>-
a::
Skills Functions of recreational institutions
<( tratn1 ng
'0 i=
0
0 a:: Hosp1tal1ty
w
:5 r- tra 1n1ng
::J
'0
<( Com munity
coll ege
co >-
a:: Senior
...... <(
...... 0 secondary
\0
...... z
0 Junior
......I (.)
...... w secondary
(/)

>-
a::
......
..... <( Pnmary
f--- ~
J a:a.. school

>-
<t a::
...._ <(
('Y) ~
.... -a:: Nursery/ Figure 2.17: An amateur c ricket team p racti ses
Cll
'0 a.. day care
c I
w
::J a:: Social and recreational functions of institutions are
a..
important in providing members of the community
Figure 2 .16: The vanous stages of the educational process and with an opportunity to socialize, relax, and get
the related Institutions much-needed exercise in a structured environment.
Most Caribbean people complete their education to They provide an opportunity to practise or simply
at least secondary school level. Those who do not go observe cultural art forms. Sporting organizations
on to do tertiary education often go directly to the allow members the opportunity to exercise and
world of work, although some people pursue formal better their health. These organizations also build
education in the workplace (e.g. an apprenticeship), unity in communities as members may compete with
and others enter the workforce and study at the same other districts or even other countries.
time (e.g. at evening classes). There are many reasons why social and recreational
Improvements in technology have led to the institutions should be encouraged and made more
appearance of online campuses such as the important today than in the past. For example:
University of the West Indies Open Campus. This o We tend to lead more sedentary lives now than
allows people anywhere in the world to pursue a in the past. People do less walking and engage in
university education without physically moving less strenuous work. Young people also spend less
from one location to another. Online study also time outdoors playing. This, along with our poor
makes it easier for students to study and work at the cliet, has led to the increase in lifestyle diseases
same time. I t is easier for them to pace their studies such as hypertension and diabetes.
and they can study at times convenient to them.

•
 o Technology has led to a high degree of isolation,
especially among our youth. This limits the
amount of time spent in social situations
and interacting with others face to face. In
addition, a decrease in safe and secure areas
for play and leisure has forced many parents to
limit the amount of time their children spend
outdoors. This means young people need more
opportunities to interact and socialize with one
another.
Historically, religious groups, village squares,
and cricket teams were the centre of social and
recreational activity. With the increased movement
of people and the increase in disposable income,
many people no longer find the activity they wish
Functions of religious institutions
Figure 2.18: A Canbbean church, mosque, temple and tabernacle
•
to pursue in their own neighbourhood, or may
not participate in group activities at all. However,
nationally there seems to be a social group or
organization to fit every interest. For example, it may
be easy to find a cricket team in your neighbourhood
but there may only be one archery, road tennis, or
polo club in your whole country. The recreational
activity you get involved in may therefore take you
away from your neighbourhood.
Research
Write a list of the various social and recreational
institutions found in your country. Remember that not
all groups are institutions.
Religion is a social force which holds groups and
sometimes societies together. As an institution,
religion has a special role in promoting moral and
l<.e.ii~'o1-t is tke. opi(;\ te. o.f tke. tll-t\sse.s .
ethical behaviour. All religions have guidelines on
how followers should treat each other and many Karl :\1arx
of them outline sanctions to be faced by those
who do not adhere. Some people believe that
all religions answer the same two questions for Answer the following questions in a small group.
1 What does the quote above mean?
followers:
2 List points for and against Marx's argument.
o Why am I here? 3 Do further research on Karl Marx and his views
o What happens to me when I die? on religion.

complete Table 2.4 below to review some of the religions

found in the region.

Christianity Islam Hinduism Rastafarianism

Fest1vals

Table 2 .4: Charactenst1cs of four rel1g1ons

Caribbean societies are becoming more diverse Functions of political institutions

in terms of religion. Many new denominations
and religious groups are entering the region or
are being formed in the region and are finding
followers quite easily. However, for some people
religion no longer plays an important role in their
daily lives.
In Unit 2.4 we discussed leadership and authority.
Political institutions create structured frameworks
where this power can be exercised. They do not
only include political parties but also governments.
The political institution we will focus on is
government. This will be discussed extensively in
the following units.

•
 Introduction to government
KEY IDEAS
o All societies need a form of government to
regulate their activities.
o There are different forms of government.
o Caribbean countries have a democratic form
of government.
o The government gets its authority from the
constitution.
0'1«·tll1;i'i
Government: A group of officials elected by the people to
conduct the affairs of a country. They do this in accordance
with a constitution.
Constitution : The set of principles and laws by which the
people of a country have agreed to be governed. It is the
supreme law of the country.
Democracy: A form of government in which a substantial
proportion of the citizens participate in governing the
country. Former United States President Abraham Lincoln
(1809 65) defined democracy as "Government of the
people, by the people, for the people".
Referendum : An occasion when every citizen in a country
may vote on a particular matter.
Dictatorship: Rule by an individual or a group that
exercises absolute authority.
Aristocracy: Rule by the highest social class.
Oligarchy: Rule by a small group or elite.
A government is a group of officials elected by
the citizens to conduct the affairs of a country- it
would be impossible for all the citizens to govern the
country. Governing a country requires cooperation
between the government and the citizens.
Each country has a set of principles and laws by
which the citizens agree to be governed. This is
known as the country's constitution. It is the
supreme law of the country. It sets out the rights and
responsibilities of both government and citizens.
The constitutions of the Caribbean countries provide
for a democratic form of government. Democracy
is a form of government in which a substantial
proportion of the citizens participate in the
government of the country. They do this by electing
officials to represent them in government and by
voting on particular matters in a referendum, and
•
also taking part in consultations with government
officials on policies and laws which the government
wishes to implement.
A democratic government assures the citizens that
it will govern by the law and therefore protect their
basic rights. This is important because government
affects every aspect of our lives. Under this type of
government people feel confident that their lives and
property will be protected so they are encouraged
to acquire and own property. Business people feel
confident about setting up their businesses knowing
that they will be protected by the law of the country.
However, there are forms of government in which
the majority of citizens are not allowed to participate
and which they cannot remove easily. These forms
of government are dictatorships, oligarchies and
aristocracies - the opposites of democracy.
Characteristics of democracy
In order for democracy to work, citizens must:
o have freedom of speech
o be free to form competing political parties and
engage in political campaigns
o be able to choose from among the candidates of
the political parties in regularly held elections
o be able to challenge the decisions of government in
courts of law that are free of political interference.
Why we need a government
A country needs a government to regulate the manner
in which the citizens go about their daily lives, in
order to eliminate the chaos that would result if
everyone was allowed to do things their own way. Can
you imagine a country in which there was no law and
order? Can you imagine a country in which everyone
drove on whichever side of the road he or she chose?
We all need essential services like health care, but
some citizens cannot afford to pay for them. Who
would provide them? Who would provide the free
secondary education which you receive? Without a
government, would it be all right to have a number
of private armies in your country, instead of a
national army, to protect it from invasion?
 Electoral processes
KEY IDEAS
o Allcountries which elect governments have a
body of rules for conducting the election process.
& d«•tl!i;fl
Parliamentary/ general election: A method of choosing
parliamentary representatives and a government by a
process of voting.
Electoral process: The method by which candidates/parties
are elected to parliament; includes the management of the
procedures for voting and for competing in elections.
The objective of a government is to remain in
power and its actions are intended to enhance and
maintain its power. Democracy allows citizens to
remove governments which do not govern in the
interest of the majority through elections. As a result,
democracy tends to promote good government.
In the Commonwealth Caribbean, parliamentary or
general elections are usually held at least once every
five years. Elections are supervised by a government
department which is known either as the Electoral
and Boundaries Commission or the Elections
Commission. This department, which is headed
by a chief electoral/elections officer, is responsible
for ensuring that elections are free and fair and
are co nducted in accordance with internationally
accepted standards.
The main objective of the electoral process is to
provide a country with a group of parliamentary
representatives who have been elected in free and
fair elections. However, in some countries there are
complaints that elections are not free and fair.
The essentials of a free and fair election
1 Every adult citizen has the right to register as a
voter or candidate.
2 Citizens have the right to form political parties
and to move freely within the country to hold
political rallies and to campaign.
3 Citizens have the right to raise questions about
and register objections and complaints to any
aspect of the electoral process.
4 Voters, candidates and political parties have
the right to express political opinions without
interference.
5 Voters have the right to cast their ballot in secret.
6 Voters have a right to access polling stations to
exercise their right to vote.
7 Voters, candidates and parties should not be
subjected to any bribery, violence, or intimidation
to influence the outcome of the elections.
8 Voters, candidates, and political parties should
be treated fairly by election officials, the
government, the police, and the courts.
9 The counting of ballots should be open and
transparent.
10 The electoral organization administering the
elections should be independent and non-partisan.
11 Every candidate and political party should have
equal access to state and public service media
to present their political views. There should be
balanced reporting on the elections by the media.
12 Candidates and parties should respect the
rights of others and not engage in violence or
disruption of the election process.
13 All parties and candidates should have equal
opportunities to access campaign finance.
The chief electoral officer and the electoral
organization responsible for administering the
elections must protect the reliability of the electoral
process by ensuring that a number of actions are
performed before, on, and after election day.
Before election day:
o All citizens who have reached the age of 18 are
registered to vote and are issued with identification
cards. The country is divided into constituencies.
o The register containing the names of the voters
is accurate and up to date and all individuals
and political parties are given the opportunity to
inspect it and verify that it is accurate.
o All election officials are properly trained.
o The number of ballot papers printed corresponds
to the number of registered voters and an
adequate number of ballot papers and ballot
boxes are distributed to each polling station.
o All eligible voters are notified of their polling station.
•
 On election day:
o Voting is properly supervised to ensure that each
eligible voter votes only once and that only those
who are eligible are allowed to vote.
o Voting is done in secret.
o No extra ballots are placed in the ballot boxes.
o Ballot boxes are properly secured at the close
of balloting.
o Ballots are counted and recorded accurately and
the winner declared.
After election day:
o Statements submitted by candidates are checked
to ensure that the money they spent on their
election campaign did not exceed the legal limit.
The voting process
The chart below illustrates the steps involved in
casting a vote.
Eltgible voter gtves name to poll clerk.
Voter's name checked agamst voters' ltst.
Presidmg offtcer venfies voter's tdent tf1cat1on.
Prestd1ng off1cer venftes voter has not voted before.
Voter Instructed by prestding officer on how to cast vote.
Voter proceeds to booth and casts vote.
Voter places ballot paper tn ballot box.
Figure 2.19: The voting process
Organize a classroom election for a form monitor/captain.
1 Identify at least three candidates for the position.
2 Glve each candidate five minutes to address the class
on why he/she 1s the most suitable for the position.
3 Hold a secret ballot. Ask your teacher to count the
ballots. with the three candidates monitoring the
count. Your teacher should then record the results
on the chalkboard and declare the winner.
•
Imagine that you are the chief elections officer in your
country You are preparing two talks on the election process
to be aired on the Government Information Service.
In your first talk. g1ve:
o THREE reasons why it is necessary for voters to be
registered
o THREE reasons why it is necessary to revise the
voters' list frequently.
In your second talk. outline the factors that may influence
a political party;candidate to challenge an election result.
Plan your talks, then deliver them to the rest of your class.
Find out from someone who has been registered
what documents are needed for a citizen to register
to vote in elections.
2 Find out what are some of the regulations/laws which
citizens and businesses must follow on election day.
Quick questions
State ONE objective of your country's electoral
process.
2 State ONE way in which people may cheat in elections.
3 Give TWO reasons why it is necessary to educate
voters on the electoral process.
4 Explain how political parties/ candidates may
monitor the electoral process.
5 You are a talk show host on a radio station. You
have been given very reliable evidence of a political
party's plans to cheat in upcoming elections.
Outline how you will deal with this evidence.
In a small group. discuss what you understand by
the following statement.
Elections should be free and fair.
2 Some Caribbean countries do not have
international observers for their elections. What
conclusions can you draw about those which have?
Discuss with a partner some of the outcomes of
the scenarios presented in the last two paragraphs
of Unit 2.7 .
 First-past-the-post
KEY IDEAS
o Every society needs a procedure for establishing
its government.
o An electoral system is a procedure for allocating
parliamentary seats and determining which party
will form the government.
o The two electoral systems used in the
Caribbean are the first-past-the-post system and
proportional representation.
o The electoral system offers qualified citizens an
opportunity to participate in government either as
a parliamentary representative or as a voter.
\311«•t\1·1;11
First-past-the-post: An electoral system in which the
candidate winning the most votes in a constituency wins the
constituency election and becomes the representative for
that constituency in parliament. A political party gains a seat
in the parliament for every constituency its candidates win.
Political party: A group of people with the same political
views, ideas, and beliefs, who aim to gain political power in
a country by winning mass support in elections.
Candidate: An individual who competes in a parliamentary
election either as a member of a political party or as an
independent candidate.
Constituency: A body of voters in a specific geographical
area who elect a representative to sit in the House of
Representatives; the area represented in this way.
Independent candidate: An individual who contests an
election without being supported by a political party.
Electorate: All those persons who are eligible to vote in
an election.
election and, therefore, forms the government.
The prime minister is chosen from this party.
o The party which wins the second highest number
of seats is called the parliamentary opposition.
The parliamentary opposition may be a single
party in a two-party system or a coalition of
parties which won seats in a multi-party system.
Advantages and disadvantages of the
first-past-the-post system
Advantages Disadvantages
It IS qu1ck and s1mple and guarantees It distorts elect1on results because 1t
that the candidate who gains the does not always fu lly reflect the will
of the people. Aparty With mmonty
highest number of votes 1n a
constituency wms the seat. support may form the government.
It promotes stability because 1t tends The votes of the losmg candidate do
to produce smgle-party governments, not count for anythmg.
with a large enough maJOrity that they It tends to favour a two-party system.
do not have to rely on support from Independent candidates and
other part1es to pass legislation. mmonty part1es are not able to attract
Each voter IS represented by a enough support from the electorate.
member of parliament and can It encourages gerrymandering. Th1s
therefore appeal directly to the1r IS a Situation 1n wh1ch constituency
representative for services 1n the1r boundanes may be f1xed 1n such a
constituency. way as to favour a particular
The electorate has a say 1n who wi II candidate or party.
become members of parliament. The Constituencies wh1ch voted for the
dec1s1on IS not left to the party alone. opposition may be neglected by the
government.
Table 2.4 : Advantages and disadvantages of the f1rst-past-the·
post system

How the first-past-the-post system works CASE STUDY

First-past-the-post is used in all Commonwealth Party
Caribbean countries except Guyana. Under this system,
the country is divided into a number of constituencies. St Luc1a Labour Party (SLP) 42456 50.99 11 64.71
o Each political party contesting the elections Un1ted Workers Party (UWP) 39100 46.96 6 35.29
usually puts up a candidate to contest the Nat10nal Development 200 0.24 0 0
election in each constituen cy. Movement (NOM)
o Electors in a constituency vote for the candidate Luc1an Peoples Movement 143 0.17 0 0
(LPM)
of their choice to represent the constituency
Luc1an Greens (LG) 23 0.03 0 0
in parliament. The candidate who gains the
majority of the votes in a constituency wins the Independent (IN D) 1,338 1.61 0 0
constituency election and a seat in parliament. Totals 83 260 100% 17 100%
o The political party which wins the overall majority Tabl e 2.5: Results of elections in St Lucia, 2011

•
of the constituencies/seats wins the general (Canbbeanelections.com)
 Quick questions
Study Table 2.5 on the previous page and answer the Use your answers to the quick questions about country
following questions. X to help you prepare for the following roleplay
1 Write THREE factual statements about St Lucia's 1 Choose three volunteers to act as leaders of
2011 election results. the Republican. Labour. and Democratic parties
2 Which type of electoral system was used in the respectively in country X.
elections? 2 The leaders of both the Labour and Democratic
3 How many seats does the St Lucia parliament have? parties approach the leader of the Republican party
4 Give ONE reason why the electorate may not vote at different times asking for his party's support to
for an independent candidate. help them form a government.
3 The leaders of the Labour and Democratic parties
make offers to the Republican leader in return for
his party's support.
Quick questions 4 The Republican leader makes counter offers to both
leaders setting out the terms/conditions for giving
Party Seats %votes his party's support.
Labour 306 (47%) 36.1 5 The rest of the class advises the leader of the
Democratic 258 (40%) 29.0 Republican Party on which party to support. giving
reasons for their advice.
Republican 57 (9%) 23
Other part1es 28 (4%) 11.9
Total 649 (100%) 100
Tabl e 2.6 : Election results 1n country X

Look at Table 2 6 and answer the following questions

about country X. You will use your answers in the
roleplay activity on tlus page.
1 Write THREE factual statements about the election
results in country X.
2 Which type of electoral system was used in the
elections?
3 How many seats does the parliament have?
4 How many seats would a party need for an overall
majority?
5 Did any smgle party win the elections?
6 Given the election results. suggest ONE way in
which the country may achieve a new government
w1thout holding fresh elections .

•
2.10 Proportional representation
KEY IDEAS
o Proportional representation (PR) is a widely used
electoral system.
o Guyana is the only Commonwealth Caribbean
country which uses the proportional
representation system.
\&d!•IJ!1;D
Proportional representation: An electoral system that gives
all part ies representation in parl iament in direct proportion
to the percentage of votes they gain.
How proportional representation works
In the proportional representation (PR) system
the electorate votes for political parties and not
Figure 2.20: Guyana's ten adm1n1strat1ve reg1ons
candidates. Therefore there is no need to divide the
country into constituencies.
o Each political party puts up a national list in
which the names of the candidates appear in
order of preference, based on the number of seats
in parliament, and invites the electorate to vote
for the party.
o Seats in parliament are allocated to each party in
direct proportion to the percentage of votes it gains.
o Candidates are chosen to sit in parliament by the
party officials based on the order in which their
names appear on their party's election list. For
example, if a party is allocated ten seats the first
ten candidates on the list will sit in parliament.
Elections in Guyana
Guyana is divided into ten administrative regions.
The country holds both general and regional
elections simultaneously under the proportional
representation system.
Guyana has a 65-seat National Assembly. Forty
members of the National Assembly are elected
at the national level and 25 at the regional level.
The number of members which each region elects
varies with the size of its respective population. This
arrangement for the ratio of national and regional
seats came into operation after the 2001 elections.
The president of Guyana is chosen by the electorate
in a national presidential election.
•
 Advantages and disadvantages of
proportional representation
You wish to find out your parliamentary
Advantages Disadvantages representative's views on the country's electoral
Parties are allocated seats in direct It encourages multiple parties, system. Make a list of ten questions you would ask your
proportion to the1r share of the wh1ch may result 1n a coalition parliamentary representative in order to get his/her
popular vote. The result therefore rather than a maJOrity government views. Submit your list to your teacher for feedback
reflects the will of the people. because the votes are split among
It g1ves mmor~ty part1es the many part1es and no one party IS
representation in parliament. able to wm an absolute maJOrity of
the votes.
Every vote has equal value.
There 1s no clear link between the
It eliminates gerrymandering.
people and the parl1amentar1ans. CASE STUDY
Each parliamentarian represents the
country and not a constituency. Election results under first-past-the-post
It concentrates too much power 1n o In 1989 the New Democratic Party in St Vincent and
the hands of the party leaders. They the Grenadines won all 15 seats with 66.3% of the
decide who get seats 1n parliament. votes while the Unity Labour Party won 30.3% of the
votes but no seats.
Table 2 .7 : Advantages and disadvantages of proport ional o Again in St Vincent and the Grenadines. in 1998 the
representat ion New Democratic Party won the government with the
lesser share of the votes. It got 45% of the votes but
The election results in the case study below highlight won 8 seats while the Unity Labour Party got 55% of
some of the main advantages of the proportional the votes and won 7 seats.
representation system. The case study on the right o In general elections held in Barbados in 1999, the
Barbados Labour Party won 65% of the votes and
shows various election results using the first-past-
26 (93%) of the 28 seats. On the other hand. the
the-post system. opposition Democratic Labour Party won 35% of the
votes but only 2 (7%) of the 28 seats in the legislature.
o The Trinidad and Tobago elections of 2001
produced a dead heat or hung parliament. Both of
Use the mformation in the case study below to write the major political parties won 18 seats each. The
THREE advantages which the proportional representation UNC got 49.9% of the votes and the PNM 46.5%.
system has over the first-past-the-post system.

CASE STUDY
Election results under PR At this stage 62 seats had been allocated. Three
more seats remained to be allocated. None of the
In the elections in Guyana in 2001 . the seats were
other parties which contested the elections got the
allocated as follows.
required 6.101 votes necessary for the allocation of a
o Total number of valid votes: 396 551 seat. Table 2.8b shows that the final three seats were
o Total number of seats: 65 therefore allocated according to the number of votes
The Elections Commission calculated that 396 551 .,.. 65 not yet considered for each party.
= 6. 101 . so for every 6.101 votes a party gets it will be
allocated a seat in parliament. Party IMHMtl Remaining votes
R1se Orgamze and 3,677
Party IMfflMtfiljiM Remaining votes Rebuild Guyana
People's Progressive Party 209 754 34 2,320 Guyana Act1on 3,418
People's Nat1onal Congress 166090 27 1,363 Party I Workmg
Guyana Action Party/ People's Alliance
9,519 3,418
Working People's Alliance The Umted Force 2,901
Table 2.8a : Allocation of seats in the Guyana elect1 ons, Table 2.8b: Al location of seats m the Guya na elections,
2001 2001

•
 repurnomn-represent

1 Use the information in the case study about the 1 Which electoral system is used in your country?
first-past-the-post electoral system to write THREE 2 How many political parties contested the last
statements about that electoral system. national election in your country?
2 Explain how the proportional representation system 3 What are the names of the parties which contested
would have produced a different result in each of the elections?
the elections mentioned in the case study. 4 How many candidates contested the elections?
3 What evidence is there in the case study that the 5 Were all the candidates who contested the elections
first-past-the-post system does not always fully members of a political party?
reflect the will of the people? 6 How many seats did each party win?
4 Give TWO reasons why you would recommend
that your country adopt or retain the proportional
representation system.
5 a Suggest. giving full details, THREE measures
which the electorate in your country may use
to show their dissatisfaction with the present
electoral system.
b Say why each measure may be successful in
bringing about a change of electoral system.

Hold a class debate on electoral reform.

1 Divide your class into two groups, A and B.
a If you are in group A. discuss reasons why the
country's electoral system should be continued.
b If you are in group B. discuss reasons why it
should be changed.
c Choose a group leader to present your
arguments to the rest of your class.
2 After listening to both sides of the argument. write a
summary of the points discussed.
3 Request a meeting with (or a visit from) either the
parliamentary representative for the school district.
a member of parliament, or an official from the
Electoral and Boundaries Commission. Find out his/
her views on the country's electoral system using
the points/arguments raised in the class debate,
presented by the group leaders.

•
 How political parties prepare for
2.11 elections
o The Electoral Commission manages the
KEY IDEAS
o Parliamentary elections are very expensive for
candidates and political parties.
o Parliamentary and local government elections
are very competitive events and are usually
conducted along similar lines.
o Parliamentary and local government elections are
usually held within statutory time periods.
o Political parties employ the services of a number
of specialists to help them prepare for elections.
o Preparations for elections usually start before
parliament is dissolved.
o Parties determine how many cand idates they will
Q;ld!•tll1;i'i
Dissolution of parliament: The formal ending of a
parliament before an election.
Manifesto: A public written declaration of policies and
objectives issued by a polit1cal party.
House-to-house canvassing: Visiting an area to ask people
for their votes.
Public opinion poll: A survey of randomly chosen
individuals to get their views on political issues in order to
predict election results.
The dissolution of parliament signals the official
o Candidates formally declare their intention of
start of preparation for an election. H owever, since
elections must be held at least once every five years,
political parties in opposition can usually predict
when elections will be held. Sometimes the actions
of the governing party may indicate that an election
is about to be called. Therefore political parties start
o A campaign team headed by a campaign
their preparation for elections before parliament
is dissolved.
Preparation for general elections is a time of great
excitement as rival political parties compete with each
other to woo the electorate. Sometimes campaign
strategies can become unfair. This has forced
interested civic groups and political parties to draw
up an electoral code of conduct. This is a set of rules
for guiding the behaviour of political parties and
their supporters during the election campaign. Some
political parties do not respect the code of conduct.
Preparation for elections requires the contesting
o Election campaigns are expensive undertakings and
parties and candidates to go through a series of
carefully planned activities .
•
conduct of elections. Parties' and candidates'
chances of winning an election may sometimes
be determined by how well the Electoral
Commission manages the electoral process.
Therefore political parties monitor the work of
the Electoral Commission to ensure that all the
laws and regulations related to the conduct of
free and fair elections are being followed . Where
necessary, the parties may make complaints or
objections to the Electoral Commission during
specified t imes.
put into the election and then select that number
according to the party's procedures for selecting
candidates. Under the first-past-the-post system,
members of each constituency branch of the
respective parties usually elect the candidate to
contest the election in the constituency. Under
the proportional representation system, the senior
party officials or the executive of the party select
all the candidates. Constituency or local party
offices are set up to give the electorate easy access
to the candidates and party officials.
participating in the election by paying a sum
of money into the treasury on nomination day.
This is the day set aside for all candidates to
formally declare their intention to participate in
the election.
manager is selected to manage the party's election
campaign. This team is responsible for mobilizing
supporters to help with different aspects of the
election campaign. Some of its activities include
organizing rallies and press conferences, and
advertising the party's principles and policies in all
sections of the mass media, including the Internet,
in order to give the party the widest possible
media coverage and convince the electorate to
vote for the party and its candidates. The team
also selects party agents to monitor the electoral
process in the polling stations on polling day.
political parties have to raise money to finance them.
 They usually raise money through fund-raising
activities, donations from party members and
supporters, and the business community.
o In preparing for elections parties have to decide
on what policies and proposed legislation they
will present to the electorate for improving
the country, in order to gain its support. These
policies are presented in a manifesto. This is
a document which includes the party's ideas
for managing and advancing the country. The
manifesto is issued to the electorate at a very
carefully chosen time during the campaign.
o Holding public meetings/rallies is another
strategy which political parties use to prepare for
elections. Popular artistes are usually contracted
to perform at these events in order to attract
very large crowds. The parties use these rallies
to try to win the support of the electorate. The
critical issues facing the country and the ideas
contained in the manifesto are discussed at length
during the rallies by specially chosen speakers.
o The governing party uses the rallies to remind the
electorate of the party's record of achievement
and to justify why it should be re-elected to office.
Figure 2.2 1: A pol1t1cal rally 1n the Bahamas
It also uses them to discredit the opposition as
being unworthy of governing the country by
exposing its weaknesses.
o On the other hand the opposition party uses
rallies to highlight inefficiency, corruption, and
other forms of bad government by the governing
party, and to justify why it should be elected as
the alternative government.
o Party officials and candidates operating in teams
aim to visit every house in the country to meet
and interact personally with householders and
gain their support. This is called house-to-house
canvassing. During these visits they check to see
whether all eligible voters are registered to vote.
o Political parties arrange for public opinion polls to
be conducted on their behalf in order to judge their
chances of winning the election. Parties also pay
close attention to the findings of polls authorized
by media houses and other organizations.
Discuss the photo shown below with a partner.
II

Draw up a set of rules for students campaigning for
election to the Student's Council at their school.
2 Design a newspaper advertisement for a rally of
your political party.
Simulate a political debate between two political
parties.
Divide your class into three groups, A. B. and C.
Groups A and B represent each of the two main
political parties in your country. Choose one
student in each group to be the party leader.
Group C represents the undecided voters who do
not support any party.
2 In your group, discuss the reasons for and against
voting for the two political parties chosen. Then
hold a debate in which the two leaders try to
convince the electorate why they should vote for
their respective party.
3 Members of groups A and B may add any other
facts that their leader could have used to gain the
support of group C.
4 At the end of the debate. the members of group C
should declare which party they will vote for
and why.
Campaign financing
Campaign financing has become a very contentious
issue in the Caribbean, largely because sources
of party finances are usually shrouded in secrecy.
Political parties have been accused of accepting
money from questionable individuals and groups
who are likely to influence government policy if the
receiving party is successful in the elections.
The following quotations and case study illustrate
some undesirable features of party financing in
the Caribbean.
0 C.~Aribbe.().')\ C01A')\trie.s' co')\stit1Atio')\s
1).-)\d i.!Aws do ')\ot S~A(r "'-ow poi.itic~Ai. P"rtie.s
~Are. to be. ~~')\ce.d.
•
0 A ')\1A~to..be.r o.f J')\dJI/Jd1A~Als ~A1\d
.
b1ASI1\e.SSe..s
~')\fA')\Ce. poi.itic().l p().rfie.s i')\ re.t1Ar')\ .f-or f"'-e.
/).W().rO o.f. co')\tr~Acts "~ ot"'-e..r be.')\e.~ts.
d)J)J)J)J)J)d)'.]'J2'J)
CASE STUDY
A secret donation
The opposition party in a Caribbean country revealed
in parliament that the governing party was given
a financial gift by a company employed by the
government. The opposition party concluded that the
money was given to help the governing party to finance
its upcoming election campaign.
The governing party returned the money to the company
after much public debate.
Handling data
Conduct a survey among your classmates to
find out their views on the incident in the case
study and on campaign financing in general. Use
the questions below for the survey. Record the
responses to each question separately. Present
your findings to the rest of your class.
Should the governing party have kept the money?
2 Do you th1nk the opposit1on party was right to
DD
reveal the Information to the public? DO
3 Was the company right to make the secret
donation to the governmg party? DO
4 Should political part1es be g1ven state funds to
finance their elect1on campa1gns? D O
5 Should political part1es declare the amounts and
sources of campa1gn finance they receive? DO
6 Should political parties declare the sources of
the1r campaign fmance? DD
7 Should there be a hm1t to the amounts candidates
and part1es can spend on an elect1on? DD
8 Do you agree that political parties which have
access to large sources of campa1gn fmanc1ng
have an unfair advantage over those who do not?
DO
Table 2.9: Campaign f inancing survey quest1ons

CASE STUDY
Political ideals
Mr Patrick Manning, a former prime minister of Trinidad
and Tobago and leader of the People's National
Movement. in addressing a convention of his party in
September 2007, made the following statement:
We. {..o..Me. to e.1-ts1Are. f{..o..e>. t we. se.ie.c. t pe.opie.
w{..o..o see. service. be..Pore. se.f.F, e>-1-td wtr..o do
1-tOt see. poii t ic.s e>.s e>. c.e>.1Ase. e>-1-td e>-1-t
opporf1A1-t1tlJ .for/e.rso1-tt>..£ t>..~~rMtOISe.l'l.e.-»f or
se.£ -t>..OVt>-1-tU~-» t.
Choose one of the following two activities.
1 You wish to represent a political party in an
upcoming general election. Write a letter to the
leader of the party outlining why the party should
consider nominating you.
2 Write a letter to the party leader describing the
quality of representation the constituency is getting
from the current parliamentary representative.

(Newsday, 2 September 2007)

Figure 2.22: Voters check1ng that the1r names are l1sted in the electoral reg1ster

•
 Factors that influence the outcomes
2.12 of elections
KEY IDEAS
o The governing party usually holds the advantage
over the other parties going into an election.
o Political parties usually draw their support from a core
of faithful supporters or a dominant ethnic group.
o Floating voters can play a large role in
determining the outcome of an election.
o Election results are influenced by a number of
factors and are not always easy to predict.
~1!•11!1:11
Multiple voting: The act of voting more than once in the
same elec tion.
Voter padding: The illegal practice of encouraging supporters
of a political party to register as voters in constituencies
where their party does not have enough support.
Disenfranchisement of voters: Any officia l action that
results in an eligible voter not being able to vote in an
election. This may i nclude non-registration, omission from
the voters' list or not being given sufficient time to vote.
Floating voter: " A person who has not decided which way
to vote in an election, or one who does not consistently
vote for the same political party." Oxford Dictionary
The objective of every electoral organization is to
ensure that elections are free and fair. This should
result in each party and each candidate having an
equal chance of being elected.
Types of election results
Both electoral systems may produce a number of
different results.
o One party may emerge as the clear winner with
a simple or overwhelming overall majority of the
votes in proportional representation, or seats in
first-past-the-post.
o A dead heat results when two parties share all
the seats equally. In this situation fresh elections
must be held unless one party is able to win over
elected members from the other party.
o A hung parliament results when no party gains
an overall majority of seats in parliament in
order to control the parliament and form the
government. In this situation two or more parties
may agree to unite to form the government or
there may be fresh elections .
•
o A coalition government is a government formed
with the cooperation of two or more political
parties.
o A government of national unity is a government
formed by sharing th e executive power in
government among the parties that won seats in
the national elections, even though one party has
won enough seats to form the government on its
own. This type of government may or may not be
a direct outcome of the election results.
How political parties influence the
outcomes of elections
You have seen that political parties aim to gain
political power by winning mass support in elections.
They use several strategies to achieve their objective.
o Popularity of the party leader: Each party
chooses a leader who is popular with the
electorate. The popularity of a party leader at the
time of elections is likely to attract support for
that party and increase its chances of winning the
election. On the other hand, the unpopularity of a
party leader will reduce support for that party and
reduce its chances of success in the elections. In
addition to choosing a popular leader, parties also
choose popular candidates. These two factors add
to the overall popularity of the party.
o Party policies: The electorate is interested in
hearing how the parties plan to manage the
country and bring about improvements in their
lives. The party that presents the best policies
to the electorate, that offer hope of progress, is
likely to have the greatest chance of winning
the election. If the electorate is convinced that
the opposition party is not a suitable alternative
government it will not be elected to government.
o How well the country was managed: This factor
will help to determine whether the governing
party is re-elected. If the electorate is satisfied
with the governing party's overall management
of the country it is likely to be re-elected. If, for
example, unemployment, poverty, and crime
increased during the party's term in office, it may
not be re-elected.

Figure 2 .23: Election campa1gn strateg1es may mclude rall1es
o Campaign spending: Electoral laws place a limit
on the amounts which parties and candidates may
spend on election campaigns. However, these laws
are often ignored. Political parties which have more
money can gain more support by spending more
on advertising and rallies, and by engaging popular
international artistes to perform at public rallies.
o Cooperation among opposition parties to
contest the elections as a single group: The
first-past-the-post system favours large political
parties, and also encourages a two-party set-up.
As a result there are usually two dominant
political parties in Caribbean countries that use
this electoral system. Small opposition political
parties may improve their chances of success in
elections by contesting the elections as a single
group. In 2010 a coalition of opposition parties
won the elections in Trinidad and Tobago.
o Election gimmicks: The governing party may
give special concessions to the electorate close
to or during an election campaign. Examples of
gimmicks may include budgets in which there
are reduced taxes or no new taxes, and increased
spending on services. Long-awaited projects that
bring direct benefits to the electorate may also be
implemented during this time.
o Timing of elections: The governing party can call
elections at a point within the statutory time period
when it best suits its chances of success. It usually
does so when it is at the height of its popularity-
for example when the economy is doing well, or
when major projects are being undertaken. It may
even bunch projects to increase economic activity
and influence voters to re-elect it.
o Campaign strategy: Elections are contested
between political parties. Each party tries to retain
its supporters and win over the floating voters and
some supporters of the other parties. In the first-
past-the-post system each party concentrates on the
other's marginal seats while at the same time trying
to increase its support in theirs. A marginal seat is
one which the current representative won by a small
majority of votes. Political parties have now turned
to high-tech campaigning (e.g. using websites)
to increase their effectiveness in receiving and
transmitting political and electoral information. The
extent and effectiveness of their house-to-house
canvassing and their competence in proposing
solutions to the critical issues facing the country
also influence their chances of success. The choice
of times and venues for rallies and the number of
rallies also form part of a party's campaign strategy.
Other factors that influence outcomes
of elections
Other variables that may influence the outcomes of
elections include the following.
o Voter turnout: Voter turnout, the percentage of
voters who actually vote in an election, fluctuates
from election to election. If the electorate is
impressed by the quality of the election campaigning,
the issues, and the policies discussed, they are likely
to turn out in large numbers and vote. Unpopularity
of the governing party may influence more people to
turn out to elect a party that promises better.
o Media coverage: The mass media can influence
public opinion. Some media houses are very
closely associated with political parties. Some
governments also own media houses. The media's
coverage of an election campaign may therefore
reflect its bias and influence voters' decisions .
o Public opinion polls: These are questions which
are asked to get the public's views on candidates
and parties. The poll may be commissioned by a
political party or an independent organization
such as a media house. The publication of
the results of the poll may also influence the
electorate. The parties and candidates who do well
in the polls expect the polls to influence voters
and win greater support for them.
o Floating voters: Floating voters are also known
as 'swinging' voters because they can influence
the outcome of an election by 'swinging' one way
•
 or the other on election issues or candidates -
they have no loyalty to any particular party or
candidate. The party which is able to win over
the majority of floating voters will improve its
chances of winning the election.
o E thnic composition of the population and
ethnic support for a particular party: In
countries where one ethnic group makes up
the majority of the population and politics is
dominated by cthnicity, for example G uyana, the
party which has the support of th e dominant
ethnic group usually wins the election.
o How well the electoral process works: The
electoral process is designed to give each candidate
and each party a fair chance of winning an election.
I l owever, irregularities still occur before and on
election day. The extent to which conditions exist
for the conduct of free and fair elections will
influence the outcome. The accuracy of the voters'
list, bribery of voters, stuffing of ballot boxes,
gerrymandering, multiple voting, voter padding,
and the disenfranchisement of some voters can all
influence the outcome of elections.
o The electoral system used: You have already seen,
from case studies presented, that the first-past-
the-post electoral system may p roduce election
Handling data
In a public opinion poll conducted one month
before an election, 500 voters were randomly
interviewed. The results showed that 25% of those
interviewed were not sure which party they would
be voting for. The poll also revealed that 40% of the
respondents would vote for the governing party
and 30% for the opposition party. Those who said
that they would not be voting accounted for 5% of
the respondents.
1 Describe ONE measure which may be us ed to
randomly select people to be interviewed .
2 Write ONE question that could have been used
in the above poll.
3 Draw a bar graph and a pie chart to show the
data given above.
4 Write an analysis of the data.
5 Can you tell from the data which party will win
the election? Give reasons for your answer.

.,
results which would have been different if the
proportional representation system had been used .

Discussion
Discuss the following question with a partner.
Why do opposition parties sometimes have
difficulty in unseating the governing party?

Creative writing Figure 2.24: Wa1t1ng to vote at a pollmg stat1on

The government of your country is using state media

for propaganda purposes and the opposition parties
are not given equal opportunities to use it.
Write a letter of complaint to the Minister of
InformatiOn. In your letter·
o give TWO examples of how the government uses
state media for spreading its propaganda
o give TWO examples of important events held by
the opposition which were not reported by state
media. and TWO reasons why they should have
been reported
o suggest and JUstify THREE measures the
management of state media may use to give the
opposition equal access to it.
Research
How many persons were eligible to vote in your
country's last national elections?
2 What percentage of the electorate voted in the last
national elections in your country?
3 Was there a change of government?
4 How many sitting members of parliament lost
their seats?

Ill
 Factors that influence voter
2.13 participation in elections
KEY IDEAS
o The constitutions of Caribbean countries
guarantee all qualified citizens the right to
participate in elections.
o The level of voter turnout at elections is always a
cause for concern among political parties.
o Voter participation fluctuates from election to
election.
Adult suffrage: The right to vote on reaching adulthood.
Franchise: The right to vote in national elections.
In the Caribbean all citizens aged 18 years and over
have the right to vote in national elections. Eighteen-
year-old Commonwealth and non-Commonwealth
citizens living in a Caribbean country may also vote
in the country if they have been residing there for
a specified period of time. However, many eligible
voters choose not to exercise the franchise despite the
various strategies which political parties use to woo
them. People who are in prison or are mentally ill at
the time of elections are not allowed to exercise the
franchise on that occasion.
The reasons why some eligible voters may or may
not participate in national elections include the
following:
o Voter apathy: Some eligible voters become
uninterested in the election process because they
think that the government does not address the
issues they face or that the politicians are only
concerned with looking after their own interests.
o Religion: Some religious denominations do not
allow their members to participate in political
elections.
o Election boycott: Sometimes the opposition
parties may ask their members to boycott the
election in order to protest about irregularities
in the election process or an unfair action taken
against it by the government.
o Ethnicity: In multi-ethnic societies where the
electorate votes in ethnic groups, members of
the smaller groups may not be inclined to vote
because they think that their vote will not change
the political situation.
o Illiteracy: Some illiterate people tend to shy
away from the election registration process and
therefore are unable to participate in elections.
o Dissatisfaction with government: Voter turnout
is usually higher when the electorate wants a
change of government.
o Party loyalty: Political parties have attracted a
core of loyal supporters, most of whom support
them in all situations.
o Campaign promises: Promises may attract
those voters who feel that they stand to
benefit from a particular party being elected
to government.
o Direct rewards: In some constituencies eligible
voters are given direct rewards in the form
of bribes to turn out and vote for a particular
candidate or party. On the other hand, eligible
voters may also be offered bribes not to vote at all
in an election.
o Q!tality of candidates: Dissatisfaction with the
quality of the candidate(s) may influence some
voters not to vote.
o Campaign strategies: Strategies such as
presenting popular/international artistes at
political rallies may attract individuals who
otherwise may not have intended to participate in
the elections.
o Fear of political violence: The use of violence
or threats of violence (political violence) may
keep some voters from participating in elections.
The use of violence or threats of violence in
garrison communities may have the opposite
effect. A garrison community is an area which is
completely controlled by a political party and the
residents do not tolerate opposition to that party
from within the area.
o Duty: People who appreciate the struggle of their
forebears to achieve the franchise are more likely
to participate in elections.
II
 Read the following recorded conversation about
adult suffrage.
Summanze the mam pomts made in the conversation
0 Pe.rso11 1: ~~ vote. wii.£ 110t ckt><11(}e. on the left.
2 Define the term "adult suffrage".
1:><11~t"'-•11a·
3 What is the term used to describe the situation
outlined in the last two statements of the
conversation?
4 Give TWO reasons why people vote m elections_
Pe.r.so11 2.: Th~:><t'.s 110t tke. 5 Suggest THREE factors which voters should
ri v..t t><Hit1Aae.. consider before deciding which candidate or party
0 to vote for. Justify why each of these factors should
be considered.
6 The last two statements in the conversation suggest

0 Pe.rso11 1: Yo'!A et><11 vote. i11 ~o1Ar CO'IA11t~'s that politicians are largely responsible for the lack
of interest which many people show in elections.
e.£.e.c.ti011.$ ~:><t t:\(}e. 18. Suggest THREE measures which politicians may
'- take to encourage more voters to participate in
elections. Explain why each measure may be
successful.
Pe.r.so11 2.: ~~:>.11~ 181"e.~:><r-o£.ds do 110t
'lASe. tt.\:e. .frt:><11Ck1Se..

Discuss the following statements in a small group.

e Pe.rso11 1: Tht:\t •s h'!Ae.! A £.ot o.f t~M.~t~- t:\Y"e.
.fe.d 'tAp ,.,ntk tke. po£.iticit:><11S ~:><11d politics, tiM.
corr-tApt•o11 sct:\11dt:\t.s1 tiM. kt:\U h'!Atks po£.•tic•t:\11S
te.£.£., tke. bro)(e.11 pr01t1-ise.s1 tiM. cro11~is~t~- ~:><11d
11e.potis~t~- 1 t:><11d tke. 11e.3£.e.c1 o.f tke. pe.op£.e..
1 "People should examine the issues facing the
country, assess the candidates and the policies
of the parties and vote for the party which is best
suited to govern the country."
2 "My vote is not for sale." In what circumstances
might a voter make this statement?
3 "People should vote for the party from which they
expect to gain some personal advantage rather than
the party which is best suited to govern"

Fmd out the answers to the following questions.

1 How many new voters were registered to vote in the
last general election in your country?
2 a When was adult suffrage introduced in your
country?
b What were the qualifications for voting before
adult suffrage was introduced?

Fi gure 2 .25: Somet1mes 1t IS hard to know who to vote for

•
2.14 The executive
KEY IDEAS
o The executive functions of government are
performed by the cabinet with support from the
civil service.
o There is an overlap between the executive and
legislative branches of government.
o The cabinet is concerned with the management of
the country.
o The cabinet works through parliament.
o The cabinet is made up of elected and non-
elected members of parliament.
Q d!•lii;i;fl
Cabinet: A group of parliamentarians selected and led by
the head of government to give the government advice,
to be responsible for its policies, and to head the various
government ministries or departments.
Government is divided into three branches:
executive, legislative, and judicial. Each branch has a
different function.
The structure of government is based on the
principle of separation of powers. This principle
is designed to create a system of checks and
balances among the branches of government in
order to ensure that no single person or group has
a monopoly on power. However, there is an overlap
between the executive and legislative branches of
government because the members of the executive
are all members of the legislature.
Head of State
Execut1ve

Figure 2 .26: The bas1c structure of government

[ SOVEREIGN ]

l GOVERNOR
GENERAL
l
l
LEGISLATURE EXECUTIVE JUDICIARY

CONSTITUTIONAL AUTHORITIES
T
D1rector of Public Prosecut1ons
Auditor General I I
[ SUPREME
I
[ MAGISTRACY ]
COURT
[ PARLIAMENT ]

PRIME MINISTER
&
I I
l l
CABINET
HOUSE OF ASSEMBLYI
SENATE
(upper house) HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES
(lower house)

I I I I
[ MINISTRY 1 I [ MINISTRY 2 ] [ MINISTRY 3 I [ MINISTRY 4 I [ MINISTRY 5 I
Figure 2.27: The structure of government 1n most Canbbean countnes

II
 The executive branch of government comprises the
cabinet and the civil service. The cabinet is made
up of the head of government (prime minister or
executive president), as leader and chief executive
officer, and ministers chosen by him or her from
both Houses of Parliament. The ministers hold
their positions at the pleasure of the head of
government. In a bicameral legislature the majority
of ministers arc usually chosen from the house of
elected representatives (the House of Assembly). I n
a unicameral legislature, non-elected ministers sit in
the legislature but they are not allowed to vote.
The cabinet is the chief advisory and policy-making
body of government. It determines what policies
the government will pursue and what legislation
and regulations it will initiate in the interests of
the development and stability of the country. It
is also responsible for ensuring that these policies
are carried out through the various ministries and
government departments, and that the legislation
passed by the legislature is enforced.
The head of government gives each minister
specific areas of responsibility. This is called the
minister's portfoli o. Each minister is in charge of a
ministry or department and he/she may be assisted
by a parliamentary secretary chosen by the head
of government. Parliamentary secretaries are not
members of the cabinet.
The cabinet operates on the principle of collective
responsibility. All cabinet members take responsibility
for cabinet decisions, whether or not they agree with
them, and they must therefore be prepared to defend
them in parliament and in public. Ministers also take
individual responsibility for the work of their ministry.
The cabinet is accountable to parliament and
ministers are expected to give an account of their
ministry's work in parliament when requested to
do so.l\1inisters who are not performing well in
a ministry may either be dismissed or reassigned
to another ministry by the prime minister. The
reassignment of ministers is known as a cabinet
reshuffle. Ministers also have to get parliamentary
approval for policies they wish to implement,
particularly those that require financing from taxes.
1he cabinet depends on the support of parliament
in order to stay in office. If the cabinet fails to get
a budget or any major bill passed by parliament, or
II
if the members of parliament pass a motion stating
that they no longer have any confidence in the
cabinet, the cabinet has to resign and fresh elections
have to be called.
The cabinet meets weekly behind closed doors. In
some countries the cabinet secretary may hold press
conferences to update the country on some of the
issues discussed and the decisions taken at cabinet
meetings.
1he governor-general or ceremonial president also
performs executive functions, mainly on the advice
of the prime minister.
Quick questions
Copy and complete the table below:
Position How appointed
I to position
Sovere1gn lnhented
Governor-general/ Selected by Appointed by
president pnme minister monarch
Pnme m1n1ster
M1n1ster
Parliamentary
secretary
Ta ble 2.10 : Su mmary of execut1ve government
The role of the prime minister
The prime minister's powers are defined in the
constitution and they extend to each branch of
government. The prime minister's powers are so
extensive that there have been calls for constitutional
reform in order to limit them.
The. powe.rs o.f tf..>..e. pn110-e. ~11-1.1ste.r 1:\re.
t\we.so110-e. 11-1. tt..e. potitict:\f s;.rste.~ o.f 1:\
s~££ -xt:\tlo-x-stt:\fe..
Dr Ralph Gonsalves, Pr\me Minister of St Vincent
and the Grenadines
The prime minister:
o decides on the size and composition of the
cabinet
o assigns and re-assigns portfolios (specific areas of
responsibility) to cabinet ministers
o heads the cabinet and chairs its meetings
o hires and fires cabinet ministers
o coordinates the work of the various ministries
o heads the government; takes the lead in
formulating government policy
o in countries with a governor-general, chooses
and recommends his or her appointment and
dismissal to the queen
o advises the governor-general or president when to
dissolve parliament
o fixes the date for elections
o is not subject to any re-election restrictions.
Copy out the following table and use the information
above to complete it by listing the prime minister's
powers under each headmg.
Executive Legislature Judiciary
Tabl e 2. 11: The powers of the prime mtntster
Discuss the following questions with a partner.
1 Do you agree that the prime minister's powers
should be limited? Whyfwhy not?
2 Should there be a limit to the number of terms
which a prime minister should be allowed to serve?
3 State one disadvantage to a political party of
limiting the number of terms which a prime minister
may serve.
Find out the size of your country's cabinet.
2 Find out how many ministers are elected
representatives and how many are not.
& Quick questions
1 State two functions of the cabinet.
2 Define the term "collective responsibility".
3 What do you understand by the statement "the
government/ cabinet cannot exist without the
support of the legislature"?
4 What do you understand by the statement "'All
cabinet members are expected to toe the party
line"?
5 State TWO actions which a prime minister may take
against a minister who is not getting the job done.
The role of the civil/public service
The civil/public service is a body of non-elected
civilian government employees whose role it is
to administer the country and to implement the
executive decisions of the government of the day. It
is part of the executive branch of government.
A civiVpublic servant is a full-time employee in a
government ministry or department. All civiVpublic
servants are attached to a ministry or government
department. The permanent secretary is the most
senior civil/public servant in a ministry and he/she,
along with other senior civiVpublic servants known
as technocrats, are responsible for advising the
minister on policy.
Quick questions
State TWO functions of the civil/public service.
2 Identify TWO factors which may affect the civil/
public service in the performance of its functions.
3 Give TWO reasons why civil/public servants should
carry out their functions impartially.
4 Explain to the minister of the civil/public service
why civil/public servants should be employed
by government on the basis of merit rather than
political patronage or personal favour.
 The judiciary
KEY IDEAS
o The judiciary is the system of courts that
interprets and administers the Jaws of a country.
o The judiciary keeps a check on the powers of the
executive and legislative branches of government.
o An independent judiciary is necessary in order to
inspire people's confidence in the administration
of justice.
o Most Caribbean countries still use the Privy
Council, which usually sits in London. as their
final court of appeal.
- \.
~
'
Figure 2.28: Judges amvmg for the ceremonial open1ng of
a new Law Term
1he judiciary is the legal branch of government.
Its role is to enforce the laws of the country and
•
also ensure that the other branches of government
do not exceed the powers which the constitution
or parliament grants them. Therefore it is essential
that government guarantees the independence of
the judiciary, thus enabling judges to decide cases
fairly and impartially, by relying only on the facts
and the law.
The judiciary is made up of different levels of courts,
each specializing in different stages or aspects of the
judicial process. In most countries it is headed by the
chief justice, who is assisted by a number of judges,
magistrates, and paralegal officials.
The supreme court hears cases that challenge or
require interpretation of the laws and enforces/
applies the laws. People can challenge any action of
the executive or the legislature in court if they think
that it violates the constitution. If the court agrees
that the constitution has been violated it will declare
the action null and void. The courts hear cases
brought by the police, individuals, and institutions,
and apply the laws.
People and government can appeal against decisions
of any court of law. The appeal is heard in a court
higher than the one whose decision is being appealed.
JudJcJal Comm1ttee of the
Pnvy Counc..l I Car bbean
Court of Just1ce
Figure 2.29: The structure of the JUdiciary
 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
CASE STUDY
The independence of the judiciary
The manner in which judges are appointed in the
Caribbean gives rise to doubts about the independence
of the judiciary. In Barbados and the Bahamas the prime
minister chooses the chief justice of the supreme court
and judges. after consultation with the leader of the
opposition. and recommends their appointment to the
governor-general.
In Guyana judges are appointed by the president
on the recommendation of the judicial services
commission. whose members are appointed by
the president.
In the OECS countries the members of the judicial and
legal services commission are nominated on the advice
of the head of state. This commission has the power to
appoint. discipline. and dismiss judges. magistrates. and
judges of the Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court.
In some Caribbean countries members of the executive
have publicly criticized decisions of the judiciary.

Courts and their functions

Courts Functions
Magistrates Court o Hears cases involving minor cnminal offences.
o Conducts prelim mary InQUiries 1n cases mvolvmg major cr1mmal offences such as rape, murder, or
robbery w1th v1olence, before passmg the cases on to the H1gh Court for judgment.
o Conducts mqu1r1es mto unnatural deaths.
Supreme Court (cr1m1nal and civil diVISions) o The cr1mmal diVISIOn of the High Court tr1es cases brought by the police and passed from the
Magistrates' courts. Cases are heard before a Judge and JUry. The Jury determines the verd1ct based on
evidence presented. The JUdge hears ev1dence, d1rects the Jury on aspects of the law, and also 1mposes
the sentence.
o The civil div1sion hears cases brought before 1t by 1ndiv1duals or mstitutions/bus1nesses, for example
d1vorce, custody, libel.
Appeal Court o A panel of three JUdges reviews cases/tnals from any of the lower courts. Th1s court may quash,
mamta1n, or vary the sentence 1mposed by the lower court or order a new tr1al.
Pr1vy Council I Caribbean Court of Just1ce (CCJ) o Based in England, the Pr1vy Counc1l serves as the fmal court of appeal for all those Caribbean countr1es
wh1ch have not yet adopted the CCJ as the1r fmal court of appeal. It rev1ews appeals referred to 1t from
the Appeal Court of the countnes wh1ch 1t serves.
o The Caribbean Court of Justice was established to serve as the fmal appellate court for Car~com
countr~es {appellate JUriSdiction) and to settle disputes between Car~ com countr~es wh1ch may ar1se 1n
the mterpretat1on and apphcat1on of the prov1s1ons of the Rev1sed Treaty of Chaguaramas (or~gmal
JUriSdiction). Most Car~com countr~es have now adopted 1t as the1r f1nal court of appeal.

Tabl e 2. 12: Courts and the1r funct1ons

Discuss the following questions in a small group.
1 In view of the way in which judges are appointed
in the Caribbean, can the judiciary be considered
independent of the executive?
2 Can people who have to take legal action against
the government be expected to have confidence in
the administration of justice?
3 What effect may public criticism by the executive
have on the judiciary?
1 Define the term '"judiciary".
2 Identify TWO of the courts that make up the
judiciary and state ONE function of each.
3 Explain what you understand by the statement "The
judiciary should be independent".
4 Outline TWO ways in which people may benefit
from an independent judiciary.

Organize a visit to the criminal division of the
Supreme Court to observe the procedure.
2 Stage a mock trial on return to class.
Find out if government-sponsored legal aid is
available in your country
2 Find out who can access it.
Role of the police in the court system
Though not part of the judiciary, the police
complement its work.
The police:
o investigate reports of crime, arrest and charge
suspects, and bring them before the courts
o provide the court with evidence and witnesses so
that it can arrive at a judgment
o provide protection for witnesses who are required
to give evidence in trials
o maintain order and security during court
sittings
o act as prosecutors in court cases (senior officers)
o keep criminal records
o execute warrants to remind individuals of court
dates
o keep exhibits to be used as evidence in cases.
•
The prison system
The courts also use the prison system in their work.
In dispensing justice the courts sometimes impose
prison terms on convicted individuals.
The courts may send individuals to prison to:
o punish and deter them from repeating the offence
o be reformed through exposure to counselling,
acceptable values and attitudes, and the
opportunity to develop basic educational skills
o protect the victim and the society from the criminal
o inspire confidence in the judicial system (dispense
justice)
o deter would-be criminals from committing
similar or other offences.
Describe TWO ways in which the prison system
may help prisoners.
2 Suggest TWO measures which prison authorities
may use to improve the prison system.
3 Describe ONE community-based crime prevention
programme which the police have established in
your country.
4 Outline TWO ways in which a young person may be
affected by having a conviction for a minor criminal
offence recorded against him/her by the police.
Write a proposal to the minister of justice I attorney
general. arguing that convictions for minor criminal
offences should be removed from people's police
records.
2.16 The legislature
KEY IDEAS
o The legislature is the law-making branch of
government.
o Laws passed by the legislature may be declared
unconstitutional by the judiciary if they infringe
the rights of citizens.
o Theoretically the legislature is supposed to act as
a check on the executive.
o Legislatures in the Caribbean may be made up of
one or two houses.
o The executive controls the legislature because
all the elected members of the executive are
members of the House of Representatives and the
non-elected members are members of the Senate.
&
Bill:
a«·tt!';'''
A written document which contains a recommendation
for a new law.
Act: A bill passed by parliament and proclaimed by the
head of state; in other words, a law passed by a country's
government.
HEAD OF STATE
(Gover nor· genera II pres 1dent)
I upper house consists of appointed members. The
SENATE (appomted members)
I are chosen by the ruling political party with a
HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES
(elected members)
Figure 2.30: The structure of parl iament (bicameral)
The legislative branch of government in most
Commonwealth Caribbean countries is based on the
UK model.
The UK parliament consists of two houses. These
are the House of Lords, which consists of appointed
members, and the House of Commons, which
consists of elected members of the governing party
and the opposition. The monarch is at the head of
the UK parliamentary system.
In the Caribbean, parliaments may comprise of two
houses or a single house. If there are two houses
it is called a bicameral legislature and if there is
only one house it is called a unicameral legislature.
In bicameral legislatures both houses have equal
powers except that there is a restriction on the power
of the senate to introduce or amend some kinds of
financial legislation.
Where there are two houses, one usually consists of
appointed members and the other consists of elected
members. Where there is only one house it may
consist of elected members only or a combination of
elected and appointed members- as is the case in the
Commonwealth of Dominica and St Vincent and the
Grenadines.
In Guyana, non-elected ministers of government
sit in the parliament but they are not allowed to
vote. The president of Guyana, though elected in
national presidential elections, is not a member of
the parliament.
The house consisting of the elected members is
known as the House of Representatives or lower
house and it consists of elected members of the
governing party and the opposition. The Senate or
head of state is at the head of the parliamentary
system in Commonwealth Caribbean countries.
The majority of the members of the Senate
minority being chosen by the opposition. Some
independent senators are chosen by the head
of state in his/her own right. The independent
senators do not represent any political party.
In many coun tries, important constitutional
bills require the support of opposition or
independent senators.
The Senate reviews the decisions of the House of
Representatives. Many Caribbean countries retain
the Senate in order to supply the executive with
non-elected individuals who have critical skills and
expertise which may be lacking among the elected
members of parliament.
•
Fi gure 2 .31 : A Westm1nster·style parl1ament IS usually a long. rectangular room w1th two rows of seats and desks on e1ther s1de.
The government and the oppos1t1on usually s1t fac1ng each other. The speaker s1ts at the head of the room. Parliamentary clerks
si t between the two rows of seats.

Functions of the legislature 0 :r:.t 1s fj,.e. e.xe.c1Ative. fl,..o.t de.c•de.s w"'-t\t

The I louse of Representatives:
po.r£io. .....e."'1t wi£2. le. 1Slo.fe. or do o."''\d ~ot
o provides an opportunity for the government and
0
po.ri•o......e.~t.
opposition to discuss matters of national interest
o passes and repeals laws
o approves the national budget
o authorizes the government to spend money from
0 The. Mts wl,..,c~,.. o.re. po.sse.d •~ po.rl.o......e.~t
the treasury re.ffe.ct fj,.e. po£,c,e.s o.P fj,.e. e.xe.c1A1•ve. o.~d ~ot
o amends the constitution when necessary po.r£10.1'\.e.~ t.
o imposes ta..xes
o ratifies international treaties
o provides from its membership members of the
executive branch of government
0 The. e.xe.c1At•ve. worKs tl.-l.ro1A~I,.. po.rf•o......e.~t.
__..,
..J
o examines the administrative actions of the
government.
The following statements illustrate:
e "'1e......be.rs o.P t~,..e. co.b,~e.t o.re. ~ot e.xpe.cte.d to
~ove.r~.....e.~ t S
1
oppose. pofrcre.s.
o how the executive controls the legislature
o the weakness in the separation of powers.
G "'1ost o.f t1,..e. e.Xt~.l'\.r1ott\tro~ t~."'1d re.o.ctro~ to
0 The. le.~1s£o.f1Are. "'-t\rdf~ e.ve.r blocKs fj,.e. tl.-l.e. }tove.r~.....e-"11t 1s policre.s t~."'1d pe.r.for~~ce. is
e.xe.c1AfPie.. :r:t r1Abbe.r-sto......ps •fs w•sl,...e.s . d'o~ blJ tl,..e. opposrtio~ ·~ po.rlro......e~t.

G Th.e .f/:\ct tt-~.1:\t tt-~.e ~~ont;t o.f
pM£1/:\~e-11t/:\1J represe-111/:\t1ves befo-11 to tt-~.e
0
over-11i-11Q p/:\rt}t e-11S1Ares ft-1.1:\ t tt-l.e e.)(eC1Af 1Ve
0 passing laws.
0
L-I-1:\S co-11fro£ o-F tt-~.e £e 1s~t1Are.
The Senate:
o reviews and passes all bills referred by the House
of Representatives before sending them on to the
head of state for approval/assent/ proclamation
o introduces bills which are not of a financial nature.
The government of your country has set up a
constitutional commission to receive proposals
for reforming the constitution. You plan to submit
a proposal to the commission about reforming the
Senate. In your proposal, state:
a why the Senate should OR should not be retained
b why candidates who were rejected by the electorate
should OR should not be allowed to sit in the Senate
c why there should OR should not be an increase in
opposition members in the Senate.
Organize a trip to the House of Representatives to
observe procedure. Pay particular attention to the role
of the speaker, the leader of the house and the clerk of
parliament. Ask to see the standing orders of the House
of Representatives. Hansard (the official report of the
proceedings of parliament). the order paper, and the mace.
Following your visit. organize a parliamentary debate
on the following topic:
There should be a compulsory boot camp for
anti-social students.
Find out how many government. opposition. and
independent senators there are in the Senate in
your country.
2 Find out how many ministers and parliamentary
secretaries in your country are members of the Senate.
3 Comment on your findings.
2.16 The legislature
State TWO functions of the legislature other than
2 Give TWO reasons why a country needs laws.
3 State ONE factor which the legislature must
consider when passing laws.
4 Describe TWO characteristics of both the Senate
and the House of Representatives.
5 Give ONE reason why the majority of the members
of the Senate are appointed by the governing party.
Creative writing
The House of Representatives has rejected the budget
presented by the minister of finance. Write a letter
advising the prime minister on the action he should take.
The stages in making a law
There is a clear procedure for the making of a new law.
-Proposal
Preparation
of outline
Action
o Citizens or parliamentanans propose the 1dea for a law.
o The cab met prepares an outline of the proposed law and
sends it to the attorney general's off1ce.
Draft o Legal draftsmen 1n the attorney general's office prepare a
draft bill and send 1t to the cabinet for approval.
First readmg o Once the bill 1s approved, the relevant cab met m1mster
gives not1ce in the House of Representatives of his or her
mtention to introduce the bill.
o The b1ll1s presented to members of the House of
Representatives for study. It may also be presented to the
public or mterest groups for comments. At this stage it may
be dropped or modified based on the comments 1t rece1ves.
Second o The bill1s debated at length. If flaws or unintended
readmg outcomes are identified, the bill goes to the committee
stage (a group of parliamentarians from the government
and the opposition).
Committee o If a majority of parhamentanans agree that the bill
stage should go forward, a select group of parliamentanans
from all the part1es studies the bill in detail and
suggests/makes any necessary amendments.
Report stage o On completion of the review, the committee reports to
the House of Representatives.
Third o The amended bill is brought back to the House of
reading Representatives and debated and voted on.
Senate o If the bill is passed 1t 1s sent to the Senate or upper
debate house where the whole process is repeated.
AssenV o If the Senate passes the bill it is sent to the head of state
proclamation for Signature (assent). When the head of state s1gns and
proclaims it, the bill becomes an act of parliament. Th1s
g1ves 1t the status of law.
•
Table 2.13: The stages 1n mak1ng a law
 The role of the head of state in
parliament
The parliamentary fun ction of the h ead of state
includes:
o delivering the thro ne speech : this is a speech
delivered at the o pe ning of a sessio n of
parliament
o summoning, postponing, and dissolving the
various sessions of parliament
o approving bills passed in parliam ent
o appointing the prime minister and the leader of
the oppositio n
o dismissing a prime minister in circumstances
wh ere the H ouse of Representatives h as passed
a "no confide nce" motion against the prime
minister
o appointing or dismissing cabinet ministers on the
advice of the prime minister
o issuing writs for electio ns
o appointing sen ators .
The president ofTrinidad and T obago has the
authority to return bills to parliament.
The p resident of Guyan a can refuse to assent to a
bill once.
Ill
Handling data
Select one of the following topics to research:
The standard of debate in parliament
The behaviour of parliamentarians in parliament
Allowances for parliamentarians
1 Put the topic you have chosen into a research
question.
2 Identify two variables in your research
question.
3 Explain why you think it important to research
the topic you have chosen.
4 State two factors you will consider in
preparation for your data collection.
5 Identify one difficulty you may encounter in
collecting the data and explain how you would
deal with it.
Factual writing
Write a proposal to the attorney general for a new law.
In your proposal, state:
a why the law is needed
b why it would work
c penalties for breaking the law.
Suggest in your proposal TWO ways in which
government may allow citizens to make comments on
the proposed law.
Give ONE reason why citizens should be given an
opportunity to comment on the proposed law
2.17 Constitutional monarchy
KEY IDEAS
o A government system is the system used for
governing a country.
o The two main types of government system in
the Commonwealth Caribbean are constitutional
monarchy and republicanism.
o Commonwealth Caribbean countries practise
parliamentary government.
Absolute monarchy: A system of government in which the
country is ruled by a king or queen whose powers are not
limited by laws or a constitution.
Constitutional monarchy: A system of government in which
a country is ruled by a monarch whose powers are limited
by a constitution.
means government by a cabinet chosen from and
responsible to the parliament.
When the Caribbean countries gained their
independence from the UK, at first all chose
to become constitutional monarchies with a
parliamentary system of government. They therefore
retained the queen as their head of state. Governors-
general, whose powers are limited by the constitution
of their countries, have been appointed to act as the
queen's personal representative in these countries.
Their role in government is therefore also largely
ceremonial.
Figure 2.32 illustrates the structure of government in
a constitutional monarchy.

Government systems in the Caribbean

Constitutional United Kingdom
Republics
monarchies overseas territories
Commonwealth of Antigua-Barbuda Anguilla
Dominica
Guyana Barbados Bermuda
Ha1t1* Belize British V1rgm Islands
Sunname· Grenada Cayman Islands
Tnn1dad and Tobago Jama1ca Montserrat
St Kitts and Nev1s Turks and Ca1cos
Islands Representatives
St Luc1a
Figure 2.32: The monarchical system of government
St Vmcent and the
Grenadines
A number of Caribbean countries have elected to
The Bahamas
remain British territories. They are called United
Table 2.14: Government systems in the Canbbean Kingdom overseas territories (see Table 2.14). The
*Note: Ha1t1 and Sunname were not Bri tish colon1es. queen is their head of state. She appoints a governor
to represent her in each territory.
The UK is a constitutional monarchy with a
parliamentary system of government. It is a All the countries in the Commonwealth Caribbean
constitutional monarchy because it is a country ruled largely follow the principles of parliamentary
by a monarch, Qieen Elizabeth II, whose powers government based on the Westminster model used
are limited by the constitution. The Qieen's role in in the UK. Westminster is the place where the UK
government is largely ceremonial because in almost all parliament meets; hence the term "Westminster
matters she acts on the advice of the prime minister, model". However, it must be noted that Guyana does
who is the head of government and as such exercises not have a ceremonial head of state.
full executive authority. Parliamentary government
 The Westminster model
Some of the features of the W estminster model
include: CASE STUDY
Read the following opinions about constitutional
o the separation of the powers of government
monarchy in the Caribbean.
o a ceremonial head of state
o a cabinet system of government 0 As i.o...-.3' ~s ~t~-(1 CO'IA...-.tr;t re.lll.l:\t'KS ~
o a bicameral legislature co...-.stit1Atio...-.~ ~t~-O-N\rel!I.(J1 i'f wi£.£. ~ver ~ve
o a two-party system made up of a governing party ~ ...-.~tive u~d o.f st~te.
and an opposi tion party or parties
o parliamentary elections at least once every five

~(1 c.o1A...-.t;[j 3'~i...-.ed po£.ittc.~£.

years.
f)
The government depends on the support of ,...,.depe-...-.oe...-.ee .frD~t~. ~.....3'£.~...-.d lti.DY'e t~...-.
parliament in order to stay in office. It is made up (Je~rs ~ o.
mainly of members of parliament and it has to
4-0
0 Yet it eo...-.tt...-.1Aes to ~ve
.forei~...-. lti.D~rck ~s 1ts lil.e.M o.f stc.>.te. Th1s
~

obtain the approval of parliament for its policies. IS ...-.of ~ceept~b£.e. :rt ~t~-e~ .....s t~t ...-.o ...-.~ttve.

It is also answerable to parliament. o.f ~t~-(1 CO'IA...-.tr;t e~..... ~sptre to tu C.01A-t\fY(J's

"h'3""'e. sf o.f -A ee .
If at any time a government is unable to obtain
parliamentary approval for its budget or if
parliament passes a no-confidence motion against it,
the government can no longer continue in office. 0 C.~...-. 1'\.}t C01A-t\fY(J be CO-t\SIOeYeO fr1A£.(1
.
i...-.depe-~ .....1-' wl!l.e...-. it ~s ~ l!l.e.~d o.f sf~te.
wl!l.o is ~ c.itie;e....-. o.f ~.....3'~.....d ~ ..... d i.tves i...,.
. . . . . .a?
~ o£~
CASE STUDY
Dissolving parliament
In 1994 Mr Erskine Sandiford. prime minister of
Barbados. lost a no-confidence motion brought against 0 Co...-.stit1At,o...-.~£. ~t~.G...-.~re"'-(1111.1:\i...-.hi.. -.s
him by the opposition because a number of the tu co£o..... ,~ £i...-.J( hetwee...-. .....(1 co1A...,.fY(J ~.....a
members of his party voted with the opposition. ...
~ oh~.
Mr Sandiford advised the governor-general to dissolve
parliament and elections were called two years before
they were constitutionally due. Mr Sandiford's party lost
the elections.

Discuss the following question in a small group.

Should independent Caribbean countries have a
foreign monarch as their head of state?
Workmg with a partner. discuss and answer the
following questions.
1 Give reasons why members of a governing party
may JOin the opposition in voting against their leader.
2 Give THREE reasons why a member of parliament
may not vote against his/ her party in parliament.

•
2.18 Republicanism
KEY IDEAS
o In a republican system of government the
monarch is replaced by a non-hereditary head
of state.
o There are two types of republic in the
Commonwealth Caribbean: presidential and
parliamentary.
G at·ttl'ifl
Republicanism: A form of government which does not have
a monarch as the head of state but a president who is
elected by parliament or the electorate.
President
(Ceremomal head of state)
I
Pnme mmister
(Head of government)
I Elected and appomted members
I I
I Senate (opt1onal)
(appomted members)
House of Representatives
(elect ed members)
Figure 2 .33: The typical structure of government of republics
(except Guyana)
In the Commonwealth Caribbean, Trinidad and
Tobago, Guyana, and the Commmonwealth of
Dominica are called republics because they have
replaced the monarch with a native elected president.
How the president is elected and the powers which
he/she has vary in these republics.
The republics ofTrinidad and Tobago and the
Commonwealth of Dominica are parliamentary
republics. In these two republics the president
is elected by the members of parliament (the
electoral college) and holds office for five years.
The presidents in these two countries are titular/
ceremonial heads of state, like the governor-general
in a constitutional monarchy, and as such they have
limited executive power. The head of government,
the prime minister, is the one who exercises full
executive authority.
The Republic of Guyana
In the Republic of Guyana the situation is different.
Guyana is a presidential republic. Unlike the other
republics, the president is elected by popular vote
for a term of five years and is eligible to hold office
for a maximum of two terms. Although elected by
the electorate, the president is not a member of the
national assembly.
The president of Guyana is both head of state
and head of government. He/she is known as an
executive president because he/she exercises full
executive authority as the head of government.
PRESIDENT (executive)
Head of state and head of government
NATIONAL ASSEMBLY
Figure 2. 34: The stru cture of the Republic of Guyana
}
The role/power of the Guyana president
The president of Guyana has the power to:
o appoint the prime minister
o appoint the cabinet and dismiss cabinet
ministers
o appoint ministers to ministries
o assent to or refuse to assent to bills that
parliament has passed; refusal to assent may only
be exercised once in relation to any bill
o dissolve parliament and issue a writ for elections
o appoint ambassadors or high commissioners and
permanent secretaries
o appoint judges on the recommendation of the
judicial services commission.
Compare the functions of the President of Guyana with
those of a ceremonial president. Explain the difference
in the way the functions are performed.
•
 Research
Find out what is meant by "presidential republic" and Handling data
what is meant by "presidential-parliamentary republic". Consider the topic "Republicanism in the
Caribbean".
1 Write a research topic in the form of a question
based on the topic above.
2 Identify one research instrument that you
CASE STUDY would use to collect data on the research topic
Which is better for the region, and justify the choice of instrument.
constitutional monarchy or 3 The data collected for the question "Are you
republicanism? in favour of the country adopting a republican
Caribbean people/leaders are divided about whether form of government?" are illustrated in the
constitutional monarchy should be abolished in table below.
the region. Those who oppose it say that it keeps Age groups Number of Percentage of
colonialism alive in the region and stress the need for a respondents in respondents
native head of state. favour
In 2003 it was reported on BBC News America that both 20-29 5
major political parties in Jamaica were in favour of the
30-39 6
country adopting a republican form of government.
However. they differed on the role of the head of state. 40-49 8
The governing party, the Peoples' National Party (PNP) 50-59 13
preferred an executive president elected by the people. Over 60s 18
as is the case in Guyana, while the opposition party
preferred a ceremonial head of state. In 2011 the PNP Ta ble 2.15: showing the number of persons 1n
promised to make the country a republic. favour of the adopt1on of a republican for m of
governme nt by age g roups.
In 2003 the Barbados Labour Party promised that if re-
elected it would legislate to make the country a republic 4 Complete the table by calculating the total
before 2008. The party was re-elected but it did not number of respondents and the percentage of
pass the legislation to make Barbados a republic. respondents in each category.
In a referendum held in November 2009 Vincentians 5 State one reason for recording the data by
rejected republicanism. The results showed that 56 per age groups.
cent (29 000) of the voters voted against it and 43 per
6 State another category which may have been
cent (22 000) for it.
used to record the data.
7 State one significant conclusion which you can
draw from th e data in the table above.
8 Identify one source from which you may obtain
background information for your research.
9 Give one reason why citizens may be interested
in the results of your research.

Republicanism versus monarchy: working with a

partner. present arguments for or against both types of
government systems in the Caribbean.

Fig ure 2.35: Donald Ramotar. Pres1 dent of Guyana s1 nce 2011

-
2.19 Functions of governments
KEY IDEAS
o Government has legislative. executive. and judicial
functions.
o Government functions are performed by
ministries and government departments headed
by a minister and supported by civil/public
servants.
o Governments are judged by the manner in which
they perform their functions.
o People have certain legitimate expectations of
government.
o The national or central government may be assisted
in some of its functions by local government.
~it«•tlii i\1
The economy: All those activities that result in the
production and distribution of goods and services and the
creation of income in a country.
Figure 2.36: A functton of government IS to improve the
welfare of cittzens by provtdmg health care
The government is elected to manage the affairs of
a country on behalf of the people. The management
of the affairs of the country involves government
playing a role in many areas of activity. I n performing
its functions government recognizes the principle
that the people must be protected and served.
The national or central government has many
responsibilities.
o Improving the welfare of people
One function of the government is to improve
the general welfare of people. It may carry
out this function by providing social services
such as health care, education, housing, and
sanitation. Governments provide free health care
in government-run hospitals, free primary and
secondary education in public schools, and low-
cost housing for people.
The government also provides social security. The
needy are provided with welfare grants while the
elderly are provided with state pensions or pensions
paid by the country's national insurance scheme.
o Developing good relations with other countries
Officials are appointed by government to
represent their country in foreign countries.
The aim is to develop good relations with these
foreign countries for the purpose of increasing
exports to them and benefiting from any financial
or technical assistance they may offer.
o Providing internal and external security
People have to be protected from threats of
aggression from abroad, and acts of crime
and lawlessness at home. This is important for
the safety of the people and their property.
Government passes laws and employs a defence
force and a coast guard to provide protection
against external aggression and a police force to
maintain law and order in the cou ntry.
o Providing infrastructure
Government provides infrastructure such as
roads, air and sea ports, and water supply which
are too expensive for individuals or companies to
provide. These are necessary for the development
of the country.
•
 o Management of the economy
The economic management of the country is another
function of government. Government carries out
this function mainly through its budgetary measures.
Through these measures the government decides the
amount of taxes which individuals and businesses
will pay and how it will spend those taxes. How
the government spends the taxes it collects and the
amount of money which individuals and businesses
have available to spend will determine the level of
business activity in the country.
The level of business activity will affect the
country's ability to improve because it will
determine the number of jobs available, the extent
to which goods and services are produced for
domestic consumption and for export, and the
overall quality of life of the people.
o Protecting human rights
Government has a duty to develop and maintain
good relations between itself and the people in
order to gain their cooperation in governing the
country. Protecting people's human rights by
governing according to the constitution is one
way of doing this.
o D eveloping and managing the country's resources
The government has a responsibility to ensure
that the country's natural resources are developed
and managed in such a manner as to provide for
the needs of present and future generations.
o Protecting the culture of the country
A country gets its identity from its cultural
heritage. The foreign television stations, especially,
are enticing the people of the region to adopt new
cultural practices which appear very attractive.
1his represents a threat to Caribbean culture.
1he celebration of national cultural festivals is
supported by government in order to protect the
country's cultural heritage and maintain its identity.
Factual writing
Write a letter to your member of parliament outlining
how your community has been affected by the local
government always being short of resources.
•
Some members of your community are dissatisfied
with the quality of service which the government is
providing in the community and are threatening to
withhold their taxes.
1 Outline to the members ONE action which
government may take if they withhold taxes.
2 Suggest to them THREE alternative measures which
they may use to get government to improve the
quality of service in the community.
3 Explain why the measures may work.
Functions of the police
The functions of the police in society include:
o protecting life and property
o preserving peace and maintaining order
o preventing, detecting, and investigating crime
o apprehending suspects and placing them before
the courts
o investigating accidents
o enforcing traffic laws
o monitoring and regulating the flow of traffic.
Local government
A local government is an elected administrative
body which is responsible for carrying out some
government functions in a small geographic area of
the country, such as a parish, county, town, or city.
It can raise revenue for its work by levying taxes.
These taxes may be supplemented by grants from the
national government.
The functions of local governments include:
o maintaining local amenities such as recreational
parks, markets, and cemeteries
o maintaining local roads and bridges
o carrying out drainage works
o collecting and disposing of garbage.
1 Identify TWO taxes which people pay.
2 Identify TWO services which people expect the
government to provide.
3 Identify TWO services which the government provides
which are also provided by private businesses.
4 Name the administrative body which is responsible
for providing services on behalf of the government.
 The relationship between citizens and
2.20 governments as stated in the constitution

KEY IDEAS
o The constitution is the supreme law of the country
and governments must rule by it.
o Caribbean countries have similar constitutions.
o The constitution grants the government certain
powers and it also guarantees the individual
certain fundamental rights and freedoms.
o Individuals must give due consideration to the
rights and freedoms of others when enjoying
their own rights and freedoms.
o The individual's fundamental rights and
freedoms may be suspended in certain special
circumstances as stipulated in the constitution.
\D!it«•tlliii'i
Fundamental rights: Rights which the constitution
guarantees citizens.
Human rights: Rights that we are all born with, for example:
o the right to life
o the right to earn a livelihood
o the right to adequate food, water, and housing.
State of emergency: A situation in which a parliament gives
the government special powers to limit people' s freedom in
order to control an unusually difficult or dangerous situation,
for example the occurrence of an unusually high level of
crime, or the aftermath of an earthquake or hurricane.
0 ~ve. ri 1t\.ts P.-110 ovu-11~-11t
We.
0 0 ~t~.'"-St
re.spe.ct o-ur nolt\.ts.
e We. CP.-11-110t t P.J(e. 111.1). tte.rs i-11to o-ur ow-11
lt\.P.-110S wlt\.e.-11 o-ur r i 1t\.ts p.re. vio£p.te.o.
0
e --riM cost o.f 01-11~ to co-urt IS too lt\.1~"'- P.--11d
0
t"'-e wlt\.e.e.J.s o.f j-usfic.e. p.re. t-ur--11i-11 sfowe.r P.-110
0
slower be.c.P.-use. o.f tlt\.e. vo£-u~ o.f worl( w"'-ic.lt\. t"'-e
C01Arts lt\.p.ve. to oe.p.i. wit"'-.
Fundamental rights are rights that are provided for
in the constitution and which the state and its agents
must not violate. They protect the people from
discrimination and unfair conduct by the executive,
legislative, and judicial branches of the state.
The constitution cannot be changed by government
except by a special majority vote of both houses of
parliament. The constitution is also protected by the
judiciary. An individual may apply to the supreme
court to have any action or law which violates the
constitution declared null and void. Individuals
may also apply to the supreme court for redress if
a breach of any of their fundamental rights and
freedoms occurs .
The constitutions of Caribbean countries guarantee
people the following fundamental rights and
freedoms:
o Protection of right to life
N o person shall be deprived of his/her life
intentionally unless he/she has been found guilty
of a criminal offence and a court h as imposed the
death sentence.
o Protection of right to personal liberty
A person may only be deprived of his/her
personal liberty in the following cases:
1 I f convicted of a criminal offence and
sentenced to a term of imprisonment
ii In order to prevent him from spreading an
infectious or contagious disease
Ill In order to protect the community and

provide care and treat ment for the person

0 :r.t IS S~ti~S
j -ust1ce. w"'-e.-11 o-ur ri
if he/she is reasonably suspected to be of
ve. (}1-f.flc-ult to ae.t unsound mind, addicted to drugs or alcohol,
0"'-ft lt\.P.ve. be.e.--11 viofp.te.o .
or a vagrant.

II
 o Protection from slavery and forced labour
No person shall be held in slavery or servitude or
required to perform forced labour.
o Protection from inhuman treatment
No person shall be subjected to torture or to
inhuman or degrading punishment or other
treatment.
o Protection from deprivation or property
Government does not have the right to
compulsorily acquire an individual's private
property unless it is being acquired for a public
purpose. Where property is compulsorily
acquired, it must be done according to the law
of the country and the owner must receive fair
compensation in reasonable time.
o Protection from arbitrary search or entry
A person shall not be subjected to the search of
his/her person or property or the entry by others
on his/her premises without his/ her consent.
o Protection oflaw
All persons are to have equal protection
and benefits under the law. A person who is
charged with a criminal offence is entitled to
a fair trial within a reasonable time and by an
independent and impartial court established
by law.
Every person who is charged with a criminal
offence shall be presumed to be innocent until
he/she is proved or has pleaded guilty.
CASE STUDY
Kick-down-the-door police tactics
After a prison break there was a sustained increase in
violent crimes. As part of their crime-fighting measures,
police adopted "kick-down-the-door· tactics. Around
4 a m. they would kick open the doors of houses and
apartments where they suspected criminals were
hiding, hoping to catch them asleep.
Residents complained that they would be woken
up by a knocking on their doors and loud shouts of
"Police. police!" Then their doors would be kicked open
by armed police. who entered their homes without
producing any sort of identification or search warrant.
or stating what they were searching for.
II
o Protection of freedom of conscience
A person is entitled to enjoy his/h er free dom
of conscience, including freedom of religious
belief and freedom to spread his/ her religious
belief.
o Protection of freedom of expression
A person has the right to freedom of expression,
including freedom to communicate ideas and
information without interference.
o Protection of freedom of assembly and association
A person has the right to assemble freely and
associate with other persons in any group or
organization or political party and in particular
to form or belong to trade unions or other
associations for the protection of his/ her interests.
o Protection of freedom of movement
A person is entitled to move freely through his/
her country and to reside in any part of his/ her
country.
o Protection from discrimination on the grounds
of race, etc.
No persons shall be discriminated against on the
basis of their sex, race, place of origin, political
opinions, colour, or creed.
1 Define the term "fundamental rights".
2 Identify the fundamental rights which were violated
in the case study on the left.
3 Identify TWO documents which the police should
have presented to the householders.
4 Explain how the police's tactics described in the
case study might lead to an increase in criminal
activity.
5 Outline TWO ways in which the fundamental rights
and freedoms in a country's constitution contribute
to the people's quality of life.
6 Suggest THREE lawful actions wluch may be taken
by people whose rights have been violated by
the police. State why you believe each suggestion
may work.
 L:.L:u 1lle It:IctuOII::>IUIJ JJetWt'eu Cluzeu::; auu yuve!luuer t::; a::; ::ilateu u. li!e consutuuon
Suspension of rights and freedoms
Governments sometimes find it necessary to declare
a state of emergency and suspend the constitution
temporarily, therefore limiting people's rights and
freedoms. This may occur as a result of a government's
need for extra powers to deal with an unusually
difficult or dangerous situation facing the country.
Any person detained under emergency rule must be
given written grounds for his/her detention within a
reasonable time.
Figure 2.37: A government can suspend the constitution m a
state of emergency
Discuss the following questions with a partner.
1 Should there be a limit to how long a state of
emergency should last?
2 Would you support a state of emergency for the
reasons stated by the prime minister in the case
study above? Give reasons to support your answer.
CASE STUDY
A state of emergency
The prime minister of your country announced a state
of emergency after a surge in crime and gang violence.
Initially the state of emergency was imposed in a limited
area of the country for a period of six weeks. but it was
later extended to the entire country.
The emergency measures included a 21:00 to 05:00
overnight curfew. as well as increased powers for police
and military to conduct searches and make arrests.
The prime minister said that the aim of the state of
emergency was to halt the sudden surge in crime and
gang violence.
Your government plans to introduce legislation to give
it the right to monitor citizens' use of the Internet. It
claims that the legislation would help it in its fight
against terrorism. The opposition and some members
of government oppose the proposed legislation on
the grounds that it would be an invasion of citizens'
privacy
Write a letter to the editor of your local newspaper
which you will also post on your Facebook page,
outlining how the proposed legislation would affect
how you use the Internet.
Research
Identify one international organization which monitors
human rights abuses in your country
•
 2.21 Essentials of good governance
KEY IDEAS 6'1«•tll!lii1
o Organizations and systems must be put in place Corruption: Illegal or dishonest behaviour on the part of
to ensure good governance. someone who is in a position of authority.
o Good governance is necessary for the Transparency: The action of making public all the details
development of any country. about the decisions and actions taken by persons in public
o The opposition has an important role to play in office.
ensuring that there is good governance. Accountability: The act of persons in positions of authority
o Citizens have a responsibility to monitor the demonstrating that they have used their authority and
actions of the government. performed their duties properly.
Governance: The act of exercising authority.

The following statements highlight some of the

obstacles to good governance in the Caribbean.
0 So~ C.c>.ribbec>.-x C01A-xtries £c>.cJ( S)tsfe~~~.s
0 Too 11\.t\-x~
i-xdivid1Ac>.£s beco~ 1-xvo£ved i-x to pr0101.0te cr.ood cr.ove.r-xc>.-xce. Mt>.-x~ &ribbec>.-x
po£itics c>.-xd ~over-x~-xt -For t!.-1-e p1-(rS1Ait o-F co1A-xtries lio -xot 1.-\c>.ve oversi 1.-1.t co~~~.~~~.ittees
-Fe>.~ c>.-xd power t>.-xd .Port1A-xe rttt!.-1-er t!.-1-tt-x
0
w!.-l.ic!.-1. scr1Ati-xie:;e t!.-1-e c>.ctio-xs o-F p1-(b£ic o.P-hcic>.£s
se£.f£.ess represe-xttttio-x o-F t!.-1-e peop£e. to e.-xs1Are hc>.-xspc>.re-xclJ c>.-xd c>.cco1A-xtt>.bi£itlj"

. The exte-xsive powers o-F t~.-~.e pri~ ~~~.i-xisters Co-x.ff.ic t o-F i-xterest r1A£es P.re o-Fte-x
e1'\.C01Artt e t!.-1-e te-xde.-xc~ towttrds c>.1Atocrc>.tic broj(e-x bli ~~~.i-xisters P.-xd ot!.-1-er aover-x~-xt
0 aove.r-x~-xt. o.P-hcitt£s wit!.-1. i~1A-xitlj .

e The. ttbse-xce o-F t>. dec>.r t>.-xd e-F-Fective

0 So~ peop£e de£iberP.te£~ s1Apport
sepc>.rc>.tio-x o-F powers betwee-x t!.-1-e. exec1Ative 1 corr1Aptio-x i-x over-x101.e-xf ~eCt>.1ASe t!.-1-e~
t!.-1-e. £~isfut1Are 1 c>.-xd t !.-1-e j1Adicitt~ does -xot
0
be-xe-At .Pro~~~. it .
pro~~~.ote oood aover-xtt-xce.
'--
0 The SIOI.t>.il sif\e c>.-xd SOIOI.efl~s tke C\bse-xce
0 :I-x ~~~.ost C.c>.ribbec>.-x co1A-xhies it is -xot o-F t>.-x opposifio-x i-x pt>.dic>.~~~.e.-xt s wltl.ic!.-1. C\re
11\.t\-xdc>.tor~ -For ~~~~.be.rs o-F t!.-1-e. exe.c1Ative t>.-xd 1As1AC\££~ do~~~.i-xt>.ted blJ C\ si-x £e pc>.rt(j ~C\-x
ot!.-1-e.r kia!.-1.-rc>.-xj(i-xa aover-x~-xt o.P-hcic>.£s to 0
t!Mtt t!.-1-ere is £iH£e. or -xo ckecJ( o-x t!.-1-e
de.cfure. t!.-1-eir i-xCOIOI.e 1 ttssets, c>.-xd £ittbi£ities o-x pri~ ~~~.i-xiste.r C\-xd ec>.bi-xet i-x pt>.dit\~-xt .
e-xteri-x~ t>.-xd o-x £e.ttvi-x~ o-F-Ace. The oppositio-x is o.Pte-x de-xied c>.ccess to
t-co-x troHed ~~~.edit\ i-x so~
0over-x101.e-x
C.C\ribbet\-x co1A-xtrie.s.

II

Working with a partner. explain how each of the statements
on the previous page hinders good governance.
Figure 2. 38: The Ministry of Finance and Central Bank in
Trinidad and Tobago. Governments must manage financial
resources
The essentials of good governance include the
following.
o Participation/inclusiveness: Government
should recognize the diversity of the society and
give people of all races, ethnicity, gender, age,
religion, political persuasion, sexual orientation,
and class, etc. the opportunities to be consulted
on any decisions/policies to be implemented. This
would give them the opportunity to contribute
their views in the decision-making process and
feel that they are participating in t he government
of their country.
o Independence of the judiciary: The judiciary
should be free of political influence so that judges
can uphold the constitution and administer
justice impartially by deciding cases only on
the facts and the law. An independent judiciary
guarantees the rule of law and it should be
supported by an incorruptible police force to
enforce the law.
o Transparency: Government officials should
follow rules and regulations in making and
enforcing decisions and do so openly.
o Accountability: The prime minister, ministers,
and government officials should report to the
people, either in the legislature or via other media,
on actions or decisions that will affect them and
be willing to be criticized for them if necessary.
o Responsiveness to the needs of the people:
Government decisions and policies must be
geared towards meeting the needs of the citizens.
An efficient civil service is necessary to implement
government's policies in a timely manner, and to
deliver services impartially and efficiently.
o Access to government records: Access to
information under the control of public
authorities helps to minimize corruption.
Government records should therefore be
available to the public for scrutiny. Some
Caribbean governments have enacted Freedom
oflnformation Acts to make this possible.
o Prudent use of resources: Good governance
involves protecting the environment and
developing the country's natural resources
in a manner that meets the needs of both
present and future generations. It also involves
spending the country's financial resources in a
manner that contributes to the improvement
of the welfare of the people, while reducing
wastage.
o Tolerance of freedom of expression: People
should be able to criticize government policies
and officials without fear of victimization. This
should help to bring about improvement in the
way government functions.
The role of citizens in ensuring good
governance
Citizens can help to promote good governance by
monitoring the actions of government and voicing
their disapproval or taking lawful protest action
when necessary. Citizens may cooperate with the
government by paying their taxes on time, obeying
the laws and assisting the police in maintaining law
and order. Citizens' participation in elections helps
to ensure that inefficient or corrupt governments are
voted out of office.

Discuss the following questions in a small group.
1 Should members of parliament and other public
officials be made to disclose their income and
assets and liabilities on entering and leaving office?
2 What measures has your government put in place
for investigating allegations of corruption?
3 Describe some of the signs of lack of transparency
in government in your country
Research
Does your country have a Freedom of Information Act?
The follo wi ng case study hig hlig hts som e elem ents
of poor governance.
CASE STUDY
Elements of poor governance
A Can bbean newspaper listed the following reasons for
the government's unpopularity among the electorate.
o The prime minister's authoritarian leadership style
o Its neglect of human and physical development in
poor urban areas and the countryside
o Its inability to diversify the economy
o Its squandering of abundant financial resources
o Its acceptance of mismanagement and corruption at
some state corporations
o Its failure to hold local government elections in
four years
o Its failure to control crime
Quick questions
Use the mformation in the case study above to give
THREE actions which people regard as examples of
good governance.
2 Explain THREE ways in which a country may be
affected by poor governance.
3 Outline THREE actions which people may take to
promote good governance in their country.
4 Suggest THREE actions people may take to show
their dissatisfaction with poor governance Explain
why each action may be successful
•
Factual writing
The opposition party has won only two seats m
parilament m the last elections in your country There
are fears among the people that the opposition would
not be effective in ensuring good governance. Outline
for the benefit of the people how the mass media. non-
governmental organizations. and people may work with
the opposition to ensure good governance.
Identify the officials and the organizations whose
role it is to promote good governance in your
country.
2 Choose one organization or individual each. and
research its specific functions.
3 Present your findings to the rest of the class.
Handling data
You are conducting a study on good governance
in a multi-ethnic country.
1 State what you want to achieve from the study.
2 Give examples of two questions which you
would include in your questionnaire that would
not prejudice the responses of your s ample.
3 Explain why it would be important to include
representatives from all the ethnic groups in
your sample.
4 Explain why you would use a questionnaire to
collect data for this study instead of interviews.
5 State which type of question you would mainly
use in your questionnaire and explain why.
6 Identify two concepts which may need defining
in the questionnaire.
7 Explain how you would persuade those who
might be hesitant in participating in this study
to fill in the questionnaire.
 The role of the opposition in
2.22 ensuring good governance
KEY IDEAS
o The parliamentary opposition is part of the
democratic process in government.
o The parliamentary opposition shadows the
government and tries to keep it in check.
o The parliamentary opposition is recognized by the
constitution.
Q d!·llj:i;\j
Public accounts committee: A group made up of
government and opposition members of parliament which
is responsible for examining government expenditure, to
ensure honest practices.
Parliamentary question: A question asked of a minister on
the floor of parliament about a matter relating to his / her
ministry.
Shadow cabinet: A group of opposition politicians who
would become ministers if their party won the government.
The opposition in parliament in some Caribbean
countries is too small to present an effective
challenge to the government of the day. There has
been at least one occasion when the opposition
party did not win a single seat in parliament in a
Caribbean country. I n 1989 the New Democratic
Party of St Vincent won all15 seats in the House
of Representatives. In 1997 the St Lucia Labour
Party won 14 of the 17 seats in the House of
Representatives.
The opposition's aim is to let the government and
the electorate knows that it is ready and willing
to provide the country with better government. It
therefore seldom misses an opportunity to show
up the government's weaknesses and faults. It is
often able to propose alternative measures to the
government's.
The opposition helps to promote good governance in
the following ways.
o It speaks out against any tendency towards
autocratic rule by the government. It may be
expected to organize the citizens for protest
action if necessary.
o It holds the government to account by publicizing
examples of bad government. It may do this
during parliamentary debates or through media
broadcasts or rallies. It appoints a shadow cabinet
whose members monitor the work of particular
ministers and their ministries. In parliament the
"shadow ministers" ask parliamentary questions
concerning the responsibilities of the ministers.
o It ensures that the minority's concerns are
taken into account by raising their concerns and
grievances in debates.
o It ensures that legislation is carefully considered
by presenting dissenting opinions or making
recommendations. It may refuse to vote or even
try to have unpopular bills withdrawn.
o The opposition leader has to be consulted on
certain important appointments and may raise
objections where the correct procedures are not
being followed or the proposed candidate for an
appointment is unsuitable.
o The leader of the opposition chairs the public
accounts committee and may therefore highlight
any irregularities in government spending and
press for explanations or prosecution of the
minister or other government official associated
with any wrongdoing.
Discuss the following question in a small group.
The opposition in parliament is important to good
governance in a country.
Quick questions
1 Define the term ··opposition party'".
2 Explain one way in which the governing party may
frustrate the work of the opposition in parliament.
3 Give ONE reason why it is important to have a
strong oppos1t10n in parliament.
4 Suggest THREE ways in which the governing
party and the opposition party in parliament may
cooperate in governing your country
•
 Important institutions in promoting
2.23 good governance
KEY IDEAS
o The ombudsman's role is to ensure that people's
interests are not abused by government departments.
o The role of the auditor general and contractor
general is to detect and prevent corruption.
Numerous government bodies have been created
for the purpose of investigating citizens' complaints
of injustice from public officials and preventing
and detecting corruption. The individuals who head
these bodies can perform their functions fearlessly
because they are protected by law from political
pressures from the government. For example, their
salaries cannot be reduced and they cannot be easily
dismissed. Nevertheless, there is a public perception
that corruption still exists.
The ombudsman
The role of the ombudsman is to investigate and report
on allegations from individuals who claim that they
have suffered injustice as a result of poor administration
on the part of civil servants in a government ministry
or department. The purpose of the investigation is to
ascertain whether injustice has been caused by poor
administration. The findings are reported to parliament.
Poor administration includes loss of documents,
delay, bias, neglect, incompetence, and rudeness by
officials.These acts of poor administration are not
considered to be illegal acts and therefore victims
are not expected to take legal action against the
offending government officials or ministry.
The acts of poor administration which the
ombudsman is empowered to investigate relate
only to the administrative arm of government. The
ombudsman's task may therefore be seen as enforcing
the principle of accountability of the administrative
arm of the government to its people.
In St Lucia the ombudsman is called the
parliamentary commissioner.
The office of the auditor general
The auditor general or director of audit is a
government official who helps to promote
transparency in government by conducting
•
independent audits of every government department
at least once every year to see that money voted by
parliament has been spent for the purpose for which
it was approved and according to the regulations
governing such expenditure. He/she submits a
report of his/ her findings to parliament through
the speaker, who lays them before the members of
parliament. His/ her objective is to find out whether
government funds have been spent honestly.
The office of the contractor general
The role of the contractor general ofJamaica is to
monitor and investigate how contracts, licences,
permits, and concessions are awarded and implemented
in order to ensure that the system is fair and free of
corruption. The contractor general also monitors and
investigates how government assets are sold.
Belize is another Caribbean country which has a
contractor general.
CASE STUDY
Dealing with corruption
In October 2011. the contractor general of Jamaica stated
that sanctions for breaches of the Contractor General's
Act had remained at paltry levels for the last 28 years.
He further stated that. despite a commitment from the
government to make such breaches "more difficult. more
hazardous with stiff penalties for violations·. it passed
a law which stipulated "a fine not exceeding $1,000.00
Jamaica (US$12.00) or imprisonment for a term not
exceeding three months or both".
Source: Jamaica Cleaner, 28 October 2011
What are the functions of:
a the contractor general of Belize?
b the auditor general in your country?
Discuss the following question with a partner.
Are the penalties described in the case study
above a strong deterrent to corruption?
 Resources
KEY IDEAS
o All human societies depend on resources.
o Resources may be natural or human.
o Resources may be damaged by misuse.
c;Jd«•tlli;i)
Resources: Factors which can be used to meet human
needs and wants, and contribute to economic activity.
Natural resources: Features of the physical environment
which humans can use to satisfy their needs.
Human resources: Human skills, abilities, and qualities,
when cons:dered as a resource for the development of a
country or a business.
Irrigation: Use of water from wells or rivers when rainfall is
not suffic·ent for growing crops.
Every human society depends on resources. All the
countries of the Caribbean have natural resources,
which allow them to develop a prosperous economy.
Figure 3.1 : A production platform
The natural resources of the Caribbean include:
o resources for agriculture, such as the soil
o climate resources, such as rainfall, moderate
temperatures, and cooling winds
o rivers and other fresh water resources, for
drinking, household use, and for irrigating crops
o forest and wildlife resources, such as growing
trees and plants, which may provide pleasure to
people who live here and attract tourists
o marine resources, such as sandy beaches, fish or
coral reefs, and natural harbours for shipping
o mineral resources, such as limestone, bauxite,
gold, oil, and natural gas.
An important natural resource for the Caribbean is
its location.
The Caribbean is well located for tourism. For
most of North America and Europe, the Caribbean
islands are the nearest destinations for a winter
beach holiday. More distant islands such as
Mauritius in the Indian Ocean or Fiji in the Pacific
require long and expensive flights.
Figure 3.2: What resources can be used to develop tourism on
Jama1ca's north coast?
Caribbean islands are also well located for ships
passing through the Panama Canal, for example
from China to eastern North America or to Europe.
International ports, such as Kingston in Jamaica or
Freeport in the Bahamas, unload containers from
inter-continental cargo ships, store them, and send
them on to other Atlantic and Caribbean destinations.
Whether a country makes good use of its natural
resources depends on its people. For this reason, the
people of a country are sometimes referred to as Wh1ch natural resources are shown in each of the
human resources. photographs in this unit?

In this section, we begin by looking at the population

of the Caribbean, which provides the basis for its
"human resources". Next, we look at:
Find out what natural resources are found m your
o the different groups within the population country.
o where people live- the distribution and density
of the population
o population growth and change
o migration
o the development of human resources - health, Read the case study below. then d1scuss the following
questions with a partner
education, and career planning
1 Does your country have any natural resource
o the use of human resources - employment, problems. such as poor soil. a lack of energy
unemployment, and starting a business. resources. or a dry climate?
2 In what ways have human resources been
Then we look at the natural resources of the region, needed to make use of the natural resources of
how they assist regional development, and how they your country?
may be damaged by misuse.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
CASE STUDY
o The dry and sunny climate is bad for agriculture. but
Use of resources
attracts tourists.
Nassau is the most populated island in the Bahamas.
o Nassau is located close to North America. It is easy
It has 211 000 people - twice as many as Grenada or
St Vincent - on an area not much more than half the size to reach for tourists who live in New York. Toronto.
of those islands. Washington. and other large cities.
o For cruise ships based in Florida. Nassau's location
The island has few natural resources:
makes it a convenient port of call.
o The soil is thin and infertile.
o Rainfall is too low for most crops.
o Fresh water is imported, or produced by desalination
(removing the salt from sea water).
o The limestone rock can be used for building, but there
are no other mineral resources.
o Much of the island is covered by swamp and wetlands.
However. the island has a prosperous economy. Most of
those who live there enjoy a good standard of living. The
island does have some important resources, and good use
has been made of them:
o Nassau is centrally located within the Bahamas.
o It is the capital, with many government jobs.
o The island has a good natural harbour.
o There are good marine resources - sandy beaches.
coral reefs. and clear water with plentiful fish and Figure 3.3: Nassau has a prosperous economy, based
marine life. on tounsm

•
 Population
Area Proportion of population
KEY IDEAS
o The population is the total number of people living English-speaktng Canbbean 5660(XXJ 0.1% of world total
in an area. Jamatca 2 700(XXJ almost half English-
o Demography, or the study of population, helps speaking Canbbean
us understand the countries we live in and Parish of StJames 185 (XX) 7% of Jamaica
their needs. Montego Bay 96500 over half of St James
o All Caribbean countries have small populations. Paradtse and Albton 1,457 1.5% of Montego Bay
o Population groups may be defined, for example by
age, sex, occupation, ethnicity, or religion. Table 3.2: Reg1onal, nat1onal and local populations

All Canbbean islands 0.3%

Q d!•tl!1;\j Australia and Pac1f1c 0.5% USA and Canada 5%

Population : The number of people living in a place at a Lat1n Amenca 8%
particular time.
Demography: The study of population.
Ethnic group: A group of people who are seen as sharing
common cultural characteristics within a society: for
example, the Amerindian population in Guyana or the Afro-
Caribbean population in New York.
Human resource: People, when considered as elements in
a productive process.

Asia 60%
A population may be the total number of people:
o in the world
o in a country
o in one part of the world, however large or small. Figure 3.4: World populat1on by contment

The population of the world reached seven billion in Why we study population
November 2011. We are the population: The population is made up
M ost Caribbean countries have a small population, of people like us, our families, our friends, and our
by international standards. St Kitts and Nevis has work or school associates_We need to understand
the smallest population of any country in North our place in this wider human group and its culture -
America, South America and the Caribbean. in the local community, in the nation, in the
Caribbean region, and worldwide_
Country Population % of world total
Population as a human resource: Some people think of
China 134UXXHXXl 19.4 the population as a "human resource", which works for
lnd1a 1225 <XXHXXl 17.8 the development of a country and its society- We need
USA 310 (XX} (XX} 4.5 to know how fast the population is growing, and what
Brazil 195(XX} (XX} 2.8 are the talents, abilities and state of health of the people_
Jama1ca 2700(XXJ 0.04
Population and social planning: The population
Trinidad and Tobago 1350 (XX} 0.02
needs schools, hospitals, roads, housing, and other
Grenada 104 (XX} 0.0015
facilities. We need to know how fast the population
St Kitts and Nevis 52 (XX} O.<XXl8
is growing, where people live, how many elderly
Total world populat1on 689 5(XX} (XX} 100 people require health care, and how many young
Table 3.1: Populat1on for selected countnes and the world, 2010 children need places at schooL
Figure 3.5: A diverse population at Carnival. Which population groups are represented?

Population groups 2000 2010

There are many different groups of people in the Number of people 240204 312 700
total population. We can look at the population Households 53740 79300
according to various criteria: Average household s1ze 4.5 people 3.9 people

o Age: There are children, young adults, and
older people. For the purpose of analysis, the
population may be broken down into five -year
age groups.
o Sex: We can divide populations into male and
female.
o Occupation: The working population can be
divided between different industries, such as
agriculture or mining. Other groups include the
retired and full- time students.
o Ethnicity: In some countries, one ethnic
group is most common. Other countries are
more mixed.
o Religion: People may belong to one of many
different religious groups, or to none.
Households, families and individuals
In most countries, household size is becoming
smaller over time; more people live on their own, or
with one other person.
Tabl e 3.3: Populat 1on and household s1ze 1n Belize
Sex or gender and age groups
In most countries, more boys are born than girls.
The 0-5 age group has a slight male majority.
More women than men live to an old age. The over-
80 age group has a big female majority.
Male Female
Age0-4 51% 49%
75 or over 40% 60%
Table 3.4: Age group compositi on in Jamaica"s population
Occupational groups
The population may also be grouped by occupation, or
type of work. People change their occupation as they
progress from young children to school students, then
from one job to another as their career develops, then
into retirement. You will find more information about
occupational groups in the population in Unit 3.21.

Quick questions
Use Tables 3.1-3.4 and Figure 3.4 to help you answer
questions 1 and 2
1 Which continent has the greatest proportion of the
world's populatwn?
2 What percentage of the world's population lives in:
a India and China?
b the English-speaking Caribbean?
3 How many people live in the same household
as yourself? Make a list. and show how each
one is connected to you (e.g. mother. brother.
family friend).
Handling data
1 Draw two pie charts. to show the proportion of
males and females in Jamaica's population:
a In the 0-4 age group
b In the over-70 age group.
2 Explain the contrasts between the two age
groups:
a Why are there more males in the 0-4 age
group?
b Why are there more females in the over-70
age group?
., Discussion
Share your answers to Quick question 3 with the
rest of the class:
a Make a tally table to show the number of people
in your class living in households of each s1ze
( 1. 2, 3. 4 people. etc.).
b Use the data in the tally table to construct a
pie chart.
2 Discuss the class results.
a Which household size is most common?
b Do any students live in one-person households?
c Why is it difficult for school students to live in
one-person households?
Ethnic and religious groups
An ethnic group is a section of the national
commu nity seen as sharing a common identity.
There is no "scientific" basis for defining ethnic
groups, other than a sense of belonging, which may
come from history, language, religion, or culture.
Physical appearance or "race" may play a part in
shaping ethnic identity.
Ill
Ethnic identity is not fi'<ed. People may see themselves
as relating to many different groups, such as:
o a national community - for example, Belizean
or Bahamian
o an ethnic group
o the Caribbean community
o the worldwide community of people sharing one
planet, and living from its resources
o smaller local village or neighbourhood communities
o the family and household
o any other group with a common interest or identity.
Jamai ca Trinidad and Tobago
Chmese 0.3%
Black 92%
Figure 3.6: Ethn1c groups 1n Jama1ca and 1n Tnn1dad and Tobago
Many ethnic groups have developed or settled here
during the history of the Caribbean.
o Amerindian: The original inhabitants of the
Caribbean, and still an important group in
Guyana, Belize and Dominica, with smaller
numbers elsewhere. The Garifuna of St Vincent
and Belize are of mixed Amerindian and
African descent.
o Afro-Caribbean: The largest group in most
Caribbean countries. They are descended mainly
from former slaves, who were brought here by
force more than 200 years ago, but retained many
elements of Mrican culture.
o Indo-Caribbean: The largest single group in
Guyana and Trinidad, with smaller populations
in Jamaica, St Lucia, and other islands. Most are
descended from indentured labourers, brought to
work in agriculture after the abolition of slavery;
some are from more recent migrants.
o Mestizo and Hispanic: This group of mixed
Amerindian , Spanish, and other descent forms
half the population of Belize.
o White: There is a white minority in all
Caribbean countries. Some are descendants of
wealthy plantation owners and merchants, and
 3 .2 Popurcmon

of lower-income colonial settlers. There are also

more recent migrants, mainly from Europe and
North America.
o Some groups have a distinct ethnic identity, but
are similar to white Caribbean people in physical
appearance. Portuguese from the island of
Madeira came as indentured labourers. There is e ~'}t pv..re.-...ts v..re. -tr~ H~•ti, h1At :r: w~s bor-...
a small Jewish community in some islands, such
•...,. t~e. !Sv..M~s . :r: se.e. ~{Jse.i.f ~s botk H~iti~ .....
as Jamaica. Syrian-Lebanese migrants from the ~..... d BAAv..~i~-... .
Middle East came in the 20th century.
o Chinese: The first Chinese migrants came as
indentured labourers. There has been a second
wave of Chinese migration since the 1990s.
o M ixed heritage: An increasing proportion
of Caribbean people are of mixed heritage.
They have parents, grandparents and great-
grandparents from many ethnic groups, and draw
on varied family and cultural traditions.
Quick questions
There is also a wide variety of religious groups.
For many people, religion is a family and cultural What are the two largest ethnic groups in:
a Jamaica?
tradition. For others, religious affiliation is a personal
b Trinidad and Tobago?
matter, based on choices of faith, group identity, 2 Draw pie charts to show the ethnic and religious
ethics, and belief For some, religion is an essential groups in Belize. using the data in Table 3.5.
part of daily life; others have a broadly secular
outlook, in which religion plays little part, or none. Ethnic groups Religious groups
Mest1zo, Hispanic 50% Chnstian 83%
Where a religious group has a strong sense of Afro-Canbbean
identity, it may also form an ethnic group. 21% ... Roman Catholic ... 40%
(Creole)
Maya 10% ... Pentecosta I ... 9%
Jamai ca Trinidad and Tobago
Other .----No M1xed, other 607.' Other religions 1%
Garifuna 5% No rellg1on 16%
Mennomte 4%
lndo-Canbbean 2%
Chinese 1%
Wh1te 1%
Ta bl e 3.5: Ethnic and relig1ous groups 1n Belize
Seventh Day Anglican 9% 3 Describe THREE contrasts between the ethnic and
Adventist 11% religious composition of Behze and eJther Trinidad
and Tobago or Jamaica.
Figure 3.7 : Relig1ous groups 1n Jama1ca and 1n Tnn1dad
and Tobago

The following comments show how various

Caribbean people might describe themselves.
0 :r: ~~ A.fro-CP.nbbe.~-.... -nw.t is v.. stro-...
0
C1Ait1Arv...£ ke.ntv..Oe.' b1At ~u oro1Aps .five. tooe.tke.r
~s o-...e. pe.opie. i..... tk•s C01A-...t1f.
Discuss the following questions in a small group.
1 Do you see yourself as a member of an ethnic
group? If so. wh1ch one?
2 Which other population groups and communities
do you see yourself as a member of?
3 How important are ethnic and religious identity in
the population?

•
 The census
KEY IDEAS
o In a census. the government collects information
about the population. In most countries. a census
is held every ten years.
o The census includes individual and household
questions.
o Census information helps the government plan
health, education, and infrastructure.
o Businesses use census information to plan their
activities.
o Other information. such as registered births and
deaths, can help estimate population trends.
~d!•tl!iil'l
Census: A government survey to collect information on the
population, usually repeated every ten years.
Enumerator: A worker who collects information during a
census.
Infrastructure: Structures and equipment used for transport,
communcations or utilities, includi ng roads, ports, and
electricity generation and transmission systems.
Figure 3.8: A census enumerator at work
In most countries, the government organizes a cens u s
every ten years, to collect information about the
population and help plan social and economic policy.
Census workers are called enumerators. They visit
every household, and ask questions about:
o the how;ehold
o each individual person
o the house or apartment.
Th e answers arc entered on an official census form.
1here are many stages in completing a census:
o The whole operation is carefully planned.
o Enumerators interview every household.
o ~estionnaires are checked.
o Data is entered into a computer system.
o Tables are prepared to report results.
o A full census report is written and published.
1he enumerator must keep the answers to the census
questions confidential. The answers for individual
people and households are not published, but the
total number of responses for each area of the
country are calculated and made public.
Not published:
0 "'\rs .:fo-xe.s IS 4-8~e.t:\YS
old, d1vorce.d t:\-xd t:\
~~t~.be.r o.f tiM- BApt1st c.k1Arck. Ske. e.t:\r-x.s
"U$~14- soo (:\ ~e.t:\Y.
Published:
0 2. .3% t:\re. ~~t~.be.r.s o-P tke.
&.phst ck1Arck.
0 5.2.% o-P tiM- pe.opie. 1-x tk1s district
e.t:\r-x "USJID-IS 000 t:\ ~e.t:\Y.
Research
When was the most recent population census in
your country?
2 What was the population of your country at
that date?
CASE STUDY
Jamaica's 2011 census Like most Caribbean countries. Jamaica completed
a census in 2011 . The Statistical Institute of Jamaica
'II te \/HI\ Til U 1\\Till (f OF J Ul \1(' \
1"('0111\ organized the census. and made every effort to keep the
population informed about the purpose of the census.
11\\IJ.II'I ' IIOl ..,tllfll l) and how it was organized. They used the Internet. a
IT' IT' Facebook page, brochures. newspapers. radio. and
M 14W$ television. There was a Census in Schools programme.
so that school students could help keep their families
informed.
II I• _._,..._.. .

0 \t•
0 1.......

eve.1f~ CO'IA-...ts - Y01A, ~, N.J. t\ WI

Slogan used for the Jamaican 2011 census

1_\\\h..t )\ HIU/ •n-l•tt.....hoploltwlw... Jtlw~~'"

o 11_. o c...... ...,.., "...''*"• ''al1-'
0 " " ,,, ......,.,,'-' O ......... fll tlftlll.......,...,......,
0 .......llrf",_,...._.,,_"hrtowr
O t _ , , .• ......_,,., ,..._.
O tWW.t ll .... .-1\,._.?_t o c..-.. w...t.uo.ol ll•..d.' '"- '.."""
Enumerators asked questions like these.
O t"""'.tll.._.lllol• 0 1~ ......,"'
O t11We1,,_..,..,._,t,_.
O ',o.o...- 1-.ortlofflll( tr.~
O llillrr'-kd.b<o'
() ' "" ' !.IN
Household questions:
I ., , .. . ._t.ra-. '"' d.lll.lf'-t' • ..W• .. ~•·- ......_. .,.. &I \II( \Ji t.f*-11' o How many rooms does this household occupy?
0 "'"'
O t ll•- 0 Odwo •'IJKd• • o What is the main type of material used in constructing
0 \ln.,.
O l..t iM•• the roof?
o Does the bathroom have a fixed bath or shower?
o Are the facilities shared with another household?
Table I.J Urban/Run! Distribution o(the Population by Parish: 1991 and 2001 o What type of fuel does this household use most
for cookmg?
Porc:mtac< Annual (~) Rate
Parish 2001 1991 ~ of Growth
o Is there an Internet connection?
1991-2001 1991-2001
J AMA ICA l HTI/.31 2,JIIOA'6 9 53 0.118
un-
Run!
1355 .346
1.252286
1.192J)t8
1,188.618
13.70
5.36
1.29
0 .52
Individual questions:

""'- Urban
S1 Andrew
un-
96.0S2
555.828
483.083
99.761
539.880
466.100
-3.72
2 95
3.64
-OJ6
0.29
O.J6
o What is your date of birth?
o To which race or ethnic group would you say
you belong?
Run! 72,745 73,780 - 1.40 -0.14
S.. Thomos 9 1,604 84,701 815 0 .79 o Do you experience difficulty in doing any of the
un- 1SJ 17 2 1,900 17.93 1.66
following:
RIU1ll 6S.m 62.801 4 74 046
l'o<tl-.l 80.205 76JI 7 5.o9 o.so o Seeing
Urban 18.809 15.904 1827 1.69
Run! 61396 60,4 13 1.63 0 .16 o Hearing
S.Mary 11 1.466 108.779 2 47 024
247
o Walking or climbing stairs
Urban 23.153 22.596 024
Run! 88J il 86.183 247 024 o Remembering and concentrating?
s. Ann 166.762 149,426 1160 110
Urban 44.666 36.606 22.02 2.01 o How many days did you attend school in the first week
Run! 112,096 112.820 822 0 .79
Tret.wny 73,066 7 1203 2.62 026
of March. 201 1?
Urban 14.290 13.101 9,08 0.87 o Have you used a computer from any location during
Run! 58.776 58.102 116 0 .12
St James 175.117 154.195 13.58 128
the past three months?
Urban 96,490 85,097 13J9 126 o What was your usual mode of transportation during
Run! 78.637 69,098 13J I 1.30
the past six months?
Figure 3.9: A page from Jamaica's 2011 census form (top), o Have you ever been trained for any specific job or
and results from the 2001 census (below). occupation?

Ill
 The government needs census information to plan
public services, as follows.
Look at the Jamaican census questions on the
previous page. o Education: Is there an increase in the number
a Copy out two individual questions. and two of children aged 0-5? If so, new primary
household questions. schools will soon be needed. A few years later,
b How would you have answered each of these there will be a demand for extra places at
questions? secondary schools.
o Employment: How many people
Why we need population statistics are of school or university age?
In a few years, they will be looking
for jobs.
o Health care and welfare: Is the
number of elderly people increasing?
If so, more care facilities and
hospitals will be needed.
o Housing: Is the population
increasing? If so, more houses must
Age : 5-9 years
be built.

==
Total per square kilometre
0-25
liil! 2s- so
o Roads, electricity and water supply:
Which areas have the most rapid
population increase? They will
- 50-100 need improved infrastructure- new
- 100-400 roads, and improved water and
- >400 electricity supplies.
Businesses may also use census
information. For example, a
supermarket company may use the
census to help decide where to open a
Figure 3.10: Census data map for Trin1dad, showmg where children aged 5-9 new branch. Companies launching a
were l1vmg at the t1me of the 2000 census. How could this 1nformat1on help new product can estimate how many
plan where to bu1ld new schools?
potential customers they have.

0 01Ar -M-IN dr i-t\)( is t>.i~~~..e.d l'<t tke.

te.e.-t\t>.~e. I'I!Ar)(.e.t . 1he.re. t>.re 2..2.. DOD
'}tcnA-t\~ people. "-(}'e.d .frehol. II to ({. 1-t\
fi,...is C01A-t\t1J - t>.-t\d t~.o~.e. -t\1Ato~.be.r is
(}'Y'OINI-t\(}' e.VeY(J{jel'<r.

Figure 3.11 : A new school under construct1on at Curepe in Trimdad and Tobago

Ill

Other sources of population data
Between censuses, other data can be used to estimate
population change, such as the number of registered
births and deaths.
In every country, births, deaths and other important
personal events must be registered. I n Jamaica, for
example, this is the responsibility of the department
of the registrar general.
Quick questions
Look at Figure 3.10. On a blank map of the area
shown, indicate:
a three places which would be a good location
for a new school
b a good location for a new supermarket
c an area where housing conditions need to
be improved.
2 What facilities would the government need to
construct in areas with:
a many children aged under five?
b many elderly people aged over 75?
c a rapidly increasing population?
3 How should a telecommunications company use
information about areas where many people do not
have access to the Internet?
Handling data
Working as a class, design a simple census form
with one question about each of the following:
a the number of people in the household
b the material used to construct the house
(wood, concrete blocks, etc.)
c the fuel used for cooking.
2 Each member of the class should act as an
enumerator, and complete the form with three
nearby households.
3Working as a class, tally the results of each
question and produce a table showing the
answers for each question.
4 Produce pie charts showing the results for
each question.
Write a short written report on the findings of your
class census.
Sheldon says that census questions are intrusive,
because the enumerator is asking about his private
affairs. Should he have the right to refuse participation
in the census? With a partner, agree on one argument
in favour of Sheldon's view. and one argument against it.
•
 Population density
To calculate population density, use this formula:
KEY IDEAS
o Population density indicates the concentration of Population 7 area (sq km) = population density
people within an area.
o Population density is usually measured in people For example, if an island has a population of 80 000
per square kilometre. and an area of 400 sq km, the population density is:
o Population distribution describes areas of high
80 000 7 400 = 200 people per sq km
and low population density.
o Population distribution is influenced by relief. For Belize in 2010, the population was 232 000. The
climate. work opportunities. and living conditions. area of the country is approximately 23 000 sq km.
So the population density was:
232 000 23 000 = 10.1 people per sq km
~di•fltJ;I'I
7

Population density: The concentration of people within a

particular area, usually measured as the number of people
per square kilometre.
Population distribution: The location of people within a Name two areas in the Caribbean with more than
wide area, which may include smaller areas of high or low 1.000 people per square kilometre. and two with
population density. fewer than ten
Relief: Describes the surface of the earth, which may be 2 Calculate the population density in these examples:
flat. mountainous. or gently sloping. Population Area
a 50000 100sqkm
b 200 000 2.500 sq km
Some parts of the world are crowded with many c 82100 148 sq km
people; others are almost empty. Population density
measures how many people there are for each unit of
The population distribution of a country indicates
land. This table gives some examples.
where people live. There is usually a dense population:
Density (per km 2 ) o around large cities, where there are many job
Jamaica (2001) 2 608 000 10990 237 opportunities
l<mgston and St Andrew 651880 453 1439 o on flat land, where it is easy to build roads
Pansh of Trelawny 73066 875 84 and houses
Antigua-Barbuda (2001) 63863 440 145 o close to major roads, with good transport services
Ant1gua 62 538 281 223 o on fertile land, where farms are productive
o close to mineral resources, such as bam,ite or oil.
Barbuda 1325 161 14
The Bahamas (2001) 255 049 13 940 18 There is usually a sparse population:
Nassau 210 832 207 1018
o in mountains and on steeply sloping land, where
Island of Andros 7686 5957 1
it is difficult to build
Guyana (2002) 760 000 215000 3.5
o in swamps and wetlands
Reg1on 4 (Georgetown) 310320 2232 139.0 o in areas with poor soil, where farming is difficult
Region 9 (Upper Takutu o in isolated areas with poor transportation.
19 387 577r:JJ 0.3
-Upper Essequibo)
Population distribution is affected by several factors:
Table 3.6: Populat1on dens1ty 1n areas of the Canbbean
o Relief: Most settlements are built on flat
or gently sloping land. Few people live in
mountainous areas .

•
o Climate: Few people live in deserts, or in very
cold areas such as the Canadian Arctic.
o Work opportunities: Many people live where
jobs are available: for example, close to large cities,
mining areas, or tourist resorts.
o Living conditions: Where people are able to
choose, they prefer areas where living conditions
are pleasant, with good health and education
facilities, a spacious living environment and a low
crime rate.
In many Caribbean islands:
o Most people live close to the capital, which was
usually built next to a natural harbour, on the
sheltered leeward coast, away from the direct force
of the trade winds. Today, most job opportunities
are located in or close to the capital city.
CASE STUDY
Population density in Grenada
Sauteurs
~
!
_;: Gouyave
.~
o There are many rural settlements in productive
agricultural areas, usually close to the coast or in
river valleys.
o Few people live in mountainous and thickly
forested areas in the interior.
What is the area of your country in square kilometres?
What IS the total population? Calculate the population
density
2 How does the population density of your country
compare with that of other countries in the Caribbean?
Print a Google map that shows the areas where
students from your class live. It may cover the
whole of a small country, or a particular area in a
large one. Mark the home of each student in your
class with a dot. Discuss the followmg questions:
a In which areas do most students live?
b What are the reasons for the distribution shown
on your map?
2 Make a map of your country. Show.
a two areas with a high density of population
b two areas with a low density of population.
Compare your results with some of your classmates'.
Discuss the reasons for the areas of high and low
population density you have shown.

:;
f
~
.~
:s

• 1,000 people
5

Figure 3.13: Many coastal areas 1n Barbados have a high

Figure 3.12 : Populat1on dens1ty 1n different areas of population dens1ty
Grenada

•
 Population growth
However, the rate of population growth has now
KEY IDEAS
slowed, both worldwide and in the Caribbean. Many
o The world's population has grown rapidly, and at
an increasing rate. people expect the wo rld's population to reach a
o Birth and death rates measure births and deaths total of between 9 and 11 billion by the end of this
per 1,000 population. century, and then to stabilize.
o Natural increase is the excess of births over deaths.
In 8,000 BC the wo rld population was 5 million; by
o Population growth is influenced by natural
increase and inward or outward migration. 0 AD it was 300 million. It took until1800 to reach
the first billio n.
7 r
®11!·tlti ;ij ........
V>
c
6
Birth rate: The number of births each year per 1,000 9 5
population; e.g. 12 births per 1,ooo population. i'i 4
~

c
t
Death rate : The number of deaths each year per 1,ooo 0
.;:; 3
population; e.g. 8 deaths per 1,ooo population. ~
::::>
0.
2
Natural increase: The birth rate minus the death rate. In 0
a.. 1
most countries, there are more births than deaths, so the
population is increasing. If the birth rate is 12 per 1,000 0
1800 1850 1900 1950 2000
and the death rate is 8 per t,ooo, the rate of natural
Year
increase is 12 - 8 4 per 1,ooo.
140
"0
"0
ro 120
.£ ...
V> c 100
'- 0
ro - 80 t
Cll=
>-i'i
- Cll
0 c 60
~ 0
.0 40
E 20
::::>
z
0
1800- 1925- 1960- 1974- 1987- 1999-
1925 1960 1974 1987 1999 2011
Year
Figure 3.15: World populat1on growth

Quick questions
What was the world's population in:
a 1925? b 2011 ?

........ 3
.
+I
V>
c -+
9
Figure 3.14: Global populat1on has grown rap1dly in 2 ...
recent times ,§_ _J_
c f-
9
The world's population has grown rapidly. Population ~
::::>
increased from three billion in 1960 to seven billion 0.
&.
in 2011. 0+-~-+----+--L-r----+--
1840 1880 1920 1960 2000
In most C aribbean countries, the population also Year
grew rapidly in the 20th century. Figure 3.16: Popu lat1on growth 1n Jama 1ca
Natural increase and population growth
Population growth is affected by: Handling data
o births 1 Use the data in Table 3.7 to draw a line
o deaths graph showing population growth in Trinidad
o migration. and Tobago.

1hese are usually measured as a rate per 1,000 people.

Birth rate = births per 1,000 population 1851 82900 1931 412800
Death rate = deaths per 1,000 population 1861 99800 1946 563200
Migration rate = migration per 1,000 population 1871 126 700 1960 834400
Natural increase is the difference between births and 1881 171200 1970 945200
deaths: 1891 218 400 1980 1079800
1901 273900 1990 1213 700
Natural increase = Birth rate - Death rate
1911 333600 2000 1262 400
So if the birth rate is 25 per 1,000 1921 365900
and the death rate is 15 per 1,000
Table 3.7: Populat ton growth 1n Tnn1dad and
then the natural increase = 25 - 15 = 10 per 1,000. Tobago
If we also consider the migration rate, we can 2 Calculate the percentage increase in
calculate the rate of population increase: population in Trinidad and Tobago for these
periods:
Population increase = natural increase + migration
a 1960-70
Migration can be positive and negative depending b 1970-80
on how many people leave or enter the country.
c 1980-90
So if the natural increase is 10 per 1,000 d 1990-2000.
and migration is -3 per 1,000 3 Write a short statement describing the changes
then the population increase= 10 + (- 3) = 7 per 1,000. in population growth rates in Trinidad and
Tobago from 1960 to 2000.
This number can also be given as a percentage.

7 per 1,000 = 7-:- 1,000 X 100 = 0.7%

Actual Rate per
I I I I I I I
numbers 100 What was the population of your country at a
B. t •

'
I
o
I
o

I
o
1
'
I
I
I
I
r t400 census taken in the mid-20th century?

~~i
How does this compare to the population in the
: 17600 6.5
most recent census. which you found in Unit 3?
...

~ 26400 +9 8

20000 74 Discuss the followmg questions in a small group.

1 How has population growth affected your country?
+6 .400 +-24 What has changed as a result of population
+ t
growth?
2 Are any problems likely to result if the world's
0 10 20 30 40 50
Thousands
population continues to grow rapidly?
Populat1on at start of year 2692400
Populat1on change +6.400
PopulatiOn at the end of year 2698800

Figure 3 .17: Natural mcrease 1n Jama1ca, 2009

•
 Birth and death rates
In most countries, birth rates are lower than they were
KEY IDEAS in the mid-20th century. A s you saw in Section 1,
o Birth rates and fertility rates have fallen since the
mid-20th century. changes in quality of life, the status of women, and the
o Infant mortality has been reduced. availability of birth control have led to people having
o Life expectancy has increased with improved smaller families.
public health and nutrition.
Today, birth rates are usually highest in low-income
o Lifestyle diseases are a threat to public health.
cou ntries, where birth control is not readily available,
few women have jobs away from the home, and few
resources are available for education or health care.
\l:ld«•tttt;\'1
Fertility rate The average number of children which a woman 45 - -~ r T

can expect to have during her lifetime. If the fertility rate is ... ..
40
.. r + r ;

2.0, the average woman can expect to have two children.

35 ;-
r I
r ~

Infant mortality: The proportion of babies who die before

reaching their first birthday. It is given as a rate per t,ooo; .l!! 30 ~
r
ro
e.g. 7 infant deaths per t,ooo births. ~ 25
Life expectancy: The number of years which an average d) 20
t t
person can expect to live. 15
10
r1
5 ~tr+~tt +tt
0 ~lJ "'-ot~r kt\d te.~ brot~r.s "'~d .S1.ste.r.s. ::r 0+----.---,,---;----.----.-~
1-\t;\Ve. two brot~r.s, t>.'Y.d "' .s1.ste.r. Now ::r:. kt\ve. j1A.st 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year
o~e. d"'1A(}'I-I.te.r o-f ""lJ ow-y.. Sl-l.e. 1s e.i !-l.t lJe."'rs oi.d.
0
:r: worl( 1-\t;\rd "'t twojob.s, so sl-\e. 1-\t;\S e.ve.'"lJtl-\i-y.(}' Figure 3.18: B1rth rates 1n Jama1ca and Barbados
s~ -y.e.e.ds . :r: do-y. 't e.xpe.c t to kt\ve. "'-y.lJ ~e..
The fertility rate
The fertility rate is the number of children that, on
e :r: Wt;\'Y.t to stc>.rt "' .f"'""1llJ w(....e.-y. ::r:. "'""
average, a woman will give birth to in her lifetime.
t;\r01A'Y.d 29. ::r:. witt be. """-t1Are. e.-y.o1A !-I. . ::r:. sl-l.o1Ald o A fertility rate greater than 2.0 usually leads to a
0
kt\ve. ""lJ ow~ l-\o1Ase. 1 p.-y.Q P. tl-l.nVI'Y.a ~re.e.r to growing population .
.s1Apport tl-l.e."". o Where the fertility rate is close to 2.0, population
numbers are usually steady.
o A fertility rate of less than 2.0 usually leads to a
0 ::r:. witt 1-\c>.ve. tl-l.re.e. . declining population.
J: t '.s "'-lJ l1ACI<lJ 'Y.1A"'-be.r .

G ::r:. witt kt\ve. -y.O cl-l.ii.dre.-y.. ~.

t
~o~. loo "'-1Ack she.ss .

~.
'
'
:r: kt\ve. -llve.. ~ore.?
WI-I.P.te.ve.r &od se.-y.d .
Fertility r.ne = 2.0

Fi gure 3.19: W1th a fertility rate of 2.0. the population is stable

Ill
 In the early 20th century average life expectancy in
the Caribbean was lower than it is today.
o Many people could not afford an adequate diet.
They suffered from malnutrition. Diseases such as
rickets, where a lack of nutrients such as calcium or
vitamin D leads to weak bones, were common.
o Poor sanitation and housing conditions
encouraged diseases, and many people suffered
from parasites such as hookworm.
o There was little public access to medical care. Most
communities had no clinic or public hospital.
o Infectious diseases such as tuberculosis were
common, and difficult to treat.
Fi gure 3.20: In the 1930s. famt11es struggled to prov1de food 1n o Infant mortality was high . Many babies died
d1ff1cult Circumstances
before their first birthday.
Country Fertility rate Significance Most Caribbean countries now have a good standard
Zambia 6.2 Rap1d population increase of public health and medical care.
Jama1ca 2.4 Population 1ncrease o Public hospitals and clinics provide health care,
St Luc1a 2.05 Population almost steady often free of cost to the user.
Bahamas 1.9 Populat1on may decline o Most people can afford an adequate diet.
Japan 1.3 Population declinmg o Most households have access to clean drinking
Table 3.8: Fertil1ty rate and population growth 1n selected
water and adequate sanitation.
countn es o Diseases such as cholera, tuberculosis and polio
have been brought under control.
Infant mortality and life expectancy 80
Where there is a good standard of health and >-75
u
medical care, most people can live long and fruitful ~ 70
lives. We say that there is a long life expectancy. u I
~ 65

i li ~
X
Q) 60
.2!
..:::; 55
50+----r--~----~--~~-r--~
Research 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year
1 Research the history of family size and fertility
in your family. Fi gure 3.2 1: L1fe expectancy 1n Jama1ca and Barbados

a How many children do you expect to have?

b How many children has your mother had?
c How many children did your grandmother
and your aunts and uncles have?
d How many children did your great-
grandmother have (and your mother's
aunts and uncles)?
2 Collect the results of other class members and
answer these questions.
a What is the average number of children for
each generation?
b Based on the data you have collected. has
the fertility rate changed?
Death rates
The death rate is influenced by two factors:
o Medical facilities and nutrition: A good diet
and medical care increase life expectancy, and
reduce the rate of infant mortality.
o The population structure: If there are many
elderly people, the death rate is usually quite high.
In a country with a good standard of public health
and medical care, life expectancy is long, and infant
mortality is low. However, beyond a certain point,
the death rate does not fall. This is because the
population contains many elderly people, who are

•
reaching the end of their natural life span .
 14

CASE STUDY
13
12
·~·:Ll'
-t---f---
Barbados +
~ 11
Housing conditions in the 1940s
"There is no indoor cooking accommodation. In wet
ro
"-
£ 10
ro
Ql
9
rr::;tt'
weather, the occupants are frequently unable to get a 0

hot meal. There is no water laid on the block. and no 8

washing facilities exist. The nearest standpipes are about
100 metres away. In wet weather the area becomes
partially flooded: 80% of the houses use bucket latrines.
Local people are employed to clear the buckets twice a
week at a charge of 6 cents for each clearance. Shallow
surface wells (for drinking water) are very common. One
was less than a metre from a pit latrine.
Out of 84 houses:
o 58 were unfit for human habitation
o 17 were capable of repair
o 9 were structurally sound."
Adapted from an official report on a low-income area in
Barbados, 1944
7
6
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year
Figure 3.22: Death rates in Jamatca and Barbados
Quick questions
Look at Figures 3.18, 3.21 and 3.22. Briefly outline the
changes in Jamaica and Barbados from 1955 to 2010 in.
a Birth rates b Life expectancy c Death rates

Discuss the following questions with a partner.

1 Has the rate of violent crime changed in your country
Descnbe three threats to public health in low- in recent years? How would you expect these
income areas in Barbados in the 1940s. changes to affect life expectancy and the death rate?
2 What has been done to reduce these health risks in 2 Which population groups would be most affected?
the Canbbean today?
3 Make a pie chart to show the percentage of houses
m the case study which were unfit. repairable.
and sound.
Handling data
1 Use the data in Table 3.9 to draw a line graph
to show infant mortality in Jamaica and
Barbados from 1955 to 2010.
Handling data
Propose an SBA study on a topic related to young llll Jamaica Barbados
1955 91.9 84.1
people's views on their future family size. Follow
these steps: 1965 61.4 45.4
1975 45.0 31.4
State the problem in the form of a question.
1985 35.8 21.0
2 Give reasons for selecting this area of research.
1995 28.8 16.0
3 Outline a quantitative method you could use to
2005 26.8 14.3
research this topic. using a questionnaire.
2010 24.4 13.7
4 What population would you use for sampling?
5 What sample size would you aim at? Tabl e 3.9: Infant deaths per 1,000 btrths in
Jama1ca and Barbados
6 How would you select your sample?
2 Describe the changes shown in your line
7 Design a data-collection instrument to
graph. State TWO reasons why infant mortality
investigate this topic. including at least two
has decreased.
demographic questions, two closed -ended and
two open-ended questions. 3 Outline a method you could use to investigate
changes in infant mortality in your country and
reasons for the changes, using the Internet and
secondary sources.

•
 The population pyramid

KEY IDEAS
o The population pyramid shows age groups in the
male and female population. CASE STUDY
o A broad-based pyramid shows a high birth rate. The demographic transition in Trinidad
o A steep-sided pyramid shows an ageing
and Tobago
population.
Trini dad and Tobago 1950
o The demographic transition produces rapid ----,--
Males Fema les
population growth, followed by stability. 100
o The dependency ratio indicates the proportion 90 1 few elderly

l
of children and old people in the population; --
people
80 Narrdw summi t
increasing numbers of older people will increase
70
the dependency ratio.
60 Side.oi P}(f.amlC:\
Q) siOPElS outwards
~50
40 MaJe_
Gta«·ttt'i'''
Demographic transition: Historic changes in birth and
em1grat10n
30 inWWII
Ftrgh b1rth rate
B.r.oadbase for
pyramid
death rates producing a period of rapid population growth, 20 and after
after which the population stabilizes. 10
Dependency ratio: The ratio of children and old people to 0
the population of working age. 5% 0 5%
% of populat1on
Example:
Under 15 25%
Over 65 15% Trini dad and Tobago 2010
Total dependent population - 25 -r 15 - 40%
Working age population 100 40 6o%
Total dependency ratio - 40 : 6o = o.67

The population pyramid is a diagram w hich shows

the different age groups in the m ale and female
population .
The shape of the population pyramid varies,
according to birth and death rates. 20
10
o In a country with a high birth rate, the population ase
o~----~~----4-----L1----~
pyramid has a broad base. There are many young 5% 0 5%
children . %of population
o In a country with a low birth rate, the base of the Figure 3. 23: Populat1on pyram1ds for Tnmdad and
pyramid is narrow. There are few young children, Tobago, 19 50 and 20 10
and a high proportion of elderly people.
 The demographic transition
.!Vlost countries pass through a historic process called
the demographic transition.
Famme. war or d1sease

..+--- Populat1on
: H1gh, stable populat1 on
B1rtll rate r-----1-~~-------;----------h­
Death rate t -- - - '

Populat1on:
recovers :
slowly'
Populat1on
falls sharply
"' pu t
Stage one: B1rth rate and
death rates are h1gh The
populat1on IS small. Infant
mor tality IS h1gh and l1fe
expectancy 1s low. Famme.
war or mfect1ous d1sease
may str 1ke at any t1me,
k1ll1ng large numbers of
people.
Stage two : Better med1cal
ca re. improved diet and
public san1tat 1on bnng
down the death rate. The
b1rth rate remams h1gh.
Population mcreases
rapidly.
Stage three: The b1rth rate
begms to fall. as people
choose to have smaller
families. The rate of
population growth slows.
B1rth and death
rates are low
Stage four : The b1 rth ra te is
low. Most people live to
enjoy the1r old age, but there
are many elderly people, so
the death rate does not fall.
The popu lat1on g rows slowly.
or somet1mes declines.

Figure 3.24: The demographiC t rans1t1on

Figure 3.25: Japan has reached stage four of the demographic t rans1 t1on. and has an increasmgly elderly populat1on .

•
The dependency ratio

Figure 3.26 : Children and the elderly rely on the suppor t of the workmg populat1on

In any country, the working population supports % of population Dependency ratio

dependents, such as children, the elderly, and those 0- 14 15-64 65+ Child Elderly Total
unable to work. The dependency ratio measures Jamaica 1950 36% 4% 60 6 66
60%
the proportion of the population which is of
Jamaica 2010 29% 63% 8% 46 12 58
working age.
Jamaica 2065
16% 59% 25% 27 43 70
o In stage two of the demographic transition, the (proJected)
birth rate is high. There is a high dependency Ha1h 2010 36% 60% 4% 60 7 67
ratio. There are many children to support. The Japan 2010 13% 64% 23% 21 35 56
government must spend tax dollars on schools Table 3.10: Dependent and working-age populat1ons
and children's health care.
o In stage three of the demographic transition, the
Quick questions
base of the pyramid narrows.The dependency
ratio falls . W orking people have fewer children Look at Table 3.10. For which year is Jamaica's
to support. population structure as shown simUar to:
o In stage four of the demographic transition there a Haiti in 2010?
b Japan in 20 10?
are many elderly people. The dependency ratio
is again high. Working people support elderly
relatives. Government spending on health care
and pensions increases.
Discuss the following questions with a partner.
There are different measures of the dependency ratio. What problems may arise if:
Each takes the ratio of a dependent group to the a the child dependency ratio is too high?.
population of working age. b the old age dependency ratio is too high?

o The child dependency ratio: The ratio of young

people (D-14 or D-19) to working-age population.
o The old-age dependency ratio: The ratio of
elderly people (over 65 or over 70) to working- Handling data
age population. 1 Draw a pie chart to show Jamaica's population
o The total dependency ratio: The total number of structure in 2010.
young and old people as a ratio of the working- 2 Write a few sentences describing the changes
age population. in Jamaica's population structure, as seen in
Table 3.10.

•
 Population problems
KEY IDEAS
o A large population may be linked to poverty,
unemployment and other problems.
o However. many prosperous communities have a
high population density.
o It is difficult to provide public services and
employment in an area of sparse population.
o A natural disaster or other problems may cause
depopulation.
(J:Jd«•tttt;\'1
Depopulation: A decline in population, often because of
large-scale outward migration .
"Overpopulation": A term used if it is thought that an
area has too many people. This may result in poverty,
unemployment or malnutrition . However, some prosperous
areas have a high population.
"Underpopulation": A term used if it is thought that an area
has too few people.
High and rising population
A country with high population density and rapid
growth may be overpopulated . These are some of
the problems which may be linked to a high and
rapidly growing population:
•
Figure 3.27 : Poverty and overcrowdmg 1n Port·au·Pnnce. Haiti
o It is difficult to provide a good education for the
growing number of young people.
o There arc too few jobs, even for those who have
completed school or college.
o Out of desperation, the unemployed may turn to
crime, or other unproductive activities.
o There are too few houses for the growing
population. A housing shortage leads to high
rents and house prices.
o Water supply may run short, particularly if the
climate is dry.
o In the countryside, farms may be subdivided until
they are too small to support a family.
o Young people from rural areas may flood to the
cities, making overcrowding worse in urban areas.
When these problems take root, they are difficult to
deal with. However, these are some of the initiatives
which can be tried:
o Improve the education system.
o Provide access to family planning.
o Develop tourism, manufacturing and other
sources of employment.
o Develop irrigation and other assistance for small
farms to become more productive.

Few JObs for women
Small scale agnculture
Not enough schools
Figure 3 .28 : The cycle of deprivation
A high population density does not always lead to
poverty. For example, Bermuda has close to 1,300
people per square kilometre, but is a prosperous
island with a high standard ofliving and good public
services.1here are well-paid jobs in tourism, financial
services, and other fields.
Low population
CASE STUDY
The Rupununi Savanna
Figure 3.29: Bina Hill village in the Rupununi Savanna
Some rural areas have a very low population density. This
is sometimes called underpopulation.
In the Rupununi Savanna of south-western Guyana:
o there are large areas of poor soil. which are not
productive for agriculture
o the grass which grows naturally is not nutritious for
cattle and other livestock
o there are long periods of dry weather, when water is
scarce, and periods with heavy rainfall, when much of
the land is flooded.
Discuss the followmg questions in a small group.
1 Look back at Unit 3.6. What factors may cause a
high birth rate? Does poverty contribute to rapid
population growth?
2 Do you consider any areas of your own country
overpopulated? Which areas? Why?
3 Which is the more promising solution to problems
such as unemployment and crime.
a reducing the population?
b encouraging social and economic development?
Discuss the following questions with a partner.
1 Do you consider any areas in your country to be
underpopulated? Which areas? Why?
2 Do any problems result from underpopulat10n in
your country? What can be done to solve these
problems?
The population density m this part of Guyana is 0 3 per
square kilometre. Many people live in small villages,
which may be 10 km or more from the nearest
neighbouring settlement.
Life can be difficult in areas with a very low population:
o Transport is difficult. There are few good roads. In the
Rupununi Savarma. roads and bridges can be damaged
by flooding. It may take more than 12 hours to reach a
city. Air transport is faster. but expensive.
o When crops are produced, it is dlfficult and expensive
to take them to a place where they can be sold.
o It is difficult for the government to provide schools and
health clinics for a small and scattered population.
o It is difficult to provide electricity, because it must be
transmitted by power line over great distances.
o There are few businesses, because the small
population does not provide enough customers. There
are few opportunities for employment.
These are some ways of assisting areas with a low
population:
o Build good-quality roads for faster and more reliable
transport.
o Provide wireless communications and Internet
services, so that all have access to the outside world.
o Improve small-scale local schools. and provide facilities
for distance learning.
o Encourage small-scale electricity generation. for
example using solar panels.
II
 Depopulation
When an area loses many or all of its people, we
say that it is depopulated . Internationally, a war
or violent conflict may cause depopulation. People
flee to a safer zone, in fear of their lives. Lack of
employment opportunities is also a common reason
for depopulation in rural areas worldwide.
Smaller areas within the Caribbean have been
depopulated when:
o land is needed for a government or private project
o a small district is plagued by violent crime and
gang warfare
o the only major employer in a community closes,
leaving people without work
o 5oil fertility is lost on agricultural land, forcing
people to move elsewhere.
Read the case study below first.
1 Which other islands m the Caribbean are at nsk
from volcamc eruptions?
2 With the former capital of Montserrat destroyed.
what facilities have been provided for people to live
m the safe zone?
3 Have there been any major changes in Montserrat
since 2012? Is the volcano still active?
4 Have any large or small areas in your country been
depopulated? If so. find out how and when they lost
their population. Did any problems result?
Imagine that your community is evacuated suddenly
and permanently because of a devastating natural
disaster. Discuss in a small group how the evacuation
could be organized. What would be the consequences
for the local population?

CASE STUDY
The volcanic eruption in Montserrat

Safe zone

Figure 3.30: Plymouth 1n Montserrat has been almost buried by

volcanic ash. The population was evacuated 1n 1996.

Depopulation may result from a natural disaster. The

southern two-thirds of Montserrat. including the former Evacuated-
cap1tal Plymouth. was evacuated in 1996 because of the restricted access
island's volcanic eruption. The population moved to a
"safe zone" in the north; to neighbouring islands such as 0 2
Antigua, or further afield, to Britain, the USA, or Canada.
When the volcanic eruption was at its most violent, the
British government considered depopulating the entire
Figure 3.31: Map of the ISland of Montserrat showing safe
island. Instead. around half of the original population (green) and danger (p1nk) zones
remained in the "safe zone".

Ill
 Migration
Some people live for their whole life in the house
KEY IDEAS where they grew up, but most people migrate from
o Many people migrate from one residence to
one place to another at some point in their lives.
another.
o Migration may be internal. within the Caribbean o Where do you live?
region. or international. o Where were you born?
o Push factors encourage migrants to leave their o Where were your parents and grandparents born?
home area.
o Pull factors attract migrants to a new area.
0 :r """ve. lived i-14 tke. s~>.~
1.-1.01Ase. SI-1'\U :r w~>-s 1>. s~il bt>.h[j.
Q ft!·l"lii ifl
Migration: The movement of people from one area to
another; involves a change of residence, not a daily or
short-term movement. 0 :r pie~.-14 to 30 to 1.-414ive.rs1t~ 1-1'1 U14CI.OCI.. :r
Emigration: Movement of people out of a country. w01Aid i.,!(e. to worK t~.-~.ere. .Par e~. .few ~e.e~.rs e~..Pte.r
Immigration: Movement of people into a country. 3Y'CI.01ACI.ti1431 h1At :t: Wli.£. e.ve.14t1Ae~.i.£.~ ~ lii.Ott~.e. -
Net migration: The balance between emigration and ~'~-~ c1Ai.t1Are. Cl.-140 ~'~-lj .Pe~.tt~.i i.lj e~.re. l.-l.e.re..
immigration. If more people move into an area than move
out, net migration is positive. If there is more outward
movement, net migration is negative.

0 Mlj 3Y'CI.140.fe~.tl.-l.e.r IS .frott~. St Vi14U14t

Example:
Immigration 20 000 1 Cl.-140
Emigration 15 000 ~'~-~ 3Y'CI.140tt~.Otl.-l.e.r 0-1'\ t~.-~.e otl.-l.e.r side. is .Pratt~.
Net migration 20 ooo 15 ooo t 5,ooo 'Ve.~ (S1Ae.i.P..

There are many types of migration. W e can look at

the length of time involved:
o Short-term: This is migration fo r a few months
or years. A school- leaver may migrate to attend a
university, and return home on completing the course.
A worker may migrate to take a job on a short-term
contract, returning home when it is finished.
o Long-term: This is migration for many years, to a
new permanent home. A young person may move
to a city, or to another country, to make a new life,
hoping for a more favourable environme nt.
We can look at the distance travelled:
o Internal: This is migration within one country,
for example from a ru ral area in Jamaica to
Fi gure 3.32 : Because of international m1grat1on. c1t1es like
Kingston or M ontego Bay.
London have a mult1-ethn1c population
II
 o Regional: M ig rants may move f ro m o ne
Caribbean country to another, for example from e The-se. P.re. Sehll.e. p1Al£ .fp.ctors w(...iclt\ t:\ ttmc t

D ominica to Guadeloupe, or from Guyana to
the Bahamas.
o International: This includes m ig ratio n from the
C aribbean to N o rth America or Euro pe, or to
the Caribbean from many countries, such as the
USA, China, India o r Nige ria.
Push and pull factors
M igrants are influenced by:
o push factors, which encourage migrants to leave
their home area .
o pull factors, which attract them to a new
location .
pe.op£e. to tke. 1.\re./.\ ~re. :r: £ive.: it is dose.. to
sclt\ools Mtd slt\oppi~(}' t:>.rt-t:>.S1 tt tS P. .fne.-mlllj t:>.rt-t:\1
1.\M tk.e.re. Me. 3ood ko-tAse.s.
'--
0 Th.e.se. t\rt- SChll.e. o.f t"'-e p1ASk. .f/.\c.tors wktC.k
CP.'!Ase. people. to le.t:>.ve. . The.re. JS too ~t~-'IAC.It\ c.ri~U..
AJ.so it is bort~3' t"'-ere. p.re. ~ot e.~o1A::tk pe.op£e. o.f
~lj ow~ "'3e.. A~d tt tS kt>.rd .for sckoo1-£e.t>.ve.rs to
-A~d t\ 3oodjob wttko-1At trt>.ve.££.,~3 t\ £o~3 wP.lJ to
wor)< eve~ 0/.\lj .

Push factors Pull factors

Discuss the following questions in a small group.
+ 1 What points would you consider when thinking
about migrating:
Unemployment Job opportun1t1es
a within your own country?
b to another country?
Low wages Higher earnmgs 2 What pull factors attract people to the area where
you live? What push factors encourage people to
move to other areas?
No educat1on Good schools,
opportun1t1es un1vers1t1es

Restncted Soc1al opportuntlles,

SOCiety entertatnment. sport
Handling data
1 Design a checklist survey, to show where
Cnme and conflict Peaceful surroundtngs
members of your class expect to live in
5 years' time, and in 15 years' time. Use a
Natural d1sasters Safe. clean tally table to record the results. You can use
and pollutiOn env1ronment these categories:
a Same residence
Figure 3 . 33: Push and pull factors for m1grants
b Different residence, same district
c Different district. same country
Quick questions d Elsewhere in the Caribbean
Have you ever moved from one residence to e North America
another? If so. what were the reasons for the move? f Elsewhere
2 Where do you expect to be living
a in five years' time? 2 Draw 2 bar charts to show expected residence
b in 15 years' time? in 5 and 15 years' time.
Explain the reasons for your choice. whether it is to 3 Write a short comment: describe. interpret and
stay m the same residence. or to migrate. analyse the results of your survey.

II
3.10 Internal migration
KEY IDEAS
o Internal migration is movement between two
districts in one country.
o Migration affects urban, rural and suburban areas.
o The Caribbean region experienced urbanization
in the 20th century.
o People are now moving to suburban areas, close
to major cities.
Q d!•tltiii'i
Rural: Connected with the countryside.
Suburb: A residential community close to a town or city.
Urban : Connected with towns and cities.
Urbanization: An increase in the proportion of the
population living in towns and cit ies. May result from large-
scale migration from rural areas to cities.
o Urban- rural migration is usually a "return flow".
This is when people who have lived in the city for
some years return home, often on retirement, to
seek a more peaceful life.
o Urban-suburban migration has been important
since the mid-20th century. Densely populated
cities often have high crime rates and poor
housing conditions. Living conditions may be
more pleasant in suburban areas. Public transport
and increased car ownership allows daily travel to
work or study elsewhere.
CASE STUDY
Internal migration in Jamaica
The 2001 Jamaican census showed that:
o 26% of the population lived outside the parish where
they were born. They had migrated from one parish
to another.
o 9% had moved from one parish to another during the
previous ten years.
o The parish which lost most people was Kingston,
which includes densely populated districts in the
centre of the capital.
o The parishes which gained most people were
St Andrew and St Catherine, which include suburban
areas close to Kingston.
Area

Figure 3.34: Aenal v1ew of suburban hous1ng near Hope

Q StMary
"'00
Pastures, St Andrew, Jama1ca
Portland
Internal migration takes place within one country.
Some examples of internal migration are:
o rural-urban migration
o urban-rural migration St Andrew
o urban-suburban migration. oc
Spanish
In most of the Caribbean internal migration takes place.
o Rural-urban migration was important in the early
Town •
t Kmgston
3.700 J StThomas
(. ~
and middle part of the 20th century. People moved
to large cities. Agricultural jobs in rural areas paid
low wages, while the cities offered new opportunities km
in construction, retailing, manufacturing, and
Figure 3.35 : Map show1ng populat1on changes from 1991
government offices. Schools and health services to 2001 in Kingston and the surrounding panshes
were better in urban areas, and there were more
opportunities for entertainment and social life.
 Migration has negative and positive effects. as London, New York, and Paris were among the
largest cities and they dominated worldwide culture
Positive Negative and the economy.
More JObs Htgh houst ng costs
Better pay Less secunty In the Caribbean, there was rapid urbanization
Educational opportumties Otstractions from study in the early and mid-20th century. Cities such as
Soctal opportunities Less contact wtth family Kingston and Georgetown grew rapidly. New urban
Less pressure on land and Bus messes lose customers areas were developed, such as Linden in Guyana and
resources Elderly and chtldren lose
Freeport in the Bahamas.
Money sent home by contact wtth relattves
m1grants Today, urbanization in the Caribbean has slowed:
Workers avatlable Overcrowding
Busmesses prosper Squatter settlements o People are moving from urban areas to suburbs.
Trafftc congestiOn o Some rural areas are prosperous, for example
Table 3.11 : Effects of rural-urban migrat1on
because of tourism, and attract migrants.
Urbanization is continuing today, in Africa, Asia,
Positive Negative
and South America. Cities such as Delhi in India
Better housmg Ttme travelling to work and Sao Paulo in Brazil are many times larger than
Lower rent Money spent on travel
More open space L ondon, Paris, or Moscow.
Less pressure on housmg May become run-down and In 1950 Population (million) In 2010 Population (million)
Slum areas can be depressed
redeveloped Businesses lose customers New York 12 Tokyo 37
Schools, roads and health Increased populatton may
London 9 Delht 22
factlities built lose sense of commumty Tokyo 7 Sao Paulo 20
New bus1nesses Crime may tncrease Pans 6 Mumbat 20
Table 3.12: Effects of urban-suburban m1grat1on Shanghai 5 Mexico Ctty 19
Moscow 5 New York 19
Urbanization Table 3.13: The world 's largest urban areas tn 1950 and 2010

Quick questions
Name one rural. urban, and suburban area in your
country. Which type of area do you live in?

.,
Figure 3.36: Sao Paulo in Brazil has more than 20 million people
Internal migration often results in urbanization.
There is migration from rural areas to large cities.
1here was rapid urbanization in Europe and North
America up to the mid-20th century. Cities such
Discussion
Discuss the following questions with a partner.
1 What are the advantages and disadvantages of
living in:
a urban areas?
b rural areas?
c suburban areas?
2 Have any suburban areas in your country
developed rapidly in recent years? Give
examples of residential. employment. educational.
entertainment. or shopping facilities in these areas.
How are they different from older urban areas?

•
3.11 Caribbean migration
KEY IDEAS
o For many years. people have migrated between
Caribbean countries.
o Regional migration may be for employment. family.
or other reasons.
o Governments regulate Caribbean migration.
o The Caricom Single Market allows migration
within the region for skilled persons.
For many years, people have moved between
Caribbean countries. I n the early 20th century,
Barbados had a high density of population, and
few work opportunities outside the sugar industry.
Barbadians migrated:
o to Panama, where the canal was being built
o to Trinidad, where the oil industry was being
established
o to Guyana, where bauxite and gold mining
offered opportunities
o to St Lucia, St Vincent, and other nearby islands,
where Barbadians were often employed in the
police and government service.
Today, many people migrate between islands to
find work, but some migrate for other reasons, for
example to join other family members. Barbados is
now a relatively prosperous country. People migrate
there from countries such as Guyana. Some of these
migrants are descended from ancestors who left
Barbados to seek work in Guyana a century ago.
These are some of the other Caribbean countries
which have received a large number of migrants
from elsewhere in the region in recent years:
o Trinidad and Tobago
o the Bahamas
o Antigua-Barbuda
o the Cayman Islands.
Some Caribbean migration is tightly controlled by
national governments. Migrants must have a work
permit, or wait many years to receive permanent
resident status.
However, the Caribbean Single Market, which has
been in force since 2006, allows many workers to
move freely between countries, if they have a skills
certificate. This applies, for example, to:
o workers in communications media, such as radio,
television, and newspapers
o sports professionals
o mus1c1ans
o graduates from Caribbean universities.
Entrepreneurs can also set up a new business
anywhere in the region. This is the right of
establishment. They can employ technical staff and
managers from anywhere in the region.
0 :!. ~"" 98 ~e.~rs old, ~~ :!. ftve. t')'l ln')'ltd&td.
:!. c.~~t~.e. ke.re. .Pr01t1. Gre.~, w(..o..e.')'l :!. w~s l')'l ""~
2.0s1 be.~1Ase. :r k~d ~')\ 1A')'lk~p~ love. ~-N~ir 1
~~ ::r: m')'lte.d to ~)(e. ~ -Fre.sk st~rt. ::r: ~rne.d
Mpptf~ ke.re. .
M'}t ~r~')'ldCklldre.')'l ~re. ')'LOW l')'l tke.ir 2.0s ~')'ld
30s .Ywo ~re. i')'l ~')'l(tfu')'ld, ~')'ld O')'le. (tr~')'ldso')'l is i')'l
S£ov~)(i~, i')'l e.~ste.r')'l ~1Arope. . -rhe.~ co~t~.e. ko~t~.e. to
VISit w(,o..e.')'l tke.~ C.~')'l. :I .fove. tk.i~t~. ~f .
f)
:!. w~s bor')'l t')'l Port o..f S~t')\ 1 b1At ""lJ. lti.Otke.r
w~s -Fr01t1. "!A')'LIO')'l :r.sl~')\d l')'l tke. &re.~Ot')'Le.s. Ske.
dte.d wke.')'l ::r: w~s ')'ll')'le. ~e.~rs old, ~')'ld :r. we.')'lt to
ltve. tke.re. -For ~ -Fe.w 7te.~rs witk ""lt (tY~')'ld~t~-otke.r.
-rhe.')'l :r ~~t~.e. bMI< to~ri')'ltd&td, to De: witk ""lt
.P~tke.r. Port o-F S~i')\ is ')'LOI~ ~~ tke.re. 1S 'too
~t~-1AC.k cn~t~.e.. Most o-F ~il, :r. WO-tAld l11<e. to (to ooc.f(
to 1A')'liO')'l :rs£~')\d. :r w~s k~PP[j tke.re..
0 :!. worf( -For ~ ~JOY C~')'l~dl~')'l b~')'lf(l ~S ~
se.')'lior e.xe.c1Atlve. . FrO~t~. rs~rb~dos, :r. w~s a ive.')'l ~
job i')'l .::r~~i~ w\ll.e.re. ""~ s)(ills we.re. ')'le.e.de.d. :r
fi)(e. 1t ke.re. - :!. ')'LOW MVe. ~ .::r~~~C~')'l pP-Yt')'le.r.
!S-tAt l')'l ~ -Fe.w ~e.~rs 1 ::r: e.Xpe.ct to be. o-F-Fe.re.d ~
job e.lse.wke.re. l')'l tke. re.(tiO')'l.
'--
 0 :L ~re.w 1Ap 111 St \h11Ce.11t. 1--1~ .f~tke.r ~Md P.
SYII-tA.£1 .ftA.rY~~- 1 t.\1-td Yi~-OSf o.f 01AY" i11COYII.e. Ct.\YII.e. .froY~~- Research
0011tA.11tA.S. Wit~ C0111fe.t1t io11 .PrGY~~- L.tA.t111 AY~~.e.nCt.\ 1 This activity will give you good practice in the
tfM.re. IS 110 Y11-011e.lJ tfM.se. dtA.(.jS i11 btA.11t.\11lA.S. :I. interview skills you need for your SBA.
CtA.Y~~-e. to Tn11idtA.d1 tA.11d :I. e.P.r11 ~ood Y~~-011e.(.j 111
1 Do you know any migrants from other Caribbean
C011Sfr1Act1o11 . ~'}t w1.Pe. IS Tn111£iP.d1P.111 P.11d Y~~-(.j
countries? If so. plan and carry out an interview
c1!1Adre.11 were. bb\--11 kere..
with them. Use these questions to help you.
a Why did you leave your country of origin?
b What attracted you to your new horne?
0 011r Y~~-Otke.r IS \/e11e(S11e.fP.11 1 P.11d 011r .fP.tke.r
c What difficulties did you face when
IS .froY~~. Tn11idP.d. The.(.} Y~~.e.t 111 C..tA.rtA.CtA.S1 t.\11d settling in?
dec1ded to Y~~-P.I(e P. f,.fe to~etke.r. We. spe.P.i< botk d Has your life improved since you first
~pP.11islil. P.11d ~11~fislil. tA.t kOYII.e.. arrived ?
e Do you plan to stay permanently, or to
return to your original horne?
2 Write a short paragraph to describe the
0 :r P.Y~~- .froY~~. I1P.1ti
1 b1At :r ~P.Ve be.e.11 i1V111~ .for
migrant. and the answers given.

.,
lte.tA.rs 111 tiM- SlA.Iii.P.Y~~-P.s. :r. CtA.Y~~.e. ,1£e.~P.illi, 1-o fool(
.for wor)( 1 011 tA. woode11 SP.1fi11~ s1!1.1p1 cP.1£e(J P. sloop.
~"-11(,), o.f t~M.se sk1ps tA.re. stopped b(.j tke. coP.st Discussion
~11P.r3 1 P.11d tke. pP.sse.11~e.rs se.11t koY~~-e. 1 b1At :r.
wP.S l11c1<(.j. :I. stP.rte.d o'.f.f witk low-pP.id jobs tkP. t Discuss the following questions in a small group
110 BtA.kP.Y~~-It.\11 wP.11te.d- :I. cie.tA.11e.d people's {j"'rds. 1 Should Caribbean governments control regional
~(.} ckiidre.11 were bor11 ke.re.. WIM-11 tke.(.j retA.ck migration. or should there be more provision for
181 t~M-(.j will be. tA.bJ..e to P.ppl(.j .for &kP.Y~~-It.\11 free movement of labour?
2 Are nationals from your country treated fairly when
cit'6e.11skip.
they travel within the Caribbean?

'
Quick questions
Look at the personal stories quoted above.
Which ones concern migration for employment?
Which concern other reasons for migration?

Figure 3.37: People often m1grate to other 1slands in the

reg1on for work

•
3.12 International migration
There is also migration into the Caribbean from
KEY IDEAS other countries.
o Caribbean people have migrated to North
America. Europe, and elsewhere. 0 :r Ctl.~ .frol'll- tiA.e P!A:£ippi1-lB-.S to worJ( IA.ere.
o People from many countries have migrated to
the Caribbean. ti..S t1. 1-t1Ar.se. :r .se1-td 1'11-01-te{j lA.~ to ~'~~-'}t .ft~-1'11-l£{j
o Loss of skilled workers is known as a "brain drain". eveY"{j 1'11-01-ttk. :l1-t t1. .few '}tet~-r.s 1 :r pit~.1-t 'to re t1Ar1-t
- :r 1'11-I.SS ~'~~-{j ck:t'dre.1-t too 1'11-'IACk.

& 1«·lli-1;1'1
Remittance: Money sent home by migrants.
Brain drain : Emigration of educated and skilled workers,
0 Mlj .ft~-1'11-i t~.n .fro~'~~- CM.i1-tt~..
£lJ. We r1A1-t t1.
s1Ape.rl'll-tl.rJ(e t i1-t Be.i.il)e C.1t'}t. :r :1-tte1-td to -A1-t:.siA.
such as nurses, teachers, or engineers.
scM.ool. ltce.re. 1 t~-1-td tke1-t r'!l'1-t ~'~~-{j 0W1-t b1As:1-te.s.s.

e :r
0rew 1Ap 11-t Bntt~.:""lo\ 1 h1At ~:}t pt~.re""lo\t.s t~.re
.::ft.\l'll-tl.iCtl.""lo\. Now :r worJ( i1-t t~tce. t't.\ri bbet1.1-t .for t1.
ISritl.siA. rt~.d10 .sh.tio1-t. Mlj P"-rt1-ter :.s Spt~.1-t:.siA..
SIA.e worJ(s 11-t t01AriSI'II-. Mlj .ft~-tltce.r Ct.\~ ko~ to
.::ft~.l'll-tl.iCtl. wke1-t ke retired, b1At ~'~~-{j I'II-Otker is .sti£.1.
i1-t 1Sritt.\i1-t .

Jama:can 737 000

Ha:han 54800)
Tnmdad and Tobago 16500)
Figure 3.38: Ch:nese construct:on workers in Trinidad and Tobago Guyanese 162000
Other Canbbean 147000
International migration connects the Caribbean
to N orth America, E urope, and other parts of the Table 3.14 : Car:bbean na t:onals l:v:ng in the USA (2000)
world. Many overseas cities, such as Miami, New
York, London, and Toronto, have communities of Born m Jama:ca 66%
Caribbean origin. Born m USA 34%
Own a home 50%
These are some of the reasons why people migrate to Rent:ng 50%
other countries: %of adults with ...
o to further their education High school diploma 75%
Degree 20%
o to look for better- paid employment
Income, as% of USaverage 96%
o to join a family member who is already overseas
o to experience another culture and way of life. Ta ble 3.15: Jama:cans l:ving :n the Un:ted States (2000)

•
 Staff in better-paid careers such as banking or
Quick question
accountancy may also migrate, to take well-paid jobs
Look at Table 3 .15. Have Jamaican migrants become or improve their professional experience.
established and successful in the USA?
The loss of well-qualified staff to another country is
known as the brain drain .
International migration has negative and positive
effects. 0 As . .
~j1A~1or ~'\AY"Se 1~
. o t ~~~, :I
on e~r~ 1'\.Gre
tk&>.~ tke. I'I.OSf se.~1or ~'\AY"SI~Q o.f.f1c.e.r I~ !'\..~
Positive Negative
ow~ C.01A~tr(1 1 ~~d
More jobs D1ff1cult to find housmg
be.tte.r.
0
tke worKi~ co~di-ho~s &>.re.
Better pay H1gher liv1ng costs
Educational opportu mt1es D1stract1ons from study '--
Soc1al opportumtles Unfam1har culture
Reun1tes w1th overseas Less contact w1th fam1ly
fam1ly Danger of racism
Colder climate
Country of Money sent home by "Bram drain": shortage of Discuss the following questions in a small group.
origin migrants (remittances) qualified staff 1 A Caribbean country has a shortage of nurses.
Migrants return with Elderly and children lose Which of these policy options would you favour?
qualif1cat1ons and savmgs contact w1th relatives Which would be unfair or meffective?
Destination Workers available Shortage of hous1ng a Improve pay and conditions in local hospitals
country Busmesses prosper Some may dislike social b Recruit staff from countries where salaries are
New cultural1nput change and new cultures lower than in the Caribbean
c Increase the number of training places for nurses
Table 3.16: Effects of 1nternat1onal migrat1on d Publish advertisements. telling nurses that it is
unpatriotic to migrate
0 Tro'!Abie ~~1Asti~0 ? Not ~.:r: live witk ~'~-~ e Pass a law. making it illegal for nurses to migrate
f Recruit unqua1ified staff for simple JObs. instead
~1A~t~ . The st1Ade.~ts ~~ c.oi.ie. e. l.i;:e tke. s~~
0
1'1-1ASic1 T\/1 ~~d sports ~s we do ~t ko~.
of using fully trained nurses
g Offer a good salary to nurses who return after
gaining experience overseas
h Force nurses who migrate to pay back the costs
of their education and training
0 :r: ~~'~- so io~ei]t. :r: k~ve bee~ ken .for siX 2 Thinking about your own interests and preferences.
.f1Aii we.e.J(s ~~ 'i ~ve. ~ore.~ .PY"Ie.~s . :r:t is would you hnd 1t difficult to adjust to life in another
c.oid, ~~d :t c~~ 't w&>.it to o ~o~'~-e. .for C~ris-f ti\Q.S. country?
0 3 What difficulties would you expect people from
overseas to experience if they move to the Caribbean?

The "brain drain"

:M ost countries restrict migration with a system of
work permits or visas.
People find it easier to get a migrant visa if they have:
o a strong family connection, such as a parent who
already lives in the country
o good health and a good education
o a professional qualification, for example in
medicine, teaching, or engineering.
Some professions, such as teaching and nursing,
receive modest salaries in the Caribbean. Well-
qualified and experienced staff may migrate to take
better-paid work overseas .
Handling data
Propose an SBA study on a topic related to young
people and international migration. You could
think about whether people plan to migrate in the
future, and what reasons they would have for either
migrating or not migrating.
a State the problem in the form of a question.
b Explain why you selected this area of research.
c Outline a qualitative method you could use to
research this topic. using interviews, a focus
group, or case studies.

•
3.13
• Human resources
KEY IDEAS
o The population is sometimes seen as a "human
resource".
o Governments. voluntary groups, and private
businesses can promote human resource
development.
Q a«·ttt'i'1
Human resources: Human skills , abilities, and qualities,
when considered as a resource for the development of a
country or a business.
We have seen how some people think of the
population as a human resource. People can
contribute to the development and wellbeing of their
community, their country, and the wider world.
People are likely to be more productive if they are:
o healthy
o well educated
o creative
o honest
o good at working together, in a group.
Many individuals can contribute to human resource
development. So can a variety of organizations and
groups, such as:
o the family
o the school
o the government
o private-sector businesses
o community organizations.
Governments provide financial resources for human
resource development in education, health, and many
other areas. However, government spending will only
be effective if it receives effective human support
from people - the staff and managers who provide
the service, the people who use it, private-sector
businesses, and community organizations.
One example of human resource development is
the Caribbean Tourism Human Resource Council.
The Council's mission is to "develop and promote
a systematic and coordinated approach to human
resources planning, research, education, and training
in Caribbean tourism to meet the demands of a
globally competitive tourism environment".
0 :r. worK "'-tu·d ~t
sc~t.-oo£.1 t.>.1ol.d ~Ke.
t"'-e. ~st o.f its
sports Mtd c1ti.t·w..t.>.£.
P-Ctrvitre.s t.>.lo~~ wit"'-
~'}t .fne.~ds t.>.~l:i
ot~e.r ~~be.rs o.f
t"'-e. co~~1t~ it~.
0 01tr co~pt.>.~{j co~tnb1tte.s to co~~1t~rt{j
or~t.>.~it;~tio~s t.>.~d sports te.~~s. We. ~lso ~{j
o1tr t~xe.s 1 to "'-e.£p t"'-e. ~ove.r~~~t provide.
p1tblrc se.rvrce.s.
0 :r. be.i.o~~ to ~ ~~1t~tt{j OY')itP.~rt;~tro~ ·~
&l~o~t 1 t.>. drstnct o.f Port o.f ~~~~. We. re.ce.ive.
s1tpport .fro~ t"'-e. "!A~rte.d N~tro~s &d1t~tio~.l
Scre.~fr.Ac ~~d C1t.lt1tr~l Or~t.>.~it;t.>.fio~ 1 "'A'l'l.e.sco .
We. "'-~ve. or)it~.,.,_it;e.d ]t01tt"'- de.ve.f.op~e.~t Mtivrtie.s 1
~~d pl~~ 'to .fo1t1-1.tft.>. ~1tse.1t~. :r: t.>.~ st~rti~~ t.>.
co~~1A~it{j 1-1.e.ws~pe.r .for f"'-e. ~ro1tp .
"To provide a system which secures quality
education for all persons in Jamaica and achieves
effective integration of educational and cultural
resources in order to optimize individual and
national development."
Mission statement. Ministry of Education. Jamaica
•
 Secunty and JUSt ice
9% Research
1 Download your country's most recent annual
budget from the Internet. Outline ONE project
Other serv1ces proposed for human resource development in:
63% Soc1al develop m ent a health
7%
b education.
Sports and culture
2% 2 Des cribe TWO human res ource development
activities in your country:
Figure 3.39: Government spending, Tnn1dad and Tobago. 2012
a ONE supported by a private business
b ONE supported by a voluntary organization.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
CASE STUDY
A private-sector company and human o professors of environmental management and
resource development management studies at the University of the
West Indies.

Figure 3.40: GraceKennedy supports act1v1t 1es such as t he

Boys' and G1rls' AthletiCS Champ 1onsh1ps

Many private-sector companies support community and

human development activities. For example, GraceKennedy,
a large company in Jamaica. has supported:
o Haiti earthquake relief
o homework centres for school students
o the Boys' and Girls ' Athletics Championships for
Jamaica
3.14 Public health and nutrition
KEY IDEAS
o Human resource development requires good
public health standards.
o Many threats to public health were controlled in
the 20th century.
o Lifestyle diseases are a public health threat which
can be reduced.
Qdi•ll!iiii
Curative health care: Treatment of a disease, through
primary or secondary health care.
Primary health care: Policies and institutions which
promote better health in the community, attempt to prevent
disease, and provide initial curative treatment.
Public health : Social action to protect and promote health,
or prevent illness, injury, and disability; for example, by
providing a clean water supply.
Secondary health care: More complex medical services,
often provided in a hospital or by a specialist practitioner.
Figure 3.41: Carry1ng out malana control measures 1n Guyana
Good health standards allow most people to live
long, satisfying and productive lives. Poor health
severely reduces:
o life expectancy: how long people expect to live
o quality of life: how satisfying their lives are
o human resource productivity: contributions to
the community, both through paid employment
and in other ways.
The World Health Organization defines primary
health care as better health for all, achieved by:
o reducing exclusion and social disparities
o organizing health services around needs and
expectations
o integrating health care with other social sectors
o collaborative policy dialogue and leadership reforms
o increasing stakeholder participation.
Many individuals and organizations provide primary
health care, including:
o schools, through health education
o neighbourhood health clinics
o physicians, pharmacies and health care professionals.
Goals for primary health care include preventing
diseases, for example through improved public
knowledge about hygiene, lifestyle, and diet.
Curative health care attempts to deal with diseases
once they have developed, for example by providing
pharmaceutical drugs, or placing a cast on a
broken limb.
l\1any types of disease can threaten human health.
Some were common in the early 20th century:
o Malnutrition: Diseases such as rickets or beri-
beri are caused by an inadequate diet.
o Parasite-borne diseases: Intestinal and other
parasites can damage human health.
o Water-borne diseases: The risk of cholera and
other water-borne diseases has been greatly
reduced, because most households are now
connected to a clean public water supply.
o Infectious diseases: Many diseases which were
once life-threatening can now be prevented
or treated by modern medicine, for example
tuberculosis and polio.
o Sexually transmitted diseases: Until the 1940s,
diseases such as syphilis and gonorrhea were
extremely difficult to treat, causing long-term
ill health or death. AIDS was considered a
"death sentence" until the 1990s. It remain s a
serious medical problem, but can now usually be
con trolled with drugs and other treatment .
•
l\llosquito-borne diseases are a continuing threat.
Malaria remains a serious problem in Guyana and
other countries today, as does dengue fever in most
of the Caribbean. I mproved public health practices
reduce the risk.
"Much of the rise in chronic diseases in
the Caribbean can be traced to individual risk
factors such as poor diet, physical inactivity,
tobacco use, and alcohol abuse ... More than
60 per cent of Jamaicans aged 35 to 54 are
either obese or overweight."
World Bank report. 2011
Many threats to human health in the 21st century
come from "lifestyle" diseases, which in many cases
arc preventable.
Lifestyle diseases often arise as the result of:
o a diet containing too much salt, sugar and fat
o lack of exercise
CASE STUDY
Indo-Trinidadians in the 1930s
In the early 20th century, many people in the colonial
Caribbean lived in desperate poverty. with poor diet. bad
housing. and no clean water supply.
This is how a Scottish doctor working in Trinidad in the
1930s described the housing conditions. diet. and health
of Indo-Caribbean sugar workers.
Figure 3.42: Plantatton workers of the 1930s watttng to be patd
o stress, which may result in part from social
problems such as unemployment or violence
o smoking, excessive alcohol, or drug abuse.
H eart disease, cancer, and diabetes are all frequently
linked to "lifestyle" problems, as well as to genetic
and other factors.
D eath and injury may also stem from violent
crime, traffic accidents, and other avoidable causes.
H omicide is a leading cause of death for young
males in many Caribbean countries.
With at least one example. explain how each of the
following may affect health and life expectancy:
a Primary health care
b Secondary health care
c Public health
d Diet
e Other lifestyle factors
FiHL\:~, ve.nt~.i~O'tAS, .f1AH o.f Yli\ts, .le.li\j(i~o
li\~d ve.1" dli\r)<. No wli\te.r wli\S futd o~. The. people.
wen re.li\HlJ ~o better o.f.f tkli\~ tke. rli\ts ~o
.lived witt.:\. tke-11<- . ... The.lj rise. li\t dli\w~, li\~d
so....e. e.li\t li\ £itti.e. rice.1 S'-!At 11<-/i\"11)1" o to wor)(
0
0'11 /i\'11 e.tt4ftlj st011\./i\ck .... The. fli\C~ O.f vtt/i\11<-i~s
be. i~s to te.£1. :r.~ Tri~idli\d 1 ~e.li\rf)f e.ve.1"
0
:r.~dili\~ li\anc1AH1Arli\f fli\bo'tAre.r o.f tkir't]t or over
skows v•f/i\11<-i~ de..flc•e.~cl ... 81At wkli\~ Cli\~
ljo'tA b'tAlj .for two sk•£ii~ s li\ dli\lj? ... Wke.~
0
li\ £itHe. o£de.r ... tke.lj drli\ 0'11 li\ 11<-ise.r/i\bie.
0
e.xiste.~ce., 'tA~Ii\b.le. to wor1< 1 'tA~Cii\re.d .for . ...
The.IY e.~O'tAY/i\~U is 11\./i\YVe.£1o1As.
from Trinidad's Doctor's Office by Vincent Tothill
 3 . 14 Public

Handling data
Draw a bar chart to illustrate the figures in
Table 3.17. 31MAY:WORLDNOTOBACCODAY

5-9 8.5% 0% 0%
30-39 1.6% 2.3% 1.0%
Over 65 1.0% 13.9% 22.9%

Table 3.17: Percentage of survey respondents

report1ng a long·term Illness 1n Jamaica. 2009

2 Which age group is most affected by each of these

diseases?
3 Which of these diseases may be affected by
lifestyles. diet. and related factors?
4 Draw a pie chart to illustrate the figures for injuries
in Table 3. 18.
Burns 3%
Accidental poisoning 3%
Motor vehicle accidents 25%
Acctdental cuts 26%
Bites (dogs etc.) 11%
Assaults:
Stab wounds 5%
Gunshot wounds 3%
Injury from blunt Instruments 21%
Sexual assault 3%

Table 3.18: Umntent1onal InJuries- acc1dent and
emergency cases 1n Jama1can hospitals. 2009
5 Recommend actions to reduce accidents and
emergencies which could be taken by:
a the government (give THREE actions)
b individuals and households (give THREE actions).
Research
This activity will give you good practice in the
interview skills you need for your SBA.
Do you know anyone who has a serious health
problem? If so. plan and carry out an interview
with them. Use these questions to help you.
a What is the nature of the problem?
b Are the causes of the problem known?
c Has it reduced their quality of life? If so. how?
d Has their ability to work and contribute to the
wellbeing of others been affected?
e What help has been offered by government
and private health services?
f Do family members. friends. and other people
in the community provide practical help?
Figure 3.43: Poster for an anti·tobacco campa1gn
Discuss the following questions with a partner.
1 Of Jamaicans aged over 14. 26% of males and 4% of
females regularly smoke tobacco.
a In what ways could this affect their future
health?
b Should the government try to discourage
smoking?
2 Which of the following strategies is likely to be
effective in reducmg use of tobacco? Which would
you support? What challenges would need to be
overcome in implementing tlus strategy?
a Increasing taxation on cigarettes
b Educating adults about the dangers of smoking
c Educating school students about the dangers of
smoking
d Banning tobacco advertismg
e Preventing the open display of cigarettes in
shops and supermarkets
Requiring cigarette packages to carry health
warnings and pictures of diseased lungs
g Making cigarette smoking Hlegal, with severe
penalties for the use or sale of tobacco
3.15 Education and human resources
KEY IDEAS
o Education provides opportunities for people to
develop their full potential.
o One aspect of education is the development of
work-related skills.
o With changing technology and social needs,
education, training, and retraining continue
throughout a career, and often after retirement.
Professional education and training: Advanced academic
Jne' rractic1 tra n·ng for profess1ons such as law,
nH d c.ine, teaching, or engineering.
Retraining: Mid-career training in new ski lls not di rectly
'CIa ted to a previous occupation, for example a sugar cane
wor~er retn I' rg as a plumber.
Vocational education and training: Educa tion with an
enpt asis 01 work-related practical skills, for example in
11for'llation technology, tou rism, printing, or construction
trcdE s.
Figure 3.44: Students usmg laptops 1n the classroom
Early
Education has many purposes. One of childhood ....,
them is to prepare students to start their educat1on
careers.l'vlost people in the Caribbean
recognize the importance of education
in human development. Governments
and other institutions promote education Figure 3.45: Routes for
at <111 levels. educational development
Students in many countries receive assistance while
attending school, with things such as:
o books
o laptop computers
o free meals at school
o free transport to school.
Some students who receive excellent grades at
CAPE or other examinations receive scholarships for
university education. Some scholarships cover fees
and living expenses for overseas study.
The level of assistance and educational facilities in a
country depends on facto rs such as:
o the finan cial resources available
o the human resources available for education
o the commitment of the government to education
o the level of commitment from students, their
families, and other individuals
o contributions by voluntary organizations and
private businesses
o the size of the country- a very small country
cannot support a university campus, while larger
countries have several.
The traditional route for educational development
is through early childhood education, followed by
primary and secondary school, and then on to either:
o a first job
o vocational and technical education
o a university.
Pnmary ~
school
educatiOn
Today, many other roads are available in most countries:
o Adults who left school unable to read and write
(illiterate) can take basic literacy classes.
o Adults can take CSEC and other qualifications in
part-time classes.
o Some universities and colleges have introductory
courses, such as the Compass programme in
Trinidad and Tobago, which take students without
CSEC passes to a level where they can start a degree.
o A variety of universities and colleges in the region
offer degrees in practical and academic subjects.
In some countries, the government pays tuition
fees for degree-level students.
o The University of the West I ndies has an Open
Campus distance-learning programme, offering
courses to students throughout the region.
o l\1any overseas universities have facilities for
Caribbean students to take degrees without
leaving their home country, in partnership with
local institutions.
o Professional organizations such as the
Association of Chartered Certified Accountants
offer international qualifications through partner
institutions, distance learning, or individual study.
Education is no longer a once-in-a-lifetime process.
From professionals and managers to manual workers,
staff must learn how to make best use of new
technology, developments, and opportunities. Some
people may retrain for a completely new career.
0 'Th.1s we.e.K1 we. {...ave. ~ .P01Ar-dtt~ co1Arse. o~ tl.\.e.
~e.w e.B1Aipt~~.e.~t -For 01Ar e.~~i~e.e.rs ~~d ope.r~tors 1
w1tk ove.rse.~s tr~i~e.rs.
f) .S1A~1or s1Ape.rv1sors ~£1. t~Ke. ~ 1A~1ve.rsitlj
dipi.o~ ~r1<e.t1~01 Mco1A~ti~ ~ ~~d
co1Arse. 1-1\
0 1 What facilities and assistance are available for
~~~ae.~~t.
e :r. w~s ~ ~~~oe.r I~ ~ S1Ao~r -t~c t~. Wl.\.e.~
it dose.d 1 :r. tooK ~ c01Arse. i~ k1At~~.~~ re.S01Arce.
""~~~~e.~~t. Now :r. worK -For ~ ~jor kote.R.. :r.t
-Fe.e.R.s 'P.1Ke. ~ d1.P.Pe.re.~t worfd. :r..P we. 1.\.~d Ke.pt 1Ap
wit~.\. ~e.w ide.~s 1 we. t~~.i k t 1.\.~ve. Ke.pt tl.\.e. s1A ~r
0
~~d1Ast~ r1A~~~~(}' s1Acce.ss.P1AHlj.
0 c which universities or colleges you would like
'--
0 :r. ~~~~. 83 7te.~rs
o£d1 ~~d :r. sh££ worK
pro-Fe.ssro~I'i.lj . :r. ~"" -A~e. w1tl.\. t ke. ~e.w
te.ck~o£~~- :r. co1Ai.d ~ot do ~~~.~job wit ko1At 111.~
co.-rp1Ate.rs 1 e.~ 1l 1 ~~d di ,t~ ~~r~ . Th.e. o~l~
0
tl.\.1~ st1AcK ~~ t ke. rw-st 1s ~~~.~ r~te. o-F
0 fW-l
Name THREE universities in the region. indicating
the countries in which they are found.
2 What scholarships are available in your country for
umversity study?
3 For one career (such as law. engineering. or
nursing) list one course of study which is available:
a in your own country
b elsewhere in the Caribbean
c internationally
What are the advantages of each of the courses you
have listed?
Research
This activity will give you good practice in the
interview skills you need for your SBA.
Plan and carry out an interview with an adult
who has completed an educational course since
leaving school. Find out the following:
a A brief description of the course: institution,
subject. time required. purpose of study,
qualification achieved.
b Was the course worthwhile? What was achieved?
c Is the participant now planning further study?
Discuss the following questions in a small group.
school students m your country? What has been
achieved. and what could be Improved?
2 In addition to career development. what aims
should be achieved by school education?
3 Do you plan further education after leaving school?
Make a plan for your education and training. which
should include
a what careers you are mterested in
b what subjects you would like to study
to attend
d what on-the-]ob trammg you thmk you will need
CASE STUDY
Adults in education in Trinidad and Tobago
0 ::r: ca~ 1t reetd. ::r: cet~ 1t wor)( ~~ .fetst .food
be.cet1Ase. ~o1A ~e.d to reetd ~~sh1Ac t1o~s1 c.a~ 1t
wor)( ~~ se.cw·it~ be.cet1Ase. ~01A ~e.e.~ t~ ~~Let)(e.
wr"itte.~ re.ports1 ca~ t ~et ~ dnver s £1ce.-1\Ce.
1
bec.a1Ase }1"01A "'-Me to t~)(e ~ wr1tte.~ test . ::r:
Vl.etve et s~~Let't.£ bt-ts1~ess ~~Lt:t)(I-K(r .food ~-Kd sei£1-K:t
it b~ t"'-e ro~d 1 b1At it 1s Mrd to ~~Let-MO.e ~~z
)(e.ep tr~c)(. ::r: Mve st~rted cfusse.s ~t Ad1Alt
L.iterM~ T1Ators Associettio-K . 1he7t ~re. rt-t~ b~
1
voh-Kte.e.r te.M"'-ers etM st-tpportufb~ bt-tsi~ss
do-Kors. NOw r. ca-x rMJVe o-x w1f"'- ~~ l1.fe.
0 aeti~B1Ae~t ~t
::r: wets et betc)(-row sc"'-ootl
w1f"'- -xo d1scipli-Ke. ~t "'-o~. ::r: C01Ai.d~ t reM
1
1A-Ktr1. ::r: w~s ~ro1A-xd ((,1 b1At -KO~ o.f t"'-e
teM"'-ers eve~ ~ot1ced. M~ .flrst job wets wif"'-
et .f~st -.food co~-K1J ett ~i-Ki~1A~ wet(re. The-K
r. we-xt 1-Kto co-xstr1ActiO-K ~set £~bo1Arer. ::r:t
wets better ~rd 1 bt-tt ~t-tc"'- "'-etrder wor)(. ::r:
decrded to st1Ad~ ~t eve-Kt-K(r cfuss1 ~M t~J<e
~~ C.S~C.s. ::r: sw1tc"'-ed to sec1Ant15 wor)( ett et
~or "'-ote£. 1 wkere t"'-e s"'-1.fts etiiowed eve-xi~(r
st1Ad]1" 1 ~-Kd too)< two s1Al(je.cts eve~ }1"eetr.
W"'-e-K ::C"'Md e-K01A~"'- petsses1 ::r: be:t~.-K .~ i-o-K~o-x
1A-Kiversit1J de.(rre.e. 1-K sec1Ar1t15 ~z~r-Krstr~t1oox 1
st1AdW-K3" i.ocetli~ ett C.1pn~-xr ~b01Ar C.OU~e. 1
~IC"'- IS r1A-K D(j t"'-e tr~de 1AOXI0'KS . The
"'-ofe.l 1s :te.-Ke.retl ~~Let-M~er e-KC01Ar~(red ~ n(r"'-t
tkro1A(rt;.1 et-Kd k~s o-ffered ~ ~ pos1tio-K ~s et
l~Let'K~(re~~t treti-Kee wke-K ::r: co~plete tke
de(rre.e tkis 15eetr. ::r: ~~ -KOw 33. ::r:t Ms t~J(e-K
l~Lt:t-Klr }1"eetrs o.f Mrd wor)( et-Kd etppi.ic.atro-K1 bt-tt
::r: -KOw tf.Ave care.e.r prospects . Wk~t ~o1A see -KOw
IS ~ot tke set~ Metri.o~ ::r: w~s ~~ ~15 tee~s .
Quick question
List the institutions which have assisted the students in
the Trinidad and Tobago case study above.
0 ::r: £e.ft sckool wrtVI. tVI.ree C.S~C petsses1
b1At ~71" ~otker we~t to New YorK1 t\~d :r
"'-etd to s't~lr "'-o~e to looK ~.fter ~~ ~01A-K(rer
brotkers t\oxd S1shrs. Th.e-K :r: ketd tkree
c"'-rldn-K o.f ~lr Ow-K. Te-K }1"eetrs lette.r- 1 ~71"
ow-x ck1i.dre-x were ~t sc"'-oo~ t\~d ::r: w~s ~ole
to stetrt wor)( 1 ets et s1Aper~etrJ(.e t cetskier .
The "'-ot-trs were i.o~(r 1 so~ti~s 1A~:ri. te~
ett ~i kt 1 b1At ~lr Brof"'-er "'-elped ~~~d tke
0
cVI.ri.dre~. J:-K tkrs cot-t~t~ 1 t"'-e :tover-K~e~t
pt\}1"S tt-titio~ .fees .for de(rree-£eve1. ed1Acett1oox.
'± etlwet~s w~~ted to be etjo1Ar~et£1st. Fot-tr
}1"eetrs et~o 1 ~}1" brot"'-er e~co1Am ed ~e to
0
st~d~ ett 'fke C'oii.e~e o.f $cie~ce 1 Teck-Kolo(rlr
~~d Applied Arts o':F Tri~rdetd et~d Tob~ o 1 or
C.OSTAATI. L.~st ~~tk 1 r. tooK t"'-ree steps
0
.forw~rd. r. :tr~d1A~te.d w1t"'- /.\ox ~SSOC1t\te
de(rree .fro~ t.OSTAA1T1s Ke-K G-ordo-K Sckool
o.f .:To1Ar~etlrs~ ~~d C.o~~1A~1cett1o~ St1Ad1es 1
::r: reo_1 st ered .for et bMkelor 1s deo.re.e 1 et ~d
:r st~rted worK ~s ~ 'reporter w1tk et 1\1
stettio~. ::r: k~d to worK O-K C."'-nst~ets D~(T 1
bt-tt f"'-et t wets ood 1 it w~s p~rt o.f ~lr -xew
0
li.fe ~s ~ pro.fess1oox~l.
Discuss the following questions with a partner.
1 What reasons could lead students to fall behind in
education and career development
a while they are at school?
b after leaving school?
2 What difficulti es are faced by an adult in making up
for lost ground after underperforming at school or
at the start of a career?
 Sports, culture, and human
3.16 resources
KEY IDEAS
o The Caribbean is a leader in sports and culture.
o Sports and culture allow people to develop their
potential and contribute to regional development.
Figu re 3.46: Usa1n Bolt from
Trelawny, Jamaica, won gold
at both the 2008 Be1jing
Olympics and the 2012
London Olymp1cs 1n the
100 metres, 200 metres and
4 x 100 metres events, and
is w1dely rega rded as t he
fastest man m the world. He
began his career in school
athletics.
Figure 3.47: Robyn R1hanna
Fenty from Barbados was the
youngest·ever art1st to ach1eve
11 number·one s1ngles m the
Billboard Hot 100, and made
US$90 m1ll1on from a 2011
world tour. She has an offiCial
partnership w1th the
Barbados Tounsm Authonty
to promote the 1sland. After a
childhood marked by fam1ly
problems, she began her
1nternat1onal mus1c career at
the age of 15.
Figure 3.48: Seen here w1th
family members, Shanntol
lnce represented Tnn1dad
and Tobago as a sw1mmer at
the 2012 Paralymp1c Games
m London, at the age of 18.
As a student. she t ramed two
hou rs a day, s1x days a week,
and also studied senously for
CS EC, w1th the mtent 1on of
becommg an orthopaediC
surgeon or occupational
therapist.
Sports people and artistes from the C aribbean h ave
a wo rldwide reputation, such as:
o U sain Bolt, D wight Yorke and Brian Lara in sports
o Bob M arley a nd Riha nna in music
o D erek Walcott and V. S. N aipaul in literature.
These outstanding individuals com e from a regio nal
culture where many people participate actively
in sports and creative activities. W e can thin k of
participation as a pyramid structure.
o Success at the international peak inspires and
mo tivates others to get involved.
o A broad base of young people and enthusiasts
form s a pool of talent from which star performers
d evelop.
o Strong public interest stimulates development
of sports a nd cultural facilities, and training
prog rammes.
Internat1onal
1"'4--- - star qual1ty
success
Talented amateurs
Young part1c1pants and
enthusiasts
Figure 3 .49: The par t1cipat1on pyramid
Jamaica's success in international athletics has a
stro ng base in school sports. U p to 3,500 students
compete in the "Champs" (Boys and Girls Athletics
Championships) which draw a crowd of 30 000 to
the Natio nal Stadium each year, with a television
audie nce of up to 1.2 million.
Participation in sp orts and culture helps develop
human resources:
o Spo rts promote physical health, self-respect a nd
mental wellbeing.
•
 o Team sports, drama, and other activities build
group-work and organizational skills.
o Sports and cultural activities build creativity,
confidence and self-express ion.
Sports and culture contribute to the economy:
o Artistes and sports people earn money from
outside the region.
o There arc rewarding jobs in sports facilities, music
sh1dios, training, and administration.
o Culture and sports arc growth areas in tourism.
o The region gains visibility. Potential investors and
\'isitors are more likclv to show interest.
Sports and culture also promote regional integration.
\Vest Indies cricket helped bring the region together
in the mid-20th century. Jamaican music and the
Trinidad and Tobago Carnival influence the culture
of other islands. Carifesta showcases national
cultures, and the Carifta games also bring the
region together.
OTh.e. .first t1~t~£- :r c.c~pe.te.d (i1'l tf..\.e. tM~ps)
:r wfAs 13 fA1'ld refAfi}t ~YV01As ... B1At t"'-e. ~e. :r
co~pe.te.d tf..\.e. ~ore. '± ~ot 1Ase.d to 1t. Wf..\.e-1-1 :r 3o
to fA ~jOY Cf..\.fA~pi01'\Sklp 1-lOW ::[ 'lASe tf..\.fAt SfAitl£-
ltl£-tkod :r 'lAsed tf..\.e-11 to de.fAl w1tk t"'-e. pre.ss1Are..
Olympic high jumper Germaine :\1ason
e ::[ fA~ &1AlJfA1-leSe. fA1-ld ::[ l1Ve. 11'\ lOYO'I'\tO .
There fAre two eve11ts ever}t lJefAr :r w.£.£. 11.0t ~iss,
Ci.\nht\11fA 1Ap "'-ere., fA1-ld K1fAsf..\.rfA~fA1'\I fAt f..\.~.
0 :r we.11 t to se.ve.11 C01A1'\ tne.s lfAst lJefAr1
:r
fAS .ffAr fAS $i1-1~fApore. fA'I'\d &f..\.fA'I'\fA . Wf..\.e.reve.r
we.11f 1 :I ke.fArd 'f<ikfA1'\1'\fA 1S ~'!ASIC. The. 01-le. tf..\.11-13
e.ve~011e )<11.ew fAb01At E.fArbfAdos1 IS tf..\.fAt tMt IS
wf..\.e.re. sf..\.e CO~t~£-S .fro~ .
'--..
•
0 :r: do11 't i1}(e. ke.r. Ske. is 11ot
fA1-l 1Apl1.ft11-13 role. ..ode£ .f-OY o'!Ar
l)01A1'\3 W~1'l.
0 Five. st1Ade.11ts .fro~ ~}t ~fAl1c}(
scf..\.ool,
Se.c.c1-1dfAY}t1 were. 11-1 t"'-e. Tf11-11dfAd fA11d looo(to
s~1AfAd .P.OY ¥f..\.e. 2.00{, WOYld C1Ap. :r do11 't }(110w i.P.
fke.re. 's fA1-llj otke.r sckool wOYldwide I<IM.1Ck CfA1-l
~fAtcf..\. tf..\.fAt record.
'-.
Quick question
Descnbe TWO ways in which human resource
development and skills can be assisted by participation in·
a dramatic performances in theatre arts
b a school Carnival show or musical event
c a football team
d an inter-school athletics competition.
Research
Make a list of sports and cultural personalities from
your own country Which of them have achieved
regional and international success?
2 What careers are linked to training and support for
sports and cultural activities?
Script a discussion between Stacia, whose goal is to
be an internationally known singer. and her mother
Michelle, who thinks it would be more productive to
concentrate on studying for CSEC examinations in
mathematics. her weakest subject
Handling data
Propose an SBA study on a topic related to sports,
culture and human resources.
a State the problem in the form of a question.
b Give your reasons for selecting this area
of research .
3.17 Jobs and careers
KEY IDEAS
o Many sources of information are available on
jobs and career plans.
o You should consider what is the most suitable
option to choose.
o Careful planning and preparation are needed
for a job application.
\];Xd «·tli' il'i
Employee: A person who takes a job from an employer.
Employer: A person or business which gives employment.
Figure 3.50: A good JOb, like th;s one at a pr;nter 's. ;s
product;ve and develops sk;lls
We all need food, clothing, shelter, transport, and
other goods and services. Most people also enjoy
a few luxuries as well as the necessities of life. Our
needs and wants may be paid for by:
o a job: paid employment for a private company or
the government
o earnings from owning and running a business
o another family member who works, either locally
or overseas
o a pension, paid by the government or a private
business
o some other source.
These are some of the reasons why most people want
to work to earn a living:
o To gain greater financial independence
o To buy basic needs, such as food, clothing
and shelter
o To buy luxuries and semi-luxuries which provide
enjoyment
o To provide for children, elderly relatives, and
other family members
o To pay for education and health care, in countries
where these arc not provided free of charge by
the government
o To provide additional income for saving and
investment, or to start a small business
o To save for retirement
o To maintain self-respect and self-esteem
o To do work, for example in medicine, which
benefits the whole community
Jobs and careers
Looking for a job may mean meeting an immediate
need for work. Many people take jobs they do not
particularly like, because they are the best ones
immediately available.
0 :l wor}( 0'1-l ~ ~~rb~~e. h1Ac}(. :l do'J'l't e.11J,.
.t. B1At tun ~re. 110 otl.-\.e.r jobs M~,l~ble. n~ltl. t
'1'lOW1 ~'1-ld :l '1-le..e.d to b1A1r -Food ~'1-ld 11\A}(e.. ~
co'J'ltrib1At•o11 to ~~~.lt .r~~~~.,llJ' Ne.xt (je.t~.r 1 :l plt1.11
to dot\ c01Arse. 1'1-l s'tr~·~~t~.te..'1'li11~ t~.'J'ld fX"''1'lt111~.
:l sltl-o1Ald be. ~ble.. to ~e..f t\ be.He.r-p~;djob, tltl.e.'J'l
111A(jbe.. ~fe.r 0'1'1 :l ~11 Sft~.rf 11\.lr OW'J'l b1ASI'J'le..SS.
Planning a career means looking further ahead,
making choices about the future. These are some
points to think about:
o What are your needs and wants?
o What are your values? What is important to you?
o What are your interests? What do you like doing?
o What are you good at? Do you have any special
abilities?
o What are your goals and ambitions?
Many organizations have websites with information
about careers and training, for example:
o universities and colleges
o government agencies
o professional organizations for engineering,
•
accountancy, medicine, law, and other field s
 o large businesses which ru n recruitment and
training programmes
o awarding bodies which offer qualifications in
manr . areas of work, such as Citv' and Guilds.
f)
:r: w~'"t to be.~ '"1Arse . :r:t IS Mrd wor-f( ~'"d
tke k01AYS ~re lo'"8'' b1At :r: w"''"t to kelp people.
"'1/.\(rbe. l.~ter o'" :r: CJll'" woY)( werse~s to 1'"cr-e~se
111..(1 e~Y'"I'"8'S ·
0 :r: ~~~~.. 1'"ter-ested 1'" ~CCO'IA'"t"''"c(r. :r: ~~~~..
8'ood w1tk fl8'1Ares 1 "''"d :r: l.i)(e worf(i'"8' Mrd. A'"d
"--. se'"1or ~CC01A'"t"''"ts e"'r'" 8'ood ~~~oo'"e(r.
0 :r: w~'"t to worf( ~s ~'" e.l.ectrici"''"· :r: l.1f(e
COIII..ple.t''"a "'Job to "' oood st~'"Mrd, Wltk tke
c1Ast0111..e.r s~t1s.fled . :r: CJll'" st1Ad~ "'-ere 1'" tke
eve'"''"8's -For "' cert1.flc~te "''"d d1pl0too..l). .fr-0111.. C.1t(r
~'"d G-1.t1l.ds. "Th.~t wi£1 t"'f(e "'mt two (re~rs.
&ve'"t"!At\il(r :r: CJll'" st"'rt 111..(1 ow'" b1As1'"ess.
e :r: w~>.'"t to be t>. pro-Fess1o~l. kst<e.tb~U
piA'}teY. "Th.e.(r e'"jO'}t tke~~~osel.ves 1 ~'"d e~>.r'"
pl.e'"¥l :r: ~~~~.. o'"e o':f tke best 1'" ~~~olJ scl-l.oo£ 1
~'"d lllo!>.(rbe. o'"e dt>.'}t ~'" i'"ter'"t>.t1o~ co"'c"'- w1H
spot ~~~o(1 t"'l.e'" t . r:' do'" 't r-e~l.l(rllf(e ~~~oost sckool.
S1A~ects, except -For sports.
•
G :t do11 't !<1-tOW wW>.t :t wP-11t to do! :t.f :t do
we£1. "'t ~~~o'}t ex~~~~..s :t sko1A£d st11.f be t>.bl.e to ~~~o!>.Ke
r~-~.~t deCISIO'" wke'" :J: k~Ve to.
Explain the difference between jobs and careers. Give
an example of a job which is likely to contribute to
career development. and one which is not.
Draw up a short list of possible careers. then choose
one to research in detail. You should find out:
a How much study and training are required? Are
there courses of study available close to your home?
Are they full-time courses, or can they be combined
with a JOb to let you earn money as you study?
b What is the likely level of earnings? Do earnings
mcrease over time. or remain at about the same level?
c How many openings are there in this career?
d What are the long-term prospects? Does tlus career
have a good future?
e What are the other advantages and disadvantages
of this career?
Does it meet your needs. values. ablhtles. interests.
and ambitions?
Handling data
Propose an SBA study on a topic related to young
peoples' career choices.
a State the problem in the form of a question.
b Explain why you selected this area of research .
c Outline a qualitative method you could use
to research this topic, using interviews or
case stu dies .
3.18 Looking for work
KEY IDEAS
o Income to pay for needs and wants may come
from employment. a business. or another source.
o A job may meet immediate needs. or form part of
a long-term career plan.
o A career plan should consider your needs,
interests. abilities and ambitions.
o Your school may have a careers guidance teacher,
or another member of staff who can offer advice.
In large businesses, the Human Resources
department may be able to advise you about likely
openings. In some countries, there are government
agencies which have information about jobs.l\Iany
jobs are advertised in the press or on company
websites.

~1!·11!1;\j These are some of the steps you should consider:

Resume or Curriculum vitae (CV): A document presenting
o Collect information on jobs available in your
the background and skills of a candidate for employment.
home area, or within daily travelling distance.
o List the available options.
o A ssess the available options. Which ones are you
qualified for? Which would you enjoy? Which

*******
SALES CLERK
Peachtree Accounting expen·
ence. Send Resume Apphcauon
offer good career prospects?
o Think through the consequences of your choice.
FOR JEWELRY STORE and Passport s1ze photo to
IN SAN FERNANDO Worthrush Rd. San Fernando
When assessing job options, these are some of the
21-35 years STORE CLERKS requ~red
Call for (Cash ers, Sales Clerils. Typ1sts) points to think about.
Send Resume to DanBat Ltd
Appointment •St.James Boulevard. San o Can I do what is required?
® Fernando.
o Will I learn skills which will be useful later in
STITCHERS NEEDED SALESMAN NEEDED lor
SAN FERNANDO my career?
o How much will I earn? Are there any other
benefits, such as health insurance or a canteen?
FOR EXPERIENCED
o Are there opportunities for extra earnings or
VACANCIES
TECHNICIANS: promotion?
FIRE/BURGLAR
NEW PRIVATE DENTAL PRACTICE
ALARMICCTV o I s it a pleasant (and safe) working environment?
HAS VACANCIES FOR DENTISTS
SEND APPLICATIONS TO
ALSO INSTALLATION o Can I travel there every day from my home? If
AND REPAIRS TO
ELECTRONIC GATE not, can I migrate to live closer to work?
VACNCIES: BAR/ Restaurant OPERATING SYSTEM
o I s the job secure or is it just a short-term
position?

Figure 3.51: Job vacancies are often advert1sed in newspapers

Looking for work is a challenge for most school-
leavers.
Some sources of information are close at hand, from
people who know you well:
o Family and friends may offer advice and
information. They will be able to tell you about
their own careers. They may know which
organizations are recruiting staff.
The job application
If you apply for a job, you should usually send a
letter of application and a CV (or resume). Large
organizations will have a form for job applicants to
fill; in that case, a CV may not be needed.
These are some of the points which may be
considered in deciding whether you are a successful
candidate:
o Arc you qualified for the job?
o Do you have a positive attitude to the work?

•
o Do you have a clear career plan, involving skills
development and further training?
o Can you interact well with customers, and with
workmates and supervisors?
An employer's I Iuman Resources department
may receive dozens of applications for a single job.
Usually, they are considered in three stages:
o Any application which does not meet the basic
qualifications for the job is rejected.
o The Human Resources department sifts through
the remaining applications, drawing up a
short-list of the most suitable candidates.
o Candidates from the short-list arc invited for
interview. The interview helps the employer
decide which candidates arc most promising-
and allows the applicant to ask questions about
the job and its future prospects.
o In some jobs, there may be a written or practical
rest for short-listed applicants.
Successful candidates receive an offer of employment.
If they accept, the next step is preparing to start work.
There are many reasons why a candidate for a job
may not be successful:
o 1l1cre may be many well-qualified applicants.
ot all can be employed. There is no reason for
those who are not offered a job to feel that they
have failed.
o Some candidates do not have the formal
qualifications required. They need to continue
their studies, or look for a more :.uitable opening.
o It is important for the candidate to present
themselves well in the CV, in the letter of
application, and at the interview.
Choose four members of your class to form a
Human Resources department. One of them should
be team leader They should consider the CV
and JOb apphcations of the other class members.
selecting the six most promising for a short-list.
2 The Human Resources department should
interview the short-listed candidates. selecting one
for the position.
& Research
Search a newspaper or other source for job
advertisements. Look at five. and list advantages
and disadvantages. Where is the JOb located? What
skills. experience and qualifications are needed?
Could a school-leaver realistically apply?
2 Select one which you think looks promising. For the
roleplay exerc1se below it will be useful if all class
members agree on one JOb to apply for.
3 Write a CV This should have a clear layout. setting
out:
a Your name. address and contact details
b Date of birth. nationality, sex. marital status
c Education. schools attended
d Qualifications you have obtained
e QualificatiOns you are studying for
Any additional skills
g Work experience. including part-time and
unpaid work
h Interests and activities
Membership of any clubs and organizations
The names and contact details of two referees,
who can support your application
4 Wnte a JOb application letter. You should:
a ask to be considered for the job
b refer to your source of informatiOn about the
position (personal contact or advertisement)
c explain why you are a su1table candidate.
drawmg attention to your strong points: refer to
your future career plans if they are relevant
d explam why you would like the JOb. and why you
would like to work for the orgamzation
Creative writing
Following the roleplay on the left. write a letter offering
the position to the successful candidate. and a polite
and tactful letter to those who were not successful.
3.19 Rights and responsibilities
unions have elected workplace representatives
KEY IDEAS and full-time officials, who can advise on rights
o Employees have a written or unwritten
employment contract. and responsibilities. Unions negotiate with the
o Employees have rights and responsibilities at work. employer for improved salaries and conditions of
o Trade unions and other organizations can inform work; this is called collective bargaining. They
workers of their rights and resolve disputes. monitor work practices to make sure that health
and safety standards are met.
All employees have a contract of employment. o Most large businesses have a human resources
This may be: department. Its staff can keep employees informed
on what the employer expects from staff, on
o a written contract, signed by employer and promotion and training opportunities, and policy
employee, usually when a job is offered after on sick leave, vacations, or health and safety.
interview o Most governments have a Ministry of Labour
o an unwritten contract, developed by oral or similar department, which deals with work-
agreement and the actions of both parties over related issues. All countries have laws to protect
an extended period. workers' rights, for example by setting safety
Employees also have legal rights, for example to sick standards or entitlement to vacation leave.
pay, holiday pay, and compensation for accidents o The Caribbean Congress ofLabour is a
at work. A written contract cannot overturn an federation of regional trade unions.
employee's legal rights. o Caricom in 1995 agreed a Declaration ofLabour
and Industrial Relations Principles. Governments
An employee should never receive instructions to do agreed to protect the right to collective bargaining,
anything unreasonable or illegal, for example in breach and promote equality of treatment for workers
of health and safety regulations. Any unreasonable of any race, colour, sex, religion, political opinion,
action by the employer can be challenged in law. national extraction, or social origin.
In the workplace, staff members have rights and o The International Labour Organization, based
responsibilities. These are a few of them. in Switzerland, promotes good labour practices
worldwide, and is linked to the United Nations,
Rights Responsibilities under the principle "promoting jobs, protecting
To rece1ve payment due 1n full and To carry out agreed dut1es to the peop1e" .
on t1me, less any deductions best standard possible
requ1red by law for 1ncome tax,
nat10nalmsurance, etc. Research
To work 1n a safe and healthy To follow health and safety
environment procedures set out by the employer List TWO trade unions which represent workers in
your country.
To be treated fa1rly, w1th no To treat fellow employees fa1rly, w1th
2 List TWO laws or regulations which affect workers'
diSCrimination on grounds of race, no diSCrimination on grounds of race,
sex, national origin, religion etc.
rights.
sex, national origin, religion, etc.
To rece1ve s1ck pay, holidays and To work hours agreed w1th the
other legal entitlements employer in full.

Table 3.19: R1ghts and responsibilities of employees

There are organizations which can advise employees
about rights and responsibilities at work.
o The staff of many public and private sector
organizations belong to a trade union. Most
Working with a partner. suggest examples of workplace
instructions which would be unreasonable or illegal.
What action would you take if you receive such an
mstruction? Who could you go to for advice? How
could the issue be resolved?

•
 3.20 Employee or entrepreneur?
KEY IDEAS
o Starting a business as an entrepreneur is an
alternative to paid employment.
o There are advantages and disadvantages to
taking on the role of entrepreneur.

~1!·111 iil'i
Entrepreneur: A person who starts and owns a business.
makes decisions, takes risks, and intends to earn a profit.
Capital: Fu'lds used to start a business. There are other
meanings, but this one is relevant here.

An employee works for a private business, or for the

government. An entrepreneur starts a business, owns Figure 3.52: Most people beg1n the1r career as employees.
it, and operates it. they may start a bus1ness later

l\lany people start their career as an employee, gain
practical experience, and then go on to start their
own business. Both choices have advantages and
disadvantages, as shown in the table below. Small
businesses may work in law, construction, retailing,
0 :1 worJ(e.d kt:~.Y'd to cotto..pi.e.te. .2.£\w sckooi.. Now :r
WOY'j( 01-\ ~~ OW't\ . I £\~ 1-\0t we.£.£. j(1-\0W1-\ ~e. t 1 SO I
do 1-\0t e.t:~.r't\ bi~ .fe.e.s . :1 de..fe.'t\d pe.opii ~o t:~.n
c~r}te.d w•tltl. s~H cn~s. :1 ~t~.ei.pe.d ~'}t C01ASI1-\

hair care, or any other activity. Most remain small, se.f 1Ap 1). co~pt:~.'t\~. J: t\SSISt cfle.'t\t.S ~0 t\Y'e.
b1AJri1-\(}' t:~.'t\d se.i.i..'t\~ ltl.o1Ase.s or i.t:~.'t\d. W:o.te.r O-t\ 1
but a few grow to be leaders in their field.
:1 pft:~.'t\ to ~j(e. ~Jr 1-\t:l.~ t:I.S t:l. CY'l~l1-\£\£ de..fe.'t\Ce.
l\1aking the transition from a secure job with .fp,~e.r.lJ:t is e.Xc•ti't\~ worj(.
regular pay to self-employment may be risky, but
entrepreneurs can enjoy using their skills and talents
for their own benefit.

Finding a job Starting a business

No funds are needed to start work.
Earnmgs start from f1rst week or month.
The worker has rights to s1ck pay and vacat1on.
The worker earns overt1me for extra work.
The employer sets rules for dress code and behav1our at work.
If the bus1ness fails, the worker must ftnd another JOb.
If the bus1ness succeeds, the worker may rece1ve a pay nse.
Workers may be promoted to a management JOb, earn1ng more money
but carry1ng more respons1b111t1es.
Most workers rece1ve a pens1on on retirement.
Employees must conform to the strategy and rules of their workplace.
The bustness owner must buy goods and equ1pment, and usually rent a bus1ness place.
The bus1ness may not make a profit for months or even years.
Somebody else must run the busmess 1f the owner 1s s1ck or takes a vacat1on.
The owner must work long hours when the busmess 1s startmg up.
The bus1ness owner must meet expectations of customers and suppliers.
If the busmess falls, the owner loses the start-up mvestment, and must ftnd another
source of income.
If the business succeeds, the owner earns a substantial profit.
The owner may employ managers to run a successful busmess, and take more
le1sure time.
When the owner retires, the bus mess can be sold; or the owner can appo1nt managers
and still rece1ve the prof1ts.
The bus mess owner has every chance to develop creativity, set goals, and fulfil
personal objectives.

Table 3.20: Employee or entrepreneur? Advantages and disadvantages

II
e :r: worK I~ tke- fe.~CJ.£ de.fl"rt~~t o.f CJ. bi~
i~S1AY"CJ.~C.e. co~pCI.~~. J: e.().Y"~ (.). .f(.).1rf]1" ~ood
S().~1J 1 CJ.~d 1t IS CJ. pfe.CJ.SCJ.~t pfCJ.ce. to w&-1(. J: worl(
o~ i ~s1ArCJ.~ce. co~hMts. :r:~ (.). .fe.w 1J.e.C~..rs 1 J: w1££
be. ff'A1fe. (.).~ e.Xpe.rt o~ tk1s CJ.re.CJ. o.f l.P..w, CJ.~d J:
kope. to e.CJ.r~ pr~otio~.

e Wke-~ :I: fe..ft sckoo£1 J: s1 CJ.d'e.d worK CJ.S CJ.

~so~. l..(.).te.r o~, :X: s1(.).rte.d do1~~ s~CJ.Hjobs
o~ ~}t. ow~. lJ.....e,~ J: tool( o~ (.). co1Ap1e. o.f worl(e.rs1
CJ.'J.\d ~~(.).~ ~lt ow~ co~str1Ac.tio~ c.o~po.~~· We.
kCJ.ve. j1As'f f.CJ.~Oe.d o1Ar b~~~e.st co~ tmct, b1Aifd1~~
siX ko1Ase.s. J: (.).~ ~ood CJ.'f tke. prC~.CtJc.CJ.£ s1de. 1 b1Af
it IS (.). Sfr1A~~£e. to )(e.e.p 1Ap Wltk MC01A'11fl'11~
CJ.~d po.pe.rwor)C We. ~~ SOO't-\ be. CJ.b£e to k1re CJ.
pro.fe.SSIO't-\CJ.£ 11-f.flc.e. ~'1\CJ..~er.

0 :r: st1Ad1e.d .for CJ. de.~re.e. 1"1'\ e."''\~1'1\UY"I't-\~.

~ow J: worK 0'11 ~JOY" ro(.).d prCZJe.c.'fs .for CJ. 01~
C0'11Str1Adi0'11 ~'1-\l Fro~ ~ext ~"1'\tk, J: w1tl.
be. bCJ.se.d i~ .St l-1ACICJ. .for CJ.t £e.CJ.st CJ. ~e.CJ.r.

Figure 3. 53: To run a sma ll busmess. an entrepreneur must

take on many roles
Research
This activity will give you good practice in the Starting a business
interview skills you need for your SBA. M ost businesses require start-up capital. Funds are
Interview an entrepreneur who runs a small or needed to:
large business. Write an account, describing:
a reasons for the decision to start a business o buy equipment
b difficulties encountered in starting o rent or buy business premises
o advertise the product or services
c problems and challenges facing the business
o pay staff and other costs while the business grows
d opportunities for growth and development.
to a profitable size
o support the entrepreneur during the start-up
period.
M ost young people do not h ave sufficient funds to
Discuss the following question with a partner. start their own business. A few can borrow from
Would you prefer to work as an employee. or run a friends or their family. l\tl ost will need to work for
business? Would you want to take different roles as
a few years, to accumulate enough funds and work
your career progresses? Which role do you think
would suit you best: experience before they are ready to venture ou t on
a when you have left school or university? their own.
b when you are in your 30s and 40s?

Ill
In most new businesses, the entrepreneur provides
some of the funds they will need from their own
savings. Additional capital may be borrowed from a
source such as:
o a bank
o a credit union
o a government agency, such as the Jamaica
Business Development Corporation.
1he lender will want to see a well-presented business
plan, to provide evidence that the business will be
profitable.
Fi gure 3.54: For success. an entrepreneur or manager will
need to work hard
These arc some of the points to consider, if you are
thinking about starting a business:
o Do you have direct experience of your chosen
area of activity, for example food, construction,
entertainment, or retailing?
o Do you have any academic qualifications which
are required? For example, lawyers and medical
practitioners must have a full professional
qualification.
o Can you draw up a detailed business plan, to
convince others that your enterprise will be
a success?
o Do you have a positive attitude to the proposal,
and the determination to see it through?
o Can you interact well with customers, suppliers,
and your staff?
These are some of the qualities which a successful
entrepreneur should have:
o Creativity and imagination: to "think outside
the box"
o The ability to plan: thinking ahead
o I l ard work and perseverance: especially in the
difficult initial stages
o Good "people skills": to interact with lenders,
suppliers, customers, and staff
o Decisiveness: the ability to make a clear choice
after considering the evidence
o The ability to learn and listen: nobody is always
"right first time"
o I ntegrity and fairness : only a business which
people can trust will achieve lasting success.
Are there any government agencies in your country
which offer low-interest loans or grants to small and
start-up businesses? Name one of them. Look at its
website, and write a short paragraph about its aims
and operations.
Working m a small group, develop a proposal for a
business which you think could succeed and make a
profit in your area. Consider the following questions:
a What would be the business activity?
b How many people would it employ?
c What eqUipment would be required?
d What would be the risks and challenges?
e How do you intend to secure funding to start
the business?
3.21 Employment and unemployment
KEY IDEAS
o Unemployment creates severe social problems.
o The unemployment rate is the percentage of the
labour force which cannot find work.
o The labour force excludes those not seeking
work, such as home makers and the retired.
o Many of those in work are under-employed.
Q fi!•fttti\'1
Labour force: The labour force is made up of people who
have jobs, run a business, or are actively looking for work.
Excludes discouraged workers, full-time students, retired
people, etc.
Unemployed: Actively seeking work, but unable to find a job.
Unemployment rate: The percentage of the labour force
which cannot find work.
Discouraged workers: Potential workers who are no longer
seeking work because they believe there are no jobs
available. Also called inactive workers.
Over-qualified: Holding more qualifications than those
required for a job.
Under-employed: Doing part-time work when a full-time
job is required. Doing a job which does not make full use of
abilities and qualifications.
Most people would like to have a job which has a
good salary, is enjoyable and worthwhile, and has
good career prospects for the future. However, some
cannot find a job at all. They would be glad to find
any employment, even if it is badly paid, insecure, and
unpleasant. They arc unemployed. Unemployment
creates problems. People without work cannot
support themselves or their families.
Total populat1on 276300
The unemployed, and their dependants, may not be
able to afford the basic necessities of life. Savings
and redundancy payments may help during a limited
period of unemployment, but for the long-term
unemployed, life may be difficult.
Unemployment may lead to:
o individual and family poverty
o poor nutrition and disease
o poor housing conditions and overcrowding
o family problems: increased financial stress leads to
personal difficulties
o an increased crime rate
o neglect of education: young people may see no
point in gaining qualifications if there are no jobs
o large-scale emigration or even depopulation, as
people seek work elsewhere
o a "brain drain", as well-qualified workers migrate
o a lack of skills in the labour force, as few people
can gain practical work experience
o lower tax revenue for the government, as there are
fewer workers to pay taxes.
The labour force
The unemployment rate measures the proportion of
the labour force which is seeking work, but does not
have a job or business.
Some people are not of working age:
o Younger than working age is usually defined as
people aged 14 or under. However, many people
over 15 do not work because they are full-time
students.

Adult populat1on 21 3 700

s ::le labour force 68 200 Labour force 145 500

~================~~
L____~ll~l===::::;1~==========~
1 I
Tc.~g
14600
Retired
35600
r t Other Employed 127 900 Un~ed
HOIT'e
maKerc;
5 , 400 1 7 600
17600
8 600 lncapac1tate:d Unemployment rate : 12 1%
27 900
3. 800

•
Figure 3.55: Population and employment. Ba r bados. 2010

CASE STUDY
Marie and Stefan
Marie's husband Stefan has a good job. but she is
busy helpmg her family, and has no time to take paid
employment. She has three young children. Shenille is
at primary school. The twins. Marcus and Damian, are
one year old. so they need a lot of attention. Also in
the household are Marie's younger sister Jackie. who
is studying law, and her father Marvin. who is ftt and
healthy, but left his job when he reached 60. Marie's
brother Michael is a mason. but he cannot find work.
He is living with Marie and Stefan because he cannot
afford an apartment of his own. So is Michael's friend
Shari, who lost the use of her legs in a car accident
last year. and is still learning new skills to cope with
her difficulties.
Quick question
Read the case study above. and match each of the
people described with one of these categories:
o Below working age o Employed
o Home maker o Studymg
o Incapacttated o Unemployed
o Retired
o Working age is usually defined as from 15 to 65.
o Older than working age arc people who
have retired, and do not wish to work. In the
Caribbean, many people retire at 60, for example
in the public service or teaching; but they
may continue with other work for many years
afterwards. They remain in the labour force.
Within the population of working age, many arc
not seeking work. They are not part of the labour
force. They may be students or full-time home
makers caring for children or other relatives. People
who have given up looking for work because there
are no suitable jobs available are called inactive or
discouraged workers. The remaining population are
either working, or actively looking for work. They are
the labour force.
Employed or unemployed?
The labour force can be divided into the employed,
who have jobs, and the unemployed, who do not.
People who work in small family businesses arc
•
counted as employed, even if they do not receive a
cash payment.
In most official surveys, anyone working for one
hour a week or more is counted as employed- even
if their earnings from part-time work are not enough
to buy the necessities of life. The under-employed
have work of some sort, and are counted as part of
the employed population, even if they:
o work only part-time, when they would like a
full-time job
o do jobs which do not match their qualifications;
they arc over-qualified.
Even when the unemployment rate is low, there may
be a need for more jobs:
o to bring discouraged workers back into the
labour force
o to provide full-time jobs for the under-employed
o to provide improved opportunities which make
full use of the abilities of the population.
Quick question
Which of the following would be officially classed as
unemployed? Give reasons for your answers.
a Michael. who earns a few dollars washing cars in
the road
b Stacey, who helps out on Saturday mornings in her
mother's minimart
c Marvin. who has a degree in accountancy, and is
working in a bar while he looks for a permanent job
d Kerry. who stays home to look after four children
and thetr elderly grandmother
e Marcia. who retired as a teacher four years ago, but
has now applied for a job in a private school
Anne-Marie. who has given up looking for work
because there are no jobs available
g Brian. who uses his car as an unlicensed taxi,
and does not want the government to know he
is working
Janice lost her job as a waitress two years ago when
a nearby hotel closed. She has not been able to find
another job She has two children. and their father
is also unemployed. Write an email from Janice to
Tasha. her aunt in New York. which describes THREE
problems she is experiencmg.
 Why some countries have high
3.22 unemployment
KEY IDEAS
o The unemployment rate varies from country to
country, and from year to year.
o There are many reasons why countries may suffer
high unemployment.
o Unemployment creates a "vicious circle" which
damages many aspects of the economy and society
Barbados 12.1%
Belize 23.1% (2010)
Jama1ca 12.3%
Trin1dad and Tobago 7.9%
Table 3.21: Caribbean unemployment rates, 2011
The unemployment rate may vary greatly.
Unemployment may be high where the economy is
not prospering, either in a particular country or in a
particular year.
There are many reasons for unemployment:
o Cyclical unemployment: If the international
economy is depressed, Caribbean countries suffer.
For example, fewer people can afford expensive
overseas travel, so hotels have fewer guests, and
may reduce staff, or place them on short time, so
that they are under-employed. Many economists
believe that the world economy experiences
cycles between periods of prosperity and
depression. Most Caribbean countries suffered
cyclical unemployment as the world economy
entered a troubled period in the years after 2008.
o Cuts in government spending: If loss of revenue
forces the government to cut spending, jobs may
be lost in health care, education, and other areas.
I nvestment projects such as new roads may be
delayed, with a loss of jobs in the construction
industry. This may happen during an economic
downturn, when it is an example of cyclical
unemployment.
o Loss of markets: Until the years after 2000,
Caribbean bananas and sugar had privileged
access to the European market. Changes in
international trading rules have ended this
protected position. Both industries have suffered,
and the sugar industry in St Kitts and Trinidad
has been closed completely. Jobs have been lost in
countries which export bananas and sugar. This is
an example of structural unemployment.
o Changes in technology: New technology helps
industries prosper, but may result in loss of jobs.
For example, the state-owned sugar company in
Guyana, Guysuco, used to cut all its cane with
manual labour, but is introducing machinery to
keep its costs internationally competitive. The
company employed 28 000 people in 1992, but
only 19 000 in 2008, and the number of jobs is
expected to fall further. This is sometimes called
technical unemployment.
o Lack of capital: Smaller countries lack capital
for large-scale investments. A major tourist resort
may cost US$500 million or more. If a large
project is expected to be profitable, capital may be
sourced from outside. Some investments which
could create jobs cannot attract investors because
they are seen as risky.
o Lack of skills: Most Caribbean countries
have a good level oflabour force skills, but
some may lack the specialized skills needed to
attract investment.

30 : T~
C1)

"§ 25 I ;.., T i I
~ 20
/ ,~ I ''
... -- --- ' --
:

1'1
~ 15
0
a. 10
E
t-
I
I'
=in '
~
I
I
I
1--t--
I
:
~
f.Ba"fba ~
1
--
'/"""~

' -v
~

~ 5 '
::::> Tnl11d"d ard Tob<!gO
0
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012
Year
Figure 3 .56: Unemployment In Tnnidad and Tobago, and Barbados

•
 0 ~{j .fp.ft,..e.r kP.d P. bMlt.\1'\P. .fp.r-.... Price.s p.re.
o Seasonal unemploymen t: Industries such as
sugar and tourism have a busy period at the start
low ~ow, so 1t 1S ~ot wortk~1fe. to ~row tke.
of the year when they need extra staff, and a slack
crop . I wil.f kv.ve to foo)( .for otker war)( ~e~ :r
period when staff are laid off. This creates seasonal
1eu.ve sckoo£ .
unemployment in some countries.
o Frictional unemployment: There will always

~t.\1'\}t
be a certain number of people who have left
one job and are looking for another. Even in the e The 'lAS eC01'\0-...Jt IS i-11 tro1Abfe. people
cu.~~ot u.-P.ford u. t.u.nbbe.P-~ vu.cu.t i o~. 1()1Ar kate.£
most prosperous countries, arou nd 2 per cent
IS ku.U-e-...pf{j u.~d we kv.ve fo k{j o.f.f sfu.-N.
of the labour force is unemployed, usually for
short periods. This is sometimes called normal
unemployment. When workers in short-term
jobs, such as temporary construction work,
e We kMe 01Ar detu.,fed e~~~~er~~~ u.~d
are laid off and arc looking for work, thi s is des'~~ wor)( do~ 1-11 C.u.~u.du.. The focp.'f. co-...pP.-111es
sometimes called casual unemployment. ao -110t kMe tke speciu.fist s}< iffs we -11eed.

0 We tried to set 1Ap P. b1ASI-11eSS tkere., b1At

tke feve£ o-f di.sko-11est]t wu.s too"'-'~"'- · J'""1A-111or
stu..f.f t1Ar~d 1Ap lu.fe. .fbr war)( 1 ....u.~~ers ku.d -110
co-...-...,t.....e-1'\t to tke job, P.-11d tke pofif,ciP.-11S were.
u.lwP.}tS P.S)(I-11~ .for bribes. A-11d we ku.d to f"l-{j .for
2.4--~r u.r....e.d aw-rds 0-11 tke peri....e.fe.r .fe-1'\U.

Figure 3.57: The v1cious c1rcle of unemployment
\Vhen a country's economy is in trouble,
unemployment increases. There is a vicious circle:
o Businesses are not prosperous. They lay off
workers, and recruit no new staff.
o People looking for work are prepared to accep t
low wages, because few jobs are available.
o 1l1e unemployed and low paid cannot buy many
goods and services. Businesses cannot find
enough customers.
o The government cannot raise money from
taxation, because individuals and businesses
cannot afford to pay. So the government cannot
in\'est in roads or new projects which create jobs.
o Crime increases. A high crime rate makes most
businesses less willing to invest.
o The unemployed labour force does not acquire
practical skills, and so does not attract new
investors.
Quick questions
State a period of high and a period of low
unemployment in:
a Barbados b Trimdad and Tobago.
2 Why is there a busy period and increased demand
for labour in the early part of the year:
a in tourism? b in the sugar mdustry?
Research
What is the most recent unemployment rate for
your country? You may find the answer on the
website of the central bank. or the government
statistical service.
2 Has the rate been increasing or decreasing m
recent years?
Discuss the following question with a partner.
What are the reasons for changes in the unemployment
rate in your country in recent years?
3.23 Why some people have no job
Age, sex, and qualifications
KEY IDEAS Young people may also have difficulty in finding their
o Unemployment rates vary with age and sex.
o Some people have difficulty in finding work. first job, because they have no practical work experience.
o Most people with difficulties can be employed. These are some ways of gaining work experience:
if they have support and assistance.
o working as a volunteer, for example with a
o An increased retirement age would affect
charitable, sports, or social organization
employment.
o joining a government-sponsored work experience
programme
o taking a course of study which includes a work
Q?iiJ!•tttti\'1 attachment.
Rehabilitation: Restoration to a good condition. In a
human resources context, "rehabilitation" may be used to There are differences between male and female
help those who have suffered from a physical injury, drug unemployment rates. Many jobs in construction still
abuse, or mental illness; or who are trying to break from a attract more men than women, while some service-
pattern of criminal behaviour.
industry jobs are predominantly female .
"Unemployable": A term sometimes used to describe people
who have difficulty in finding a job, or in keeping one.
Unemployment rate
14-19 43%
Some people have difficulty finding a job because 2~24 25%
of factors over which they have no control, others 25-34 13%
because of a mistake they made in the past or 35-44 10%
because of a continuing personal problem. 45-54 8%
Employers prefer to recruit well-qualified, healthy, 55-64 5%
and experienced staff, who have a positive attitude. All ages 12%

People will have difficulty in finding work if they: Table 3.22: Unemployment and age group: Jama1ca, 2011

o left their previous job because of a dispute Unemployment rates

o are illiterate Male Female
o have no skills or academic qualifications 12.8%
Barbados 11.3%
o suffer from poor health
Jamaica 8.9% 16.4%
o are physically or mentally challenged
Tnn1dad and Tobago 5.2% 6.8%
o have poor work ethics and cannot be trusted
o have a history of absenteeism and lateness Table 3.23: Unemployment and sex: 2010111
o have a criminal record, perhaps from many
years ago Unemployment rate
o show a continuing substance abuse problem Secondary school no subjects 12.6%
o have been deported from the USA, Britain, Secondary school1-4 subjects 8.5%
Canada, or another Caribbean country. Secondary school 5+ subjects 5.0%
Secondary school 5+ subjects and jOb train1ng 3.1%
People with these difficulties are sometimes referred
to as unemployable. Many, however, can become University degree 2.3%

productive members of the workforce. Table 3.24: Unemployment and qualifications: Tnn1dad and
Tobago, 2010

•
 What is the right retirement age?
Handling data I n many C aribbean countries, the age of
1 Look at Tables 3.22-4. Draw bar charts to show: retirement for many jobs has been 60. Many
a the rate of male and female unemployment in governments plan to increase the retirement age.
Barbados. Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago D o you agree that they should?
b the unemployment rate for different age
For raising retirement age For keeping it at 60
groups in Jamaica
Many peoplewant to go on Many people prefer to retire and
c unemployment and school qualifications in
working. enJOY other acttvtlies.
Trinidad and Tobago.
There are more old people than Younger people can pay htgher
2 Comment on the data shown in the three before. Penston costs are taxes to fund thetr future
bar charts. mcreasmg. Later rettrement wtll pens tons.
reduce the number of
pens1oners.

0 1. wt\S .fo'IA"''td w1tk t\ l1Hle. sticK o.f weed Many people 1n the1r 60s and 70s
are expenenced and producttve
Some people 1n thetr 60s and 70s
are afratd of mnovat10n and new
~e"''t 1. wt\S 11 . Now 1. kt\ve t\ cn ~11-tll'l re.cord 1
workers. technology.
t\"1'\d 1. ct\')\ 't e.t t\ ~ood job, so 1. k1As tie. t\ litHe.
0 We should not discnminate Some customers prefer dealing
war)( wke.')\ 1. ct\"1'\. ~lJ. ~otke.r IS i1't New Yor)(1 b'!At based on people's prejudices. wtth younger staff.
1. c.?.1'\ 1t e.t t\ 1AS ViSt\ toj OI"''\ ke.r . 1. Wt\1'\t to
0
t1Ar"''t ~~ li.fe. t\r01A"1'td1 b1At kow do :1 stMt ?
Addtttonal productive workers If elderly people stay 1n work,
wtll make the whole economy there will be fewer opportumttes
more prosperous. for younger workers.

Table 3.25 : Arguments about ret1rement age

e :1 kt\ve. t\Stk~ t\"1'\d dit\bete.s . -n.w.t ~)(e.s
1t kt\rd to do t\ .f1AH dt\ts worj( 1 t\"''td people. t\re.
1A1't)(l"''td to ~ . :1 do"''t 't '.fe.e.l co~.forttl.ble. w1tk
sht\"''\ ers. ~~ doctor St\~s :1 sko'IALd switck tot\
0
be.tte.r d1e.t tl."''td l ose. we.,~kt 1 b1At :1 do1't't kt\ve
t ke. ~01'\e.'}t to h'IA]t t ke. .foods ske. re.c.o~~"''tds.
:rt IS kt\rtl' to l oo{ t\.ffe.r ~lj ckildre."''\. Wke-1'\ :1
a e.t de.pre.sse.d} :1 .fed t\ l:),t be.tte.r ,.f :1 e.tl.t
so~tk1"1'\ sweet t\"''td 1'tice. :1 ~'lASt kt\ve. so~
0 pl et\S1Are.s i1't £.1.fe.
0 01Ar s1Ape.r~rJ<e.t does 1ts be.st .for tke.
C.O~~'IA"''\Itl So~ o.f 01AY" jobs t\Y"e. S1Aitt\ble .for
se.ve.re.lli ke.t\n')\():-' ~fl'\~~'"e.d people. . B1At 0-)\ t\
C.O"''\Sh1Act ,o"''t site. 1 tke.re. is t\ se.n01AS St\.fe.tlj n s)(
1.f lj01A Ct\1'\ 't Mt\1'" t\ Wt\Y""''\1"1'\0 .
Research
Discuss the following questions in a small group.
1 Some companies and government agencies offer
support for people with working difficulties Which
of the following groups should receive assistance.
including rehabihtation and counselling, so that
they can JOin or rejoin the labour force?
a those who have suffered physical mJunes
b those who have suffered mental illness
c the long·term unemployed who have never held
a permanent job since leaving school
d former drug offenders and recovermg alcoholics
e people with no work·related qualifications.
2 What measures can be put in place to benefit each
of these groups:
a in a work environment?
b outside the work context?
3 Should the retirement age be increased? Should
this be a matter of personal choice?
3.24 Reducing unemployment
KEY IDEAS
o Government spending can reduce unemployment.
o Job creation schemes and training can help the
unemployed.
o New investment creates jobs.
o Some unemployed people can upgrade their
skills, create new businesses. or migrate overseas.
Figure 3 .58: Skilled workers such as electricians requ1re train1ng
Governments can take action to reduce
unemployment, but there are no magic answers
or instant solutions.
Increased government spending on health,
education, and construction projects can create jobs.
Some governments borrow money so that they can
increase spending and reduce unemployment during
an economic downturn.
Well-planned spending has other, long-term benefits:
o Spending on health and education improves the
country's human resources.
o Spending on roads, ports, airports, and other
facilities encourages the growth of productive
industries.
However, if the government borrows money for an
extended period, the burden of debt repayment and
interest becomes too great. In Jamaica, debt interest
makes up over 40 per cent of government spending,
more than the total for health, education, and social
services.
Job creation schemes provide employment,
sometimes in the short term, for unskilled and
semi-skilled workers through government-funded
agencies. Teams of workers may be employed on
landscaping, beach maintenance, waste removal, and
other work. Most projects are labour-intensive;
funds are used mainly to pay workers, not buy capital
equipment.
Training and education schemes aim to teach
practical skills to the unemployed. Trainees may
learn construction skills such as masonry or welding,
or tourism-related skills such as food preparation or
housekeeping. They arc usually paid a small "stipend"
to meet basic expenses. Some schemes are targeted at
special groups, such as:
o workers who have been laid off from a troubled
industry
o former prisoners.
Government agencies may encourage small business
and agriculture with loans to buy equipment, advice on
marketing and business procedures, and technical help.
Encouraging large-scale investments can also create
employment, and may help the economy by earning
foreign exchange. In Section 5.5, we look at ways in
which investment in tourism can create jobs.
Action by the unemployed
Creating jobs is not only for the government. Some
unemployed people arc in a position to act for
themselves, for example by:
o training and learning new skills
o starting a small business
o migrating to an area where work is available.
 0
We. !Mve. borrowe.d ~-Ke.~ to rw..prove. tke. rot>.ds
~-~-td ~irport. Then. w1i.l ~jobs i-~-t co-~-tsh1Ac 1-ro-~-t.
F-tArtke.r t>.ke.t>.d 1 be.He.r tr~-Ksport wiH 'ltlfrove. £1·fe.
.for o-tAr pe.opie. 1 t>.1td lt..e.ip "'- Hrt>.et to-tArists. Wi tV..
t>. sfro-~-t3e.r e.CO-KGto~.lJ 1 we. wi£! be. "'-bie. to P"'lJ ooc)(
tv..e. io(}..-~-t.
0 The. 3ove.r-~-t~t~-e.-~-tt h.l:\s 3:ive.-~-t 1As "'- l1ce.-~-tce. O-~-t
aood te.r~~~..s to dril£ .for oi1 o.f.fstr..ore.. :r..f we. .fi-Kd
1t, tv..e.re. will be. -~-te.wjobs i-~-t e.~r3lJ i-~-td-tAstrie.s.
We. w1 H P"'lt t"'-Xe.s1 P.1td v..e.lp tv..e. 3ove.r1t~t~-e.1tt
provil!e. P.dditio-K"'-1 p1Ab£ic se.rvice.s.
e The. ~~~..o-xe.lJ is s~t, b-tAt it 1s so~t~-e.tV..i-x3 .
L."'st we.e.)(1 :r. wt>.S cle.t>.n1t3 de.bns .frGto~. p. nve.r be.d
to pre.ve.-xt .f£.oodr-x3. :r. W"'-S de.porte.d .fro~~~.. tv..e. 1AS
witt.-..~ dr1A co-xv1ctio-x. :r. h.l:\ve. to live.. wv..o else.
0
IS 3oi-x3 to o.f.fe.r 101-e. "'-Job?
'--
0 The.se. ll'..t>.)(e.-war)(sclt..e.~t~-e.s
p.re. t ie.d 1Ap witV..
politics. The.lJ spe.1t0 tt:~.XP"'iJe.rs' I!I..D~Jt P"{Ji-x3
ti~t~-e.-w"'-sfe.rs "'--Kd cri~~~..iws to c-tAf' 3rt>.ss
"'1td P"i-xt sto~s, tv..e.-x tv..e.~ do-x 't e.ve.-x tw·-x
1Ap .for war)(.
0 We. provide. s)(.i11s trP.i-xi-x~ P.t t>.H £e.ve.1s. 0-tAr
3r"'-01A(}..fe.S et:~.-x war)( i-x re.sf"'-1Arl}..-xts1 i-x we.b P"3e.
de.si3-x 1 t:I.S et:~.r ~-xics 1 or t~.s t>.CC01A-xtt>.-xts.
'--
0 TrP.i-x11t3? :r. CG~t~fle.te.d tV..e. co-tArse. witV.. -KO
tro-tAbie., b-tAt :r. stili et:~.-x 't .fi-xd "'-job. The.re. is
-xotV..1-x3 01At tv..e.re..
•
I
Find out which government agencies in your country
a operate job creation schemes
b train unemployed people in practical skills
c provide loans and other assistance for small
business and agriculture.
2 Research one of these agencies. using its website
or another source of information. Write a short
account of its work and operations. In your view,
has it been successful?
Divide the class into groups. Each group should
prepare arguments for one of the following ways of
reducing unemployment:
a increased government spending
b job-creation schemes
c training in practical skills
d assistance for small business and agriculture
e encouraging large-scale investment.
2 Listen to each group's argument. Which would be
the best policy for your country to adopt. if it has an
unemployment problem?
3 In your group, discuss the following questions.
a Is the government of your country doing
enough to reduce unemployment?
b What additional measures could be taken?
c In addition to the government. who else can take
action to create employment?
Look back at Section 3.20. Janice IS an energetic and
resourceful woman. and her aunt wants to help her.
Working with a partner, script a telephone conversation
in which they discuss possible courses of action.
Handling data
Propose an SBA study on a topic related to
unemployment in your country.
a State the problem in the form of a question.
b Explain why you s elected this area of research.
c Outline a method you could use to res earch
this topic .
 II
3.25 Natural resources
Renewable resources
KEY IDEAS
o Humans use natural resources to satisfy needs.
o Renewable resources remain in existence when
they are used.
o Non-renewable resources are not naturally
replaced, and will eventually be used up.
o Primary industries make direct use of natural
resources.
o Secondary industries include manufacturing
and construction.
o Tertiary industries produce services. not goods.

Q d!•li%1il1
Bauxite: A mineral which is used to make aluminium .
Climate: General conditions of rainfall, temperature, and
winds at a particular location.
Depleted: Used up or finished.
limestone: A rock made mainly of calcium carbonate,
found in many Caribbean countries.
Natural resources: Features of the physical environment
which humans can use to satisfy their needs. Figure 3.59: Wind power IS a renewable resource wh1ch can be
used to generate electnc1ty
Non-renewable resources: Resources which are not naturally
replaced when they are used, such as oil or bauxite. Some renewable resources are found throughout
Renewable resources: Resources which remain in existence the region.
when they are used, or which are naturally replaced, such
as rainfall. Resource Used for
Soil Deep, fert1le so1ls Agriculture
Climate Ratnfall, warm Agriculture
Humans make use of natural resources to satisfy temperatures, Tourism
their needs. These are some of the resources which sunsh1ne, w1nds Water supply
were used by Amerindians before the colonial Solar energy (electnc or heat)
Wmd power
period:
R1vers, fresh Large and small nvers Water supply
o climate: sunshine and rainfall for growing crops water Underground water Tounsm
o soil: also needed to grow crops resources Transport (mamly Guyana)
Electnc1ty generation
o natural vegetation: wood for building and fuel, (hydro·electricity)
forest plants used for natural medicines, or to F1sh1ng
make baskets and hammocks Vegetat1on, Forest trees and plants Timber production
o marine life: used for food, and for useful wildlife Natural grasslands Tourism
materials such as conch shells Med1ctnal plants
Grazing for ammals
o minerals: used to make stone axes and other tools.
Manne The sea Fishing
We use many natural resources in the Caribbean resources Manne life, f1sh Tourism
today. Some of these are renewable resources, which Coral reefs Coastal protection (coral reefs)
Beaches Transport
are not damaged if they are used wisely. Others are
Natural harbours
non-renewable resources, which are not naturally
replaced, and will eventually be used up or depleted. Table 3.26: Renewable resources 1n the Canbbean

•
 What renewable resources are found in your Does your country have oll or natural gas resources?
country? Is a search in progress for new or additional
2 What are the advantages and disadvantages of the resources?
climate of your country: 2 Does your country have any other mineral resources.
a for agriculture? such as stone which is quarried for construction?
b for tourism?

Non-renewable resources
Discuss the following questions in a small group.
1 How would your country benefit from a substantial
find of oil or gas?
2 Would there be any dangers or negative effects?

Primary, secondary, and tertiary

industries
Primary industries make direct use of natural
resources to produce goods. Some of these good s
can be used directly. Others are raw materials which
require further processing.

Figure 3.60: Baux1te mmmg 1n Jama1ca: use of a non·

renewable resource

Some Caribbean countries are well supplied with

minerals and other non-renewable resources. Others
have few. These are some of the mineral resources
found in the Caribbean.

Resource locations Uses

011 Trinidad and Tobago, Fuel
Bel1ze, Barbados
(Many countries are
searching for oil on
Figure 3.61: Growing coffee and bananas in Jama1ca: agnculture
land or offshore.) 1s a pnmary mdustry wh1ch depends on renewable resources
Natural gas Trinidad and Tobago, Fuel
Barbados Makmg chemicals Resources used Products
(Many countnes are
searchmg for gas) Agnculture Soil, climate FrUits, vegetables, sugar cane, m1lk,
meat.
Baux1te Jamaica, Guyana, Mak1ng aluminium
Suriname Makmg chem1cals F1shmg Manne resources F1sh

Gold and diamonds Guyana, Sun name Jewellery, dentistry, Oil extract1on Oil Crude 011
electronics Quarrymg Limestone, other Stone for construction or cement
Limestone Jama1ca, Barbados, Mak1ng cement rocks mak1ng
Belize, Bahamas, Stone for constructiOn Bauxite, gold Baux1te, raw gold, diamonds, rough
other locations Water supply (renewable) diamonds, other minerals, other
Tounsm (caves: renewable) mmerals for further process1ng

Table 3.27: Non-renewable resources 1n the Caribbean Table 3.28: Use of resources by pnmary Industries

Ill
Figure 3.62: Bakmg IS a secondary industry Figure 3.63 : A supermarket: retailing IS a tertiary mdustry

Secondary industries include manufacturing and
construction. Some secondary industries use raw
materials which have been produced by primary
industries. Others make use of materials which
have already been processed by other secondary
industries.
Tertiary industries provide services such as banking,
hospitality in hotels and restaurants, retailing, and
consumer services such as hairdressing. Most jobs
are now in service industries. Tertiary industries may
make use of goods and natural resources, but they do
not produce goods.

Industry

Da1ry industnes
Materials used
Sugar processing Sugarcane
Milk
Products
Sugar, molasses
Pasteunsed m1lk, UHT
milk, milk powder, butter,
cheese, yoghurt
-
Educat1on

Health
Provided by
Schools, univers1t1es

Hospitals, climes
Example of jobs
Teachers, office staff,
maintenance staff
Doctors, nurses, off1ce staff,
cleaners
Oil refining Crude 011 Gasoline, diesel fuel, Banking Banks Counter staff, managers,
asphalt for roads secunty staff
Petrochemicals Natural gas Methanol, ammoma, other Tounsm Hotels, restaurants, tax1s, Managers, accountants,
chem1cals mannas, entertamment wa1ters, chefs, cleaners,
tour gu1des, gardeners,
Cement Limestone Cement mus1c1ans
Alumma Baux1te Alumina (pure alum1mum
Table 3.30: Services provided by tert1ary Industries
OXIde)
Alumm1um Alum1na Alum1mum (metal)
Car assembly Steel, tyres, aluminium, Cars
other components Give TWO examples from your country of each of
Cotton textiles Cotton Cloth the following
Garments Cloth, thread, other Clothing a primary industries
components b secondary industries
c tertiary industries.
Construction Cement, steel, t1mber, Houses, other bUildings,
tiles, other components roads, bridges, ports 2 Write a short account of ONE primary or secondary
industry in your country. Which resources does it
Tabl e 3.29 : Matenals used in secondary Industries use? How does it benefit the economy? Does it face
any challenges or problems?

•
 Occupational groups
There are several ways of classifying workers,
such as: Handling data
Look at Figure 3.64 and answer the following
o by industry: agriculture, manufacturing, etc. questions.
o by occupational group: managers, technicians, etc.
What proportion of the Trinidad and Tobago
Industries workforce is in:
Agnculture 4% a primary industries?
Energy industries 3% b secondary industries?
Other c tertiary industries?
2 Which are the largest TWO categories of
worker in Trinidad and Tobago:
a by industry?
Construct1on 18%
b by occupational group?
Fmanc1a 3 How would you classify each of the people
serv1ces
90J
described below? Which industry and which
Transport, Retailing. occupational group is each of them in?
commun1cat1on wholesalmg
a Jason. who is a labourer on a farm
6% 18%
b William. who owns and manages the farm
Occu pational groups c Michelle, who operates a printing press
in a factory which produces packaging
Managers 8% materials
Other Professionals 4% d Marlon. who is a counter clerk in a bank
e Jackie. who is senior manager in a company
Techmcians 12% which builds houses and apartments
Mach me
operators 9%
Clencal 11%

Craft. workshop. Research

etc. 16%
Other serv1ce Does an organization such as the government
Agncul t ural staff 17%
statistical service prepare labour force statistics in
labourers 2%
your country? If so. construct a table showing the
Fi gure 3.64: Classifications of workers in Trin1dad and Tobago percentage of the labour force in each of the main
sectors of employment. Compare the composition
of the labour force with that of Trinidad and
Tobago. What are the similarities and differences?

•
3.26 Resources and development

KEY IDEAS
o Sustainable use of natural resources promotes
long-term development.
o Unwise resource use damages the human and
physical environment.

& dt•J>l!i;\'1
Conservation: Protection of natural and man-made
resources for future use.
Development: Use of resources and technology to improve
standard of living and quality of life.
Energy: In social science, this word indicates power
sources used for transport, electricity generation, or other
purposes. In a physics or scientific context, the word has a
different and precise meaning.
Environment: The living space for human society; includes
natural features such as climate, as well as human features
I-
'1 " -
!~
_!,
~. · 1
-ri..
·
l ~
• e ' ' 1
.
~- ~ : J
.J
.·
--

such as the built environment of towns and cities.

Environmental impact assessment: A study of a proposed
project, indicating how it is likely to affect the environment.
Food security: A secure supply of food , usually from local
sources as well as imports.
Quality of life: Wellbeing; includes health, education,
freedom, and security, as well as material wealth.
Standard of living: The ability to buy goods and services.
Sustainable development: Development which can be
maintained over an extended period for future generations,
taking environmental and social impacts into account.
Five hundred years ago, Amerindian populations
used the natural resources of the Caribbean islands
to produce food, clothing, and other daily needs.
They fished and farmed on a small scale and did
not damage the natural environment. Today, the
population of the Caribbean is much greater. Most
people want to enjoy goods and services such as:
o cars and long-distance air travel
o consumer electronics and entertainment
o improved health care.
A locally based, self-sufficient way of life is no
longer possible. Satisfying needs and wants requires
a developed economy, which produces goods and
services to earn currency from the outside world.
1he money earned can be used to buy goods and
services from overseas.
Figure 3 .65 : Availability of goods indicates standard of l1ving,
not qual1ty of l1fe
Standard of living measures the goods and services
which a consumer can buy.
OJ!ality of life is a broader measure. It includes
health care, education, personal security, a pleasant
environment, and positive cultural development.
Some forms of economic development damage the
environment, and may also prevent people from
living as they wish . Improving the standard of living
does not always produce a good quality of life.
Discuss the following questions with a partner.
How successful has your own country been in providing:
a a good standard of living?
b a good quality of life?
Sustainable development
Sustainable development aims to promote both
goals - to improve standard of living and quality of
life. It aims to do so over an extended period, so that
future generations can enjoy worthwhile lives and
meet their needs, while at the same time protecting
ecosystems and preserving the environment.

•
 Sustainability can be a goal:
o for a local community, in its treatment ofland,
wildlife, marine, and fresh water resources
o for a nation, to use the national environment and
resources productively and carefully
o for the Caribbean region, to cater for the needs
of its economy while protecting the environment,
especially its fragile coastal areas
o for the world, with all countries attempting to
protect climate, oceans, and resources.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
CASE STUDY
Oil and gas in national development
Figure 3.66: Trinidad and Tobago has a growing economy
thanks to 1ts 011 and gas resources; however. all communities
do not share equally in prosperity
Trinidad and Tobago has a prosperous economy based
on oil and natural gas. These non-renewable energy
resources provide·
o 52 per cent of government revenue
o 36 per cent of economic activity (GOP)
o 3 per cent of employment
o 84 per cent of exports.
Oil and gas revenue allows the government to provide
services such as free university education. and to build
facilities such as new roads. Earnings are higher than
in many Caribbean countries. Spending by households
and by the government allows private busmesses to
prosper. with increasing sales. However, some people are
concerned that this level of economic activity may not be
sustainable in the long term.
In 2010, known natural gas reserves were:
o 13.5 trillion cubic feet in proven reserves
o 13.5 trillion cubic feet in probable and possible reserves
•
Read the case study and discuss the following
questions in a small group.
1 Do you think that the economy of Tnnidad and
Tobago can be sustained m its present form?
What can be done to make the economy more
sustamable?
2 Does the economy of your country depend on non-
renewable resources? If so. what can be done to
achieve sustainable development?
o 26 0 trillion cubic feet in exploration reserves, which
may be found if the search for new gas is successful.
-
1.5 tn ftl
135 13.5 126.0
tnftl tn ft 1 tn't
Used
each
year
Proven Probable "Exploration
reserves and reserves"
possible
reserves
Figure 3 .67: Gas use compared w1th reserves , Trinidad and
Tobago, 2010
Natural gas was being extracted at 1.5 trillion cubic feet a
year. At this rate. proven reserves would last around nine
years. possible and probable reserves for another nine
years. and exploration reserves perhaps 18 years after
that. There are different views on exploration prospects:
but at some point in the future. the gas will run out. The
present pattern of development is not sustainable for an
indefinite period.
These are some ways in which the government plans to
develop a sustainable economy for the future:
o Some oil and gas revenues are saved and invested in a
Heritage and Stabilization Fund.
o Human resources are being developed. for example by
investing in schools and in university education.
o Government agencies are promoting economic
activities which do not depend on non-renewable
resources. such as films. music and cultural industries;
fisheries and seafood processing; foods and beverages;
printing and packaging; and shipping.
 3 .26 Hesources ana aevewpment

Good conservation practices in the use of natural

resources can allow continuing productivity.
C onservation aims to protect the environment and CASE STUDY
promote the sustainable use of resources. However,
Environmental damage in Haiti
renewable natural resources can be damaged through
over-use or misuse, and by improper practices.

Trees absorb C0 2 and

protect soil
from eroston

Figure 3.69: Rural poverty, Ha iti

year In rural Haiti. the population increased rapidly during
the 20th century. However, very few new industries
were developed. Most of the population remained in
Forest IS cleared
agriculture. but the natural resources of the land were
not sufficient to support the growing population. This
led to unsustainable development, environmental
damage, and great poverty.
Much of Haiti is mountainous, with steep hillsides which
are not suitable for growing crops. In past centuries, most
raptd ly to nver of the island was covered with dense forests. Many areas
River floods have low rainfall and are at risk from severe drought.
after heavy
ratn and As the population grew, farms were subdivided between
erodes the children in each generation, until each farm was too
raptd ly small in area to provide a living. Farmers cleared almost
all of the forests to gain extra land for cultivation. Timber
Figu re 3 .68: The effects of forest c learance
was used to make charcoal. the most common fuel for
Forests can provide timber on a sustainable basis if cooking. Goats and sheep grazed the hillsides, limiting
they are not over-exploited. They also protect the the growth of new vegetation.
soil against erosion, and absorb rainwater after heavy As a result of these problems:
o the soil has been eroded from hillsides, making them
rain, which helps prevent flooding.
less productive; some land can no longer be used for
If forests are cleared and not replanted, with all trees growing crops
cut at one time: o after heavy rain. there are devastating floods in
valleys and coastal areas
o soil will be damaged or eroded o most farms barely grow enough food to feed a family,
o there may be landslides on steep slopes with little left to sell; families need another source of
income, but there are few jobs
o wildlife will be threatened
o Haiti imports even basic foods which could be
o rainfall runs quickly off bare hillsides; flash floods produced locally, such as rice and sugar
are more common. o most rural families live in poverty: in 2001 , 88% of the
rural population was living on less than US$2 a day
If too many fish are taken from the sea, some species o the best prospect for most is to migrate.
may be threatened with extinction. Overfishing will
In 2010. the capital. Port au Prince. was devastated by an
not only cause a food shortage for humans and mean earthquake. Some of those who had migrated to the capital
that people who work in fisheries will lose their jobs, in search of a better life were forced to return home.
but it will also damage marine ecosystems. Conditions in rural Haiti became even more difficult.

•
 CASE STUDY
Marine conservation in Belize
Figure 3. 7 0 : Man ne reserves 1n Belize encourage sustainable
resource use
We have seen how the sea. and marine resources. are
important for Caribbean people. Belize has plentiful
marine resources. including the second-largest coral
barrier reef in the world.
o The sea provides fish. conch, and lobster for local use.
and for export.
o Beaches and coral reefs attract tourists. Many of them
take part in scuba diving, snorkelling, or game fishing.
o Mangrove vegetation and coral reefs protect the
coastline, and provide a breeding ground for young fish.
o Cruise ships and small pleasure craft visit Belize and
other ports.
Discuss the following questions in a small group.
a Have any resources in your country been damaged
by over-use?
b If so. what can be done to restore and protect them
for the future?
•
o Import and export cargo is transported through the
major ports.
o Energy companies want to search for oil and natural
gas resources which may be found under the shallow
coastal waters.
Unwise use of renewable resources can cause permanent
damage.
Overftshing can threaten marine life. Some species are
threatened with extinction because they are over-exploited,
and not enough fish are allowed to survive and breed.
Some fishing methods damage the marine environment.
For example, trawlers are ships which drag a weighted net
across the sea bed, destroying coral reefs and other habitats.
Ships can cause damage, for example if they spill oil.
dump waste at sea. or collide with coral reefs.
Oil and gas resources could provide jobs and government
revenue for Belize, as they have in Trinidad and Tobago.
However, if these industries are not carefully managed, they
can cause great damage. An oil rig explosion 65 km from the
US coast in 2010 killed 11 people, and caused several billion
dollars· worth of damage to marine life, fishing, and tourism.
Sustainable practices are needed to secure the country's
marine resources for the future:
o There is a network of protected areas and marine
reserves. where fishing is carefully controlled.
o Belize was one of the first countries in the world to ban
the use of trawlers for fishing.
o There is a "closed season" when conch and lobster
fishing is not allowed, giving time for the population to
breed and replenish itself.
o Fishers have an annual quota, or upper limit. on the
quantity of fish they can catch.
o Some species such as grouper are protected, because
overftshing has threatened their survival in Belize waters.
o Tourists are encouraged to practise "catch and release"
fishing. Species such as bonefish are thrown back into
the sea when they have been caught. and are not killed
or eaten.
o Ships which have damaged the coral reef have been
held by the Belizean authorities and prosecuted.
o If drilling for oil and gas is allowed in Belizean waters,
careful controls will be needed to ensure that the
environment is not damaged.
Research
What are the marine and coastal resources of your
country?
2 Are any of these marine and coastal resources
damaged or under threat? If so, what is being done
to restore them or prevent further damage?
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
CASE STUDY
Food security
Figure 3.71 : Malnounshed children in Bangladesh
Food is a basic human need. Every community needs a
secure food supply.
The UN Food and Agriculture Organization says that
there is food security when people have access to safe
and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food
preferences for an active and healthy life. They estimate that
up to two billion people. close to 30 per cent of the world's
population. are too poor to enjoy real food security at all times.
At the extreme. an estimated seven million children die of
hunger each year. Many more suffer from malnutrition.
25
1\b 20
ro
c:Q) 15
~ 10
~
5 o households grow some of their own fruits and
0 vegetables; even a small yard can be productive
Fi gure 3.72 : Bar chart showing the percentage of children
under f1ve severely underweight 1n some countries
These are some causes of food insecurity:
o Poverty: People with a low or uncertain income do not
have enough money to buy food. Many low-income
families in the Caribbean cannot afford an adequate diet.
Discuss the following questions with a partner.
a What are the mam threats to food secunty m
your country?
o Drought: In many countries, rainfall is unreliable. In dry
years. crops fail. and families who rely on the land do
not have enough food.
o Other environmental problems: Floods. severe winters,
heavy snowfall, or hurricanes may destroy growing
crops or kill farm animals. Crops may be damaged by
plant disease; for example, black Sigatoka disease and
leaf spot have affected Caribbean banana crops.
o Unsustainable development: We have seen how the
land in Haiti has been damaged by over-use.
o Rising food prices : If food prices increase because of a
shortage, people may be unable to buy food. The price
of flour or rice in Caribbean supermarkets may rise
suddenly because climate problems damage crops in
Canada, India. or another distant country.
o Economic difficulties: A country may not have
sufficient money to pay for food imports. In the early
1980s. Guyana was unable to import foods such as
cheese. wheat flour. and canned fish.
o Policy choices: Some human decisions reduce food
supplies. If governments encourage the use of corn
to make ethanol fuel for cars. less will be available for
food supply, and the price will increase sharply.
o War: Conflict destroys crops. and may block food
imports. During the Second World War. many
Caribbean islands suffered food shortages because
foods could not be imported.
In the Caribbean. most of our food supply is imported.
o This increases food security, because we rely on many
sources of food worldwide. It is unlikely that all of them
will face difficulties at the same time.
o This decreases food security, because few food
sources are under local control.
Food security in the Caribbean can be increased if:
o small farmers are given assistance to encourage food
production; the agriculture ministry may provide
technical advice. planting material, water for irrigation.
or improved farm roads
o supermarkets buy fruits and vegetables from local
growers. and offer a fair price
o people choose a wide variety of different foods, locally
produced as well as imported
o food imports and products such as sugar are sourced
from many countries, including Caribbean producers.
b What do you think can be done to address these threats?
c How will these measures work?
•
3.27 Pollution and climate change
KEY IDEAS
o The release of harmful substances causes
pollution.
o An increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
is likely to change the earth's climate.
Global warming: An increase in worldwide temperatures,
usually ascribed to the greenhouse effect. Climate change
is a broader term which includes changes in rainfall,
hurricanes, and other aspects of climate.
Greenhouse effect: Trapping of heat in the earth's
atmosphere by gases such as carbon d oxide, or co •.
The
atmosphere operates like a greenhouse, a glass-covered
structure used to grow crops, which also traps heat.
Pollution: Release of a substance which causes
undesirable changes to the environment.
Recycling: Processing of discarded glass, paper, and other
waste as material for manufacturing bottles, cardboard,
paper, etc.
l\1any forms of pollution can threaten human health
and the environment.
Fi gure 3 .73: A1r pollution at a Cuban 011 ref1nery
Air p ollution may damage the environment locally,
or on a worldwide scale:
o A badly designed cement plant produces dust
which pollutes the air locally. In well-managed
plants such as those in Barbados, Trinidad, and
Jamaica, electrostatic filters and precipitators
remove cement dust.
o In tropical cities, sunlight reacts with vehicle
exhausts to produce ozone. This in turn forms a
heat haze or "smog". The sky may appear white,
not blue. Urban smog may cause asthma attacks
and damage growing plants, paint, or plastics. The
problem can be controlled by improved vehicle
design, the use of reformulated gasoline as fuel,
and lower fuel consumption.
o On a worldwide scale, increased release of carbon
dioxide, or C0 2, into the atmosphere threatens
damaging climate change.
W ater pollution can also operate locally or
worldwide:
o Release of untreated sewage into rivers or the sea
can cause health hazards for bathers and marine
life. It also promotes the growth of bacteria
which feed off decomposing organic waste.
Bacteria take up the oxygen which is dissolved
in the water, so that fish and other marine life
cannot breathe. In badly polluted water, fish
and other life cannot survive. In Jamaica, a
sewage treatment plant at Soapberry reduces
the pollution problem in Kingston Harbour.
Barbados has built sewage treatment plants to
improve water quality around Bridgetown and
on the south coast.
o Dangerous chemicals such as m ercury can
cause long-term health risks such as brain
damage. Mercury is used by miners in Guyana
and Suriname to help extract gold from river
sediments. A study of Amerindian villages
in Suriname completed in 2011 showed that
many people complained of symptoms such as
headaches and numbness in the arms, fingers,
and toes. Careful mining practices and new
equipment can reduce the release of mercury into
rivers. French Guiana does not allow mercury to
be used in mining at all, and both Europe and the
USA intend to ban mercury exports.
o Additional carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
leads to an increase in dissolved C0 2 in sea water.
This makes the seas more acid. Acidity damages
the growth of coral reefs. Reefs are vi tal for
fi sh and marine life, and for tourism; they also
 protect Caribbean beaches from erosion by waves.
Marine acidity also threatens shellfish, such as
conch, shrimp, and lobster.
Land pollution comes mainly from incorrect
disposal of household and industrial waste. It may
create serious problems, mainly on a local or
national scale.
o The quantity of waste is a problem. Scarce land
must be used for landfill sites. Households and
businesses can help by composting their organic
waste to produce fertilizer, re-using bottles and
other containers, and recycling paper, glass, and
other materials. Some waste can be used as a fuel
to generate electricity.
o H azardous chemicals such as lead may be
released, and may seep into rivers, and then
into the public water supply. Some hazardous
materials can be recycled. Others should be
sent to specially equipped landfills, designed to
prevent further contamination.
o Asbestos was used in construction during
the 20th century for roofing and insulation.
Asbestos dust can cause cancer or serious lung
disease. Asbestos must be removed by qualified
demolition workers wearing protective clothing
and high-quality face masks, placed in bags of
thick polythene, and taken to a special landfill
for burial.
N oise pollution can be annoying, and can also cause
permanent damage to people's hearing. Excessive
noise can also threaten wildlife; for example, noise
from ships and marine activities can disrupt the
navigation system of whales, causing them to beach
themselves and die. There are several causes of noise
pollution.
o Roads and highways: These may cause excessive
noise. Major roads should not be built close to
residential areas.
o Airports: Aircraft noise affects people close
to the flight path. Some airports do not allow
late-night flights. Noise reduction is increasingly
important in aircraft design.
o Industrial and construction machinery:
Workers exposed to noisy equipment may suffer
permanent hearing loss. In most countries, health
and safety regulations outlaw excessive workplace
noise, but the rules are not always well enforced.
o Loud music: Amplifiers at concerts may easily
exceed the legal limits set for industrial noise.
Standing close to the speakers is unwise, and
musicians may suffer long-term damage from
frequent exposure. Nearby residents may
complain of loss of sleep if late-night events
are held in residential areas. In most countries,
an official permit is required for public events,
and residents may object if they are concerned.
A cleaner environment
Governments, businesses, households, and
individuals can ali reduce pollution.
Governments can:
o develop and enforce regulations requiring
businesses and households to dispose of waste
properly, and prevent uncontrolled dumping on
empty lots, watercourses, and other areas
o build and maintain sewage treatment plants
o allow the import of motor vehicles only if they
have low fuel consumption and reduced pollution
from exhaust gases
o educate the public and businesses about the need
for pollution control and proper waste disposal
o provide facilities for recycling paper, plastic, glass,
and other materials.
Businesses can:
o dispose of their waste safely, respecting any
government regulations
o reduce the use ofunnecessary packaging
materials
o recycle waste products, such as surplus paper and
plastic
o supply drinks and other products in returnable
bottles and other containers which can be cleaned
and re-used
o maintain their vehicles correctly, to reduce
exhaust pollution and fuel consumption.
Households and individuals can:
o dispose of waste safely: large items such as old
refrigerators should be taken to landfill sites, and
not dumped
o compost their organic household waste
o separate paper, plastic, and glass for recycling, if
public collection points are available
o re-use packaging materials where possible.

Discuss the following questions in a small group.
1 What steps have been taken in your country to
reduce pollution by:
a households and individuals?
b businesses?
c governments?
2 What further actions can be taken?
o Forests, which absorb C02> have been cleared.
0 The use of fuels such as oil, which release cob
has increased.
o More people own cars, travel by air, use air-
conditioning, and buy electrical appliances.
The build-up of C0 2 is continuing. Fuel emissions
increased by more than 40 per cent between 1990
and 2008.

390

380
Handling data c
Q 370
Propose an SBA study on a topic related
to pollution. E 360
Q;
a.
a State the problem in the form of a question. 2 350
'-
b Give your reasons for selecting this area of "l
a..
340
research.
c Outline a method of investigation you 330
could use.
1957 1980 2000 2012
Yea r

Energy use and climate change Figure 3.75: C02 1n the earth 's atmosphere. 1957 to 2012
1l1c earth's climate is delicately balanced. The
The increase in C0 2 has dangerous consequences.
atmosphere contains a small proportion (0.04 per cent)
Most climate scientists estimate that additional
of carbon dioxide, or C02. This is a greenhouse gas - it
C0 2 has already increased worldwide temperatures
lets in incoming radiation from the sun, but traps some
by around 0.7 °C.This has been enough to affect
of the heat which would otherwise escape into space.
rainfall patterns, melt ice in the Arctic Ocean, and
The "greenhouse effect" is necessary for life on earth. probably to increase the frequency of droughts
If there were no C02 in the atmosphere, the earth's and floods.
average temperature would be around -18 oC, and
Most expect temperatures to increase by at least
the oceans would be permanently frozen.
another 2.0 oC during this century, even if we make
Over the past 200 years, the proportion of C0 2 in every effort to reduce C0 2 emissions.
the atmosphere has increased by around one-third.

- Figure 3.74: The g reenhouse effect

 3 .27 Pollution and climate change

In the Caribbean, some of the effects which may

result from climate change are:
o altered rainfall patterns, with more droughts and
floods
o higher sea levels
o increased beach erosion
o more frequent and stronger hurricanes
o damage to coral reefs and marine life.
Climate change is a worldwide process. No single
country can take effective action. C0 2 released
in China or California affects the climate in the
Caribbean. However, developing an international
Figure 3 .76: Generattng electrictty with solar panels tn
strategy on climate change is not easy.
Cura9ao

Reducing C0 2 emissions Businesses can reduce C0 2 emissions and cut their

Within the Caribbean, there are many ways in which
C0 2 emissions could be reduced. We can reduce the
burning of fuels such as oil, and protect forests and
vegetation which absorb C0 2.
Electricity can be generated from renewable sources
such as:
o solar energy, using photovoltaic panels
o hydro-electric power from fast-flowing rivers;
Belize already generates much of its electricity
from the Macal river
o wind turbines; a wind farm at Wigton in Jamaica
supplies 3 per cent of]amaica's electricity
o geothermal energy, using hot volcanic rocks
below the surface as a source of power;
Guadeloupe already uses geothermal power,
and schemes are proposed for Dominica, Nevis,
and other islands.
o biomass energy, from growing plants; the Skeldon
sugar factory in Guyana burns bagasse (sugar
cane waste) to generate electricity.
Governments can reduce C0 2 emissions by:
o encouraging electricity-generating companies to
use renewable energy sources
o removing subsidies from energy use, so that
households and businesses pay the full cost and
have an incentive to save energy
o making sure that government buildings and
vehicles are fuel-efficient
o protecting forests, which absorb C0 2
o giving tax incentives for energy saving.
costs by:
o designing fuel-efficient buildings, for example
using natural air cooling where possible instead of
air conditioning
o using energy-efficient vehicles and appliances,
and maintaining them in good condition
o avoiding unnecessary travel, for example using
teleconferencing or email instead of face-to-face
meetings
o allowing staff to do some work from home,
reducing energy spent on commuting to work
o encouraging the re-use and recycling of materials
o planting trees, and protecting natural vegetation.
Families can cut their energy use, for example by:
o using air conditioning only when it is absolutely
necessary; using fans or natural air cooling when
possible
o installing fuel-efficient refrigerators and other
appliances
o using energy-saving light bulbs, and switching off
lights when a room is empty
o using a fuel-efficient car
o walking or using a bicycle for short journeys
o using public transport where possible
o cutting down on air travel and foreign trips
o planting trees and other vegetation
o growing some of their own fruits and vegetables.
In Barbados, one-third of households have solar
water heaters, which reduce the need for electricity
in the home. In Guyana, many households in the
interior have been supplied with solar panels to
generate electricity.
As well as reducing C0 2 emissions, saving energy and
reducing the use of imported fuel have other benefits:
o Households, businesses, and the government can
reduce their fu el bills.
o Oil imports arc reduced, saving valuable foreign
exchange.
o C ountries which produce oil can earn more from
exports, if they reduce the amount used locally.
o Other types of pollution are reduced- for
example ozone "smog" from vehicle exhausts.
Figure 3.77: Th1s house 1n Barbados generates all 1ts
electnc1ty from solar panels
Research
What steps have been taken m your country to
reduce CO emissions by:
a households and individuals?
b busmesses?
c governments?
2 What further actions can be taken?
"Green" development
For many reasons, governments, businesses,
and individuals arc becoming more aware of
environmental issues. Pollution and climate change
can threaten our standard of living and quality
of life. Many wildlife species are threatened with
extinction. A move towards sustainable development
is necessary to protect our future.
An increasing number of consumers prefer to buy
products which are "environmentally friendly". M any
businesses are proud of their environmental record.
For tourism, the Green Globe programme certifies
properties which respect the environment.
Most governments now require an environmental
impact assessment before allowing a major new
development, such as a large hotel, a major
manufacturing plant, a quarry, or a large-scale
housing development. Voters and environmental
pressure groups may oppose proposals which they
believe will be damaging.
The developers must study the impact their proposal
will have on aspects of the environment, such as:
o C0 2 emissions
o wildlife, forests, and other vegetation
o rivers and water supply
o the marine environment
o no ise levels
o air pollution.
Where there will be an adverse effect, the
government may require mitigation measures to
reduce the impact.
Research
Are there any public pressure groups or non-
governmental organizations in your country which
aim to protect the environment?
2 In what ways have they been active? Is their work
effective?
Discuss in a small group what points should be
considered in an environmental impact assessment for
a a new highway
b a large tourist resort
c an oil refinery on a coastal site.
Handling data
Design and execute an environmental project
which can be undertaken by your class. You may
plan a project for your school or neighbourhood
or you may work with a local organization on one
of their projects.
 Introduction to regional integration

KEY IDEAS
o Regional integration presents challenges and
opportunities for the region.

Q?l«•tl1Jil'l
Regional integration: the unification of countries through
economic agreements.
Colony: A country which is governed by a more powerful
country.

When we speak of"regional integration" we mean

the unification of Caribbean states through economic
agreements which promote free trade between them
by the removal of barriers to trade. It also means Figure 4.2: Vere B1rd, first pnme mm1ster of Antigua -Barbuda

Caribbean states working together to achieve certain

People, too, must not only see themselves as
economic objectives which would make the region
better off. citizens of a particular country but as citizens of the
Caribbean region. This is necessary for promoting
The Caribbean states have entered into economic regional integration. They should be prepared to be
agreements which have seen the establishment of tolerant of each other and support each other. They
the Caribbean Free Trade Area (CARIFTA), the should seek to build and strengthen relationships
Caribbean Community and Common l.Vlarket, and with people throughout the region and work
the Caribbean Single Market and Economy. The with governments to achieve the goals of regional
Eastern Caribbean states (through the OECS) have integration. Both governments and citizens must
also pursued economic agreements between them begin to see things from a regional point of view and
(see Units 4.12 and 4.13). not only a national one.
Regional integration means that Caribbean leaders Regional integration is going to be challenging for a
and their governments must see themselves not only group of countries that traditionally have not worked
as leaders and governments of a particular country, together in any consistent manner. The English-
but as leaders speaking Caribbean countries are separated by the
and governments Caribbean Sea. They were colonized by Britain
operating in a united and kept separate: their ties were with Britain and
region; and that not with each other. H owever, there were a few
their actions or lack occasions during the colonial days when they found
of action can affect it necessary to cooperate with each other:
an entire region. In
other words, they o They formed the British West Indies Sugar
should see themselves Association in 1941 to bargain with buyers on
as members of a team behalf of ugar producers.
and recognize that o The Imperial Department of Agriculture was
the success or failure established to develop improved varieties of sugar
of the region depends cane suited to conditions in the West Indies.
on the actions of o The University College of the West Indies was
Figure 4.1 : Errol Barrow, f1rst each team member. opened in 1948.
pnme mm1ster of Barbados

Ill

-
_ ~ovev~
---
- Other challenges which require the cooperation of
- 1 (\) ft-vO(~
~vit 1 t 1 t
Figure 4.3: Wil liam Demas, f1r st secretary-general of the
Canbbean Community
Why regional integration is necessary
Regional integration is necessary for a number of
reasons. Caribbean countries need to work together
to develop policies to survive in a world in which
the restrictions which prevent the free flow of
goods, services, and capital throughout the world
are being removed. Domestic markets therefore
have to be open to receive foreign goods which were
formerly kept out to protect domestic producers.
Caribbean producers have to be able to sell in
international markets at competitive prices. These
developments could be good or bad for Caribbean
countries, depending on how they respond to
them. Caribbean producers could be forced out of
business, both in the regional and extra-regional
markets, by bigger and more efficient foreign
producers or they could have the opportunity to
increase trade.
Caribbean governments, faced with increasing
unemployment and poverty, and declining
earnings both of revenue and foreign currency, are
having a difficult time managing their countries.
Experts believe that the only way the Caribbean
countries can meet these challenges successfully is
to unite in order to develop their human resources,
produce at competitive prices and increase output
and trade.
Errol Barrow, Vere Bird Sr., Dr Eric Williams, and
Forbes Burnham were the early political leaders to
spearhead economic integration in the Caribbean.
In 196 7 Forbes Burham gave the Caribbean the
following stern warning:
We. i...-.te.~mte. (]'(
we. pe-risk.
all the Caribbean countries are discussed in Unit 4.2.
Can integration work?
The Caribbean has the potential to make integration
work. There are many similarities among the
countries and the people. The region as a whole has
a good supply of natural resources. There is enough
evidence in the rest of the world that integration
does bring benefits to the participating countries.
"... regarded as one Caricom region we have a
good endowment of natural resources for export
agriculture: for food, livestock and fisheries
products for the local and regional market; for
timber; for minerals such as bauxite. oil and
natural gas; for energy such as oil, natural gas and
(in St Lucia) geo-thermal energy; for tourism in
the form of sea, sand and sun. as well as flora and
fauna in many of our countries; and enough rainfall
for producing water for both human consumption
and industrial use."
William Demas, 1990, Towards West Indian Survival:
Occasional Paper No. 1
What is needed in the Caribbean is for the leaders,
governments, and people to develop the will to make
integration work.
Write a summary of things you have heard or read
about regional integration.
•
 Major challenges facing the
Caribbean region
which do not allow national producers to produce
KEY IDEAS goods in large enough quantities to benefit
o Some of the challenges facing the Caribbean are
due to economic factors and acts of nature.
from economies of scale. Consequently, most
o Caribbean people can find creative solutions locally produced goods tend to be expensive and
to these challenges if they are willing to work uncompetitive.
together.
o In order to understand the need for regional
integration, it is important to be aware of the
challenges facing the Caribbean.

Developed country: A country which has a low birth rate,

high life expectancy, a high level of literacy, and a well-
trained workforce, and exports goods of high value. The
citizens enjoy a high level of prosperity as a result.
Economies of scale: The financial advantages which result
from producing goods in large quantities. For example, the
unit cost of production may fall as output increases.

The Caribbean region is made up of a number

of countries which may be considered by world
standards to be "less developed". Some of their
industries are not competitive, they are small, poor,
and, except for Guyana, Jamaica, and Trinidad and
Tobago, have few exploitable natural resources.
Countries in the region are at different stages of
development and all are in the process of trying to
improve their present level of development.
Caribbean countries are operating in a world
in which the developed countries are joining
together to form large groups in order to conduct
trade between them. These groups are helping to
make the industries of the member countries more Figure 4.4: Map showmg the s1ze of the Canbbean countnes,
compared to North Amenca and South Amenca
competitive, and the countries even more developed.
o Difficulty in exporting to international markets:
Caribbean countries therefore need to come
Partly as a result of the countries' small size, some
together and work together to improve their level of
Caribbean products cannot compete in regional
development so as not to be left behind. However, in
and extra-regional markets because they are
attempting to improve their development they have
expensive when compared with similar products
to overcome many challenges, some of which have
from other countries. This limits the region's
already been mentioned above in Unit 4.1.
ability to trade.
The challenges facing the Caribbean include: o Limited r ange of products: The natural
o Small size: The small size of Caribbean countries resources available in the Caribbean are not
means that they have small national markets . distributed among the countries equally. Some

•
 countries lack exploitable natural resources and
this also limits the range of products which
they can produce for export. This factor has
forced some countries to concentrate on the
production of one or two agricultural products
for export mainly to the European market.
These countries' heavy dependence on a few
agricultural products whose prices and demand
often fluctuate makes it difficult for them to
earn enough foreign currency to finance their
development.
The countries which are heavily dependent on
tourism are also very slow in increasing their
range of tourism products in order to increase
their earnings from tourism.
Figure 4 .5 : Bananas from Latm Amencan countnes are
displacing Caribbean fru1t 1n export markets such as the UK
o Debt burden: Caribbean countries import more
than they export and they spend more on imports
than they receive for their exports. This situation
has forced Caribbean countries to borrow to
make up the difference between what they earn
and what they spend.
A very large part of the earnings of some
Caribbean countries goes towards repaying debt to
international lenders every year. This contributes
to the shortage of capital needed to finance the
country's development and it creates the need for
further borrowing. For example, debt repayment
accounted for 56 per cent of]amaica's budget in
2009. Caribbean countries are faced with a constant
debt problem.
Figure 4 .6 : Most of the reg1on's 1ncome flows back out agam
to pay for 1mports and repay debt
o Unemployment and poverty: The debt problem
does not allow heavily indebted Caribbean
countries to accumulate savings to spend on their
development and thereby create employment.
Consequently, the Caribbean has a high level of
unemployment, underemployment, and poverty.
The Caribbean Development Bank's Basic Needs
Trust Fund report for 2005 stated that "25 per
cent of the region's population exists below
locally defined poverty lines". The report also
stated that poverty affects Caribbean countries in
varying degrees.
The International Labour Organization put the
world's unemployment rate in 2009 at 6.6 per cent.
In the same year the Bahamas' unemployment
figures stood at 14 per cent, Belize's at 13 per cent
and Jamaica's at 11 per cent.
o Shortage of skilled labour: High levels of
unemployment and poverty have encouraged
many highly trained people to migrate from the
Caribbean. This has created a shortage of skilled
labour in the region. (See also Section 3.12.)
o Vulnerability to natural disasters: The region is
prone to natural disasters such as droughts, floods,
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and hurricanes.
When these natural disasters occur, they destroy
natural resources and the development achieved
•
 over the years. Scarce resources have to be
diverted from other uses to repair the damage.
Thi s slows development further.
o Lack of unity: The Caribbean islands are
separated by the Caribbean Sea and by long
Figure 4.7: In 2010 the Canbbean Development Bank approved approximately US$16 mill ion for Ha1t1 for earthquake relief. In the
same year Humcane Tomas destroyed most of the banana and plantain crops 1n both St Luc1a and St Vmcent and the Grenad1nes.
Quick questions
Name two Canbbean products which are well known
outside the Caribbean.
2 a You are one of ten local solar water heater
manufacturers producing for your domestic
market only. Explain how the small size of your
nat10nal market may affect:
consumers
ii your company
iii your country.
b You wish to export solar water heaters to the other
Caribbean islands and to the rest of the world.
State ONE factor besides quality that consumers
in these markets may consider before buying your
water heaters.
3 a State TWO reasons why Caribbean countries have
not been able to export a wider variety of goods to
each other.
•
distances. They were colonized and kept separate
by England. As a result, there is not a strong
feeling of oneness among many Caribbean
people and this h as affected attempts to improve
regional integration.
b State TWO reasons why some Caribbean countries
face difficulties in exporting goods to the rest of
the world
c Explain how an increase in exports from the
Caribbean may provide more jobs and better
housing, health care. and education for Caribbean
citizens.
4 Explain why Caribbean countries have to borrow so
much money from abroad.
5 As Minister of Agriculture of a Caribbean country.
explain THREE ways in which the country may benefit
from a reduction in its food import bill.
6 Select ONE of the challenges facing the Caribbean
islands and suggest how Caribbean governments
may work together to overcome it. Explain why each
of your suggestions may be successful in helping the
Caribbean to overcome the challenge.
 Compile a list of:
a the major furniture and appliances in your
house
b the main food items in your house.
Identify those that are locally made and those that
are imported. Write up your findings and present
them to the rest of your class.
2 Visit a supermarket. Select SIX locally made items
and record their prices. Select SIX similar imported
1tems and record their prices. Construct a table
showing the items and their prices. Write up your
findings and discuss them in class.
Discuss the following statements with a partner. Do you
agree with them?
1 The Caribbean has to produce more and export
more.
2 The challenges facing Caribbean countries may
best be solved by the Caribbean countries working
together.
Select ten students to represent a group of ten
unemployed youths in your country who are looking
to government to create employment for them. Select
one student to play the rote of minister of labour: some
other students could act as the minister's advisors.
1 The unemployed youths should discuss:
a the difficulties in finding employment and the
sort of responses they get from employers
whom they approach for employment
b how unemployment is affecting them
c why they think the government should provide
employment for them.
2 The minister of labour should prepare some notes
in which he/she:
a explains to the group why they should not rely
only on the government to create employment
for them
b outlines TWO ways in which the members may
find employment as a group or as individuals
c explains how their efforts of creating self-
employment may benefit the country
3 Perform a roleplay in which the minister of labour
addresses the group and the unemployed youths
give their point of view and ask questions.
•
 The West Indies Federation
self-rule from England: West Indian leaders saw a
KEY IDEAS
federation as a means of preparing the islands for
o The West Indies Federation was a political union
and it provided the incentive for the current
self-rule.
regional integration movement.
o Prior to federation there was limited contact Members of the West Indies Federation
between the member states. The West Indies Federation was a political union
o The member states of the Federation were comprising ten Caribbean states: Jamaica, Trinidad
colonies of England. and Tobago, Barbados, Dominica, Grenada, St
o The Federation Act also contained provisions for Vincent and the Grenadines, St Lucia, l\1ontserrat,
a customs union, but this was not established. St Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla and Antigua-Barbuda.
o The objectives of the Federation were political
It was established by the Caribbean Federation
and economic.
Act of 1956.1his is an example of a multi-lateral
agreement. It came into being in 1958 and ended
in 1962.
Q d!•tt11;1j
Functional or non-economic cooperation: An organized Objectives of the West Indies
group of countries jointly sharing the costs of providing Federation
common services; for example, Caribbean countries
sharing the costs of providing education at the University of
The objectives of the West Indies Federation were
the West Indies. to improve the social and economic conditions of its
Customs union: An agreement between neighbouring members and to help them to move towards self-
countries to remove trade barriers, and reduce or eliminate government. These objectives were to be achieved
customs duty on mutual trade . The member countries also through the establishment of a customs union and
agree to impose a common external tariff on imports from
the setting up of a federal government.
non-member countries.
Common External Tariff (CEn: A rate of customs duty which However, the customs union was not established
1s uniformly applied by countries in an economic grouping
and the federation therefore provided no significant
to imports from countries which are not part of the group.
economic benefits.
Federation (political union): A group of countries or states
that have 10ined together to form a single group ; power Although the member states of the federation did not
is divided between a central / federal government and
become involved in economic cooperation, they were
the governments of the countries or states. The group is
recognized internationally as a single political entity. The engaged in non-economic or functional cooperation.
Federation of St Kitts-Nevis, Austral:a, Canada and the USA During the federation the member states operated
are four examples of federations. the University College of the West Indies (UCWI)
Self-rule/ self-government: Government by the inhabitants and the West I ndies Shipping Service.
of a country and not an outside authority.
Bi-lateral agreement: An agreement between two groups or
countries.
Multi -lateral agreement: An agreement among many
groups or countries.

The West Indies Federation was an attempt to unite

the English-speaking Caribbean islands. It was
established at a time when living conditions in the
islands were very bad because of neglect by the UK.
The islands felt that they needed to work towards
improving living conditions. Additionally, the islands Figure 4.8: A stamp commemorating the Federal Palm, part of
were still colonies and they wanted to achieve greater the West lnd1es Sh1pp1ng Serv1ce

•
 18
16
D No. of seats

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
o~~r-~~~L-~~~~~--~--~--~~

Figure 4 .9: The UCWI developed 1nto the Un1vers1ty of the

West lnd1es 1n 1962

Figure 4 .11: The d1stnbut1on of seats in the federal House

The federal government, 1958-62 of Representatives

Figure 4.12: Members' fmancial contnbut1ons to the federal

budget

The total population of the federation was between

three and four million people. Jamaica and Trinidad
and Tobago had the largest populations, with
1 660 000 and 900 000 respectively.

Figure 4 .10: Grantley Adams. pnme mm1ster of the West Each member state had its own elected government
lnd1es Federat1on and was also represented in the central or federal
government. The headquarters for the central or
The Federation was administered by a central or
federal government was located in Trinidad and
federal government which was made up of:
Tobago.
o a council of state consisting of a governor-general,
a prime minister, and ten ministers
Quick questions
o a 19-member Senate nominated by the governor-
general; each country except Montserrat had two What percentage of the seats did Trinidad and
members in the Senate Tobago and Jamaica together hold in the federal
o a House of Representatives comprising 45 House of Representatives?
2 What percentage of the federal budget did Trinidad
members elected from the member states by and Tobago and Jamaica together contribute?
universal suffrage and with the number of seats
for each country being based on the size of its
population.

•
 The collapse of the West Indies
Federation
0-J'te. .fro~'~- te.'J'l ie.tAve.s 'J't01A()'"'- t.
Comment made by Eric Williams, former prime minister
ofTrinidad and Tobago, when Jamaica withdrew from the
West Indies Federation
Figure 4 .13 : Eric Williams. f1rst prime m1n1ster of Tnndad
and Tobago
II Discussion
Discuss with a partner what Williams· statement above
means to you.
Figure 4 .14: The West lnd1es Federation "shipwreck"
The \Vest Indies Federation was short-lived and
did not bring about any significant changes in
the region.These are some of the reasons why the
Federation collapsed:
o In 1961 Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago, the
federation's two largest financial contributors,
withdrew from the group .
•
o The federal government could not levy taxes
and therefore had to depend on financial
contributions from members to meet its expenses.
o The federation failed to improve trade, wages,
and employment, and educational, housing, and
medical facilities in the West I ndies.
o Trinidad and Tobago was opposed to free
movement.
o The federation was made up of countries which
were at different stages of development. The
economies of Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago
were more advanced than those of the other
members and they did not want their economic
progress to be hindered by having to support the
poorer members.
o There was limited interaction between the
citizens of the member states.
Explain in your own words what is meant by:
a federation
b customs union.
2 Identify TWO areas of functional cooperation in the
region. other than education and transport.
Organize the class into four groups for a debate on the
following topic.
The collapse of the West Indies Federation:
lessons for the future
o Group 1 will present reasons to show why the West
Indies Federation could not survive without the
participation of Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago.
o Group 2 will present reasons to show why the West
Indies Federation experience encouraged Caribbean
governments to work together subsequently.
o Group 3 will present issues which may hinder future
cooperation efforts among Caribbean countries.
o Group 4 will present some of the major goals of
any future cooperation efforts among Caribbean
countries.
Imagine you are a newspaper columnist looking
back at the reasons for the failure of the West Indies
Federation. Identify THREE issues that Caribbean
leaders should address before entering into any future
cooperation/integration agreement.
 The Caribbean Free Trade
Association (CARIFTA)

KEY IDEAS
o The end of the West Indies Federation saw a
change in strategy from political to economic
integration among the Caribbean countries.
o The Caribbean Free Trade Association/ Area
(CARIFTA) was the first stage of the current
regional economic integration movement
involving the wider Caribbean.
o A free trade association (area) is a basic example
of economic cooperation (integration) between
countries.
o CARIFTA. like the federation, comprised countries
which were at different levels of development. Figure 4.15: The route to economic integration
o CARIFTA introduced free trade to the Caribbean
region.
independent. As independent countries they were
o CARIFTA was seen as a strategy which could
now fully responsible for determining their own
improve the social and economic conditions of
the Caribbean region. future. The heads of government of these countries
decided that they would use economic integration/
cooperation as the strategy to develop the Caribbean
and thus improve the very poor social and economic
Q ?t«•tl£1;11 conditions which existed then.
Economic integration: An arrangement in which a group of
countries agree to remove tariff and non-tariff barriers to Economic integration is the most common form of
trade and the movement of capital and labour between the economic cooperation and it usually occurs among
members of the group. The terms "economic integration" and
neighbouring countries. I t also occurs in stages.
"economic cooperation" are sometimes used synonymously.
The aim of economic integration is to make the
Free trade association (area): A group of countries which
agree to remove the tariff and non-tariff barriers on goods individual member countries more developed as well
which they produce and sell to each other, while imposing as mutually dependent on each other.
their individual tariffs on imports from countries which are not
members of the group. The heads of government decided that the regional
Tariff barriers: Tariff barriers to trade include taxes on imports economic integration process would start with a free
and exports. trade area and progress to more advanced forms of
Non-tariff barriers: Non-tariff barriers to trade include quotas, economic integration. A free trade association (area}
licensing arrangements, and foreign-exchange controls. would remove the tariff and non-tariff barriers on
Independent state: A self-governing country which is neither
goods which trading partners produce and sell to each
dependent on nor subject to any power or state.
other, allowing them all to benefit from faster and
More developed country: A country which has more
infrastructure, more competitive industries, and more easier trading. At the same time they would impose
exploitable resources than those countries considered less their individual tariffs on imports from countries
well off. outside the group. The goods traded must satisfy
Less developed country: A country which is heavily dependent certain conditions, standards, and specifications which
on agriculture and lacks competitive industries, infrastructure,
the members have agreed to. A free trade area may
and exploitable natural resources.
be regarded as a very loose economic grouping. The
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
The desire for unity did not die with the collapse which involves Canada, America, and Mexico is an
of the West Indies Federation. Mter the federation example of a free trade area.
ended a number ofWest Indian islands became

•
 The decision to pursue economic integration was
an interesting development because the former
members of the federation had opposed the
setting up of a customs union. :M any countries still
depended heavily on taxes on imports for revenue to
finance government spending. They would now have
to find alternative sources of revenue.

Figure 4.18: Dickenson Bay 1n Ant1gua

The members of CARIFTA were divided into two

categories based on their level of development.
Countries such as Barbados, Guyana, Jamaica, and
Trinidad and Tobago, which had more infrastructure
and more competitive industries, and (except
Barbados) also more exploitable natural resources,
were classified as the more developed countries
Figure 4 .16: Map show1ng the countnes of NAFTA
(MDCs). Comparatively speaking, the other member
countries lacked infrastructure, competitive industries,
and exploitable natural resources, and their economies
were mainly agricultural; they were therefore classified
,. as the less developed countries (LDCs) .
•
'•
Objectives of CARIFTA

Fi gure 4.17: Map showmg the countries of CARIFTA

\
The Dickenson Bay Agreement
Figure 4 .19: Reduct1on 1n barners to reg1onal trade
The Caribbean Free Trade Association Agreement
was signed at Dickenson Bay in Antigua-Barbuda The objectives of CARIFTA included:
in 1965. It came into effect on 1 May 1968, with
Barbados, Antigua-Barbuda, Trinidad and Tobago, o promoting free trade among its members by
removing all restrictions to the free flow of goods
and Guyana being the first participants. Dominica,
produced and traded within the region
Grenada, St Lucia , St Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla,
o increasing the quantity and variety of goods and
St Vincent and the Grenadines,Jamaica, and
services produced for intra-regional trade
l\1ontserrat became members on 1 August 1968.
o giving all the members an equal opportunity to
Belize (British Honduras) was the last to join, in
develop; for example, the CARI FTA agreement
May 1971.
made special provisions to promote the
development of the LDCs, by:

a
 encouraging the development of industries in
the LDCs
providing a longer period for them to phase
out customs duties on products which were
important for their revenue
protecting their agricultural producers by
restricting member states' freedom to import
agricultural products from outside the region
and getting each MDC to buy specific
quantities of certain agricultural products from
the LDCs at agreed prices.
The Caribbean Development Bank (CDB)
was created to facilitate the achievement of the
CARIFTA objectives by providing loans for
development purposes to governments participating
in CARIFTA. It was mandated by the heads of
government to pay special and urgent attention to
the development needs of the LDCs.
Figure 4.20 : The headquarters of the Caribbean Development
Bank
CASE STUDY
Ignoring CARIFTA
There were several instances where the CARIFTA
agreement was not honoured by some countries. Some
governments depended heavily on customs revenue to
finance their programmes and hence maintained tariffs
on some regional imports. Yet others continued to use
non-tariff barriers to protect their domestic markets
from regional imports.
Some countries imported goods from extra-regional
sources. repackaged and relabelled them and traded
them as regionally made goods. A common example of
this was the importation of cheap tee shirts and other
garments from China which were sold by the importing
countries as regionally made products.
Success of CARIFTA
CARIFTA was successful in increasing intra-
regional trade. Intra-regional exports grew from
EC$95.7 million in 1967 to EC$298 million
in 1973 when the Common Market replaced
CARIFTA. This figure represented approximately
10 per cent of the region's total exports.
Quick questions
Read the case study on the left. then answer the
following questions.
1 Make a list of the various barriers that Caribbean
countries would have used to restrict trade
between them.
2 State TWO possible areas of conflict which may
arise in a free trade association/area.
3 Give TWO reasons why some countries would have
continued to restrict imports from within the region
after the establishment of CARIFTA.
4 One of the benefits expected from CARIFTA was
an increase in regional trade. Explain how each
member of CARIFTA would have benefited from an
increase in its exports to other member states.
5 Explain why it is important to have agreed
conditions. standards. and specifications for
goods traded among the members of a free trade
association/area.
You are the chairman of the Manufacturers' Association
in your country. Prepare a talk on CARIFTA to be
delivered to your members. In your talk explain how the
removal of trade barriers would help some businesses
and why it may not help others.
The governing structure of CARIFTA
CARIFTA was governed by two decision-making
bodies.
o The Heads of Government Conference was the
chief policy-making body. It was made up of the
heads of government of each member country.
o The second-ranking body, the CARIFTA Council
of Ministers, was made up of the trade ministers
of the member countries and it had responsibility
for managing the free trade agreement.
The Commonwealth Caribbean Regional Secretariat
(the CARIFTA Secretariat), based in Guyana, was
created to administer the affairs of CARIFTA.
•
 The Caribbean Community
(Caricom)
KEY IDEAS
o CARIFTA showed that the Caribbean needed a
more advanced form of economic integration.
o The second stage of the regional economic
integration movement was marked by the
establishment of the Caribbean Community and
Common Market (Caricom).
o The Treaty of Chaguaramas (1973), which
established Caricom, is made up of two
agreements - one deals with the Caribbean
Community and the other the Common Market.
o The Caribbean Community and the Common
Market were two separate institutions.
o The Common Market replaced CARIFTA.
o The 1973 Treaty of Chaguaramas is sometimes
referred to as 'the Original Treaty' in order to
distinguish it from the Revised Treaty of 2001.
\SJ?U•ll!iii'i
The Caribbean Community: This is an association of
sovereign Caribbean countries with a common desire to
work together to overcome the challenges which face the
region and promote their mutual wellbeing.
Fi gure 4.21: The Common Market is part of the Commun1ty
Cooperation among Caribbean countries increased
under CARIFTA. Regional leaders recognized the
need for a new arrangement to strengthen the areas
of cooperation which existed under CARlFTA and
to develop new areas of cooperation . To this end
they established the Caribbean Community and
Common Market. It was modelled to some extent
on the European Economic Community.
•
The Caribbean Community is an association of
sovereign Caribbean countries with shared and
common values, a common culture, and a common
desire to work together to overcome the challenges
which face the region and to promote the wellbeing
of the citizens.
The Treaty of Chaguaramas (the
Original Treaty)
The Caribbean Community was established by the
Treaty of Chaguaramas, which came into effect
on 1 August 1 1973.1he idea of a Caribbean
Community was first proposed by the government
ofTrinidad and T obago when it withdrew from the
West Indies Federation.
Figure 4.22: Chaguaramas IS a former US military base, to the
west of Port of Spa1n m Tnn1dad and Tobago
The treaty con tained two separate agreements: one
relating to the Caribbean Community and the other
to the Caribbean Common Market. It created two
distinct institutions (the Caribbean Community and
the Caribbean Common M arket).
The agreements were signed separately and
Caribbean countries could chose membership of
either the Community or the Common Market, or
both. The Bahamas chose to be a member of the
Community only.
The Treaty also created the Caribbean Community
(Caricom) Secretariat as the principal administrative
organ of the Community.

* * *
~ established?
.............
* * *
·--
II
Figure 4.23: The member states of Cancom
Members of the Caribbean Community
The Caribbean Community comprises the twelve
countries which had been members of CARIFTA,
plus the Bahamas, Suriname, and Haiti. The British
Virgin Islands, the Turks and Caicos Islands,
Anguilla, the Cayman I slands, and Bermuda,
which are still UK overseas territories, are associate
members of Caricom.
Quick questions
State ONE thing which the Caribbean Community
has in common with the West Indies Federation.
2 State ONE difference between the Caribbean
Community and the West Indies Federation.
The objectives of Caricom under the
Treaty of Chaguaramas
The objectives of the Caribbean Community
(Caricom) are intended to deepen the integration
process among the member states. They include:
o increasing free trade in regionally produced goods
among members of the Common Market beyond
the level of CARIFTA, and also encouraging
members to pursue common trade policies when
dealing with non-member states
o encouraging the independent member states
to adopt, as far as possible, a common policy
when dealing with non-member states and
international organizations
o encouraging member states to share the costs
of establishing and operating organizations
which provide common services for the region
in areas including education, culture, health,
communications, and industry.
Find out what the unbroken chain effect in the
Cancom logo represents.
2 When was the European Economic Community
3 What were its objectives?
4 How many members did it start with?
The governing structure of Caricom
under the Treaty of Chaguaramas
Under the 1973 Treaty of Chaguaramas the Caribbean
Community was governed by two bodies known as the
Organs of the Community. They were the Conference
ofHeads of Government (the Conference) and the
Common Market Council of Ministers, which replaced
the CARIFTA Council ofMinisters.
o The Conference ofHeads of Government is the
highest organ of the Community. Its functions
will be discussed in Section 4.10.
o The Common Market Council of Ministers was
the second highest organ of the Community.
o Thirteen institutions, each made up of a minister
from each member state, were created to develop
policies for cooperation in areas that would
promote human and social development.
o The Caribbean Community (Caricom) Secretariat
was created as the principal administrative organ
of the Community. It was headed by a secretary-
general.
Factual writing
You are a freelance newspaper columnist. Judging
from the letters to the editor. it would appear that
many of the letter writers in your country do not know
the differences between CARIFTA and the Caribbean
Community.
Your editor has asked you to write an article explaining
the differences between the two organizations. Prepare
a table to include in your article that presents the
objectives of both organizations.
•
 The Caribbean Common Market
KEY IDEAS
o The Caribbean Common Market was created to
improve on the success of CARIFTA.
o The role of the Caribbean Common Market was to
further promote economic integration.
o A common market is a more advanced form
of economic integration than a free trade
association (area).
o The Caribbean Common Market affairs were
directed by the Common Market Council of
Ministers.
~d !•tl!i il'i
Common Market: A group of countries which agree to:
o promote free trade by removing all tariff and non-tariff
restrictions on goods which they produce and trade
between themselves
o allow the free movement of capital and labour across
member countries
o charge a common external tariff (CED on goods imported
from countries which are not members of the group.
The Caribbean Common Market was established
at a time when the rules that governed the conduct
of international trade were changing. Under
the new rules of international trade countries
were to open their markets to receive foreign
imports. Import restrictions and preferential trade
arrangements were to be gradually phased out. This
meant that Caribbean producers of bananas and
sugar had to prepare themselves for the eventual
ending of the preferential trading arrangements
which they had with Europe and compete with
more efficient producers of these products. They
also had to prepare for increased competition
from foreign imports in their domestic and
regional markets.
Caribbean producers therefore needed an arrangement
which would enable them to become competitive,
in order to sell in international markets without the
help of trade preferences, and to sell in the region
without having to rely on trade restrictions on foreign
imports.1hese factors led to the establishment of the
Caribbean Common l\1arket.
The Caribbean Common Market represents the
second stage in the economic integration of the
Caribbean. All the members of the Caribbean
Community except the Bahamas and Haiti were
members of the Common Market. The Bahamas
chose not to be a member, while Haiti's application
for membership was not accepted.
Construct a table showing the member states of:
a the West Indies Federation
b CARJFTA
c the Caribbean Community
d the Caribbean Common Market.
Write down your observations about the information
you have gathered.
Objectives of the Caribbean Common
Market
The Caribbean Common Market was established to
remedy a major weakness of CARIFTA. CARIFTA
was a very loose economic grouping in the sense
that each member state was free to charge its own
individual rate of duty on foreign imports. Some
countries did not charge rates high enough to allow
some goods that were produced in the region to
compete with extra-regional imports in the regional
market. This meant that the regional market was not
protected from foreign competition.
The Caribbean Common Market encouraged the
member states to pursue a common policy to protect
their industries from competition from extra-
regional imports by imposing a common external
tariff (CET). The CET was the main feature which
made the Caribbean Common Market different
from CARIFTA.
The Caricom CET is a list of the common rates of
duty that the members of the Caribbean Common
1\rlarket have agreed to apply to goods imported into
the Common Market from countries which are not
members. One advantage of using a CET is that
it can give Common Market producers a chance
to compete by making imports from outside the
Common Market more expensive.
In addition to the CET, the Common Market Treaty
contained provisions for the removal of restrictions
to the establishment of businesses, provision
of services, the movement of capital, and the
coordination of economic policies. However, these
provisions were not implemented.
The objectives of the Caribbean Common Market
included:
o increasing and regulating free trade among
member states and sharing the benefits from
increased trade fairly
o increasing the total output of goods
o promoting the economic development of the
member states.
CARIFTA country Import duty('',;)
Antigua-Barbuda 20
Barbados 25
Guyana 30
St Luc1a 10
Table 4.1: lmagmary rates of Import duty charged on an 1tem
by CARIFTA countnes
Table 4.1 shows the rate of import duty charged by
individual CARIFTA countries on an item which was
imported from the USA at a cost of US$ 2.00 per unit.
Use the table to answer the following questions.
1 Which country charged the highest rate of duty on
the item?
2 Which country charged the lowest rate of duty on
the item?
3 You are a Jamaican producer producing a similar
item which lands in each of the CARIFTA countries
listed in the table at a cost of US$ 2.50 per unit.
a In which country would you have the greatest
difficulty in competing on price?
b In which country would you have the most
favourable chance in competing on price?
c In which country would you be able to match
the American exporter on price?
d In which country would your price be lower
than the American exporter's?
e If you were to recommend a common external
tariff rate for this item what would it be? Justify
the rate which you have recommended.
What generalization can you make about the
effect of a common external tariff on the price of
goods imported from outside a Common Market?
g Explain how the imposition of a common
external tariff may benefit regional producers.
Success of the Caribbean Common
Market
As was the case with CARIFTA before it, the
Common Market was successful in increasing intra-
regional trade. During the period 1973-2001, intra-
regional exports grew from ECS 290.5 million to
ECS 3,709. 7 million. I n 2001 intra-regional exports
represented approximately 20 per cent of the region's
total exports.
Discuss the following questions in a small group.
1 All members of the Caribbean Community should
be members of the Common Market. Do you agree
with this statement? Say why.
2 The Caribbean Common Market may be described
as a ··strengthened·· CARIFTA. Explain why.
An extra-regional manufacturer approaches the
government for permission and incentives to set up a
business because the CET has caused his exports to
the region to fall by over 50 per cent.
Divide your class into four groups. In your groups.
prepare arguments as described below. then hold a
roleplay discussion.
o Group 1 presents the manufacturer's arguments for
permission and concessions.
o Group 2 presents the local manufacturers'
arguments against permission and concessions.
o Group 3 presents the government's arguments in
favour of granting permission and concessions.
o Group 4 presents the consumers' arguments for
granting permission.
Research has shown that the imposition of a CET has
helped to increase the cost of living in your country. As
an official from the Caricom Secretariat. explain how
this may be possible.
Write two points to persuade citizens not to lobby for
the removal of the CET.
•
 Globalization and trade
liberalization
KEY IDEAS
o Globalization and trade liberalization have
influenced regional integration.
o Trade liberalization involves the removal of
restrictions to the flow of goods, services, labour,
and capital on a global scale.
o Globalization is the process by which countries
around the world are becoming interconnected.
o Trade liberalization and globalization bring both
challenges and opportunities for Caribbean
countries.
~d!•lll1 ilj
Globalization: The process by which the world's separate
econom1es are becoming interconnected as a result of the
improvements i n transportat ion and communicat ion and
the removal of the barriers to trade and the flow of capital
and information.
Trade liberalization: The removal of or the reduction of
trade practices that restrict the free flow of goods from one
coun t ry to another.
World Trade Organization (WTO): The WTO deals with
global rules of trade between coun tries. Its aim is to ensure
that trade flows as free ly as possi ble.
Preferential trade agreement: An agreement which allows
countries which are usually poor to export selected goods
to richer countries duty free . The objective is to help
promote the development of the poor countries.
Decline in
investment
Fi gure 4 .24: Opportun1t1es and challenges of global1zat1on
•
After the Caribbean Common Market was
established there was a gradual movement towards
trade liberalization- freer trade on a global scale.
This was being promoted by the World Trade
Organization (WTO). Caricom countries are
members of this organization and therefore had
signed its agreement to promote free trade globally.
This means that Caribbean countries have to become
competitive.1hey can no longer rely on the use
of high tariff barriers or other forms of restriction
to deliberately keep foreign imports out of their
markets. Neither can they rely on preferential trade
agreements with European countries to protect their
agricultural exports of sugar and bananas. These
preferential agreements had to be abolished as part
of the trade liberalization process.
Globalization aims to stop government actions that
restrict business activity or assist business activity
where the business cannot survive without being
supported by government funds . Production around
the world is therefore becoming more competitive
and large companies are doing business in markets
across the world. Globalization- together with trade
liberalization- has created increasing competition
for markets.
As a result:
o Caribbean consumers now have access to a wider
variety of cheaper imported goods
o global media is also exposing regional consumers
to advertisements for foreign products and they
are being encouraged to develop new tastes for
these products
o Caribbean producers face the real possibility of
losing their regional and extra- regional markets
and being forced out ofbusiness by more efficient
foreign companies and cheaper goods if they fail
to become competitive.
On the other hand, globalization offers the region
many opportunities, if its businesses become more
competitive. These include:
o new opportunities for businesses to export to
new and larger markets because of the removal
of trade barriers
o increased employment if the countries are able to
increase trade
o increased investment as a result of the removal of
the restrictions to the free flow of capital
o improved standard of living as a result of
increased employment and increased trade
o better- quality regionally produced goods and
services, as a result of using internationally
acceptable standards of production.
Figure 4 .25 : The WTO logo
Organize a class debate on the following topic:
Globalization will have more positive than
negative effects on the region.
As part of the debate. consider the consequences of
the Caribbean not being equipped to take advantage of
the opportunities which globalization offers.
Figure 4.26 : With globalization Caribbean goods must
compete w1th 1mports
Quick questions
Globalization offers Caribbean countries challenges
and opportunities.
1 Define the term "globalization" in your own words.
2 Give an example of ONE negative and ONE positive
effect which globalization may have on Caribbean
producers.
3 Outline TWO measures which manufacturers in your
country may take to reduce the negative effects of
globalization on their businesses.
4 Give an example of ONE negative and ONE positive
effect which globalization may have on Caribbean
consumers.
5 Outline TWO factors which may prevent Caribbean
businesses from taking advantage of the
opportunities which globalization offers.
Handling data
1Identify at least six non-Caricom businesses
from at least two different countries which
operate in your country.
2 Identify the products or services which they
produce and identify a local business with
which each competes.
3 Make a table like the one shown above and fill
in the information you have gathered. Write an
analysis of the information in the table.
4 Describe at least two ways in which your
country has benefited or suffered as a result
of one of the foreign businesses operating
there.
5 Suggest one measure which your country
may use to deal with the disadvantage
mentioned above and say why that measure
may work.
6 Give two explanations to show why the foreign
businesses were established in your country.
 The Caricom Single Market (CSM)

KEY IDEAS P1At fAs si ~p£{1 fAS possib£e.1 it is fA11

o The Caricom Single Market is the first phase e.)(e.rcise. wf,...icf,... WI££ e.11frA1£ 01Ar frA/(i11Q ff,...e.
of the proposed Caricom Single Market and IS prArticiprAti 11~ e.co11o~ie.s 1 stre.tcki11~ .fro~
Economy (CSME). 8e.£i8'e. 111 tt,...e. we.st to S1Ari11rA~e. 111 ft,...e. e.rAst 1
o The CSME aims to promote the development of wf,...1ct,... (,..fAYe. e.x1ste.d t,...1ff,...e.rto fAS se.prAmte. 1
the region individually and collectively. d1 sfi11Ct e.co11o~ie.s 1 fA110 re.C011sf1 f1Af1110 ff,...e.~
o The CSME is the smallest regional bloc in the fAS fA si11 £e. ~fAr/(e.t fA110 fA si117)'£e. e.C0110~}1' 1
world. 0
i11 ft,...e. SfA~e. se.11se. i11 wt,...ict,... SrArbrAdos1 .flfr
o The CSME is similar to an economic union. e.xrA~p£e. 1 is o11e. 11fAt io11rA£ rrA ft,...e.r ff,...fA11 II
o The CSME is based on the model of the prAri sf,.. e.co11o~ ie.s .
European Union.
o In order for the Caricom single market to exist, Owen Arthur's description of how CS:M was
member states must remove all restrictions to the expected to work
free movement of capital, labour, and goods and
services of Caricom origin.
o A single market for goods has existed in the
Caribbean since 1973, when the Common Market
was created. Antigua and
o Under the Common Market. restrictions remained Bel1ze Jamaica Sa1nt Kitts and Nev1s Barbuda
in place on the right of establishment. the DominiCa
movement of capital and labour, and the provision Saint Luc1a Barbados
Grenada Saint Vincent
of services. and the
Tnmdad , Grenadines
and
Tobago

e
The Caricom Single Market: Th is is an arrangement by
which Caricom countries have agreed to convert their
sepa rate national ma rkets i nto one large single market,
through the removal of all barriers to the free movement of Figure 4.27: The member states of the CSM
regional goods, services, capita l, and labour.
Economic union : An economic union is a common market
with a common currency and the exchange of capital and
labour.
Factors of production : All the resources, such as natural
resou rces, labour, capital , and enterprise, which are
needed to create goods and services.

C.S'-'1~ is rA ft,...ird strA e., it 1s d1.f.fe.re.11 t 111

0
/(111d £1/(e. boi£111 wfAfe.r f1Ar11111Q i11f0 VfAp<'1Ar ,
0
:rt 1s 11ot fA11otke.r step1 1t is fA B1ArA11t1A~ £e.rAp .

Stabroek N ews, 3 August 2005

Owen Arthur, a former prime minister of Barbados, Figure 4.28: The Single market removed barriers to the free
h ad the lead responsibility for the implementation of movement of reg1onal goods and serv1ces, capital , and some
categones of labour.
the CSl\1E .

•
The Caribbean Common Market only permitted
the free movement of goods of Caricom
origin within the region. Restrictions to the
establishment of businesses, the provision of
services, and the movement of capital and labour
still remained. This prevented scarce factors
of production from moving to the countries
where they were needed. This in turn prevented
Caribbean producers from producing their goods
at the best possible prices to enable them to
compete easily in international markets.
Meanwhile, as globalization and trade liberalization
continued to spread, more and more consumers
around the world continued to enjoy a wider variety
of goods that were also cheaper. Inefficient businesses
were forced out of operation because they could no
longer rely on protection in international markets.
Caribbean producers now had to become more
competitive in order to survive and earn enough
foreign currency to enable the region to at least
maintain its level of development. They needed an
organization to help them respond to the challenges
and opportunities of trade liberalization and
globalization.
The Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas
In order to ensure the continued development of
the region, Caricom leaders decided that they had to
transform the Common Market into a single market
and economy in order to prepare the region for the
challenges and opportunities resulting from trade
liberalization and globalization. Consequently, the 1973
Treaty of Chaguaramas was revised in 2001. In the
revised treaty the Caribbean Community and Common
Market was renamed the Caribbean Community
Including the Single Market and Economy (CSME).
Under the provisions of the treaty the existing
Common Market was to become a single market
and economy, which was to be implemented in two
phases. The Single Market (CSM) was implemented
in 2006 in the first phase; the Single Economy
was to be implemented in a second phase in 2008.
However, at the time of writing the Single Economy
has not been established.
The Caricom Single Market (CSM)
We will now discuss the Single Market aspect of
the CSME. 1he Single Economy aspect will be
discussed in Unit 4.9.
The revised treaty stated that the Caricom Single
Market was to be created by member states:
o removing the existing barriers to the trade in
goods and services of Caribbean origin
o allowing Caribbean citizens to move their
financial capital and technology between member
states without any restrictions; this is to enable
the region to develop its capital market to help
finance the region's development
o allowing skilled workers such as university
graduates, media workers, sports persons,
musicians, artists, managers, supervisors, and
service providers such as domestics to live and
work in another member state without a work
permit
o granting Caribbean citizens and existing
Caribbean businesses the right to set up
businesses in any member state without
restrictions; this provision is known as the right of
establishment, and it enables Caribbean citizens
to use their entrepreneurship to contribute to the
economic development of the region
o agreeing on regional standards for the production
of goods throughout the region, to ensure that
they are of acceptable quality; this is to encourage
investor and consumer confidence in regionally
produced goods
o imposing a uniform rate of duty (CET) on
goods imported from countries which are not
members of the CSME; this offers some measure
of protection to regional producers from extra-
regional competition
o pursuing a common regional and international
trade policy.
These measures will have the effect of removing
the existing borders of national markets and thus
creating a large single market known as the Caricom
Single Market (CSM).
The establishment of the Caricom Single Market
and Economy represents the third and final stage
of the economic union of the Caribbean. It also
represents the most challenging stage of the
integration process because it requires participating
member states to make more generous economic
concessions than any previous regional economic
integration strategy.
•

1 What is a Caricom Skills Certificate?
2 What is the procedure for obtaining a Caricom
Skills Certificate?
~ J) J) J) J) J) J) ~ '.J[~
CASE STUDY
From Grenada to Barbados
John and Mary are married. They are Grenadian citizens
and they have two children of school age. John is an
economist and Mary is a qualified nurse. John has been
offered a job by the Caribbean Development Bank in
Barbados. He wUI migrate to Barbados with his family.
Read the case study above and discuss the following
questions in a small group.
1 What rights which are enjoyed by Barbadian
citizens should Mary and her children be given by
the Barbados government?
2 State TWO ways in which an influx of Caricom
nuclear families may affect the social services in
Barbados
3 Can your country accommodate all the qualified
Caricom nationals who wish to live and work there?
Give THREE reasons to support your answer.
4 Would John and Mary prefer to live and work in
Barbados. or in their own country? Give ONE
reason to support your answer..
Chapter Three of the Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas
states that Caricom nationals should be permitted to
establish Caricom-owned businesses in any member
state without restrictions and on the same terms as
national enterprises.
You are the owner of a successful business in St Lucia.
You have been granted permission by the government
of Antigua-Barbuda under Chapter Three of the Revised
Treaty to set up a branch of your business there.
Draft the rnam points you would wish to raise with
the Minister of Caricom Affairs in Antigua-Barbuda
about the concessions which you expect that country
to grant you m order to enable you to set up your
business there.
•
Objectives of the Caricom Single
Market (CSM)
The objectives of the Caricom Single Market (CSM)
are intended to help the region respond to the
challenges and opportunities created by globalization
and trade liberalization.
The objectives of the Caricom Single Market
include:
o increasing trade in regional goods and services
o increasing the output of goods and services
o promoting competition among Caricom firms
o promoting the most efficient use of the region's
resources
o improving the welfare of Caricom citizens.
The heads of government expected that the Single
Market would help regional producers by giving
them more and better opportunities to produce
and sell their goods and services in the region and
by allowing them to benefit from economies of
scale. They also expected that, if market forces were
allowed to determine where the factors of production
were to be utilized, this would result in more efficient
and economical use of the factors.
It was hoped that the achievement of these two
objectives would contribute to competitive production,
and this would in turn lead to increased production
of goods for the regional and extra-regional markets,
and increased foreign-exchange earnings from
exports. Increased production would also lead to full
utilization of the region's factors of production.
If all these objectives were met the end result would
be sustained economic development and an improved
standard of living for the region. The challenge would
be to ensure that the benefits of the Caricom Single
Market were shared fairly among all its citizens.
The regional development fund
It is recognized that membership in the CSM does
create some disadvantages for some member states,
particularly the less developed countries. A regional
development fund has therefore been set up to help
them cushion the negative effects of the CSM on
their economies.

CASE STUDY
Jamaica and the CSME
Figure 4 .29: Edward Seaga casts his vote in an election
Edward Seaga, the former prime minister of Jamaica,
expressed the fear that participation in the CSM
could see Jamaican manufacturers suffering, as other
countries in the region were more price competitive. He
noted that over a 30-year period Jamaica had moved
from being a net exporter to a net importer. with an
ever-widening gap since 1992.
Quick questions
Read the case study above. Imagine you are one of the
Jamaican manufacturers Mr Seaga spoke about. Outline
to Mr Seaga and your fellow Jamaican manufacturers
how competition from regional manufacturers may
have a positive impact on Jamaican manufacturers.
Draw up a list of incentives which your government
should provide to help Jamaican manufacturers to
become more competitive.
4.8 The Cancom Smgle Market (CSM)
O Fre.e. ~ove.~e......t o.f pe.opi.e. is e.sse......tiP.i. to tiA.e.
C.Mic.o~ Si-1-\(}i.e. MP.r)(e.t.
f) B~ i.i~iti .....(} .fre.e.~e.~e. .....t to c.e.rtP.i~
c.fu.sse.s o.f t£.\ribbe.P.-1-\ -1-\P.tio..... P.i.s, ttA.e. Re.v1se.d
lre.P.t'}t o.f C.IA.P.(}1AP.r£\~s e.xc..£1Ade.s ~st o.f t~.<..e
pe.opt'e. wtA.o ~~ wisk to ~i(}rP. te. to P.-1-\0tke.r
~~be.r stP-fe. i...-. se.P.rck o.f e.~p.£'1)~...-.t.
0 The. .fp_i.£1Are. o.f tke. Re.vise.d lre.£\t~ o.f
C.kP.(}1AP.rP.~s to C£\te.r .for tke. P-spirP.tio...-.s
o.f 1A...-.sl(i.£.£e.d worl(e.rs k£\S .£e.d ~.....~ o.f tke.~
to ~i(}rP.te. P....-.d worK ,.£i.e.~P..£.£'}t P.-1-\0 .fP.ce.
co...-.stP....-.t e.xpi.oifP.tid'...-..
Quick questions
Answer the following questions with a partner.
1 The Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas provides for
free movement of goods and services and capital.
but not the free movement of people. Do you agree
with this statement? Say why.
2 Describe TWO forms of exploitation which Caricom
nationals who work illegally in your country face.
3 Give ONE example which suggests that the citizens
of your country are OR are not opposed to the free
movement of people.
4 Give TWO explanations to show why free movement
of people is essential for the Caricom Single Market
to achieve its objectives.
 The Caricom Single Economy (CSE)
KEY IDEAS
o In the Caricom Single Economy, member states
will be required to adopt a common currency and
pursue similar monetary and fiscal policies.
o The difficulties in arriving at common monetary
and fiscal policies for the region are delaying the
implementation of the Caricom Single Economy.
GJdt•IJJii\'1
Fiscal policy: A government's revenue (taxation) and
spending policy.
Monetary policy: Actions by government to control
t he availability of spending money to businesses and
consume rs.
Exchange rate: The price for which the currency of a country
can be exchanged for another country's currency.
The Caricom Single Economy is intended to
complement the Caricom Single Market. It was
planned that the Caricom Single Economy would
have been implemented in 2008.1his would have
been the final stage in the integration process.
The Caricom Single Economy will be created by
member states:
o having corresponding company, property, and
intellectual property laws
o pursuing a common foreign investment policy
o working together in deciding the taxation and
monetary policies they will pursue
o pursuing similar strategies in developing their
industries and small businesses
o using a common currency.
The creation of the Caricom Single Economy
requires that the member states give up their national
currency and use a new common regional currency.
No agreement has been reached on the common
currency: this is one of the factors which is delaying the
implementation of the Caricom Single Economy.
Some governments still think that it may be
necessary for them to pursue their own monetary
and fiscal policies.
Objectives of the Caricom Single
Economy (CSE)
The CSE will create a single financial space involving
all the members of Caricom.The objectives of the
Caricom Single Economy are to have member states:
o pursuing corresponding revenue (taxation) and
spending policies (fiscal policies)
o pursuing corresponding policies to control the
availability of spending money to businesses and
consumers (monetary policies)
o adopting a single currency
o adopting common customs and company laws
o pursuing similar development policies in the
major industries such as agriculture, tourism,
manufacturing, and fisheries.
Divide your class into four groups. Each group
researches reasons to support the region's adoption
of the following common policies. then presents their
argument to the rest of the class.
o Group 1: fiscal policy
o Group 2: monetary policy
o Group 3: development policy
o Group 4: customs and company laws
At present, Caricom citizens are not able to freely
exchange the currency of one member state into the
currency of another member state. Some Caricom
countries still impose foreign-exchange controls.
These are measures whereby their central banks limit
the conversion of national currencies into foreign
currencies.
 Quick questions
1 What are the national currencies in the region? You are a frequent traveller throughout the
2 Construct a table to show the exchange rate for Caribbean. Describe some of the challenges which
the other Caricom currencies in relation to your you experience because the region does not use a
national currency. Write up your observations for single currency.
presentation in class. 2 Outline some of the possible benefits to the region
3 In what currency are your country's manufacturers of using a single currency.
paid for their exports to Caricom countries?
4 Is your country's currency accepted in shops m all
Caricom countries?
5 Is there any limit to the amount of your country's
currency which you can take to another Caricom Handling data
country without official permission?
You have undertaken a research project to find out
6 What is the common currency used in the
whether or not people are satisfied with the pace of
European Union?
development of the Caribbean Community. The size of
your sample was 50.
1 Write a suitable research question for your
project.
2 The data collected for the question "Are you
CASE STUDY satisfied with the pace of development of
Caricom?" is presented below.
Caricom compared with the EU
The Caribbean Community has been established Not sure
since 1973. Recently many people have expressed 20 10 10
disappointment at the apparent slow process of
its development. Pointing to the challenges of 3 How many persons did not respond?
implementing the Single Economy, some also have 4 Comment on the data in the light of the objective
doubts about its ability to survive. On the other hand. of your research.
some feel that it has done well when compared with
the European Economic Union (EU). They claim that
Caricom's pace of development compares favourably
with that of the EU, which today has a membership of
27 countries with a total of 500 million people. It started
in 1958 with six members.

II
 The governing structure of the
4.10 Caribbean Community (Caricom)
under the Revised Treaty
KEY IDEAS
o The Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas contains
some changes to the governing structure of the
Caribbean Community.
o The overall structure of Caricom has remained a
community of sovereign (independent) states.
o Institutions and associate institutions are
non-ministerial organizations which work in
association with Caricom to achieve its
objectives.
The governing structure of Caricom, as illustrated
in Figure 4.29 below, is intended to ensure that
Caricom functions effectively. However, decision
making at the top level of the organization is not
easy because all member states must agree in order
for a decision to be accepted. Even when decisions
are accepted by member states, Caricom lacks the
means of enforcing them.
There have been many calls for improving the way in
which Caricom is governed but Caricom leaders have
been slow in implementing some of the changes that
would help Caricom to function more effectively.
The functions of the Conference of
Heads of Government (the Conference)
Under the Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas, the
Conference of Heads of Government (and its
Bureau) remains the highest organ of the Caribbean
Community. It meets twice per year. Its major
functions include:
o issuing directions to the Community Council of
Ministers, Institutions and Associate Institutions
of the Community about the policies to be pursued
in order to achieve the Community's objectives
o negotiating and signing treaties with countries
and international organizations on behalf of the
Community
o making financial arrangements for meeting the
expenses of the Community; for example, the
regional development fund and funding for the CCJ.
The decisions of the Conference are generally taken
unanimously. A s the name suggests, this body is made
up all the heads of government of the member states.
It is chaired by one of the heads of government and the
chairmanship is rotated among the member states.

The Conference of
Heads of Government

Prime Mm1ste. nal sub-comm1ttees on: l +-----i~Sure~

• external negot1atlons
• Caricom Smgle Market and Economy
• cricket
J I
----
Community Council of memb~

Council for Trade and

nomlc Development ~
Council for Finance and
J Council for Fore1gn and Counc1l for Human and

L Plannmg (COFAP) Community Relat1ons Social Development

(COTE D) (COFCOR) (COHSOD)
--.,....--

Comm1ttee of Central [ Budget Comm~ Legal Affa1rs Com~

Bank Governors

r---
Canbbean Reg1onal
T
.....__.., Caribbean Community (Caricom) Secretariat-,..,.,___ _ _ _ ____J
Negot1atmg Machmery
(CRNM)

Fi gure 4.30 : The govern1ng structure of Caricom (Cancom, our Canbbean Community)
The Conference functions like a quasi-cabinet.
Individual heads of government have been
assigned responsibility/ portfolios for areas such as
services (including information technology and
telecommunications); tourism; the Single Market and
Economy; labour; science and technology; agriculture,
agricultural diversification, and food security; health
and human resource development; air transportation;
community development and cultural cooperation
(including culture, gender, youth, and sport);
security; and sustainable development (including the
environment, disaster management, and water).
Working with a partner:
1 Discuss the pros and cons of the Conference taking
decisions unanimously.
2 Present a case for a Caricom youth parliament.
Which Caricom portfolio does your head of
government hold?
2 Which member states are represented at Caricom
meetings by:
a executive presidents?
b prime ministers?
c a chief minister?
The Bureau of the Conference
The Bureau is a sub-committee of the Conference,
which came into existence in 1992. It functions
as a management committee of Caricom between
meetings of the H eads of Government Conference.
The chairman of the Conference also chairs the
Bureau; it comprises the incoming and outgoing
chairmen of the Conference, and the secretary-
general.
The Community Council of Ministers
(the Council)
The Conference and the Community Council
of Ministers are the two principal organs of the
community. The Council is made up of ministers
who hold the portfolio for community affairs in their
respective member states. The Council is responsible
for coordinating the member states' activities
in the areas of economic integration, functional
cooperation, and external relations.
Ministerial councils
The Conference and the Council are assisted by
four ministerial councils which have replaced the
standing committees of ministers. They are also
known as the other organs of the community:
o The Council for Trade and Economic
D evelopment (COTED) promotes trade and
the economic development of the community,
and oversees the operations of the Caricom
CSME.
o The Council for Foreign and Community
Relations (COFCOR) determines relations
between the Community and international
organizations and "third" states.
o The Council for Human and Social
Development {COHSOD) promotes human
and social development by developing policies in
the areas of health and education, with the aim
of ensuring that Caricom citizens are healthy and
equipped with the knowledge and skills they need
to contribute to the development of the region.
o The Council for Finance and Planning
(COFA P) coordinates economic policy and
the financial and monetary integration of
member states.
CASE STUDY
COHSOD's 12th Special Meeting, 17- 19
March 2008, Guyana
Focus: Children
Theme: Building a region fit for children
Sub-theme: Programming for children affected by
emergencies and climate change
The following issues relevant to children's development
in the context of emergencies were discussed.
o Access to water. nutrition. food. and security
o Sanitation
o Health and security
COHSOD recommended that
o Children should be educated about the realities of
natural disasters and climate change.
o Parents should be educated about the needs of
children in emergencies.
o The impact of climate change and natural disasters
should be included in the school curriculum.
•
 Read the case study above and answer the following
questions.
1 Who is your country's representative on COHSOD?
2 State TWO factors which may have influenced
COHSOD to discuss the impact of natural disasters
and climate change on children of the region.
Discuss with a partner whether you agree with
COHSOD'S recommendations in the case study above.
Say why or why not.
Name Caricom's highest decision-making body and
state TWO of its functions.
2 Identify the ministerial council which deals with
each of the following:
a trade disputes
b education and health
c monetary integration.
-
Handling data
In conducting your SBA you may gather data by
conducting interviews. You should prepare an
interview schedule (questions to be used in the
interview) for your interviews.
You have been assigned to interview your head
of government to find out how successful was the
last Caricom meeting.
1 State why you want to find out about the
success of the meeting.
2 Prepare four questions which you would use at
the interview.
Other bodies of the community
o The Committee of Central Bank G overnors
provides recommendations to COFAP on
monetary and fin ancial matters.
o The L egal Affairs C ommittee provides legal
advice to the other organs and bodies of the
community.
o The Budget Committee examines the draft work
programme and budget of the secretariat and
submits its recommendations to the Community
Council of ·M inisters.
The communi ty also has a number of institutions,
which will be discussed in Unit 4.21.
 Functions of the Caricom secretariat
KEY IDEAS
o The secretariat is the principal administrative
organ of Caricom.
"To provide dynamic leadership and service
in partnership with Community Institutions
and groups, toward the attainment of a viable,
internationally competitive and sustainable
Community, with improved quality of life for all."
Mission statement of the Caricom secretariat
The Caricom secretariat, formerly the
Commonwealth Caribbean regional secretariat, is
located in Georgetown, Guyana. It is headed by a
secretary-general. The secretariat has no power to
enforce decisions of the Conference and this has
proven to be one of the major weaknesses of the
Caribbean Community.
Figure 4 .31: Edwm Carnngton, Cancom 's longest serving
secretary-general
The main functions of the secretariat include:
o initiating or developing proposals for
consideration and decision by the relevant organs
o servicing meetings of the organs and bodies of
the community and taking appropriate follow-up
action on decisions taken
o collecting, storing, and circulating relevant
information to member states
o assisting community organs in the development
and implementation of proposals and
programmes
o mobilizing resources from donor agencies to
assist in the implementation of Caribbean
Community programmes
o assisting member states in implementing
Caribbean Community decisions.
State TWO ways in which the Caricom secretariat
assists member states.
2 Explain ONE way in which the Caricom secretariat
may be strengthened in order to make the
Caribbean Community more effective.
3 Prepare an agenda for a meeting of the conference.
Include THREE items which young people would
like the conference to consider. Explain why each
item is included.
Quick questions
Create a table to show the similarities in the governance
structures of the OECS (see Unit 4.13) and Caricom.
 The West Indies Associated States Council
of Ministers (WISA); the Eastern Caribbean
Common Market; the Organization of Eastern
Caribbean States (OECS); and the Organization
of Eastern Caribbean States Economic Union

KEY IDEAS
o The less developed countries in the Eastern
., '(
e:
Anttgua and
Barbuda
Samt Chnstopher·
Caribbean have formed their own integration group Nevis·Anguilla
because of the similar challenges which they face.
o The integration movement in the less developed
• ~~
countries can be considered a success. •
o There are many similarities between the integration Domimca t
movement in the Eastern Caribbean and that of the
wider Caribbean Community
o The Organization of Eastern Caribbean States
(OECS) is a sub-grouping within the Caribbean
Community with similar objectives and a similar
governing structure.
Satnt Lucia

Grenada
' Satnt Vincent and
t he Grenad tnes

M ter the larger C aribbean islands had gained their

independence from the UK, the Eastern C aribbean
islands felt that until they were able to work out
their own political future, they needed to band
together and look after their common interests and
deal with their common challenges .
The integration movement in the less developed
countries has followed a similar path to that of the
wider C aribbean C ommuni ty.
The West Indies Associated States
Council of Ministers (WISA)
The first step towards integration in the E astern
C aribbean, following the collapse of the W est Indies
Federation, started with the West Indies A ssociated
States Council of Ministers (\tVISA ) in 1966. This
was a political organization established by Antigua-
Barbuda, D ominica, G renada, M ontserrat, St Kitts-
Nevis, St Lucia, and St Vincent and the Grenadines.
The objectives of WISA
The objectives of \tVISA included:
o acting as a caretaker organization for the member
states until they could decide their political fu ture
o sharing the costs of providing certain common
services such as the E ast Caribbean C urrency
Authority and the E astern C aribbean Supreme
Court.
rig ure 4 .32: The member states of WI SA
The Eastern Caribbean Common Market
The second stage in the integration process in the
E astern C aribbean came when the same countries
established the Eastern C aribbean Common
M arket (ECCM) in 1968 to strengthen economic
cooperation between them.
The Organization of Eastern Caribbean
States (OECS)
A fter the members of \tVISA (except M ontserrat)
achieved independence, they agreed to deepen
relations among themselves. They did so
by establishing a new institution called the
Organization ofEastern C aribbean States (O ECS).
o The establishment of OECS was the third
stage in the integration process among the less
developed countries of the E astern C aribbean.
This was done by the Treaty of Basseterre which
was signed in 1981.
o OECS is a community of states similar to C aricom.
o OECS replaced \tVISA and the Eastern
Caribbean C ommon M arket.

-
o OECS became a nine-member organization when
the British Virgin Islands and Anguilla became
associate members in 1984 and 1995 respectively.
Figure 4.33 : The OECS treaty was s1gned 1n Basseterre, cap1tal
c1 ty of the Federation of St K1tts and Nevis
The objectives of the Organization of Eastern
Caribbean States (OECS)
The objectives of the OECS include:
o promoting economic integration among the
member states by increasing and regulating
free trade
o encouraging member states to pursue, as far as
possible, a common policy when dealing with
non-member states; to establish and maintain
wherever possible arrangements for joint overseas
representation
o promoting unity and solidarity among the
member states and defending their sovereignty,
territorial integrity, and independence.
Where are the headquarters of the OECS located?
The OECS Economic Union
The s-«b-re~IO"''l w().S e~~rf(i1'l O"''l t>.j o-«r"''le[j
.f-«l£. o.f
0
opport1A1'lltlJ /).1-ld pro~ise. The eCO"''lO~ic
1-t1'll01'l wifi. e~power O~C.S citi-t;e"''lS b~ ~l<i1'l7t
possibie are().ter .freedo~ o.f 1'11-0Ve~1'lt /).1-ld o':f
eCO"''lO~tt.iC t\CtiO"''l.
Denzil Douglas, OECS chairman and prime minister
of S t Kitts-:'\evis
As a result of globalization and trade liberalization
the OECS countries:
o lost export earnings from bananas and sugar as
a result of the ending of the preferential trade
agreement with European countries
o experienced a reduction in earnings from taxes on
imports since they could no longer use high taxes
to keep out foreign imports
o experienced a slowdown in development, rising
unemployment, and increased poverty.
The Organization of Eastern Caribbean States
Economic Union came into effect on 21 January
2011. It was intended to help the OECS countries
to deal with the challenges and opportunities of
globalization and trade liberalization.
The objectives of the OECS Economic Union
The objectives of the Economic Union are to:
o increase competitiveness among firms
o increase total output of goods and services
o improve the quality oflife of the people of the
member states.
Quick questions
Describe TWO characteristics which the members
of the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States
share.
2 Name TWO members of the Organization of Eastern
Caribbean States.
3 State TWO objectives of the Organization of Eastern
Caribbean States.
4 Identify THREE areas of cooperation among
members of the Organization of Eastern Caribbean
States.
5 State TWO benefits which members of the
Organization of Eastern Caribbean States gain from
sharing overseas representation.
6 State TWO benefits which members of the
Organization of Eastern Cribbean States gain from
participating in Caricom.
Working with a partner. discuss how you would. as
citizens of an OECS country, explain to a citizen of a
more developed Caribbean country why it is necessary
for the Eastern Caribbean States to cooperate among
themselves.
•
 The governing structure of the
Organization of Eastern Caribbean
States (OECS) under the revised
Treaty of Basseterre
KEY IDEA
o The governing structure of the OECS is similar
to that of Caricom.
The organs of the Organization of Eastern
Caribbean States include the Authority of H eads
of Government of Member States, the Council of
l\linisters, the Economic Affairs Council, and the
OECS Commission.
The OECS Authority ofHeads of Government of
M ember States is the highest decision-making body
of the OECS.The Authority:
o is the final authority for the conclusion of treaties
or international agreements on behalf of the
organization
o may establish new organs of the organization as it
deems necessary
o makes recommendations and give directives
to the other organs for the achievement of the
purposes of the organization
o enacts Acts of the organization
o takes decisions for establishing financial
arrangements necessary for meeting the expenses
of the organization.
The Council ofMinisters is responsible to the OECS
Authority. It takes action on any matters referred to it
by the OECS Authority and has the power to make
recommendations to the OECS Authority.
The Economic Affairs Council is made up of
ministers of trade. It is responsible for overseeing the
Economic Union Protocol.
The OECS Commission (formerly the OECS
secretariat) is the principal organ responsible for
the general administration of the OECS. Its main
functions include:
o servicing the meetings of the organs of
the OECS
o taking follow-up action on decisions taken at
meetings of the organs
o monitoring the functioning of the OECS
o making recommendations to the OECS
Authority and the Council of Ministers on the
making of acts and regulations for the OECS
o monitoring the implementation of the acts and
regulations of the OECS.
The OECS Assembly considers and reports to
the OECS Authority on any proposal to enact an
act of the organization and on any other matter
referred to it by the OECS Authority. It also
considers and reports to the Council of Ministers
on any proposal for regulations which has been
referred to it.
There are three Institutions of the Organization:
o the Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court
o the Eastern Caribbean Central Bank
o the Eastern Caribbean Civil Aviation Authority.
Research
Find out the functions of the three institutions listed
above.
 The Association of Caribbean
States (ACS) and CARIFORUM
o Grenada
KEY IDEA o Guatemala
o English-. French-. Dutch- and Spanish-speaking
o Guyana
countries of the Caribbean Basin have made
arrangements to promote regional cooperation o Haiti
and economic partnerships. o Honduras
o Jamaica
o Mexico
o Nicaragua
o Panama
o St Kitts-Nevis
o St Lucia
o St Vincent and the Grenadines
o Suriname
o Trinidad and Tobago
o Venezuela.
Associate membership has been granted to
France on behalf of French Guiana, Guadeloupe
and Martinique. The following other Caribbean
countries and territories are eligible for associate
membership:
o Anguilla
o Bermuda
o the British Virgin Islands
o the Cayman Islands
Figure 4.34: Latm Amenca and the Canbbean o Montserrat
o Puerto Rico
The Association of Caribbean States o Turks and Caicos Islands
The Association of Caribbean States (ACS) is a o the United States Virgin Islands.
grouping of Caribbean and Latin American States. The objectives of the Association of Caribbean
It was established by a treaty signed in Cartagena de States are to promote economic integration and
Indias, Columbia, on 24 July 1994. Full membership functional cooperation among the states, countries,
has been granted to 25 Caribbean and Latin and territories of the Caribbean Basin.
American States:
o Antigua-Barbuda
o the Bahamas Where are the headquarters of the Association of
o Barbados Caribbean States (ACS) located?
o Belize
o Columbia
o Costa Rica CARIFORUM
o Cuba
o Dominica CARIFORUM is an association which was
o the Dominican Republic established in 1992 between the Caribbean
o El Salvador Community countries and the Dominican Republic
 and Cuba. Its purpose was to negotiate the
Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA) with the
European Union (EU).
Economic partnership agreements are development
friendly, non-reciprocal trade agreements between the
European Union, its member states and the African,
Caribbean, and Pacific countries. They provide:
o duty- and quota-free access to EU markets
o long transition periods for developing countries
to open up their markets to EU exports
o safeguards that allow countries to protect vital
products.
The E conomic Partnership Agreement (EPA)
with the European Union (EU) is intended to
give Caricom countries time to adjust to the new
free trade system. The EPA between the EU and
CARJFORU.l\rl countries was signed in 2008. Cuba
did not sign the agreement.
Research
Find out:
a the population of Cuba and the Dominican Republic
b what similarities Cuba and the Dominican Republic
have with Caricom countries
c how Cancom countries may benefit from closer
cooperation with Cuba and the Dominican Republic.
Discuss the following question in a small group.
Should Cuba and the Dominican Republic be
admitted to membership of Caricom?
•
As a class. research and plan an exhibition on regional
integration in the Caribbean. involving some or all of
the following:
a a timeline to show the stages of the Caribbean
integration movement
b a photographic display covering the following
topics:
• the West Indies Federation
CARIFTA
• the Caribbean Community and Common Market
• the Caribbean Community, including the Single
Market and Economy
• the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States.
Several small groups could each be responsible for
identifying photographs for one of the topics
c a PowerPoint presentation entitled "Regional
Integration in the Caribbean - from Federation to
the Caribbean Single Market and Economy"
d a quiz to promote information about regional
integration in the Caribbean. This could be used in
a regional schools competition.
Several small groups could each create five questions
on one stage of regional integration in the Caribbean.
Write an essay on CARIFORUM. using the following
structure.
1 Define the term "economic partnership agreement"
and name two non-Caricom countries which are
members of CARIFORUM.
2 Outline TWO ways in which the CARIFORUM
countnes may benefit from the economic
partnership agreement with the European Union.
3 Suggest THREE strategies which Caricom countnes
may use for strengthening cooperation with the
non-Caricom countries which are members of
CARIFORUM. Explain how the strategies will
strengthen relationships .
 Regional factors that promote
4.15 integration
KEY IDEAS
o Regional integration will help the Caribbean to
deal with the challenges facing it.
o Regional integration is critical for the Caribbean's
survival and development.
o The challenges facing the region cannot be solved
by Caribbean countries working independently of
each other.
o Developments which are taking place in the
world suggest that the Caribbean countries must
cooperate or they will be left behind.
Working with a partner. answer the following questions:
1 List the reasons given for regional integration in the
statements above.
2 Which of the statements above in your opinion best
sums up the reason(s) for Caribbean integration?
The editorial of a regional newspaper summed up
the need for regional integration as follows:
Of all the regions of the world the
Caribbean faces the greatest difficulty by
ignoring integration. The relative poverty
of the area, the lack of natural resources,
except in Trinidad and Tobago, the
undeveloped state of several aspects of our
economies, and our very limited market size
combine to represent serious impediments
for us in a fully liberalized world .
Weekend Nation, Barbados, 7 January 2005
The Caribbean countries have some common
experiences, challenges, and aspirations which should
assist them in working together for the benefit of
the region. Regional factors promoting integration
are as follows:
o Common cultural heritage: The Caribbean
people share a common geographical area and
a common historical and cultural heritage
which has been influenced by a long period of
colonization.
It is widely felt that the shared culture (history,
language, values, hopes, and aspirations) of the
people should create a feeling of oneness and
influence them to cooperate for the benefit of
each other.
o The need to pool national markets to overcome
the restrictions oflimited market size: As
seen in Unit 4.2, the small size of the individual
national markets is a disadvantage to Caribbean
producers, mainly because it does not allow them
to produce in quantities that would enable them
to achieve economies of scale. It is essential for
Caribbean producers to achieve economies of
scale in order to be able to compete at home and
in international markets.
Integration will create a large common market
of 14 million people if all the Caricom members
participate in the process. This would help
Caricom producers to produce at a level of
efficiency that would enable them to overcome
the restrictions of the limited size of individual
national markets.
o The need to increase intra-regional trade and
reduce extra-regional imports: One of the
challenges facing the region is its high import bill.
Full economic integration would result in the
elimination of the barriers to intra-regional trade
in regionally produced goods and services. This
would lead to an increase in the volume of intra-
regional trade and greater mutual dependence
among Caricom countries, while reducing extra-
regional imports.
o The need to improve the standard ofliving:
The region has a high level of poverty and
unemployment. The removal ofbarriers to
intra-regional trade will increase the demand
for regional goods and services. This increase
in demand will in turn lead to an increase in
production and variety of regional goods and
services, and also increased employment and
earnings; together, these improvements would
result in an increased standard ofliving.
o Vulnerability to natural disasters: The
region's vulnerability to natural disasters such
 as earthquakes, hurricanes, and floods should
"Caribbean unity is not an end in itself. It is merely
help to foster greater cooperation among the
a way of achieving sustainable economic and social
Caribbean islands. As neighbours they are progress and improvement in the living conditions
expected to provide help to the affected country of our people. If anyone knows another way to
because it would be unable to recover from the achieve this goal other than through Caribbean
disaster alone. unity, I would like to hear it."
o The need to pool natural resources: Most Erskine Sandiford, at the 11th meeting of the HOG
Caribbean countries do not have enough Conference, Kingston, Jamaica
exploitable natural resources to generate sustained
economic growth on their own. Therefore
they need to pool natural resources. Regional
integration would make the resources of one
member state available for exploitation by other
member states and should result in increased
output of goods for the region.
Under the Jagdeo initiative Guyana offered
large tracts of land to Caricom nationals for
agricultural production in order to produce food
to increase the region's food security.
o Poverty and the need for functional
cooperation: The cost of providing services such
as university education by individual countries
is too high. 1he region is too poor to have the
wasteful duplication of some services on a
single-country basis. Integration would enable
the countries to pool financial resources and
share services in the area of human and social
development. Common services will save money
and make better use of scarce trained personnel.
o Shortage of skills: Most Caribbean countries
have suffered from the effects of brain drain.
Integration will enable the region to create a pool
of highly skilled workers that can move freely to rigure 4 .35: Ersk ine Sand iford . prime mmi ster of Barbados
the countries where they are needed. 1987-94

If we fai l to integrate our common Quick questions

economic strengths we run a very serious
risk of being marginalized.
Weekend Nation , 7 November 2005
The economic and social fate of the region
depends on all moving to the same beat and
singing from the same hymn sheet.
Sunday Sun, 27 February 2002
State TWO factors other than cultural heritage
which may facilitate regional integration.
2 Identify ONE example of cooperation involving the
region's cultural heritage.
3 Identify TWO factors which have had a negative
effect on the prosperity of the region.
4 Explain how the factors which you have mentioned
have worked to retard the prosperity of the region.
5 Give TWO reasons why the region needs to improve
its prosperity.
6 Suggest THREE strategies which Caribbean citizens
may use to help improve the prosperity of the
region. Justify each strategy.

•
 Extra-regional factors that promote
integration
KEY IDEAS
o The trend around the world has been for
countries to form trade blocs.
o Some countries are members of more than one
trade bloc.
o Trade blocs tend to deal with other trade blocs
rather than individual countries.
o Developments in the world economy make it
difficult for the Caribbean to ignore integration.
\Did«•ttttil'l
Trade bloc: A group of countries trading among themselves.
There are certain global developments which should
encourage the Caribbean countries to integrate.
These factors include the following.
o The growth of trade blocs: The world is
witnessing the development of very large trade
blocs . There is the tendency for trade blocs to deal
with groups of countries rather than individual
countries because it saves time. For example, the
European Union was to some extent responsible
for the creation ofCARIFORUM.
In addition, competition from existing and
emerging trade blocs for markets makes it
necessary for Caribbean countries to integrate in
order to negotiate for certain benefits as they seek
to adjust to the effects of globalization and trade
liberalization.
o The effects of globalization: G lobalization
and trade liberalization have helped to create a
more competitive world environment. Regional
businesses are now faced with increased
competition at home and abroad . The Caribbean
has to develop large, efficient, and competitive
businesses to deal with the competition from
large international businesses. To do this, national
markets need to be pooled and businesses need to
be able to mobilize regional capital. Integration
would facilitate this by creating one large market
and also enabling the creation of regional joint
ventures, or the amalgamation of regional
businesses, and also allowing regional investors
to raise capital in any member state.
o The need to negotiate with the rest of the
world as a group: The maxim "there is strength
in numbers" suggests that the Caribbean
countries should integrate, in order to deal
with international organizations and developed
countries which sometimes appear insensitive to
their needs. In the area of international diplomacy
it is necessary for the Caribbean countries to
speak as a group because individually their small
size makes them insignificant and unable to
influence decisions. A s a group speaking with
one voice, they are better able to represent their
interests and concerns to the rest of the world.
Operating as a group would also give the region
greater bargaining power in conducting trade
negotiations with other countries.
o Vulnerability to economic shocks which
originate from outside the region: The Caribbean
countries are not insulated from the economic
ch anges occurring in the rest of the world.
International recessions have a negative effect on
the Caribbean as a result of its dependence on
the rest of the world for trade and tourism. The
Caribbean needs to develop the regional tourism
market and increase regional trade to reduce its
dependence on foreign markets.
Fi-fte.e.-1-t CO'tA-1-ttrie.s1
0-1-te. voice.
Define the term "trade bloc".
2 Name ONE trade bloc to which Caribbean countries
belong.
3 Give TWO explanations to show how the growth of
trade blocs may influence Caribbean countries to
integrate.
4 State TWO benefits which the Caribbean receives
from the Economic Partnership Agreement with the
European Union.
5 Explain to Caribbean leaders why they should
speak with one voice at meetings with international
organizations.
•
 Factors that hinder regional
integration: governance issues
KEY IDEAS
o There are too many factors preventing regional
integration from achieving its objectives.
o The way in which Caricom is governed is a major
hindrance to regional integration.
o Regional integration is proving to be a challenge
for a group of countries that traditionally have not
worked together.
o There is too much conflict in the regional
integration movement.
o In some countries, both governments and citizens
are showing opposition to regional integration.
o There are limited opportunities for the masses to
participate in the integration process.
"We need a governance structure which
ensures that the decisions of Caricom are binding
upon its members and are implemented in the
respective countries."
Owen Arthur. in Caricom: Our Caribbean Community
have a body to enforce decisions made at Heads
of Government conferences and there are no
sanctions for those which do not implement them.
o The Caribbean Community is a community of
sovereign states and each state is therefore free
to decide if and when it will implement Caricom
decisions. Caricom member states appear
unwilling to give up any of their sovereignty to
promote regional integration.
o The OECS assembly, on the other hand, can
make acts and regulations for the 0 ECS.
o Caricom's decision-making process is based on
the unanimity rule. This means that all states
must agree on decisions before they can be
accepted. This rule allows some member states to
block important decisions for the strengthening
of the Community.
"Ever so welcome: wait for a call."
David Thompson, former prime minister of Barbados. to
aspiring Guyanese migrants to Barbados. 2009

Caribbean citizens look to their governments

for guidance on a variety of issues. Therefore the Hesitancy of some countries to support
governments have to be careful about the messages regional institutions
they are sending to their citizens, by their actions
or lack of action with regard to regional integration.
Some Caribbean governments have not been doing
enough to give Caribbean citizens the impression
that they are serious about regional integration.
Instead of the region becoming more united, some
governments and citizens continue to place their
national interests before Caricom's.
Consequently some Caribbean citizens do not attach
much importance to regional integration and Caricom
has failed to achieve the intended level of success.

The way Caricom is governed

The weakness in the way in which Caricom is
governed, and the Conference's reluctance to improve
it, are two of the main hindrances to regional
integration. Governance issues include the following:
o The Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas is treated as
law in all Caricom countries. They are bound by
its terms which are enforced by the Caribbean
Court of]ustice. Unfortunately, Caricom does not
Figure 4.36: Hesitancy is a problem
Some regional governments seem hesitant about
supporting certain Caricom institutions. This
hesitancy weakens rather than strengthens integration.
The Caribbean Court of]u.stice (CCJ) is a good
example. Jamaica at one stage was reported to be
considering establishing its own court of appeal to

•
replace the London-based Privy Council. Since the
2011 elections the Jamaican government has been in
favour of the country adopting the CCJ as its final
court of appeal. The CCJ is headquartered in the
Port of Spain.
In April2012 the Trinidad and Tobago government
announced its intention to use the CCJ as its final
court of appeal in a limited way - for criminal matters
only. The Privy Council would continue to hear
appeals in civil and constitutional matters. Up to July
2011, only 3 of the 15 member states had adopted the
CCJ as their final court of appeal.
The Bahamas has chosen not to be a member of
either the Common Market or the Single Market
and Economy.
Conflict between national and regional
interests
Some Caricom countries have been forced by
international and domestic economic crises to
place their national interests before Caricom's.
This has created conflict between what some
countries do and what membership in Caricom
requires them to do. For example, the free
movement of labour is essential to the integration
movement, yet some governments and citizens
have not fully supported it for fear that regional
immigrants would take jobs that should go to
nationals and thus increase unemployment in their
countries. In addition, immigrants, particularly
the illegal ones, are seen as benefiting from social
services to which they have not contributed and at
Figu re 4.37 : Natrona! vs regronal rnterests
the same time are seen to be creating a strain on
these services.
Some Caricom citizens face obstacles when they are
entering some countries. For example, Jamaicans
need visas to visit the Caricom associate member
states Anguilla and the Cayman Islands.
State TWO reasons why a Caricom country may not
implement a Caricom decision.
2 Suggest TWO measures which could be used to
help a county which may be negatively affected by
implementing a Caricom decision.
3 List THREE factors which hinder freedom of
movement within the region.
4 Outline TWO strategies that regional governments
may use to promote freedom of movement within
the region.
5 Give THREE explanations why some Caribbean
countries may not support the freedom of
movement of people in the region.
6 Suggest TWO changes that would improve the
way Caricom is governed. in order to make it more
effective in promoting regional integration. Explain
why the suggested changes are necessary
Does Mr Thompson's statement on the previous
page suggest that his government supported
freedom of movement?
2 Discuss the following statement with a partner.
Impediments to problem-free intra-regional
travel could undermine the objectives which
the CSM sets out to achieve.
 CASE STUDY
"Caribbean severs link to Privy Council"
Eleven island states in the West Indies yesterday formally
ratified an agreement scrapping the Privy Council's role as
a final court of appeal. severing a judicial link with Britain
that had survived for 170 years.
Signatories to the agreement were Guyana, Barbados,
Antigua-Barbuda. Belize. Dominica. Grenada. Jamaica.
Trinidad and Tobago, St Lucia and St Kitts-Nevis.
Suriname also signed on to use the new court of justice
because it is a member of the Caribbean Community trade
bloc. though as a former Dutch colony it never sent cases
to the Privy Council.
Read the case study above. then answer the following
questions.
1 Does your country use the Caribbean Court of
Justice as its final court of appeal?
2 Find out some of the reasons which countries give
for not using the Caribbean Court of Justice as their
final court of appeal.
3 What measures have been put in place to ensure
that the Caribbean Court of Justice remains an
independent court?
N
Figure 4.38: The Canbbean Court of Justice logo at its
headquarters 1n Port of Spam
•
Before the court is established. at least three member
countries have to ratify the agreement at their annual summit
in July, and governments will have to deposit five years
of dues in a special trust fund. It is unlikely to sit before
early 2003. It is expected to be based in Trinidad. Several
governments need to amend their constitutions. and some
will have to hold referendums to get the change approved.
Once convened, the court will hear everything from trade
disputes to regular criminal and civil cases.
Guyana. Barbados. Jamaica. and Trinidad and Tobago
have already said they will ratify the court.
Owen Bowcott, The Guardian, London, 15 February 2001
Handling data
1 State one reason why a researcher may want to
investigate the following topic.
Free movement of people in Caricom
2 State ONE objective you would like to achieve
if you were investigating this topic. Begin your
answer with the following words:
o "The aim of this study is ... " or
o "This study will ... "
3 Write a topic for your research in the form of a
question .
4 Identify the population from which you would
choose your sample to get information on the
topic.
5 Describe a measure you would use to choose
your sample in order to ensure that everyone
gets an equal chance of being chosen.
6 Identify TWO possible research instruments
you may use to obtain information on the topic.
7 Identify TWO ways in which you could display
the information you have collected.
 Other factors hindering integration
KEY IDEAS
o The benefits of integration have not been
shared fairly.
o The masses are excluded from participating in
regional integration directly.
o Caribbean businesses depend on the extra-
regional market more than the regional market.
o There is a lack of awareness among some
Caribbean citizens of the regional integration
process and its objectives.
o The geography of the region presents challenges
for integration.
o Lack of unity: The Caribbean islands are
, ~C01'l0111..1C 11'lfe3n:».tro1'l sc.J...I.e111.-es t:~.re 111..0st
e.f.fectrve whe-'1-l ~rtici~fi1'l(t .flr111..s v.-1'll!
'1'lt:l.fr01'lt:l..f eC01'l0111..ies s1A.f.fer 111..t:1.jor .foss o.f
pro.flt s £1.1'\0 1'lt:l.f 101'\V..f ecD1'lOttl.rC we.f.ft:~.re .frDtt~.
"J'lOt ~d rcrpv.tr"J'la, 1'1-l prod1Ac tio1'l to 111.-eet
Y'e.o-101'\LI..f Oe111..t;\1'l0 OY' r'r'0111.. ber"J'l(t 1A'1'lrespo'1'lSIVe to
re[tl0'1'lt:l..f i"J'litrt:~.trves .
Owen Arthur, 30th Caricom lecture, 2004
In order for integration to work the benefits must be
o Lack of a single currency: The many currencies
shared as evenly as possible among the member states,
and Caribbean citizens must be given the opportunity
to be involved in the process. There is very strong
evidence that the benefits of integration have not
been shared fairly. The more developed countries have
certain advantages which enable them to reap greater
benefits. Only certain groups of citizens are allowed
freedom of movement. This excludes the masses, who
therefore lack interest in Caricom because they think
it does not benefit them directly.
Some of the other factors which hinder regional
integration include the following:
o The region's dependence on extra-regional
markets: All the region's major industries have
traditionally concentrated on supplying the extra-
regional, rather than the regional or domestic,
market. Consequently many Caribbean firms
have not been depending on their domestic or
regional market for their survival. Caribbean
countries produce similar products and this
has also hindered the development of trading
relationships among them.
In the 30th Caricom lecture delivered in 2004,
prime minister of Barbados Owen Arthur
stated that only a tiny fraction of our societies'
economic activities depend upon the regional
market. In Jamaica it was estimated to be
1.8 per cent; in Trinidad and Tobago 7.4 per cent;
and in Barbados 9.1 per cent.
separated by the Caribbean Sea and by long
distances. They were colonized and kept separate
by Britain. As a result, there is not a strong feeling
of oneness among many Caribbean people and
this has hindered attempts at regional integration.
In addition, the absence of a regional airline
and intra-regional ferries has helped to hinder
regional integration by limiting people-to-
people contact. The separation of the Caribbean
countries has in some cases made travel and
the movement of goods and services difficult,
expensive, and time consuming.
in use throughout the region present challenges
for Caribbean travellers and traders.
0
~ve.T"J'le f..\.v.s V.'1'l idev. w"'-t:~.t it rs b1At )('1-lOWS
'1-lOff..\.i"J'l(t. v.bo1Af if .... The S1ACUSS o.f ec01'l0111..iC
i'1'lfe~mtio'1'l i"J'l tf..\.e C..t:~.nbbev-'1-l depe1'lOS 0'1-l tf..\.e
opporf1A'1'lities wf..\.rctA. peop.fe f..\.LI.ve to ~rtici~te i'1'l
tf..\.e process.
Cecil Pilgrim, retired Guyanese diplomat
0
FreedOttl. o.f peop.fe1 '1-lOt O"J'l.flJ 111..Ll.Y')(ets.
Adapted from the Daily Natton, Barbados, 5 June 2003
•
 o Limited opportunities for the masses to
participate: The opportunities to participate
in the integration movement are limited to a
few- those skilled citizens and self-employed
individuals who are free to live and work in
any Caricom member state. The masses in the
Caribbean therefore do not regard regional
integration as an essential part of their lives.
There is also a lack of knowledge among some
Caribbean citizens about the integration
movement. This too, no doubt, has affected their
willingness to participate in it.
Caribbean citizens do not have the same instant
access to information on developments taking
place in the region as they do to information
about developments in the rest of the world.
o Unequal distribution of resources: The unequal
distribution of resources among Caricom
countries makes those countries with very limited
resources unwilling to participate in regional
integration because the countries with more
resources can produce and sell more to them .
The countries with more resources are seen as
benefitting at the expense of those with limited
resources.
o Differences in stages of growth and
development: The more developed Caribbean
countries have more factories and a more highly
trained labour force, and are therefore in a better
position to increase their share of intra-regional
exports. They also enjoy greater financial and
other benefits as a result. This has led the less
developed countries to be concerned that the
MDCs will become richer at their expense. They
are consequently unwilling to participate in the
integration movement without certain guarantees
that they will be helped by the MDCs in order to
become more developed.
Figure 4.38 shows Caricom trade statistics before the
establishment of the Caricom Single Market, and
provides the evidence for the LDCs' concerns.
Which Caricom country is the leading investor in
your country?
2 Give TWO reasons why this country has become a
major investor in your country
Bel1ze 1% Bel1ze 1% Sunname 1%
Figure 4.39a: Car1com's Figure 4 .39b : Caricom's
intra- regional exports: share
intra-regional exports:
share by count ry, 1973-81 by country. 1981-2001
Handling data
Use Figure 4.39 to help you answer questions 1-3.
1 Name the country which had the largest
share of intra-regional exports between 1973
and 1981.
2 State TWO factors which would have enabled
that country to have the largest share of intra-
regional exports.
3 Name TWO countries whose share of intra-
regional exports declined between 1981
and 2001 .
4 State ONE benefit which Caricom countries gain
from exporting goods to extra-regional markets.
5 Suggest THREE measures which the more
developed Caricom countries may use to
help the less developed Caricom countries to
increase their share of intra-regional exports.
Explain why the measures may be successful.
CASE STUDY
Jamaican's awareness of Caricom
In April 2011 200 people- 100 males and 100 females
- were surveyed by the anthropologist Dr Herbert
Gayle at the University of the West Indies in Jamaica.
Of those. 48 (24%) felt that Jamaica benefits "a bit" from
Caricom while 31 {16%) felt that the island loses from
being a part of Caricom; 74 (37%) admitted to knowing
nothing about Caricom. The majority of those admitting
to knowing nothing about Caricom were women - 45%
compared to 29% of the males.
Jamaica Observer, 5 June 2011

-

Read the case study above, then answer the following
questions.
1 State a possible reason for the above survey.
2 Describe the sample used.
3 Identify the research instrument used in this survey.
4 Write ONE question for a questionnaire that could
be used to obtain data on the topic.
5 Display the information in the above study in a bar
chart.
6 State TWO findings of the survey.
7 Suggest TWO recommendations based
on the findings of the survey. Justify your
recommendations.
8 Identify TWO sources other than the sample the
researcher may have used to obtain information on
the topic.
Discuss the following statements in a small group.
1 Integration has not become an integral part of the
daily lives of many Caribbean citizens.
2 Regional leaders must pay more attention to the
involvement of Caribbean Citizens in the integration
movement.
Select four students to represent the four heads
of government who initiated plans for regional
integration (the "founding fathers" of regional
integration). Each head of government will:
a outline their reasons for proposing regional
integration
b outline their contribution to regional integration
c express their views on the progress of regional
integration.
2 Select a group of students to represent current
Caricom heads of government. They will respond to
issues raised by the "founding fathers" by:
a outlining what progress has been made since
1991
b outlining some of the challenges they have had
to deal with in the integration movement
c express their opinions on whether the
objectives of the regional integration movement
are too ambitious.
4.18 Otl'f'f factors hmcter~ng mtegrat10r.
CASE STUDY
A problem of resources
There is an unequal distribution of resources in the
region and some countries have refused to share
their natural resources with other member states. For
example, the revised Caricom treaty does not contain
provisions for sharing marine resources. Trinidad and
Tobago and Barbados have been unable to negotiate
a joint fishing agreement for Barbadian fishermen to
fish in Tobago's waters. Barbados fishermen caught
fishing off Tobago are arrested by Trinidad and
Tobago coastguards and charged for illegally fishing in
Trinidad and Tobago waters.
Read the case study above and discuss the following
questions in a small group.
1 How might Barbadian fishermen be allowed to
exploit Trinidad and Tobago marine resources to
the mutual benefit of both countries?
2 How is the situation described likely to affect
relations between the two countries if it remains
unresolved?
Simulate a meeting of the leaders of the LDCs and the
MDCs to discuss some of the concerns which the LDCs
have with regional integration.
a The group representing the LDCs will present
concerns about:
the trade imbalance between LDCs and MDCs
ii the shortage of skilled workers
iii the negative effects of free movement on their
economies.
The group will also outline the kinds of help they
would need from the MDCs to deal with the challenges
outlined above.
b The group representing the MDCs will try to
persuade the LDCs' leaders to remain in the
integration movement by making positive responses
to their concerns and proposals.
•
 The benefits of regional integration
Benefits to citizens
KEY IDEAS
Regional integration is intended to improve the
o Regional integration offers many potential
benefits to Caribbean citizens, businesses. and welfare of Caribbean citizens. It is intended to
countries. individually and collectively. enable Caribbean citizens to enjoy the following.
o The full benefits of regional integration can only
o Increased employment opportunities: The
be realized when there is full cooperation among
categories of skilled people who are allowed to
all the member states.
o The benefits of regional integration are both migrate and live and work in any member state
tangible and intangible. without a work permit will benefit from increased
o It is the Caribbean people who have to make employment opportunities in the countries
regional integration work. where their skills are in demand. In some cases
these people may be moving to a country with a
higher standard of living and higher rates of pay.
Regional integration is intended to bring many
This would also enable them to enjoy a higher
benefits to the region. After 38 years many are still
standard of living. Under the Revised Treaty of
questioning whether regional integration has worked
Chaguaramas these people are to be given the
because they have not seen the level of benefits that
same benefits and rights as national workers.
were promised.
Furthermore, some Caribbean governmen ts continue
to pay lip service to regional integration. Some
Caribbean governments continue to focus on their
individual countries in much the same way as they
did before the regional integration movement
started. This has not allowed the region to benefit
from regional integration to the extent that was
intended.
In 1989 Guyana's President Desmond Hoyte warned
that individual nations were unlikely to survive in
isolation, and one former prime minister has recently
summed up regional integration in this way:

Ct\nco~ n~k t ~ow, ,.f JtO'U fp.J(e P-~

P.Ssess~~t o:f- i-1 1 is P. .fP-,'t1An. :r.t 1-\.p.s ~o
SJ~ £.e eCO~O~(r1 !Nk1CI-\. WP.S f"'-e ~i"'l'l pfp.(r 1 1f 1-\.P.S
0
~0 SJ~ £.e .fonJ~~ pofiC]t 1 1f MS ~0 SJ~ £.e p.jy-
0 0
frp.~sporf
0
pol'c(r 1 ,.,_ ~s ~o s,~ t.e. c01Art
o.f P-ppe.P.£. 1 ,f does~'t eve~ 1-\.P.ve. P. si~~ie.
proced1Ate .for fke .fre.edo~ o.f ~e~~1- b7r
~e.~be.rs o.f t"'-e. C.t.lrico~'~- C.o~~'~-1A~it(r 1 t.l~d It
C.P.~ 't eve~ .fi~d so~o~e to r1A~ tt.
Edward Seaga, former prime minister ofJamaica, on a
Jamaican radio station, July 2011

Figure 4.40: Movmg house: freedom of movement throughout

the regton is one benefit of regional mtegrat1on

•
o Free movement of capital: Citizens will be able
to transfer money to any member state without
having to obtain permission. The freedom to
move their capital to any part of the region will
allow citizens to take advantage of investment
opportunities in any member state. For example,
they will be able to buy shares in any businesses
throughout the region which offer shares to the
public. This would enable them to invest in those
businesses which offer the highest rates of return
and also enable them to spread the risk of investing
among several businesses in different countries.
o Consumer benefits: Consumers are expected to
have access to a greater output, variety, and better
quality of regionally produced goods and services.
This will come about as a result of free trade, the
increased number of regional businesses and the
increased competition among them. The creation
of the single market provides a large enough
market to encourage Caribbean producers to
produce larger quantities at lower prices than
before. These lower prices are expected to be
passed on to consumers in the region. The lower
production costs, together with the removal of
import duties from regionally produced goods,
will result in consumers getting cheaper goods.
The fact that goods in the region will be produced
according to agreed common standards will result
in consumers getting better-quality goods.
o Unrestricted travel: Travel in the region is
expected to become much easier for Caricom
citizens. Unrestricted travel means that Caricom
citizens should be able to travel to and within
any member state without any hindrances. This
will result from the use of Caricom passports,
which will make it easier to identify Caricom
citizens, and the introduction of Caricom
citizens' lines at regional airports. The use of
common embarkation and disembarkation cards
(immigration forms) at ports of entry will help to
make travel more straightforward.
o Sense of community: Regional integration is
intended to develop a greater sense of community
among Caricom citizens. They are being
encouraged to see themselves as kith and kin
(family and friends). In times of natural or any
other disasters Caricom citizens can therefore
look forward to receiving relief from their
regional neighbours.
o Access to common services: The provision of
common services through the sharing of costs
by Caricom governments will enable citizens
to benefit from some important services which
their respective governments may not have been
able to provide alone. A good example of this is
access to university education at the University
of the West Indies, which is an associate
institution of Caricom.The opportunity to write
examinations set by a regional examining body,
the Caribbean Examinations Council, is another
example of how Caricom citizens benefit from
common services.
Figure 4.41: Access to higher education at the UWI IS another
benef1t for all Caricom cit1zens
Creative writing
Create a billboard to highlight THREE benefits of
regional integration to Caribbean citizens.
Benefits to businesses
Regional integration is intended to create the
necessary conditions for businesses to produce
goods and services efficiently and competitively
for both the regional and international markets.
This is vital for the survival of Caricom businesses
because many of them are unable sell their goods in
international markets because they cannot compete
with the cheaper goods produced by more efficient
producers in other parts of the world. Regional
integration gives Caricom businesses the following
advantages.
 o Access to a larger regional market: Regional
integration has given Caribbean businesses
access to a larger regional market for their goods
as a result of the removal of the barriers to
intra-regional trade and the pooling of national
markets. The regional market, including Haiti, is
estimated to be 14 million people. A market of
this size would be a factor in helping Caribbean
producers to achieve economies of scale and so
produce their goods at a lower cost that would
enable them to improve their competitiveness
both in the region and in international markets.
o Access to the resources of other member states:
Caribbean producers now have access to the
resources of other member states. The Revised
Treaty of Chaguaramas, which allows for the free
movement of capital within the region, enables
Caribbean producers to raise capital from a wider
regional market for starting up or for expanding
their businesses. They can also access a greater
pool of skilled labour as skilled labour is also
allowed to move freely to areas in the region
where it is needed.
o Protection by the common external tariff
(CET): The imposition ofCaricom's CET
serves to make foreign imports more expensive.
This to some extent gives Caribbean producers
who would have had difficulty matching the
foreign producers' lower prices a chance to
compete with them in the regional market.
o Right of establishment: Caribbean business
people can move their existing business to, or
establish a new business in, any member state
and enjoy the same privileges as any national
producer. The right of establishment will enable
Caribbean business people to open businesses in
those countries which offer the most potential
for success and the highest profits. This may
include the availability of the skills required, a
more developed infrastructure, the availability of
raw materials, and lower costs of operating the
business. This will also create the opportunity for
national businesses to become regional businesses.
Research
Identify at least THREE regional businesses that
operate in your country.
-
Benefits to countries/the region
Caribbean countries have many challenges which are
difficult for them to deal with individually. Caribbean
countries have limited financial resources. The cost of
governing Caribbean countries is high. It has been
difficult for some countries to improve the welfare
of their citizens separately. Regional cooperation is
expected to benefit Caribbean countries in several
ways. These include the following.
o Reduced cost of government: Functional
cooperation has enabled Caribbean countries
both in the OECS and Caricom to provide
several important services which they would
not have been able to provide individually. For
example, the OECS sh are a common appeal court
and central bank. Sharing the costs of providing
these services has helped them to reduce the cost
of governing their respective countries.
o Increased trade: Caribbean countries have
experienced an increase in trade with their regional
partners as a result of the removal of the barriers to
intra-regional trade. This increase in intra-regional
trade has helped to reduce unemployment and
poverty and improve the welfare of citizens. It has
also helped countries to become more efficient and
sell more goods in the international markets.
o Closer-knit region: Regional integration has
helped to create a closer-knit region. This has
resulted from an increase in mutual dependence
among Caricom countries and from the concern
and support shown for each other, particularly
during times of natural disasters. As a result of
the regional communications links that have been
developed, Caricom citizens are able to travel and
interact with each other more, and to discuss or
follow events in neighbouring countries.
o Increased bargaining power: Regional
integration has enabled Caricom countries to
increase their bargaining power to negotiate with
non-Caricom cou ntries. The Caricom Office of
Trade Negotiations was established to handle
all of Caricom's external trade negotiations.
The Economic Partnership Agreement with
the European Union was negotiated by
this organization. Caricom countries have
sometimes been able to gain greater respect
from international organ izations because they
often speak with one voice as a result of pursuing
common trade and foreign policies.

Discuss the following statement with a partner. Do you
agree with it?
Caricom has not brought the intended benefits to
th e r egion.
Quick questions
State TWO ways in which you benefit from regional
integration.
2 Outline TWO measures which Caricom governments
may use to allow more citizens to benefit from
regional integration.
3 Suggest TWO strategies which your school may use
to promote interest in Caricom among students.
4 List THREE opportunities which regional integration
offers businesses in the region.
5 Outline TWO ways in which educational institutions
in your country may help businesses to benefit
from regional integration.
6 Outline TWO factors in a Caricom country wluch may
prevent a regional business from setting up there.
4.19 The benefit::; of reg1onal mtegratwn
Handling data
Imagine that you have conducted a survey among
ten females and ten males in your community to
find out whether they think that the country has
benefited from regional integration. Answer the
following questions.
1 State your purpose for conducting the survey.
2 Write a title for your survey in the form of a
question.
3 Give TWO reasons why you would recommend
the use of a questionnaire to collect
information for a survey.
4 The sample population's responses to the
question "Do you think that the country has
benefited from regional integration?" are shown
----
in the table below.
Female 8 1 1
Male 4 5 2
a Present the data in the table in a bar graph
and a pie chart.
b Explain the data in the table.
II
 The role of citizens, businesses, and
governments in the integration process
KEY IDEAS
o The regional private sector should exploit the
single economic space.
o Both governments and citizens are responsible for
realizing the objectives of integration.
\;Jd!•llbiij
Share: One of the equal fractional parts into which the
ownership of a company is divided.
Entrepreneur: A person who starts and manages a business
and takes risks in order to make a profit.
Governments alone cannot make regional
integration work. The realization of the goals of
regional integration requires the involvement and
cooperation of citizens, businesses, and governments.
... t"'-e. ret\frl t\tro"" o.f re.:;tro1-\t\f '""te.:;trt\tro"" rs
t\ coffeetive. t\1-td '""drvrd'!At\1 respo""srbi'!it(j o"" t~.-~.e.
pt\rt o.f botk C.t\rico~ citi&e.""s
t\1-td {}'ove.r""~""1 s.
Dr Keith Mitchell, former prime minister of Grenada,
in Caricom: Our Caribbean Community
People will be encouraged to play their role in regional
integration if they arc benefiting from it. Governments
of the region will therefore have to create opportunities
for people and businesses to be involved in the
regional integration movement. They will also have
to make them aware of the objectives of integration
and the means which have been created for them to
participate in it. Governments have to realize that
regional integration is for the people of the region and
opportunities for their involvement are necessary in
order to make it work.
"'l'ke. .P1A1-t£it\~1-tft\1 ot\1 o.f eC01-\0~ IC
deveio~""t
0
Ct\"" o"".£{1 be t\ckreved tkro1A k tke.
0
toft\£ 11-tVOfve.~""t o.f rke. pe.opfe. t\~ t\ CO""Sft\1-tf
.foe'!As o"" tke.~ .
P.]. Patterson, former prime minister of Jamaica,
in Caricom: Our Caribbean Community
•
Citizens
The role of citizens in regional integration includes
the following activities.
o Becoming entrepreneurs: It has been
recommended that Caribbean countries should
use entrepreneurship as a strategy for promoting
the development of the region. This means that
Caribbean people should use their industry and
their creativity to establish enterprises of all
sizes to develop new products and services for
export to regional and international markets. The
Caribbean music industry is a good example of
this. They should also aim to utilize the natural
resources of the region to create new products.
They should also take full advantage of the right
of establishment in establishing these enterprises.
If they are successful they will help the region
to increase trade and as a result create more
employment, earn more foreign currency, and also
improve the standard of living.
o Supporting regional producers: With the spread
of global free trade, many Caribbean enterprises
face the risk ofbeing forced out of business in the
national, regional, and international markets by
larger foreign companies producing cheaper and
better-quality products. Caribbean citizens should
therefore support regional producers as they try to
improve their international competitiveness. This
would help to guarantee the producers' survival,
save jobs, and help to reduce the high level of
extra-regional imports, thus contributing to the
development of the region.
Support for regional businesses may also be
shown by investing in them through the purchase
of their shares when they become available.
o Showing mutual support: Caricom citizens
and their governments should develop ties with
people in other member states and give them
support, particularly in times of natural disaster5
and other difficulties. This helps to develop a
sense of community spirit within the region,
which is essential for getting people to accept and
work towards achieving the integration objectives.
This development of community spirit can also be
 encouraged by Caricom citizens increasing their
knowledge of the region and the objectives and
benefits of regional integration.
Discuss the following questions with a partner.
1 Should Caribbean consumers buy Caricom goods,
even when the imported foreign product is cheaper
or is of better quality?
2 Outline how your country has demonstrated mutual
support for another Caricom country.
Businesses
The role of businesses in regional integration
includes the following strategies.
o Improving compe titiveness: Regional
businesses may decide to combine and usc the
region's labour, capital, and natural resources
in an efficient manner. This would help them
to improve their competitiveness and sell in
both the regional and international markets,
thus increasing employment, foreign currency
earnings, and the standard of living of the region.
o Increasing trade: Regional integration has
created a larger regional market. Regional
business people may take full advantage of the
larger regional market by increasing the quantity,
variety, and quality of goods and services. This
should be an incentive for them to diversify
production in the region and thus reduce its
overdependence on a limited number of products
and services. Increased production and increased
variety should also help to reduce foreign imports
by giving regional consumers more choices.
Having satisfied the regional market, they must
also look to increase sales in international markets
and thus increase trade generally.
o Providing investment opportunities: Large
public regional businesses should provide
opportunities for Caricom nationals to participate
in their ownership by offering shares. This would
provide the opportunity for the region's capital to
be utilized for its development, and at the same
time give more people the opportunity to directly
participate in ownership, company profits, and the
integration process.
o Protecting and promoting consumers'
welfare: Regional businesses are expected
to produce goods and services according to
agreed regional standards. These standards
are intended to develop consumer confidence
in their goods and services. Consumers in the
region can therefore be assured that they are
getting quality goods and services and as a
result may purchase regional goods instead of
foreign substitutes.
Regional businesses are also expected to share the
benefits of the single market with Caricom citizens
by passing on savings in the form of reduced prices.
List THREE Caricom businesses which operate m your
Government
The role of government in regional integration
includes the following commitments.
o Supporting regional institutions: Governments
should set an example and encourage Caricom
citizens to support regional integration.
Governments are required to enact the laws and
conditions necessary for implementing Caricom
decisions and to implement them in a timely
manner. Some countries have not yet changed
their constitution in order to adopt the Caribbean
Court ofJustice as their final court of appeal.
o Honouring the Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas:
The Revised Treaty sets out certain common
policies that Caricom governments must pursue
in order for regional integration to work. It is
essential that governments pursue common
foreign and trade policies, common monetary and
fiscal policies, and implement the Caricom CET.
o Supporting competition among regional
businesses: Governments should provide all
the support needed for their national businesses
to become competitive. They should also create
conditions that encourage competition among
regional businesses by opening their markets to
regional imports.
o Educating citizens about integration: The
objectives of regional integration can only
be achieved through the total involvement
of the people. Governments therefore have
a responsibility to educate citizens about the
objectives and benefits of integration and how
•
they may participate in the process.
 Research
To what extent is government encouraging
individuals to participate in the integration
process?
The above is a research question you have chosen.
1 Identify the variables in the research question.
2 Outline two factors which would influence you to
research this topic.
3 Write a table of contents for the study.
4 Describe the procedures you would use to
ensure the highest possible rate of return of
questionnaires.
5 Outline one advantage of including an open-ended
question in a questionnaire on this topic.
6 Identify two items you would include in your
appendix.
7 Give one reason why your findings may differ
from the findings of a similar study conducted by
another researcher ten years ago.

Quick questions
Suggest THREE measures which your government
may use to educate citizens about the objectives and
benefits of integration. State why each measure would
be successful.

•
4.21 Areas of regional cooperation
The following organizations are recognized as
"Institutions of the Community" under the
Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas because they were
established either by or with the help and support
of the Caribbean Community with the aim of
developing cooperation among the member states in
the respective areas.
The Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management
Agency ( CDEMA):
o collects and circulates information on disasters
affecting the region to governmental and non-
governmental organizations
o alleviates the consequences of disasters affecting
its member states
o mobilizes and coordinates disaster relief
from governmental and non-governmental
organizations for affected member states
o establishes and maintains adequate disaster
response capabilities among member states.
The Caribbean Meteorological Organization
(CMO):
o promotes and coordinates regional activities
in the field of meteorology and allied sciences
among its members
o provides support and advice to governments in
dealing with issues of an international nature
affecting weather and climate
o represents the interests of its members at the
international level.
The Caribbean Public Health A gency (CA RPHA):
is an umbrella body which will be taking over
the functions of five Caribbean regional health
institutions, namely:
o the Caribbean Environmental Health Institute
(CEHI)
o the Caribbean Food and Nutrition Institute
(CFNI)
o the Caribbean Epidemiology Centre (CAREC)
o the Caribbean Health Research Council (CH RC)
o the Caribbean Regional Drug Testing Laboratory
(CRDTL).
The objectives of CARPHA include:
o promoting the physical and mental health and
wellness of people within the Caribbean
o providing strategic direction in analysing,
defining, and responding to public health
priorities of the Caribbean Community
o promoting and developing measures for the
prevention of disease in the Caribbean
o supporting the Caribbean Community in
preparing for and responding to public health
emergenCles
o supporting solidarity in health, as one of the
principal pillars of functional cooperation in the
Caribbean Community
o supporting the relevant objectives of the CCH as
approved by the Council.
The Caribbean Agricultural Research and
Development Institute (CARD I) contributes to
agricultural development in the region by
conducting research and by exposing farmers and
other persons involved in agriculture to appropriate
technologies.
The Caribbean Community Climate Change
Centre (CCCCC):
o implements projects to prepare for and to reduce
the harmful effects of climate change and sea-
level rise
o seeks ways in which Caricom can benefit from any
opportunities that may result from climate change.
The Caribbean Court ofJustice ( CCJ):
o interprets and applies the Treaty Establishing
the Caribbean Community in order to settle
trade disputes in intra-regional trade between
Caricom states
o considers and determines appeals in both civil
and criminal matters from common law courts
within the jurisdictions of member states of the
community which are parties to the Agreement
establishing the CCJ
o acts as the final court of appeal for those countries
which have adopted it in that capacity.
•
 The Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) o collaborates with educational institutions in
finances specific projects in national, sub- regional individual member states to provide additional
and regional development programmes in areas educational opportunities.
such as agriculture, livestock, fisheries, forestry,
The A ssembly of Caribbean Community
tourism, mining, refining, marketing, manufacturing,
Parliamentarians (ACCP) was established as a
transportation, housing, education, pure water,
regional parliament, but no longer functions.
sewerage and infrastructure, and services related to
the development of those sectors of the economy, as
well as waste management, environment protection,
and poverty reduction. Identify TWO areas in which Caricom countries
cooperate.
The Caribbean Examinations Council ( CXC): 2 Name a regional organization which was created to
o provides regionally and internationally recognized develop cooperation in each of the areas you have
identified.
school-leaving examinations relevant to the needs
3 Describe TWO ways in which Caricom states
of the region benefit from cooperation in ONE of the areas you
o assists in Common Entrance and other types of have identified.
examination
o produces teaching materials
o trains teachers to use the CXC syllabi
o advises regional governments on education matters.
Divide the class into pairs (or small groups). Each pair
The University of the West Indies (UWI): should research the objectives of one of the institutions
of Caricom listed above. then report to the class how it
o provides tertiary education for members and contributes to the development of the region.
associate members of Caricom at its three
campuses

II
 Tourism in the Caribbean
KEY IDEAS
o Tourism underpins most Caribbean economies.
o Tourism depends on the region's natural and
human resources.
o "Sun, sand, and sea" tourisJn depends on the
region's marine resources.
o Other forms of tourism have been developed;
some of these also depend on marine resources.
Qa«·tt!'i'''
Tourist: A person spending one or more nights away from
home for business or pleasure.
Excursionist: A short·term day visitor to a destination, who
does not spend a night there.
Cruise passenger: An excursionist travelling by cruise ship.
Domestic tourist: A tourist visiti ng a destination within
their country of residence.
Eco-tourism: Tourism which is centred on the natural
environment, and is designed to mi nimize negative
environmental impacts.
Health tourism : Tourism for medical reasons: either for a
specific med ical procedure, or to improve general health
and well-being.
Nature tourism: Tourism based on nature and wildlife as an
attraction.
Destination: A place which tourists or others travel to. It
may be a country, a city, or any point of attraction.
Resort: This word has two meanings:
1 a destination with many hotels and tourism services,
such as Montego Bay o r St Maarten.
2 a very large hotel. such as the Atlantis Resort in the
Bahamas.
Timeshare: Part·ownership of tourist accommodation, with
the right to use it for one or more weeks every year.
Tourism products: Services and attractions which bring
tourists to a destination.
•
Barbados, the Bahamas and Antigua-Barbuda
are among the leaders for Latin America and the
Caribbean in the UN Development Programme's
human development index. Their nationals have a
wider range of opportunities and choices than at any
previous period in their history.
Tourism has an impact on many areas oflife, such as:
o how people in the Caribbean earn their living
o the physical environment we live in
o how people in the Caribbean see themselves, and
how they are seen by the world outside.
People from the Caribbean also travel overseas as
tourists, for leisure, to visit friends and relatives, on
business, or for other reasons such as sporting events.
They may go to international destinations in North
America, Europe, or elsewhere. This is outward
tourism.
Tourism and resources
Tourism depends on the natural and human
resources of the region.
For Caribbean tourism, the most important natural
resources are:
o a warm and sunny climate
o marine resources, such as the sea itself, beaches,
coral reefs, and marine life
o a location not too far from countries in Europe
and North America, which many tourists travel
from.

In the 1960s, many Caribbean islands appeared to Marine resources Sports tourism
Eco-tourism
be trapped in poverty. Unskilled agricultural work Snorkel ling Clear, clean water Sailing Surfmg
provided a low income. Most countries in the eastern Whale watchmg Beaches Coral reefs W1ndsurfmg
Waves Fishmg
Caribbean had few resources for manufacturing. Few Scuba d1v1ng
F1sh and manne life Scuba d1ving
were confident that they could become prosperous,
independent nations.
Today, many small islands are relatively prosperous,
in part because of tourism. Countries such as Figure 5.1: Manne resources may serve different types of
tounsm

•
Other natural resources are important for tourism,
such as fresh water, wildlife, and natural vegetation.
For human resources, tourism depends on:
o entrepreneurs who can develop successful
businesses, large and small
o skilled and well-educated workers, who are keen
to perform to the best of their ability
o a peaceful and friendly population which
welcomes visitors and makes them comfortable.
Sun, sand, and sea
l\1ost tourists visit the Caribbean to relax in
comfortable accommodation, near to a beach, in a
warm and sunny climate.
"Sun, sand, and sea" tourists spend time on the beach
or around a pool; but most also like socializing,
shopping, going to bars and restaurants, exercising,
or visiting attractions, such as waterfalls or historic
buildings.
The peak tourist season is during the winter months,
when the weather is cold in North America and
Europe.
Tourists stay in many different types of
accommodation, such as:
o small guest houses
o small hotels
o large hotels and resorts
o all-inclusive resorts
o vacation homes, beach houses, and timeshares.
All-inclusive resorts
Some "sun, sand, and sea" tourism companies, such
as Sandals or SuperClubs, offer an all-inclusive
package - food, drinks, water sports, and other
activities are included in the basic price. For tourists
this has several advantages:
o They know in advance how much their vacation
will cost. They do not have to work out a daily
budget for meals, drinks, and entertainment.
o There is no need to handle money during the
vacation. Everything is paid for in advance,
usually by credit card.
o There is no need to discuss small spending
requests with children or family members.
Figure 5 .2: An advertisement for an all·inclusive tourist
destmation
o The risk of theft or other crime within an all-
inclusive resort is very low.
However, there are also disadvantages with this form
of tourism:
o Tourists do not often leave their hotel, except on
organiz~d excursions. They do not have a rounded
experience of the country they are visiting.
o It is difficult for small businesses, such as bars,
restaurants, and taxis, to attract customers who
are staying in all-inclusive resorts.
Vacation homes and timeshares
Some wealthy people from Europe and North
America buy vacation homes in the Caribbean. They
visit every year, for a few weeks or months. When
they are not using the property, they may rent it out
to others.
In a timeshare resort, each owner buys the right to
use a vacation home for a few weeks every year. They
do not own it outright; other timeshare owners buy
the remaining weeks and months.
Most large tourism investments in the Caribbean are
organized like this:
o Developers draw up plans for a hotel, with
vacation homes, and other facilities, such as a
marina or golf course.
o Advance sale of house sites, villas, and timeshares
helps raise funds to finance th·e project.
o When it is completed, a well-known international
company manages the hotel, and provides a brand
which helps market the property.
Other tourism products
Besides "sun, sand, and sea" tourism, there are other
tourism products which attract visitors to the region.
l\Iany of them are also based on climate and marine
resources.

Yachting and pleasure boats

Figure 5.4: Englrsh crrcket fans enJOY a West lndres match

Figure 5.3: A busy manna at Chaguaramas. Trrnrdad and Health tourism

Tobago

Yachting is an active, open-air activity which is based

on marine resources. orne tourists stay on a yacht or
pleasure boat. They may own a vessel, or charter one
from a local company. They spend money onshore, to
the benefit of the local economy:
o paying a daily charge for mooring in a marina
o buying food, drink, and other supplies
o paying for boat repairs and other services
o on a large vessel, paying wages to crew members
o paying a daily or weekly fee if the boat is
chartered.

Sports tourism
Some tourists visit the region to take part in
sporting activiries.l\Iany of them arc linked to
marine resources, for example surfing, windsurfing,
sailing, and scuba diving. Other tourists visit to play
games such as golf or tennis in a warm and pleasant
en\'ironmcnt. Figure 5.5: Cuba rs a centre for medrcal tourrsm

pectator sport is also an attraction.l'vlajor events Some of the world's earliest resorts were based on
such as international cricket matches attract regional health tourism. More than 200 years ago, wealthy
and international tourists. people in Europe visited towns such as Bath in
England or Spa in Belgium, to drink water from

mineral springs which they believed would be good
for their health.
Today, many Caribbean hotels and resorts offer
massages, skin treatments, and other therapies
which help guests relax, and may make them feel
healthier. Tourists in Dominica bathe in volcanic
sulphur springs which are thought to have medicinal
properties.
Medical tourism is more specialized than general
health tourism. It is based on treatment by
professional medical personnel. The main centre for
medical tourism in the Caribbean is Cuba. People
from many countries visit Cuba for surgery or other
treatment, which is provided at a relatively low cost.
There are also medical facilities in the English-
speaking Caribbean which offer treatment to
people from elsewhere in the region, or from other
countries.
Many people from the Caribbean travel to overseas
destinations such as Miami for medical treatment.
This is an outward form ofhealth tourism.
Ecotourism
The natural environment and wildlife can be an
attraction for tourists.
In the marine environment, there are activities such as:
o scuba diving and snorkelling, to view coral reefs
and marine life
o whale watching, from ships or shore.
On land, rain forests, wetlands, and other
environments provide opportunities such as:
o hiking on nature trails
o bird-watching.
The natural environment of remote areas can be
damaged by insensitive development. Some activities,
such as hunting or using all-terrain vehicles, can do
great harm if they are not carefully controlled.
Ecotourism is designed to attract tourists who want
to experience the natural environment, but who
also want to protect it. Visitors make every effort to
disturb wildlife as little as possible. TI1ey may stay in
small nature lodges or private homes, rather than in
large hotels.
~. 10011::>m H l t rr'-' "'~··---·--.---
Cultural and heritage tourism
Some tourists are attracted to the Caribbean because
of its culture and heritage.
Caribbean people who have migrated to Europe or
North America may want to return home, to visit
friends and family, and to enjoy the culture they
grew up with. They may bring their children, to
meet their Caribbean family members, and gain a
first-hand experience of their cultural heritage.
Other visitors may come to enjoy Caribbean music
and culture; visitors from North America, Europe,
and more di stant countries such as Japan may
enjoy Jamaican reggae music or steel pan from
Trinidad and Tobago.
Most Caribbean countries have one or more annual
festivals, such as Crop Over in Barbados or the
annual jazz festival in St Lucia, which act as a focus
for cultural and heritage tourism.
Historic sites such as the Cabrits in Dominica or
Brimstone Hill in St Kitts have been developed as
attractions for tourists and for local people.
Business tourism
Figu re 5.6: Bus1ness events such as the annual Energy
Conference 1n Port of Spa1n earn revenue for Canbbean hotels
Some tourists travel for business, not pleasure.
Hotels in cities such as Kingston and Port of Spain
cater mainly to business travellers.
Business travel may also be a good source of revenue
for large resort hotels. They may host international
conferences with more than 1,000 participants.
 Cruise ships

Figure 5.7 : Royal Canbbean's Oasts of the Seas IS 360 metres long and 72 metres h1gh

Cruise ships are much larger than yachts or pleasure

boats. 1he largest have more than 6,000 passengers
and more than 2,000 crew. Describe an attraction or activity in your country which
is used for:
Most cruises start from a home port, where the ship a sun. sand and sea tourism
takes on passengers, food, and other supplies. Most b sports tourism ' ....
cruises last for between four days and two weeks. The c ecotourism
ship visits several ports of call, where passengers may d cultural and heritage tourism.
You can use photographs and publicity material to
go ashore for a few hours.
illustrate your answer.
Close to half of the world's cruise ship calls arc to
Caribbean ports. The region has many advantages for
cruise tourism.
o The weather is warm during the winter months. Discuss the following questions in a small group.
o The islands can be easily reached from North 1 What are the main tourism products in your
country?
America.
a How important 1s "sun. sand, and sea" tourism?
o There are many attractive ports of call with varied b What other products have been developed?
tourist facilities. c How many of them also depend on marine
o The islands are not too far apart. Ships can visit a resources?
different port every day. 2 Are there any natural. marine. historic. or cultural
resources in your country which have not been
developed for tourism. but could be?
a Should they be developed?
b How could they be used to attract tourists?

•
 The host country
There are many other tropical islands which have
KEY IDEAS sun, sand, sea, and an attractive culture, for example
o The Caribbean must compete with other in the Pacific and Indian Oceans.
international tourist destinations.
o To compete in the tourist market, a country needs To attract tourists, Caribbean countries must:
good accessibility, infrastructure, and tourist
services. o make use of, manage, and conserve the natural
o Personal safety, political stability, and good resources of marine and land environments
governance are also essential. o develop tourist accommodation and services,
providing value for money spent
o develop transport facilities to make the most of
~d!•ll!i ;l'i their location and improve accessibility
Host country: A destination country, which attracts tourists o provide a secure, stable, and well-managed
from overseas. environment, with public services and
lnfrastructure~ Roads, ports, airports, electricity and water infrastructure for local people and tourists alike
supply, and c~ munications facilities , which are needed
o market the destination effectively.
as a basis for businesses and households to function in a
modern society. Country Number of tourists, 2010
France 768!XHXXJ
Untted States 59700000
Chma 55700000
Spam 52 700000
Italy 43600000
Bnta1n 28100000

Table 5.1: The top six tourist destinations worldwide

Country Number of tourists, 2011

Domm1can Republic 4300000
Cuba 2700000
Jama1ca 1800000
Puerto R1co 1400000
Bahamas 1300000
Figure 5.8: Canbbean countnes must compete for tounsts Aruba 900000
w1th c1ty destmations such as New York
Tabl e 5.2: The top s1x tounst destmat1ons in the Caribbean
The Caribbean is attractive for tourists, but it must
compete with other destinations and products, for Accessibility: airports and seaports
example: The Caribbean is more accessible from Europe
and eastern North America than the islands of the
o cities such as Paris or New York, with Pacific or Indian oceans.
entertainment, shopping, and cultural attractions
o ski resorts in mountains such as the Alps in To make the best use of this natural advantage, the
Europe or the Rockies in North America Caribbean needs good airport and seaport facilities.
o hiking, wildlife, and adventure tourism in A long-runway airport can take long-distance direct
mountain, forest, and coastal environments flights to or from North America and Europe. A
o beach tourism, for example in Mexico, or on the short-runway airport can only take small aircraft to
Mediterranean Sea in Europe. reach nearby islands.

•
Islands such as Jamaica, Barbados, and Antigua have
airports which can take intercontinental flights.
Figure 5.9: Airport construction in St Vmcent: a major
eng1neenng operat1 on
mailer island airports such as those in St Vincent,
Anguilla, or Tortola can take only regional
flights. Some tourists need to stay overnight on
another island, giving them a two-day journey.
An international airport was under construction
in St Vincent in 2012, to improve accessibility for
international tourists. In 2010 D ominica completed
airport improvements to allow night flights for the
first time.
Cruise ships need good port facilities. Most
Caribbean ports can take large cruise ships. Some
have shops and other attractions nearby. Yachts and
pleasure boats need marinas.
Transport within the country is also important.
Good roads are needed, so that:
o tourists can travel quickly from airport to hotel
o supplies such as food can be delivered on time
o staff can travel easily to work.
·~-,···PI
!lill~.lllli._.llil
On a world map, show the six main host countries
for tourism.
2 On a map of the Caribbean. show the six main host
countries in the region.
3 Give the names of three Caribbean airports. Which
of them can take long-distance intercontinental
flights?
4 Which ports in your country take cruise ships?
What facilities are available for cruise passengers?
Handling data
Find out how many tourists visited your country
last year. Draw a bar chart comparing tourist
arrivals in your country with the number visiting
two of the top six Caribbean destinations.
Cost and quality of tourist services
Tourists consider the cost and quality of services.
Most want to find good-quality service at a
reasonable price. There are many ways of finding
out about a destination or hotel before making a
booking, such as:
o talking to friends who have been there
o researching the destination on the Internet
o reading reviews written by other travellers
o obtaining information from travel agents and
airlines.
Some tourists want a five-star luxury resort, and are
prepared to spend accordingly. They expect high-
quality restaurants, attentive service, and beautiful
surround ings.
Others are happy with simple accommodation. They
may spend most of the day away from the hotel, and
eat in local bars and restaurants. The accommodation
provides a clean and comfortable place to sleep, but
little else.
Some tourists want services which are available
on some islands, but not others. In the Bahamas,
some hotels have large casinos, with games such as
roulette, and slot machines. Other islands, such as
Barbados, do not allow casino gambling.

Dtscuss the following question with a partner.
Should casino gambling be encouraged as an
attraction for tourists?
Infrastructure
High-quality infrastructure is needed for a successful
tourism industry. This means having:
o good telecommunications links
o a reliable electricity supply
o a clean and reliable water supply
o an efficient sewerage system to dispose of waste
without damaging the environment
o good road networks.
Safety, security, and stability
Tourists want a safe, relaxing vacation. They are
unlikely to travel to places where they are at risk.
Most Caribbean countries have a high rate of crime,
and of violent crime in particular. However, most
tourists are not directly affected, because:
o they do not visit areas with high crime rates, such
as low-income urban neighbourhoods
o many stay in all-inclusive resorts, and have little
contact with local people, whether criminal or
law-abiding.
When a tourist is killed, robbed, or wounded, the
effect can be disastrous for tourism. Major crimes
are widely reported in the international media. News
of minor crimes spreads by word of mouth and may
eventually reach the ears of tourists.

CASE STUDY
Violent crime and tourism The case was widely reported in the USA and elsewhere.
Natalee Holloway was an Natalee's family felt that the investigation had not been
18-year old student from MISSING thorough, and called for a boycott of Aruba This call was
SINCE 1: 30AM MONDAY
Alabama in the United May. 30 supported by the governor of Alabama.
States who visited the Five years to the day after Natalee disappeared, a 21-year
island of Aruba in May 2005 old student Stephany Ramirez disappeared in Peru.
on a high-school graduation 587-6222 She was found dead in a hotel room whose registered
trip. The night before she .......
,.,.. occupant was Joran van der Sloot. He pleaded guilty to
was due to fly home. she 1 100 Stephany's murder in January 2012.
visited a night club, and ~
was seen in a car with three 90000
I ! I I I !
young men. loran van der 80000
Figure 5.10: "Missing" poster I )Natlalee dl appears 3( M<y
Sloot from the Netherlands for Natalee Holloway ..,
and two young men from
Q)

~a.
70000
~ l ~ V IA v 2004/ 05

Suriname; after that. she

disappeared. The three were
60000
0 50000
~ 40000
~~
j
.....__
I
~

l
v
I "\
-- 2005/ 06

arrested and questioned 'oy ;on

several times by police.
.0
~ 30000
'
l I
( on lnU ng if1ec 1a r po~ts -T- 1
but released for lack of z 20000
evidence.
10000 I I :
Local police, agents from 0
I I I I I
the US Federal Bureau of ~'>\e~' OC}~0. :. <::l' ~'~>~~~~'I} ~~<.. ~qj~ ~'>~ }·
Investigations. and the Month
Netherlands army and air
force searched for Natalee. Figure 5.12: Tounst arrivals in Aruba. The red line shows
on land and at sea. Divers Figure 5.11: Joran van der arnvals in the year following Nata lee Holloway's
searched the ocean floor. Sloot disappearance
She was declared legally dead in 2012.
 ']J)~J)J)J)d)d):i)J) Research
CASE STUDY Use the Internet to find out about a tourism destination
outside the Caribbean. You could choose.
Tourism in Haiti o a city. such as Paris. New York. or Mumbai
Commonwealth o a ski resor t, such as St Montz in Switzerland
Caribbean o an adventure destination. such as the Kruger
countries NatiOnal Park in South Africa
are stable Compare this destinatiOn with your own country. under
democracies. these headmgs:
In some other a attractiOns and resour ces
countries. political b accessibillty
and social unrest c accommodation and services
affect tourism. d infrastructure.
Hcuti has a vibrant
culture. beautiful Figure 5 .13: Cruise sh1p tourism at
Labadee, Ha1t1
beaches. and is
easily accessible from North America. However. there
are few tourists. for the following reasons: Handling data
o The country has been politically unstable for many Design a survey for tourists visiting your
years This discourages investment, including hotel country, using a questionnaire or grid sheet.
development You should try to find out:
o Infrastructure is badly developed. Roads and a what type of accommodation they have used
electricity supply are inadequate. The poor-quality
b what attractions they have visited
water supply and the lack of an adequate sewerage
system bring health risks. c what made them choose this destination

o Many people are poor. Tourism helps to create d which other destinations they considered
employment and can reduce poverty; however. e what they have liked about their tourist
tourists do not like to visit a country where experi enc e so far
deprivation is obvious. f what in their view needs to be improved
o The capital. Port-au-Prince, was devastated by a or changed.
violent earthquake in 2010. The country was thrown
2 N ame three types of diagram you would use
into chaos. More than two years later. reconstruction
to display results from your survey.
was far from complete.
Royal Caribbean International has a cruise ship facility
at Labadie (or Labadee) on the north coast of Haiti.
There 1s a toun st market. beaches with water sports
facilities. and traditional dance perfor mances. There is
a security fence. separating this small resort from the Discuss the following questions in a small group.
rest of the country The facility creates several hundred 1 Have there been any recent crimes against tourists
JObs. and the Haitian government receives a fee for each in your country? If so. describe ONE incident. Was
passenger landed After the 20 10 earthquake, Royal the crime major or minor? How did the authorities
Caribbean announced that it would donate US$1 million react? What was the eventual outcome?
for reconstruction efforts. 2 What can be done to reduce the number of crimes.
both against local people and against tourists?
3 Should tourists visit low-income and unstable
countries such as Haiti? Why are many reluctant
Research to do so? Are special measures needed to develop
tourism in these conditions?
Use Google Maps to visit Labadee in Haiti. Use the scale
bar to take an overall view. then look in close-up. Print
the satellite VIew. and use labels to show the cruise
resort. the nearby Haitian village of Labadie. and the
town of Cap Hcutien Bnefly describe the appearance of
these three places
 The source country
Tourist spending Population GOP per person
KEY IDEAS (US$ billion} (millions, 2011} (US$, 2011}
o Countries with a large population and high
Germany 77 82 44000
average income are the largest tourist markets.
o Promotion and marketing can increase the share Umted States 76 313 48000
of the Caribbean in these markets. China 55 1,350 5,400
Bntam 49 62 39000
France 39 65 44000
Gtd«•tl!iil'l Canada 30 35 50 (XX)
Source country: A country from which tourists travel to a
host country. Tabl e 5.3: The top SIX countnes for tounst spendtng (2010)
Tourist market: This word has two meanings:
The Caribbean needs to encourage travel from
1 a country, region, or group of people who may travel as
tourists.
source countries. Important source countries for
2 a retail location within a host country where vendors sell tourism have:
goods to tourists.
o a large population, so that there are many people
who can travel
o a high average income, so that people can afford
to travel
o a culture and way of life in which people enjoy
overseas travel
o good accessibility to other countries.
Most tourists prefer to choose a destination which
is easily accessible from their own country. This
means that:
o the distance is not too great
o there are frequent direct flights
o the cost of travel is not too great
o there are no complex visa or other official
requirements.
For the English-speaking Caribbean, the most
important source countries for tourism are the USA,
Britain, and Canada:
o These are three of the world's si..x top tourist
markets. They have large and relatively prosperous
populations, and many people who like to travel
overseas.
o All have direct flights to the major Caribbean
islands.
o They are mainly English-speaking. Many people
prefer to travel to coun tries where they can speak
the local language.

Figure 5. 14 : Publtctty matenal for tounsm tn Domtntca

•
 Caribbean regional tourism is also important.
People travel to neighbouring countries for vacations,
on business, to visit family and friends, or for other
reasons.
Source country Percentage of arrivals
Bntatn 33.9
USA 25.3
Canada 12.6
Tnmdad and Tobago 6.4
Other Can com 11.2
Germany 1.5
France 0.6
Other Europe 3.8
Chtna 0.1
Tabl e 5.4: Barbados tounsm, 2011
Barbados tourism is the most dependent on the
UK market, but the main market for the region as a
whole is the USA. I n 2010 it accounted for 50 per
cent of total arrivals.
Germany is the world's largest tourist market:
o It has a large population, although it has fewer
people than the USA, China, or Brazil.
o It has a high average income.
o Germans like to travel to other countries.
o Mediterranean countries are easily accessible
from Germany, with a road journey or a short
flight. However, most Caribbean islands are less
easily reached.
Many French tourists visit Martinique and
Guadeloupe, which are easily accessible from France.
They do not need a passport, because these islands
are French overseas departments.
China is a large and growing tourist market. Some
people hope to attract Chinese tourists to the
Caribbean. Average incomes are still lower than in
Europe or North America, but there are millions of
wealthy people in cities such as Beijing, Shanghai,
and Hong Kong. However, many other destinations
are more easily accessible from China than the
Caribbean.
o From Be~ing, there are five-hour direct flights to
Thailand, which has high-quality beach resorts.
o To travel from Beijing to Barbados takes around
24 hours. There are no direct flights.
-
Promotion and marketing
Promotion and marketing can increase the number
of tourists. Many strategies can be used, such as:
o working with tour companies in the source
countries, who feature Caribbean hotels and
resorts in their advertising and promotion
o working with airlines who fly to the region, and
may also sell vacation packages including travel
and accommodation
o overseas advertising by major companies such as
Sandals or SuperClubs, who can afford the high
cost of print and television commercials
o advertising and promotion by national agencies,
such as the Barbados Tourism Authority
o regional advertising and promotion to sell the
Caribbean as a single destination.
Advertising is one form of marketing. Advertising
on the Internet, or on radio, television, print media,
or billboards is expensive, but it may:
o remind people of a destination they are familiar
with
o tell them about a new destination
o give information about special offers, events,
and fares, encouraging them to travel at a
particular time.
Most tourism businesses and national agencies have
websites, which provide information, take bookings,
and sell services.
On a world map, show the six main source countries
for tourism.
2 Compare your map to the one showing the main
host countries that you prepared in Unit 5.2. How
are these maps similar and how are they different?
3 Which of the world ·s six main tourist markets
are important for Barbados? Why are the others
not important at present? What other markets are
important for Barbadian tourism?
Discuss the following question with a partner.
What are the strong points of your country's tourism
product? Design a print advertisement using these
points to attract tourists.
 Tourism and the economy
Source Percentage of foreign earnings
KEY IDEAS
Goods exports 21
o Tourism underpins most Caribbean economies.
o Foreign exchange pays for imported goods and Tounsm 64
services. Other serv1ces exports 7
o Jobs are created directly in tourism businesses. Other earnmgs 8
o Jobs are created indirectly in businesses linked to
tourism. Tabl e 5.6: Fore1gn exchange earnings, the Bahamas: 2010
o Governments earn revenue from taxes on tourism.
o Costly infrastructure must be developed in resort Employment
areas, and elsewhere. M any people work directly in tourism, in businesses
such as:
o hotels, restaurants, and bars
G'*1l·tl11 ;\j o dive shops
Economic linkage: A link between two businesses or o tour companies providing transport for tourists.
industries, for example when one provides a market for
goods or services produced by the other. Tourism also provides indirect employment, in
Economic leakage: An immediate outflow of foreign businesses which are linked to tourism, such as:
exchange which has been earned; for example, expenditure
by a hotel or restaurant on imported food and drink. o construction companies which build hotels
and resorts
Foreign exchange earnings o ports and airports, where much of the activity is
based on tourism
Every country uses goods and services from abroad.
These must be paid for with foreign exchange. o agriculture and fi shing, which may produce food
for hotels and restaurants
Foreign exchange may come from many sources,
such as: o advertising agencies, which assist with marketing
tourism products, locally and overseas.
o exports of goods, such as sugar, bananas, and
Industry Percentage of jobs
citrus fruit
Hotels and restaurants 16
o exports of natural resources, such as oil, gold, and
bauxite Agnculture and fishing 2
o services which earn foreign exch ange, such as Construction 12
tourism Manufactunng 4
o remittances fro m overseas migrants, who send O~r ~

money to relatives and others in their home Tabl e 5.7: Employment 1n the Bahamas: 2007
country.
I n most C aribbean countries, tourism is one of the
Government revenue
G overnments raise money from tourism in two ways:
most important sources of foreign exchange.
o There arc taxes directly linked to tourism, for
Source Percentage of foreign earnings
example levies on tourism, hotel room occupancy,
Baux1te and alum1na 11
casino gambling, or arrivals and departures from
Other goods exports 11
airports and seaports.
Tounsm 30 0 Economic activity linked to tourism pays general
Other serv1ces exports 10 taxation. Individuals pay income tax. Businesses
Migrants' remittances 33 pay tax on company profits. Tourists who buy
Other earn1ngs 5 goods or use local services pay taxes such as value
Tab le 5.5: Fore1gn exchange earnmgs, Jama1ca: 2011
added tax or general consumption tax.

II
Tax source Percentage of tax revenue Leakages
Gambling tax 1 Some tourist spending is of direct benefit to the
Hotel occupancy tax 3 economy. However, some of the money spent leaks
Departure tax 8 overseas, with few local benefits.
Other taxes 88 o If a restaurant meal uses imported ingredients,
Tabl e 5.8 : Taxes ra1sed 1n the Bahamas: 2010 there is little benefit to local agriculture.
o If a hotel is built and furnished with imported
Infrastructure materials, there is little benefit to local
manufacturing.
1he Caribbean tourism industry faces challenges -
for example from cruise ships, which make a smaller
contribution to the economy than land-based
tourism. These challenges are discussed in Unit 5. 10.

Quick questions
List FOUR JObs in which people work d1rectly in
tourism.
2 List FOUR JObs which are indirectly linked to
tourism. For each of these. explain how the activity
is linked.
3 Write a lunch menu with a main course. a dessert
Figure 5. 15: Grantley Adams International Airport 1n Barbados and a drink:
a using products of local agriculture.
Governments also spend money on investments manufacturing, or fishing
which will benefit tourism, such as: b using imported ingredients.
4 You are construction manager for a new. small hotel.
o education and training in tourism-related skills Which items of labour and materials will be·
o improvements to airports and seaports a locally supplied
o roads, electricity, water supply, and other b imported?
infrastructure in areas to be developed for
tourism.

Quick questions Discuss the followmg question in a small group.

How does investment in transport facilities benefit What can be done to increase the benefits of
tourism? tourism for the local e conomy?
2 How does it benefit local people and businesses?
 Careers in tourism
may have a small team of only a few dozen staff, who
KEY IDEAS know each other and work closely together.
o There are career opportunities at all levels in
tourism. As with any large organization, there arc many
o Career development requires training. different jobs:
o In some hotels, most workers are members of a
trade union. Chief executive: The chief executive or general
o Tourism provides opportunities to start a manager is responsible for all aspects of the
business. business - for example, finances, marketing and
guest service, maintenance of the building and
equipment, human resources, and planning for
future development. In a large hotel or resort, this
requires years of practical experience, knowledge of
all aspects of the business, and an ability to work
constructively with others at all levels.
Managerial: Reporting to the chief executive in a
large hotel are other senior managers, responsible
for areas such as finance, marketing, and sales, or
food and beverages. More junior managers may be
responsible for areas such as security, or maintenance
of the building and grounds.
Professional: Professional staff are qualified in fields
such as accountancy, information technology, or
Figure 5 .16: Hotels are among the largest employers in human relations.
the Caribbean
Clerical and administrative: There are also more
junior jobs, in areas such as guest reception, data
entry, or accounts. Many staff at this level study to
gain professional qualifications and work experience,
so that they can gain promotion or start their own
business. Any staff member who interacts with
customers or with others must have good skills in
human relations.
Skilled: Most tourism jobs require skills and
training. Waiters, bar staff, and assistant chefs all
need training and experience. So do staff such as dive
instructors and tennis coaches.
Technical: Some jobs need technical skills, which
may be acquired outside the tourism industry; for
Fi gure 5.17: Food and beverage management can be a
product1ve career path
example electricians or plumbers.

Hotels are among the largest employers in some Semi-skilled and unskilled: Some jobs require
countries. In the Bahamas, the Atlantis resort has only low-level skills, which can be learnt quickly, for
almost 4,000 rooms, and 8,000 staff. That is almost example cleaning, simple maintenance, and routine
5 per cent of all jobs in the Bahamas. Small hotels security jobs.
 Career paths Some employers do not encourage union
Senior hotel managers have demanding jobs, and are membership. They feel that they are in a stronger
paid accordingly. Most begin their careers at a fairly position if they deal with their staff one by one.
low level, gaining skills, promotion, and experience
as they progress. To succeed at any level requires an 0 ~ost crt 01Ar sh}.f c:>.re. i'K c:>. 1A'KiO'K. :r: do'K 't
outgoing personality and good communication skills. tdwc:>.~s c:>.~re.e. wit£... tke. 1A'KIO'K view, b1At 1t ~ives
1AS c:>. dec:>.r cMA'K'Ke.£ to C.Otii.."'-1A'Kicc:>.te t>.'Kd re.solve
Many senior managers begin their career in the food d1.f.fere.'KUS. "Th.e. otke.r bi~ kate.£ kere kc:>.s 'KO
and beverages department.1hey learn to work with 1A'KiO'K. "Th.e.~ kc:>.ve t>.'K~ 'K1A~~t.ber crt du;p1Ates
other staff members, and communicate with guests. be.fore tke C01Arts1 tt~..Q.J(i'K~ ~'Ke~ .for tke
Junior managers deal with basic financial procedures i.o.~ers.
and human resources supervision.
A key figure in any hotel or restaurant is the
executive chef, who is responsible for every aspect of f)We do'K't wc:>.'Kt tke 1A'KiO'K kere 1 i'Kter.fen'K~
the kitchen, such as: wit£... eve~ .£1ttle tii..Q.~~e....e.'Kt dec.isio'K . We kc:>.ve
o developing the menu to operc:>.te #ex1b.£~, ~~t.I'K1Ate to "'-I'K1Ate .
o ordering high-quality supplies at a reasonable price
o supen,ising staff
o maintaining high health and safety standards
Training and qualifications
o ensuring that dishes are prepared on time, and to
meet high expectations.
A good executive chef works closely with a food
and beverages manager, and can command an
international salary. Ambitious and talented staff
from the Caribbean may work and study overseas
to broaden their horizons and gain experience, then
return home at a senior level.

Conditions of work
A career in tourism is not for everyone. There may
be long hours of work, often at night or at weekends.
Staff are busiest at times such as Christmas, when
others are relaxing at home. They must be flexible in
their approach, and remain cheerful and confident Figure 5.18: Specialist mstitutions provide trammg m
hotel work
when circumstances are difficult.
Jobs in tourism require training and qualifications.
In some countries, such as the Bahamas or
Many of the skills and attitudes required are fostered
Barbados, most hotel staff are members of a trade
by a good general education system, in schools, and
union. The union negotiates with management,
at university or college level.
for example to improve pay and conditions for its
members, ensure that health and safety standards o At any level, staff need a good general education,
are met, and protect workers against unfair with literacy and numeracy skills.
treatment or dismissal. o For many jobs, knowledge of information
technology and busi ness studies is useful.
In the Bahamas, most hotel workers are members of
o It is helpful if staff know a foreign language, and
the powerful H otel, Catering and Allied W orkers'
are aware of other cultures, and their own.
Trade Union. In other countries, hotel staff are
represented by general unions, such as the Barbados There are also specialist training institutions,
W orkers' Union. which provide skills directly related to tourism .

•
For example, the Heart Academy in Jamaica runs These are some of the other requirements for setting
the Runaway Bay Hotel and Training Institute, up a successful tourism-related business:
where students can learn skills and gain practical
o relevant work experience, to gain an
experience. The Hospitality Institute at Barbados
understanding of what is needed to operate
Community College also has its own hotel and
successfully
restaurant. It offers associate degree courses such as
o for some businesses, such as a diving school,
hospitality and tourism management, or culinary
a formal qualification or certification
arts. There are part-time programmes, mainly for
o the ability to work hard for long hours,
people already working in tourism, such as:
particularly during the start-up period
o food and beverage service o willingness to welcome customers, and make
o airport operations every effort to meet their needs
o hotel reception and sales procedures. o the ability to develop good relationships with
custo mers, staff, and suppliers.
The University of the West Indies offers degree-level
courses in hotel and tourism management.
Quick question
Other jobs require professional training which
is not directly related to tourism, for example in List FIVE hotel JObs. For each. state which category it
falls into (managerial. technical. etc.).
accountancy or maintenance of air-conditioning
equipment.
Some careers require both general training and
experience of the industry. For example, a human
Research
resource manager in a large resort would need
1 What institutions offer training for tourism-
general training in human resources, as well as wide
related jobs in your country?
practical experience gained from working in hotels
o What courses are available?
and other tourism businesses.
o What entry qualifications are required?
Most of all, the industry needs staff who are willing 2 Interview TWO people who work in tourism.
to work hard, interested in their job, and ambitious. o What are the advantages and
Personal skills are needed, to work with customers, disadvantages of their jobs?
co-workers, and others. o How did they get started in the industry?
o Have they worked in any other areas; and,
Starting a business
if so, is tourism preferable?
There are many opportunities for people who work
in tourism to start their own business. A s well as
starting a hotel or guest-house business, opening a
bar, restaurant, cafe, or dive shop, people can also run
other businesses based on tourism: As a class. arrange a meeting with the manager or
human resources manager of a hotel. Find out the
o hiking and bird -watching tours answers to the following questions.
o car hire and taxis o How many staff does the hotel employ?
o construction and maintenance of vacation homes. o What opportunities are available for young employees?
o What training is required?
Some start-up enterprises require a large amount o What are the opportunities for promotion?
of capital; others do not. For those who do not o What personal characteristics are needed to
have==capital, it may be possible to borrow funds succeed in hotel employment?
from a bank or from a government agency. The
borrower will need to develop a detailed business
plan, and convince the lender that the enterprise
will be a success.
 Tourism and the physical
environment
KEY IDEAS
o Tourism may have a negative impact on the
natural environment.
o Tourism may provide an incentive to conserve
wildlife and historic buildings.
o Careful planning can reduce negative impacts.
As with any economic activity, tourism:
o makes use of natural resources
o has an impact on the natural environment.
Tourism relies heavily on renewable resources and
the marine environment. If these arc damaged, the
industry will also suffer. A well-managed tourism
industry attempts to protect the environment, both
for its own sake and for the sake of the country and
community within which it operates.
Resort development
Figure 5.19: Atlant1s Resort m the Bahamas
A large tourist resort has a significant impact on the
local environme nt. For example:
o trees and other vegetation may be cleared to
prepare a site for construction
o coastal wetlands may be drained and reclaimed
o fresh water is used for guest rooms, to irrigate
the grounds, for swimming pools, and for other
purposes
o sewage and other waste are produced; these must
be disposed of carefully, so as not to pollute the
environment
o fertilizers and pesticides are used to maintain
gardens and other green spaces; these may be
washed into the sea, where they promote the
growth of algae, and may damage corals and other
marine life.
Most golf courses use more than half a square
kilometre of land. They require water for irrigation.
Pesticides and fertilizers are used to maintain a
smooth, green playing surface.
Marinas alter the coastal environment. Entrance
channels may be dredged through sensitive marine
habitats. The flow of waves and local currents may
be altered, sometimes increasing the rate of beach
erosion. However, some marinas, such as Port St
Charles in Barbados, have been carefully designed
and managed to avoid beach erosion.
Marine and land-based activities may damage the
habitat for wildlife, such as fish and birds. Power
boats may damage reefs, for example by dropping
anchors; jetskis may also cause damage if they are
not used wisely.
Green Globe 21
The Green Globe 21 programme sets worldwide
environmental standards for the tourism industry.
The programme is an attempt to reduce negative
environmental impacts from tourism by ensuring
that its activities are environmentally sustainable.
Hotels which take part may, for example:
o use solar water heaters
o organize water sports to minimize reef damage
o desig n buildings with open-air bars and
restaurants which are naturally cooled
o use recycled water for irrigation and outdoor
cleaning
o protect existing trees and plant new ones.
Participants also undertake to practise conservation
of natural areas and contribute to their local
community.

CASE STUDY
Great Guana Cay
Figure 5.20: Great Guana Cay 1n the Bahamas
Great Guana Cay is a coral island in the Bahamas.
14.5 km (9 miles) long but very narrow. with fewer than
100 inhabitants.
A development at Baker's Bay at the north-east end
of the island was proposed in 2004. with sites for
385 vacation homes. a golf course. and a marina. Most
of the residents opposed it. because they believed it
would change the character of the environment, and
threaten mangrove wetlands and coral reefs.
The government gave permission for the development
to go ahead on state land. A group of residents took
legal action to stop the project, but did not succeed.
By 2009. vegetation had been cleared. a channel was
dredged for the marina entrance, and some mangrove
wetland had been filled. The golf course was built. with
a design intended to reduce runoff into the sea. Few
sites for vacation homes were sold, because overseas
demand was low.
In 2012. a study by the Global Coral Reef Alliance
reported that excessive fertilizer from the golf course
had been washed into the sea, in spite of its design.
This promoted the growth of algae, which was thought
to have damaged the coral reef.
Discuss the following questions m a small group.
There is a proposal to build a resort in your country
with hotel. villas. and golf course on a large piece of
open land close to a popular beach.
a What arguments could be used for and against this
development?
b If it goes ahead. what should be done to minimize
damage to the environment. and ensure maximum
beneftts for the country?
Climate change
As we saw in Unit 3.27, an increase in atmospheric
carbon dioxide is likely to contribute to a worldwide
increase in temperatures and other climate change.
This is likely to cause problems in the Caribbean,
such as:
o more frequent floods and droughts
o more frequent and more powerful hurricanes
o rising sea levels
o increased coastal erosion
o serious damage or destruction of coral reefs.
Long-distance international tourism results in C0 2
emissions and other climate impacts. A return air
journey for a single passenger between New York
and the Caribbean may produce as much carbon as
several months' usage of a passenger car. Worldwide,
air travel is thought to be responsible for 3.5 per cent
of greenhouse gas emissions, although improved
aircraft design may reduce this figure. Cruise ships
also produce carbon emissions.
In 2012, Britain increased its air passenger duty, a
tax on air traveL This was intended to reduce carbon
emissions. Journeys to the Caribbean were taxed at
a much higher rate than travel to Europe, or more
distant American destinations, such as Hawaii.
There are concerns that this will reduce the number
of British tourists to the Caribbean, and that other
countries may also tax air travel more heavily.
Historic sites
Many historic and natural sites in the Caribbean
have been restored and maintained, often as national
parks. Some have received international and
regional funding. They help preserve natural and
historic heritage, and attract tourists and cruise ship
passengers, as well as local visitors.
Many organizations promote environmental
protection in the Caribbean. Some operate in one
country, while others are more wide-ranging.
o The Caribbean Conservation Association monitors
environmental issues throughout the region.
o The Barbados National Trust manages sites
such as the Sir Frank Hutson Sugar Museum
and Factory and the Arbib Nature and Heritage
TraiL The Trust has since 1983 organized regular
Sunday hikes for local people and tourists.
•
 o I n Jamaica, there are several organizatio ns.
Th e Jamaica National Heritage Trust was
est ablished by parliament, and has more than a
hundred staff. It protects heritage sites, carries
out research, orga nizes educational programmes
and assists community groups. The Jamaica
Conservation and D evelopment Trust manages
the Blue and J oh n Crow M oun tains National
Research
Visit a wildlife or hlstoric site in your country:
a Collect promotional material for the site. Try to find
photographs. and a sketch map whlch shows its
location.
b Describe the natural or hlstoric feature it is
designed to protect.
c Whlch orgaruzation manages the Site?
d What has been done to protect and enhance the
environment?
e How attractive is the site for local people. and for
tounsts?
CASE STUDY
The Cabrits, Dominica
Figure 5.21: Tounst s at the Cabnts
The Cabrits is a small peninsula 1.5km (1 mile) long, on
the west coast of Dominica. Its two hills were formed by
an ancient volcano. There are still hot volcanic springs
nearby, which are visited for their medicinal properties.
The Cabrits is an important natural and historic site.
o Nearby wetlands are home to birds. young fish. crabs,
insects. and crayfish .
•
Park. The Jamaica E nvironment Trust runs a
student environment network, with field trips
and practical projects.
What organizations protect wildlife and historic sites in
your country? Which sites do they protect?
Discuss the following questions in a small group.
1 In what ways may climate change affect Caribbean
tourism?
2 Is there any way of reducing greenhouse gas
emissions from aviation without damaging tourism?
3 Write a paragraph comparing the environmental
impact of tourism with that of other industries such as:
a bauxite mining
b cement manufacturing
c banking
d large-scale commercial agriculture.
o There are coral reefs in the waters off shore.
o The hills are covered by woodland. whlch is home to
birds and other wildlife.
o Archeologists have found remains of ancient
Amerindian activities.
o Fort Shirley and the surrounding military base was built
more than 200 years ago to protect what was then the
British colony of Dominica from attack by the French.
o In 1802. the black soldiers of the West India Regiment
of the British army revolted against harsh conditions;
the revolt was quickly put down. with 34 soldiers
sentenced to death.
o The Cabrits military base was abandoned in 1854. and
fell to ruin. The forest took over.
The Cabrits is now a National Park. with the nearby
waters included as a marine reserve. Some of the ruins
have been restored by a local company, Island Heritage
Initiative. with assistance from the European Union Eco-
Tourism Development Project. A "Loop Trail" connects the
historic and natural sites.
Tourists and cruise ship passengers visit the National
Park. They pay an entrance fee. and provide employment
for guides and drivers. Dominicans also visit the Cabrits.
to experience their own heritage and history.
 Land use and beach access
In some islands, such as Tobago, there are restrictions
KEY IDEAS on the sale of land to foreign citizens.
o Land is a scarce resource.
o Land used by tourism may also be required by 0 :r e>.lwe>.~s we>.-J-tted to live -J-tee>.r tiM bee>.ck 1
others. h1At tke ve>.e.e>.tiO-J-t kO'Itl.e OW-J-ters IM>.ve bid 1Ap
tke price o.f le>.-J-td. So :r st.li. l1ve 11-t e>. bon-J-t~
Land ownership Y"eSJde.-J-tt lt>.l e>.ree>..
Like any other economic activity, tourism requires
land. H otels and vacation homes are surrounded by
spacious gardens. Additional land is used for golf e Grt>.1-t1-t}t fe.ft 1'\£. 1>.1-t MY"e o.f lt>.-J-td Wltk 1>.
courses and sports facilities. see>. V1ew. f sold it to e>. kotel . Now :r CP.-J-t shrt
tto..]t OW1-t b1Asi-J-te.ss1 t>-1-td :r 1-tO lo-J-t~er ke>.ve to wor~
I n a small island, land is a scarce resource. Land use
u.lfx,1At ~IVI-J-t~ tto..~ ckildre-J-t u. ~ooa ste>.rt i-J-t l1.fe .
must be carefully planned.
Hotels, restaurants, other businesses, vacation homes,
and local residents compete for desirable beach- front
sites. Land with a clear view of the open sea can Agriculture, wildlife and tourism
command a high price. In Barbados, for example: Some people are concerned about the loss of
agricultural land and labour to tourism. The situation
o beach-front sites suitable for a comfortable family is different in each island.
house may fetch up to USSS million
o similar sites away from the beach are sold for o In St Kitts, the government-owned sugar industry
much less; in some rural areas, the price may by was closed in 2005, because it was losing money.
less than US$100,000. Some of the land previously used for growing
sugar cane has been developed for tourism,
earning foreign exchange for the
country and creating new jobs.
o In Nevis, large-scale
commercial agriculture
ceased many years ago.
Former plantation houses
have been converted into
luxury hotels.
o In Barbados, most of the
land along the west and
south coasts has long been
developed for tourism or
residential use. There are golf
courses and vacation homes
on inland sites. Many farms
which grow sugar cane are
no longer profitable, so their
owners would be happy
to sell the land. However,
the government restricts
Figure 5.22: When land is developed for tourism, publ1c beach access should be preserved
conversion of agricultural
land to other uses.
J\1any former agricultural workers prefer to work
in tourism, where pay is better, conditions of work
often easier, and there are clearer prospects for career
development and promotion.
0 Th.e7r ptA'~'\ to 1ASe t~e .fcrrvu.r oi£. n.fi'l'te1J"
site. .P.~ to1AnSII\.1 O'I'\U it ~AS bee'l't deA'I'tetJ 1Ap.
::rt IS n(}~t '~'teXt to A belt\C~ . Th.elj 1.-\.Ave bee'l't
tAtf(l'l't(} Abo1At t~A-1' pri(Ject .for ljeArs .
Beaches are a resource for tourism. They are also a
valued recreational asset for local people. Popular
beaches such as Accra Beach in Barbados are easily
accessible for everyone. The beach, and the adjacent
land, are public property.
Everywhere in the English-speaking Caribbean, the
beach below the high-water mark is public property.
Anyone can access the open sea, and the area which
is washed by breaking waves. Above the high-water
mark, land may be privately owned.

Access to beaches In some countries, such as Barbados, beach access is

protected by law. No walls or fences can be erected
on beach sand, even above the high-water mark.
Even if the land adjoining the beach is private
property, there is almost always a right of way,
allowing everyone, locals and visitors alike, free
Open space w1th
trees, parking, and access to the shoreline.
p1cn1c tables
In islands such as Jamaica, some beaches, such as
Doctor's Cave beach in Montego Bay, are leased to
private operators who charge for admission. Beaches
adjoining some all-inclusive resorts are difficult to
reach. A fence or wall surrounds the property, and
Good beach access
extends right down to the high-water mark. Security
Public road
guards may be posted to deter access.

Pnvate Private t:>-'11~ till\.e.

property property
Anthon} "Mighty Gabby" Carter, Barbadian calypsonian

O Th.,s cA-x 't be n(}~t. ::r.P. t:>-'11 All\.b1A~'I1U ~eds

Restncted beach access to (}et to tM be:t:>.~ t~is •s wMn tMlj covu. .
WM'I't we cp.f~ .fist.-t or M1At 1Ap bot:>.ts tlt\.•s is wMn
we bn'l't(r tMII\. t~r01A(r"'-· ::rt is totvJi.lj 1A'I1.P.t:>.ir.
Barbadian protesting against an attempt to block a
beach-access footpath
Private property
Fence extends to
water line

No publ1c access

Figure 5.23: Types of beach access


Access to hotels
In the 1950s, many hotels, restaurants, and cinemas
in the Bahamas operated a "whites-only" admission
policy. Mter a wave of public protests, the House of
Assembly passed a resolution in 1956, ruling that
there should be no discrimination .
Since the mid-20th century, no hotel in the English-
speaking Caribbean has been closed to citizens of
any racial group. To discriminate in this way would
be a violation of the constitution.
In Cuba, local residents were not allowed to stay in
tourist hotels until2009. Now, they may; but most
cannot afford the rates. There are other hotels intended
for Cubans, where foreign tourists are not encouraged.
e We. G\re. G\~ cd.l-J~d1ASJI/e. resort. We. ca~ 't
lii.G\1/e. e.Ve.YJtO~e. .frChoo. tl!l.e. be.Gl.cil. CChoo.i~Q I~Side. to
tt:~.!<e. o1Ar ':food Gl.~ci cin~!< ,.,ntlii.01At fGl.(ji~ -For it .
0 1 Have there been any problems with public beach
Figure 5.24: Casmo gambling m the Bahamas
5 .7 Lana use and oeacn
In most all-inclusive hotels, casual visitors are not
admitted, because guests have free access to food,
drink, and sports facilities. In most all-inclusives:
o only staff and registered guests are allowed
in freely
o anyone, local or foreign, may pay for a day pass,
including guests staying at other hotels
o anyone may check in as an overnight guest; in
Jamaica, those who can afford to may take a
weekend break in an all-inclusive resort on the
north coast.
In the Bahamas, casinos are open to foreign visitors,
but not local residents . That is because some people
see gambling as immoral.
Discuss the following questions with a partner.
access in your country? If so, how can they be
resolved?
2 How may a Caribbean economy benefit from:
a agriculture?
b tourism?
3 Should foreign nationals be allowed to buy land for
vacation homes?
4 Should local residents be allowed access to
gambling casinos?
5 Should private beaches be allowed?
•
 The social and cultural environment
tourists, the super-rich make up a small minority.
KEY IDEAS Many visitors work, for example, as teachers,
o There are cultural differences between tourists
waiters, or plumbers in their own country.
and people in the Caribbean.
o Tourism has positive and negative effects on arts
o In Britain and North America, many schools,
and culture. workplaces, and residential communities are
ethnically mixed.
o Black people, including migrants from the
Caribbean and their descendants, have risen to
the top in politics, business, sports, entertainment,
and the professions.

Figure 5.25: ian Fleming 1n Jama1ca: el1te tounsm during

the 1950s

In the early days of Caribbean tourism, in the 1950s

and 1960s, there was a wide cultural gap between
local people and tourists:
o In Europe and North America, only the very
rich could afford Caribbean travel. Writers like
Ian Fleming, celebrities like Britain's Princess
l\1argaret, and classic Hollywood stars like Errol
Figure 5.26: Pnnce Harry " races" w1th Usam Bolt dunng h1s
Flynn had vacation homes in islands such as visit to Jamaica 1n 2012
Jamaica, Mustique, or Barbados.
o The United States was deeply divided on racial o Many people in the Caribbean have incomes
lines. Almost all African-Americans had low- comparable with European or North American
paid jobs, and all suffered discrimination. levels.
o In Britain, black people were seen as newly o Many Caribbean residents have travelled outside
arrived and badly paid migrant workers. the region for a vacation or family visit.
o l\1ost people in the Caribbean had low incomes. o Caribbean people are familiar with North
Few had the chance to travel. American and British television, music, and
o Tourists had little previous contact with sports.
Caribbean culture. o Caribbean music and culture have made their
mark in the rest of the world.
Today, there is still a cultural gap, but it is much less:
Tourists meet Caribbean people in bars and
o Working people from the USA, Britain, and
nightclubs, on the beach, or at sports and cultural
Canada can afford to travel. Among today's

•
events. However, those who stay in all-inclusive
resorts are less likely to meet local people, other than
hotel staff.
Usually, interaction between local people and tourists
is positive. Occasionally there are problems. These
may result from a misunderstanding, or from ill-will
on either side.
Discuss the following question in a small group.
Have relations between Caribbean people and
tourists changed since the days of elite tourism in
the mid-20th century?
e J: ~S be.~
0'1\ tl.\.e. t\'1\d t\ ~'1\ Wt\'1\te.d to
se.l.l. ~ c.oc..t~.1~. The-'1\ r,...e St\id r,...e wcn.tl.d tw.ve. se.x
w1t"'- ~ .for- ..0~]1". W(,o..e'1\ J: St\ld '1\01 "-e. be.c.t~..-.e.
t~.b-tAsive. t\'1\d "'-oshre. :I: wt\s sf..l.oc..J<e.d, sc..t\re.d1 t\'1\d
1Apse.t.
e A.fte.r tr,...e ~ tc."'-1 we. we.~t to 0'1\e. o.f tr,...e
bt\rs i'1\ tow~. Their side lost, h1At it d1d~'t se.e.tt~­
to ttl.t\tte.r. :rt t-w~d i~to t\~ t\!l.-~i~"'-t f»-Yt~
t\~~wt\~. "W11-t1 lose, or- drt\w·, f"'-e.~ st~.id.
e We. we.1-tt to t\1-t t\rt e.X"'-ibiti01-t1 t\1-td bo'tA~"'-
t t\
~i1-tti~~· The. t\rtist wt\S so c..re.t\tive. 1 l.ivel~J.' t\1-td
i1-tfe.ll13e.'1\t. f:ve.Y}t ti.-.e. :r l.oo)( t\t t"'-e. pic..t1Are.1
:r 'tt~- bt\c.i( i~ tr,...e ~ribbe.t\~.
0 :r £1ve. 11-t ~~vil.l.e. . :rt is 01-te. o.f tr,...e
b~~~e.st tow1-tS 11-t .::ft\ttl.t\IC..t\1 h1At we. ~ve.r see.
t\~~ t01Arists. "'1}1' C.01ASI1-t tw.s t\ ~ood JOb t\ t t\
M'fe.l. i1-t Ne.3ril..
0 ~~
· f\
Wl"r-1!- .
IS NOYWtl-~it\'1\.
. J: lll.e- t vu;;.Y
'·A 11-t
. t\
1-t13"'-t c..l.1Ab 1.\.e.re. ~1-t we. we.re bot"- 1A1-tiVI!-YSif~
st1Ade.'1\ts. Now :r P<tt~- t\ doc..tor- i1-t Oslo.
Some tourists are returning nationals, who have
migrated overseas and return home to visit friends
and relatives. They stay in family homes, or in hotels.
They may visit restaurants and bars, rent cars, and go
to cultural events.
G)
:r tooK tt~-]t c.."'-il.dre-1-t to &1A~t\~. We. we.1-tt to
Stt~.broe.J< ~rJ<e.t, tr,...e Kt\1e.fe.1Ar FP.lls1 switt~-..... i1-t3
i1-t t"'-e. c.re.e./( 1 e.ve.~~.e.re.. The.]t 3ot to !<1-tOW tr,...eir
~rt\1-t1-t~ ~'<~ tkiir C..01ASi1-ts. 'tJow t"'-e.~ c..t\1-t see.
~~ :r still. c..t\ll it~ .
Arts, culture, and tourism
Many tourists want to experience local art and
culture. However, this can have negative as well as
positive effects:
o Tourists may buy works of art and craft products.
This encourages artists, and helps them to earn a
living.
o Some souvenirs produced for tourists are of low
quality, or are not even made in the region.
o Tourists buy tickets to music festivals or drama
productions.
•
o Some shows put on for tourists do not show
creativity or innovation. They are patronizing to
performers and artists alike.
Figure 5.27 : At Fa 1rf1eld Pottery and Gal lery m Barbados.
Maggie Bell produces hand -crafted ceram1cs for tounsts and
the local market
Research
1 Interview a small number of tourists. Ask
whether they have had any positive or negative
experiences interacting with local people.
2 Visit a tourist area and conduct a survey of
the accommodation. attractions. restaurants,
etc. Conduct interviews with tourism workers.
Prepare a report on your findings, including
tables and diagrams.
Discuss the folloWing questions in a small group
l Do most people in your country have a positive.
negative. or neutral view of tourism?
2 Are there any attitudes to tourism which need to be
changed·
a among local people?
b among tourists?
3 If changes are needed. how can they be achieved?
 National and international policies
KEY IDEAS
o Governments assist tourism through
infrastructure, education, and marketing.
o Governments encourage investment.
o Environmental protection benefits tourists,
businesses. and residents.
o National, regional and international organizations
support tourism.
Infrastructure, education, and social
policy
Caribbean governments recognize that tourism is
important for economic growth and development.
They encourage the growth of the industry.
We have seen how a successful tourist industry needs
good roads, sea ports, and airports, as well as reliable
water and electricity supplies, and effective, low-cost
telecommunications.
Tourism also needs a strong educational system, to
develop both general and specialist skills.
Tourism cannot flourish unless the government
addresses social problems such as crime, disease, and
poverty.
Encouraging investments
Figure 5.28 : The BahaMar resort under construction
A large tourism project requires an investment of
several hundred million dollars. The BahaMar resort
in the Bahamas, under construction in 2012, will
cost around US$2.6 billion. That is more than the
combined GDP of Grenada, St Kitts-Nevis, and
Dominica.
I nvestors do not finance projects unless they have
the support of the government. Governments may
encourage and assist large-scale investments:
o State land may be sold or leased, to provide a site.
o The government may provide roads or other
infrastructure.
o Tax concessions may allow building materials and
equipment to be imported duty-free.
o Profits may be tax-free for a number of years.
o Large developers may be given a casino licence,
allowing them to make extra profits.
The most important incentive is an environment
which benefits all businesses, local or foreign-
owned, and all industries, not just tourism. This
may include:
o simple and rapid administrative procedures for
starting up a business
o a tax system which is fair and easy to understand
o quick and easy access to utilities such as electricity
and water supply at a reasonable cost
o a legal system which resolves disputes quickly
and fairly.
The strongest negative factor for any reputable
company is corruption. If bribes must be paid, many
investors will just walk away. Those who remain may
not be desirable partners.
Some of these factors are evaluated by the World
Bank, which has an "Ease of Doing Business" index ,
in which each country is ranked according to various
indicators such as getting credit, registering property
and enforcing contracts. Many Caribbean countries
are attempting to improve their ranking.
•
 Country Rank o an effective warning system for natural hazards
Smgapore 1 such as hurricanes, with emergency procedures in
USA 3 place for essential services
France 29
o control of diseases such as dengue fever
o clean roads, beaches, and public spaces
South Afnca 35
o good access for all to public beaches.
Puerto R1co 43
St Lucia 52 Marketing and promotion
Tnmdad and Tobago 68
The Bahamas 85
Jama1ca 88
Guyana 114
Iraq 164
Ha1tl 174
Chad 183
Tabl e 5.9 : World Bank "Ease of Doing Busmess" rank1ngs.
2011

Environmental protection
Environment protection benefits local people, the
tourists themselves, and bu sinesses of all types,
whether connected to tourism or not.
No business or resident wants an ugly, dirty
neighbour. Responsible investors support
environmental protection.
Fi gure 5.30 : The market1ng and promotion of Caribbean
tounsm must compete w1th other destmat1ons
Governments support the marketing and promotion
of tourism in various ways. For example, many
governments maintain overseas offices. These may:
o arrange contacts between hotels and resorts and
tour companies in the source country
o participate, along with hotels and other
businesses, in travel fairs and special events
o develop advertising campaigns for print media,
radio, television, or billboards.
o encourage travel journalists to write about the
destination.
Local advertising and educational campaigns
encourage people in the host country to support
tourism, and play their part in its development.

National tourism organizations

All countries have organizations which promote
tourism .
Figure 5. 29: A polluted beach 1n the Domm1can RepubliC
M inistries of tourism are government departments.
These are some of the factors which attract high - The minister is a member of the cabinet, where
quality tourism busi nesses: major decisions are agreed. The ministry h as
professional staff, who develop policies to promote
o protection for wildlife and natural attractions
investment, build infrastructure, or organize
o a clean public water supply
promotional campaigns. A tourism ministry may
o control of flooding
develop an overall plan or strategy for the industry.

•
Boards of tourism and similar organizations The Caribbean Hotel and Tourism Association
arc also official bodies, but they include private is a private sector organization. Members include
sector representatives of hotels, airlines, car rental 850 hotels from 36 countries in the wider Caribbean,
companies, and other businesses. They discuss and 600 other businesses. It has many activities,
tourism policy, and are directly involved in such as:
promotion and marketing.
o representing the interests of the industry
There are also private sector bodies, such as hotel o marketing, and maintaining an industry website
associations. These. may: o providing property, health, and liability insurance
o running the annual "Taste of the Caribbean"
o take part in promotion and marketing
competition
o talk to the government about the needs of the
o sharing information about jobs, training, and
industry; this activity is called lobbying
career opportunities
o offer training in areas such as food and
o looking after the interests of"small" hotels- those
beverages, environmental management, hurricane
with 75 rooms or fewer.
preparedness, or customer service
o maintain communications, using newsletters,
Donor agencies and international
social media, and websites
bodies
o encourage education and community activities;
Tourism is an international business, and many
for example, the Adopt-A-School programme in
international organizations provide support. They
some countries encourages links between schools
see tourism as a force for economic and social
and hotels.
development.
In some countries, such as Barbados, hotel associations
The Caribbean Development Bank is based
also negotiate with trade unions to reach agreements on
in Barbados. It borrows funds from countries
pay and working conditions.
outside the region, such as the USA, Britain, or
Hospitality training institutions, such as Heart China, and lends within the region for economic
Academy's Runaway Bay Hotel and Training and social development. It has helped finance
Institute in Jamaica, or the Hospitality Institute at initiatives linked to touri sm, such as those
Barbados Community College, train students for providing:
careers in tourism.
o improved equipment and access for Harrison's
Cave in Barbados
Regional organizations
o water-supply enhancement for Nevis
There are several regional organizations linked to
o sea-access facilities for the islands of Andros and
tourism.
Eleuthera in the Bahamas
The Caribbean Tourism Organization is based in o improvements to the Blowing Point ferry port on
Barbados. It links 30 member countries in the wider Anguilla.
Caribbean. Members include governments, airlines,
Other donor agencies lend or grant funds. For
cruise lines, travel agencies, and others. Among its
example:
functions are:
o the US Agency for International Development
o acquiring international funding
has supported projects to improve coastal water
o encouraging sustainable tourism
quality in Jamaica, and community-based
o collecting and sharing data, for example on
adventure and ceo-tourism for the village of
tourist arrivals
Flagstaff in the Cockpit Country
o encouraging education about tourism, for example
o Britain's Department for Overseas Development
through the Caribbean Examinations Council
has supported work in ten marine areas in
o representing members' interests, regionally and
Jamaica, to protect and improve fish stocks and
internationally.
coral reefs

•
 o the Canadian International Development Agency
supports various initiatives, for example providing
access to employment skills for young people and
increased disaster preparedness
o the European Union has provided funding for
tourism education, for example at the Heart
Academy in Jamaica and the Hospitality Institute
in Barbados
o the Organization of American States provides a
forum for discussion, and has agreed to help the
Caribbean Tourism Organization and Caribbean
Hotel and Tourism Association in training, data
analysis, and other areas.
II
What are the main government and private sector
organizations in your country which promote
tourism?
2 Descnbe ONE mitiative by the government of your
country to improve each of the following, to the
benefit of tourism:
a roads
b airports and sea ports
c environmental protection.
3 Describe a tourism investment proJect in your
country. Has the government done anything to
encourage this investment?
Working with a partner, use the Internet to find the
current World Bank "Ease of Doing Business" ranking
for your country. Has it improved in recent years?
Discuss what could be done to improve the business
environment.
5.10 Challenges for tourism
KEY IDEAS
o The Caribbean must be aware of challenges
facing tourism if it is to remain a world leader.
o Challenges include competing destinations. cruise
ship policies. obtaining funding for investment.
labour issues, air access. water supply, climate
change, marketing and research, and threats from
terrorism and crime.
Competing destinations
Figure 5.31: Tropical 1slands elsewhere 1n the wor ld such as
the Maldtves compete w1th the Canbbean for tounsts
The English-speaking Caribbean has a small part
of the world tourism market. It must compete with
major international destinations- cities such as New
York and Paris; marine environments such as the
Mediterranean, or Dubai and the Gulf states in the
Middle East; and tropical islands in the Atlantic,
Indian, and Pacific oceans.
Other island destinations, which offer similar
products to those of the Caribbean, include:
o Hawaii, Tahiti, Fiji and other Pacific islands
o the Azores, Madeira, the Canary Islands, and the
Cape Verde Islands in the Atlantic
o the Seychelles, the Maldives, Mauritius, and
Reunion in the Indian Ocean
o the islands of Phuket in Thailand, and Bali in
Indonesia.
Nearer home, there is strong competition from
Spanish-speaking Caribbean destinations such as:
o the Mexican 'Riviera Maya', with resorts such as
Cancun and the island of Cozumel
o the Dominican Republic
o the Isla de Margarita off the coast of Venezuela
o Cuba.
Some island destinations, such as I lawaii, are well-
established. Others, such as the Cape Verde islands,
are emerging destinations which have developed
tourism only during this century. All of those listed
on this page have a pleasant climate, warm seas, and
a vibrant local culture. Some have advantages, when
compared to the Caribbean:
o I Iawaii is more accessible for the west coast of
the USA, and for Japan . Bali is more accessible
for Australia.
o Most resorts in the Hispanic C aribbean have
lower labour costs and can therefore offer lower
prices to attract business.
o Many have a natural environment, marine and
on land, which is less affected by pollution and
human activity than the Caribbean.
o Many tourists who have already experienced
English-speaking Caribbean culture would like
to see something different.
Cruise ships
Many cruise ships visit the Caribbean. They provide
strong competition for land-based tourism. They also
provide fewer benefits for the region:
o Cruise lines pay few taxes within the region.
o Most supplies are taken on at a home port,
usually in Florida or Puerto Rico. Few goods
used on cruise ships are purchased within the
Caribbean.
o Unlike hotels, cruise ships are built outside the
Caribbean. The local construction industry does
not benefit.
o Most staff are from other regions of the world,
for example the Philippines.
•

Figure 5.32: Cruise ships in port , Barbados
However, cruise lines do bring some benefits:
o Some money is paid to governments, with a small
passenger "head tax".
o Cruise lines pay port charges. This helps cover the
cost of special port facilities for cruise ships.
o Cruise passengers spend money on shore-based
duty-free shops and excursions, although these
must give a percentage of their takings back to
the cruise line.
o Some staff are recruited within the region.
o A small number of Caribbean products are
purchased in the home port and used on board.
o Many cruise ships are registered with Caribbean
nations such as the Bahamas, and fly their flag.
They pay a small fee for this service.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of cruise
ships with a partner. Overall. do you think they are of
benefit to Caribbean tourism?
Investment
New tourism projects require a major financial
investment. There are several possible sources of capital.
o Small projects can be financed from the
entrepreneur's own resources, or from a regional
bank.
o Large projects are financed by regional and
international banks, and by sales of timeshares
and building sites for vacation homes.
II.
Investments in tourism depend on the state of the
world economy. When large countries such as the
USA are prosperous, it is easier to raise capital for
new resorts.
I n the years after 2008, it was difficult to raise
finance for tourism projects.
o People in the USA and Europe were less likely
to invest in a vacation home. Their own property
market was in difficulties, and few had spare cash
for a new venture.
o Banks and other investors had little money to
lend, and became cautious about investment risk.
o Tourist numbers in the Caribbean declined, and
hotels were forced to reduce their room rates to
attract business. This made investors wary of new
tourism projects.
Labour issues
StafF play an essential role in hotels and other
tourism businesses. There are many labour and
staffing issues which need to be addressed:
o There is a shortage of skilled labour, particularly
for high -level professional staff. More training
and practical experience are always needed.
o In some islands, such as Aruba and the Cayman
Islands, there is a shortage of labour. Many workers
are migrants, from elsewhere in the Caribbean or
from more distant countries such as the Philippines.
o H owever, in other countries, such as Jamaica,
there is no overall labour shortage. There are
many unemployed workers who would like to
work in tourism.
Cayman
Islands
38%
Jamaica
24%
Figure 5.33 : Cayman Islands popu lation: country of bir th
The Cayman Islands had 54000 people in 2010.
They were of 135 different nationalities. Many of
these migrants work in tourism.
Tourism has helped bring increased prosperity
to the Caribbean. Where there are trade unions,
these rightly protect staff from unfair treatment.
In some competing destinations, wages are lower,
and conditions of work are insecure. To compete,
Caribbean hotels may be forced to:
o charge higher prices than their competitors
o offer a reduced level of service, for example by
cleaning rooms less frequently
o manage their labour more efficiently
o reduce other costs, if this is possible
o accept smaller profits.
Discuss the following questions with a partner.
1 If a hotel is in financial difficulties because of
reduced international demand. should its staff
accept reduced earnings or longer working hours?
2 What are the alternatives if wage cuts are not accepted?
Air access
Any successful tourism industry requires good air
access. If airlines increase their flights to Caribbean
destinations, tourism is encouraged.
Some governments give financial support to
overseas or local airlines which provide international
connections. They may also provide financial support
for joint marketing campaigns, which feature both
the airline and the destination.
The water supply
If water supply is inadequate, hotels cannot function
properly. Households and other businesses suffer
serious inconvenience. Investment in infrastructure
is needed.
In some tourist destinations, such as Nassau in the
Bahamas or Aruba, rainfall is not enough for an
adequate water supply. Water must be obtained by
desalination - that is, removing the salt from sea
water. This is a costly process; customers must pay
more for water than in islands with adequate rainfall.
Surface and underground supplies of fresh water
must be treated with care, to preserve water quality
and avoid increased costs.
Marketing and research
For tourism to remain prosperous, it is important to
market the regional tourism product, with initiatives
such as:
o effective use of the Internet
o advertising in print and electronic media
o building personal contacts and relationships with
tour companies in the source country, and their
representatives.
Effective marketing depends on good research.
Answers are needed to questions such as these:
o What are potential tourists looking for as they plan
their vacations? How important are the following:
o cost?
o a clean and attractive environment?
o ease of access by air?
o a warm and friendly reception?
o What do people in the source countries like about
the Caribbean?
o What are their concerns, and how should these
be addressed?
o What are other destinations offering? How can the
Caribbean compete effectively in the world market?
More than research, effective marketing depends
on having a good-quality product at an affordable
price. Tourists who feel that a destination does not
live up to its promise will not return, and will not
recommend it to their friends.
Terrorism and crime
Tourists naturally want a secure environment. They
want to relax on vacation, and not worry.
I nternational terrorism can threaten tourism. After
the 11 September attacks in New York in 2001, all
aircraft were grounded for a short time. For a longer
period, many people were afraid to fly. Compared to
destinations such as those in the Middle East, the
Caribbean is seen as low risk for terrorism. However,
precautions are needed, such as:
o security checks on passengers boarding aircraft
and cruise ships
o careful passport and immigration controls
o monitoring of potential terrorist groups with
Caribbean connections
o controls on money laundering and financing of
terrorists through Caribbean banks.
•
 These controls are inconvenient for tourists, and for
Research
people who live in the Caribbean. The authorities
must be careful not to interfere with democratic 1 On a world map. show TEN tropical destinations
freedoms. However, a major terrorist incident within which compete with the Caribbean. Show TEN major
the region cou ld cause a human tragedy, as well as source markets. such as London and New York
2 Use the Internet to plan a trip from London or New
serious economic damage.
York to a competing tropical island destination. for
Crime is an ongoing threat. Some countries in the example in the Maldives, the Cape Verde Islands. or
English-speaking and Hispanic Caribbean have the Pacific.
Compare this destination with your own country,
murder rates among the highest in the world, linked
under these headings·
to gang violence and gun crime. a attractions and resources
b accessibility
Crime is not necessarily violent. If cheating and
c accommodation and services
unethical practices are widely accepted in business d infrastructure.
transactions, there will be a negative effect on tourism: Which destination do you think is more attractive,
overall?
o Hotels will suffer increased costs, for example
from pilfering or poor-quality supplies
o Tourists will feel that they have to be constantly
checking and on their guard, rather than enjoying
a relaxing vacation. Discuss the following questions in a small group.
1 Should the government provide financial support
Country Murder rate for overseas airlines which increase their flights to
Honduras 86 the Canbbean?
Jama1ca 39 2 In what ways could terrorism threaten:
a air traffic to the Caribbean?
Colombia 33
b cruise ships within the region?
The Bahamas 36 c tourists staying in hotels?
Tnn1dad and Tobago 28 3 Do you think any of these threats is likely to become
Braz1l (2010) 25 a reality?
4 What can be done to reduce the murder rate in the
Canbbean average (2010) 21
Caribbean?
USA (2010) 5
UK (2010) 1
Japan (2009) 80.4
Tabl e 5.10:. Murder rate . per 100000 201 1 or most recent
year

•
5.11 Cooperation and technology
KEY IDEAS
o Caribbean organizations cooperate over tourism
issues.
o The Caribbean is itself an important source
country for regional tourism.
o The Internet has transformed possibilities for
tourism marketing.
Caricom
Caribbean countries can work together for the
benefit of their tourism industries. Caricom can
discuss tourism issues. The Bahamas is responsible
for tourism within the Caricom "quasi cabinet".
Within the Caricom Single Market:
o goods used in tourism, such as most locally
produced foods, can be traded without customs duty
o graduates and some professional staff can migrate
freely to other countries to work
o Caribbean nationals and companies can establish
businesses anywhere in the region.
Marketing the Caribbean
Organizations such as the Caribbean H otel and
Tourism Association (CHTA) and the Caribbean
Tourism Organization (CTO) operate across the
region. They aim to market the Caribbean as a single
destination.
The CTO and CHTA jointly own the Caribbean
Tourism Development Company, which is
designed to:
o generate regional marketing efforts
o promote and protect the Caribbean brand
o create new benefits from working together
o generate revenues for the benefit of the
Caribbean people.
Aims pledged jointly by the CHTA and CTO in 2005 were:
"Full cooperation and collaboration between the
public and private sectors of the Caribbean tourism
industry in order for tourism development to proceed
in a coherent. effective and efficient manner."
Regional tourism companies
Several Caribbean tourism companies, such as
Sandals and SuperClubs, operate in many countries
of the region. For example, Sandals Resorts
International, a Jamaican company, operates in:
o Jamaica
o St Lucia
o Antigua
o the Bahamas
o the Turks and Caicos I slands
o Cuba.
Aviation
There are also airlines which operate on a regional
basis, such as Caribbean Airlines and LIAT.
To travel to smaller islands, or within the region,
many passengers use aviation hubs. They take a long-
distance flight to a major airport, for example in
Barbados or Antigua, where they arrive as in-transit
passengers. Then they take a regional flight to a
smaller airport, for example in Anguilla, Montserrat,
or Dominica.
This system works most effectively when:
o airlines coordinate flight times, so that passengers
do not have to wait a long time
o flights operate on time, so there are few missed
connections
o customs and immigration arrangements allow in-
transit passengers to reach their connecting flight
quickly
o passengers have a comfortable place to relax, and
perhaps take a light meal
o there is no need to stay overnight in the
connecting hub airport.
When travelling overseas, some passengers need
to change flights in another hub, before flying to
their final destination. This can be troublesome.
Some passengers travelling through London or
New York need to cross the city to another airport,
which can take two hours or more, after a tiring
overnight flight.
•
 Regional tourism

Fi gure 5.34: The Ka1eteur Falls IS a maJor tounst attract1on 1n Guyana

Travel within the region, or intra-Caribbean tourism, 0 WL-I.e.-y. we. ao to Ct\nbbe.P..Y. ISlMI.OS, tL-t.e
is important for many islands. In Barbados, for
i't'4.'t'4.1~rP. tiO.Y. ~.fleers tre.P. f '!AS witt.. S1ASp1CIO.Y..
example, more than one-sixth of tourists come from
We. do -y.ot .f!e.e.l we.lco.....e..
other Caribbean coun tries. Tourists travel within the
region for many reasons, including:
o vacations
o festivals and cultural events 0 M)t brott..e.r we.-y.t to "' b'IASi.Y.e.ss .....e.e.t1.Y.~
I.Y.
o sporting events and competitio ns ~r16e. . He. tool< tL-t.e ct..P..Y.ce. to vis1t tL-t.e MP.lrP.
o to visit friends and relatives r'!AI.Y.S p..f!hrwP.rdsJ fke-y. ke. spe.-y. t tv..e. we.e.)(e..Y.d
o business meetings and conferences. p. t p. be.P.cV.. resort o-y. C\1'\ o.f!.f!sV..ore. CC\l

H owever, it is not always easy to travel within the

reg10n .

OJ: wo'!Ald l11<e. to ~o to 3"P.I'Il.Q.ic.t\. B1At .f!.,-o.,.._ .,.._lr 0 M}t .....otke.r t,ve.s i.Y. St l-'!AciC\1 "'~
:I kt\ve.
ISlP..Y.O} It IS 't'4.1ACL-I. cke.P.pe.r to #zr to MiP.'t'4.i . i="Me.boo)( .f!ne.~s p.£1 over tL-t.e re.()'IO.Y. .

•
 e :! ke-lp 01At ~s
crew O't! ~ ]t~c.L-1.t. L.~st 7te~r1
0 Few to1Ansts c.o~t~.e to 01Ar C.01A't!t~ i'tl
we we'tlt to A't!t, 1A~ .for s~t£1'1'\0 WeeK . :r.'f w~s ~
0
re~H~ exc.iti'tla expene't!c.e.
Oc.tober ~'tid Novett~.ber. So we o.f.fer re~ t r~tes
0
.for loc.~£ C.1Asto~t~.ers. We ~)(e so~t~.e j~~.O't!e~ 1 ~'tid
Keep 01Ar st~.f.f b1A~1 ~1'!6 it is ~ood .for 01Ar
ij0!.~ e P.s fX'-.r t o!" tke c:-ajll.jii.1A't\lt'}t .'r~ople . r~P.l1t;e
0
t~t 1'01ArtStt~. IS 't!Ot j1ASt .for .fore1Q't\ VISitors.
Number of tourists from ...
Tnn1dad and Tobago 36932
Guyana 16 524
Communications technology
St V1ncent 10 596
Like many other businesses, tourism has been
Jama1ca 8,862 transformed by use of the Internet.
St Lucia 8,199
Dom1mca 5,146 Before they travel, most tourists research different
Grenada 5,035 destinations. Using the Internet, it is easy to make
Other Cancom 12407
comparisons. They can check:

Table 5.11: Canbbean tounsts m Barbados, 2011

"Staycations"
Tourists are not always from overseas. Staying in
a hotel in your own country is sometimes called a
"staycation". Caribbean hotels are glad to receive
local customers as guests. Many offer a lower rate for
local residents.
0 For jll.lt b1rtk00~ wee}(e'tlt:i, we we'tlt to sh]t
i'tl ~ be~ t.uJte£ O't! tv-e. otke.r side o.f tv-e. rst6.'tld.
We drd so ~'1'\~ tkr't1 s ~~c.k ~01A ~'tl't do 1'1'1 tv-e.
0
s1Ah1Arb ~re :r. l1ve. Next t1~t~.e :r. w~'tlt to l~r'tl
SC.1AOO d1Vi't1 . ~ve~D'tle tre~ted 1AS l1)(e r~~lt~ .
0
0 We we'tlt to ~ w1ldli.fe ce.'tltre 1'1'1 tke.
:r s~w p~>-rrot s, ~'tid k1Ajll.tt~.l'tlabwds,
tii.D1A'tlt~r'tls.
o.'tld o. t~ro.'tlt1A~. Now :r. )('t!OW tt~.1AC.k ~e o.bo1At'
~{j OW'tl C01A'1'1tY"'}t . ~ter 0'1'! 1 we SW~"'- 1'1'1 ~ nver ~'tid
ko.d o. piC.'t!IC..~e wo.ter w~s so cool ~'tid c.le~r.
0 We we'tlt to st~lJ i'tl tv-e. 'tlew kote£ O't! tv-e.
w~ter.fro'tlt 1'1'1 tl.-l:e c.~p~t~l. Fr~ 01Ar ro~ fe'tl
.ff.oors 1Ap1 iJ01A co1Ald see tke wt-..ole c.1tlJ, ~'tid iJ01A
~'1'1 ~tc.[li; tv-e. .ferr1es o.'tld c.r1A1se skips. There's
~ n~t pool ~'tid Gl.JM1A~61 . :!'1'1 tke. eVe't!l't!O we
0 ~l we'tlt fo ~ j!!.OI/Ie .
o times and fares for air travel
o prices of hotels and resorts, and facilities available
o nearby heritage and wildlife attractions
o sporting and cultural activities.
There are many ways to gather information, such as
websites maintained by:
o hotels and tourism-related businesses
o airlines
o national and regional tourism organizations
o organizations dealing with specific interests, such
as steel pan, cricket, sailing, or windsurfing
o independent organizations, which post reviews by
other travellers.
They can use other sites to research the weather.
They can investigate the culture, cuisine, and way of
life. They can check price levels, and view any beach,
hotel, or place of interest by using sites such as
Google maps.
When planning a vacation, tourists can book almost
all the services they will need through the Internet,
including:
o air travel
o hotels, villas, or other accommodation
o car rental
o restaurant meals
o special excursions and sporting activities.
 Tourism businesses also make extensive use of the
Internet. They can:
Discuss the following quesrwn in a small group.
o advertise their products, take bookings, and
collect payments
o investigate the activities and promotions offered
by their competitors and rivals
o keep in contact with individual customers, for
example through email and social media.
Research
Plan a staycation m your own country. Where would
you stay? What activities would you enjoy?
2 Use the Internet to plan a weekend vacation in
another Caribbean country. Make a detailed plan
covering:
o flights and travel
2 How could communications technology assist:
o accommodation
o activities for each day
Price your vacation and present your vacation
plan as a report. Include your budget. pictures. and
maps where possible.
What can be done to encourage regional tourism?
Quick questions
Read Units 5.1 and 5.2 again. Describe how
communications technology can be used to
research·
a the different tourism products available in a
Caribbean destination
b ways of travelling to the Caribbean, with details
of costs and travel times
c other background information about the host
countries which could affect the choice of
destination.
a a student who requires training in tourism-
related skills?
b a hotel or other business which needs to recruit
staff?
c an expenenced tourism professional looking for
a new career opening?

•
 Ways of communicating
KEY IDEAS
o Many forms of communication are used in the
Caribbean and around the world.
o In communication, the sender encodes a message,
which is transmitted through a medium to the
receiver.
o Non-verbal communication conveys a message
without using words.
o Verbal communication uses spoken or written
words.
o Oral communication uses spoken words.
Q;id<•ttt;t ;l'l
Communication: Interaction through messages or signals,
usually between people but also, for example, between
computers and other machines or between animals.
Encoding: Putting messages and other information into a
form where they can be commun icated.
Medium: An agency or channel used for communication ,
such as conversational speech, newspapers, radio,
television, or email. The plural of medium is media. Mass
media are able to reach a large number of people at one
time; television is a mass medium but conversational
speech is not.
Message: Information, content and meaning, which are
communicated through a medium.
Oral: Using spoken words.
Receiver(s): The person (or people) who receives a
message, for example someone reading a book or the
audience of a radio or television programme. The receiver
may give feedback to show that a message has been
received.
Sender(s): The person (or people) who sends a message,
for example the current speaker in a conversation or the
person writi ng an email.
Transmission: The process used to communicate a
message from the sender to the receiver.
Verbal: Using spoken or written words.
How we communicate
Humans have always lived in social groups. Because
group members needed to communicate with one
another, language developed early in human history.
It is a form of verbal communication because it uses
words. Other, non-verbal, forms of communication
may be even older.
In language and many other forms of
communication, the message is encoded. This
means that the content of the message is not
directly related to its meaning. With a word
such as "table", for example, you cannot guess its
meaning from the sound, but English-speaking
people understand what the word signifies. The
sender of a message encodes it and then transmits
it. The receiver usually knows its meaning and
understands the message.
There are many forms of verbal and non-verbal
communication. Most of them are used in the
Caribbean and in other countries throughout
the world.
The media of communication
Messages are transmitted from senders to receivers
through the media of communication. The media
used mainly for interpersonal communication
between individuals or small groups include:
o conversational speech
o eye contact and gestures
o personal emails
o text messages.
Creative visual artists may use different media,
such as:
0 paint
0 silkscreen
sculpture

I ...,...
0

~ Sender
0 photography.
~ encodes
0
Rece1ver
decodes (@
0 Some media arc used mainly for communication to a
Message 0
large audience. These are called mass media, such as :
70 .. -+,.__.. .____., o newspapers and magazines
Sender Medium Receiver o printed books
thmks Speech understands o radio and television programmes
Figure 6 .1: How we communicate o movies.

•
Figure 6.2: Communication is essential to any business
Communication has been transformed over the past
20 years by new media, such as:
o websites
o text messaging
o social media such as Facebook and Twitter
o digital video and music files.
Multimedia involves the use of more than one
medium to communicate a message, usually in a
digital form. For example, a website may be built
around written words, still photographs and other
digital images, and it may also have built-in video
and audio elements.
Verbal communication
Verbal communication uses words. Forms of verbal
communication include:
o speech (oral communication by word of mouth)
o writing- handwritten or printed
o song, combining words and music.
There are many ways in which speech can be used
for communication, such as:
o conversational speech
o formal speeches to an audience
o drama
o talk radio.
List five people with whom you communicate on a
regular basis. What media of communication do you
use with each of them?
2 Draw a diagram to show one message you have
sent or received today. In your diagram, show the
sender. the receiver. the medium (or media) and
the message. For this message, did the sender use
verbal or non-verbal communication. or both?
1 With a partner. discuss which of the following
media you enjoy for relaxation and entertainment.
Which do you think are the most useful for
information and education?
a Books
b Magazines
c Newspapers
d Songs
e Movies
Documentary television programmes
2 Do a quick survey among members of your family
asking the same two questions. Compare their
answers with those of your classmate.
•
 Non-verbal communication
o Signs are symbols
KEY IDEAS with a fixed meaning.
o Non-verbal communication may include
pictograms. signals. signs. gestures. postures. A pictogram may be
mime. and art forms. a sign. Many road
o All of these are used in the Caribbean and around signs use a pictogram
the world. to convey a message,
o Deaf people and others may use complex but not all signs are
languages with no spoken words. pictograms.
o Signals may be signs,
sounds, gestures or
other means used
Art form : A medium used in creative work, such as to convey a message.
painting, drama, music or photography.
Traffic lights and
Gesture: A body or facial movement used to communicate
car alarms are Figure 6.4: Road s1gns
a message.
signals. A telephone
Mime : Careful use of gestures and posture to convey a
complex meaning. A "mime" can also mean a person who ringtone is a signal
uses mime to communicate. alerting the user to
Pictogram: A simple representation of a physical object, an incoming call.
used as a form of communication. o Gestures are
Posture: A way of standing or sitting.
movements of the
Sign: A symbol with a fixed meaning.
human body that
Signal: A word with a number of meanings, such as:
convey a meaning.
o the means used to transmit a message, for example
the electromagnetic waves used to broadcast a radio Some gestures are
programme. simple and easy to
o an agreed indicator, such as the firing of a starter's understand.
pistol in a race. A smile may be
o a bodily cue used in human non-verbal communication. used to convey a
Figure 6.5: A referee holds up a
similar message red penalty card, a s1gn to
Non-verbal communication does not use words. Here in any culture. 1nd1cate that a player IS being
suspended from the game.
are some examples of non-verbal communication, Other gestures
used in the Caribbean and elsewhere: can vary quite
widely in meaning,
o Pictograms (or pictographs) communicate
depending on
through a simple representation of a physical
culture and context.
object. The earliest known drawings and
People also use
carvings on rock surfaces were made around
a range of
30 000 years ago. There are
standardized
Amerindian pictograms
gestures to direct
or petroglyphs carved in
road or air traffic.
stone in many Caribbean
o Posture is the way
countries, some of which
a person stands or
had religious meaning.
sits. Postures can
Pictograms developed
convey a meaning,
into the earliest forms of
Figure 6.3: Petroglyphs intended or
writing. Some pictograms from Guyana: Amennd1an Figure 6.6: What mean1ng does
unintended.
are still used today. p1ctograms carved 1n stone th1s posture convey?
o Screams use sound, but not words, to convey a o Art forms may convey a complex meaning without
meaning, such as a cry for help. So do sounds using words. Many emotions can be expressed
such as a yawn, a "steups", a laugh, or a chuckle. through music and dance, or through visual arts
such as painting, architecture, or sculpture.
There are many other
forms of non-verbal
communication. We may
convey a message through:
o the clothes we wear
o a tattoo or hairstyle
o the car we drive figure 6.9: Th1s gesture
o whether we arrive s1gn1f1es approval m most
Engl1sh·speak1ng countnes.
late or on time for an
In some other cultures 1t is
appointment. cons1dered 1nsult1ng.

Quick questions
What do you think is shown in the pictograms
(Figure 6.3)?
2 What gestures could be used to convey:
a welcome?
b hostility?
3 Look at the painting The Scream by the Norwegian
artist Edvard Munch. What messages or emotions
Figure 6.7 : The Scream by Edvard Munch (1895). Th1s pa1nt1ng do you think the artist is trying to communicate?
was sold in 2012 for US$120 million .

o Mime is the careful use of gestures and posture to

convey a complex meaning. Entertainers may use Research
mime on stage or in film, or in advertisements. Make a drawing to show four road signs. and state the
meaning of each. Which ones are pictograms?

As a class. make a list of words showing actions

that can be dramatized. Take it m turns to act out
one of the words, while others guess which word
from the list is being shown.
2 Do a roleplay to show each of the following
situations. What methods of non-verbal
communication would you use? What messages
would you be attempting to convey?
a You are asked to meet the parent of a new
friend for the first time. You want to make a
good impression.
b You are attending an interview for a job in a
restaurant.
c You have been instructed to report to the Dean
of Discipline. but you are not sure why.
d You are going to a movie or sporting event with
a small group of people your age, some of whom
you have not met before.
Figure 6 .8 : A m1me performing on stage

•

CASE STUDY
The School for the Deaf,
Trinidad and Tobago
Figure 6 .10: A student using sign language 1n the School
for the Deaf
Many Caribbean countries have schools for deaf students.
The Cascade School for the Deaf in Trinidad and Tobago
was established in the 1940s. and caters for close to 50
students from 4 to 17 years old.
It relies on a mix of government and private funding.
People who are deaf communicate through sign language.
American Sign Language is one such system. Sign
languages can vividly express a full range of meanings,
and have a complex grammar that is different from
Standard English. Sign language often omits words that
do not have a direct, visual meaning, such as "the" or "is".
Some Caribbean television news broadcasts have an
on-screen translation in sign language. Some cable
and satellite broadcasts are also available with written
subtitles, or "closed captioned". Many deaf students enjoy
Indian moVIes, whl.ch have English-language subtitles
and often use expressive dances and hand gestures.
Examinations must be written in Standard English, an
additional difficulty for students. Finding employment
after leaVIng school presents another challenge,
although some employers have suitable openings.
Watch five mmutes of a television programme with
the sound turned off. How much were you able to
follow? Write a summary of what was shown.
2 Watch a programme with a sign-language
interpreter on screen. Can you understand any of
the signs used?
Working in pairs. list five jobs. Discuss the difficulties
that deaf peopl e might face in these areas of
employment. Whl.ch jobs would present fewest
difficulties for deaf people?
At arm's length?
When talking to someone, where you stand may be
an unconscious form of communication. Standing
too close may be considered intrusive. Standing too
far away may also be seen as rude, showing a lack
of interest.The appropriate distance varies with the
situation and with the culture:
o Intimate distance is very close or touching, for
example with family members or with a doctor,
dentist, or hairdresser.
o Personal distance is when two people are
standing in a public place.
o Social distance occurs with small groups in many
social, business, or educational situations.
o Public distance is for addressing a larger group,
often in a school, workplace, or place of worship.
A common personal distance between two speakers
in many situations is around:
o 20 to 30 em in many Middle Eastern countries
o 40 to 50 em for most North Americans
o 60 em for many British people
o Around one metre for many Japanese people.
What do you think is a common personal distance
for two people holding a conversation m the
Caribbean?
2 Have you encountered any Situations where cultural
differences in non-verbal communication lead
people to convey an unintended message, such
as rudeness?
 Written communication
Phoenician Phoenician Meaning Modern
KEY IDEAS ideogram name of name letter
o Our written language developed from oral
communication. signs, and pictograms.
<( Alf Ox A

,
(with horns)
o Printing was an early medium for mass
communication. 0 Ain Eye 0

Mem Water M

Q 1!•1>l1Jii'l 1 Nun Snake N

Alphabet: A writing system based on vowels and consonants, Figure 6 .12: The evolut1on of Phoemc1an characters , from
with several letters making up each word, in contrast to a Ideograms to the1r modern form
writing system where each character stands for a whole word.
Literacy: The ability to read and write.
The shape and form of letters gradually changed. By
Manuscript: A book or written document that is produced
by hand.
around 2,000 years ago, literate people in the Roman
Empire, in southern Europe and northern Mrica,
were using letters similar to those we use today.
Until the first recording systems were developed
around 150 years ago, spoken words had no permanent The first books were manuscripts. They were written
form. They could be remembered and repeated; but and illustrated by hand. Producing a manuscript
each repetition could introduce a distortion. The of a book such as the Bible took many years. As
message could be altered or forgotten unless it was well as words, many texts had striking hand-drawn
written down. Writing allows a message to be: illustrations. For those who could not read, the
illustrations also told the story.
o stored over a long period
o communicated at a distance, retaining the exact Manuscript books were costly: only the very rich or
words of the original writer. religious organizations could afford to buy them.
The first writing systems were developed in Egypt,
China and the Middle East around 5,000 years ago.
At first, there was one symbol - often based on an
ideogram - for each word. This is still the basis of
modern Chinese writing.
st,an Yu
Mountain F1sh

~
Oracle bone
Ml

•
11aguwen

Greater seal
dazhuan tl:1::.
~
Lesser seal
xiaozhuan \lJ
~
Clerkly scnpt
~

•
II shu
Standard scnpt
ka1shu rlr
Figure 6.11: The evolut1on of two Chmese characters. from
an 1deogram to the1r modern form

The first form of the alphabet we use today was

developed in Phoenicia, or ancient Syria, around Fi gure 6 .1 3: A pnest shows an anc1ent Eth1op1an manuscnpt
3,000 years ago. It used an ideogram for each sound. book

•
 Literacy is the ability to read and write. In the
English-speaking Caribbean and most countries of
the world today, almost all of the adult population
is literate. Two hundred years ago, only a small
minority of people could read and write. Caribbean
literacy rates increased in the 20th century, as
governments introduced free primary and secondary
education for all.
100
90
Printing technology has been revolutionized many
times since Gutenberg's day. Printers no longer use
metal type. Pages are set out electronically. Printed
work can be produced with high-quality colour
illustrations and a varied layout.
Combining verbal and non-verbal
communication
When we use verbal communication, the words
used carry only part of the message. I n oral
communication, the tone of our voice and our body

Wo7
language may convey emotions such as excitement,
(I)
tlO 80
boredom, politeness, or contempt.
2
c
(I)
u
In written communication, the design of the
~ 70 electronic or printed page carries part of the message.
The design may use illustrations as well as written
60 words. The style and size ofletters- the font used-
also carries a message. Designers create a "look" for
50+----.---,r---~---.----.---, the page, which helps convey the intended message.
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2010
Year
Quick questions
Figure 6 .14: L1teracy rates compared
Why is writing usually more suitable than spoken
Printing words for:
Printing was first used in China. Words and a a school assignment?
illustrations were printed on cloth or on paper from b an examination?
c a busmess agreement?
an engraved wooden block. The first European to use d a reference book?
metal type, with one piece for each letter, was Johannes 2 Look carefully at the Ethiopian Bible pages
Gutenberg, a German printer. In 1455, Gutenberg (Figure 6.13). Can you tell anything about the story
printed 180 copies of the Bible; 48 have survived. shown? In what ways is your experience similar to
that of a person 200 years ago who could not read
During the 16th century, the Bible was translated or write?
into German, English, and other languages, making 3 Which of the print styles (fonts) shown below do
it accessible to many readers. The Anglican Church you thmk would be most suitable for
commissioned the King a an invitation to a birthday party?
b a business letter?
James ("authorized")
c an invitation to a formal school function?
translation, which was
In each case, g1ve a reason for your answer.
completed in 1611. I n
the years that followed, Ck<Alkd.u.sbar Y.frltNtnlt'aJt
printed books gradually Aria I .luciSa J;fackfetter Baske r Yille
became more affordable
and many middle-class Lucidcv ~etp~
families owned a Bible Fi gure 6 .16: A range of pnnt styles
and a few other books.
Printers also produced
newspapers, printed
illustrations, sheet music,
and songs, which were
cheap enough for almost Figure 6 .15: The t1tle page of
anyone to buy. a Kmg James 81ble, 1611

-
 Media for interpersonal
communication
Messengers
KEY IDEAS
o Media have developed through history.
In historic times, messengers carried oral or written
o In the past. communication was slow. costly, and long-distance communication. They travelled on
often unreliable. horseback, on foot, or by sailing ship. N ews and
o With new technology, instant high-quality global information travelled slowly: a messenger could take
communication is possible at low cost. weeks or even months to reach a distant destination.
Today, some businesses still use messengers to send
written information or small packages over short
~d«•tl!1 ;\j distances.
Teleconferencing: A meeting or conference in which
the participants are not physically present at the same Mail
location, but communicate by audio or video link. With a A mail service is an
video link, the word videoconferencing may be used. organized m essage delivery
Telecommuting: Working from a home or other location
system, usually operated
and communicating with colleagues or customers by email,
telephone, video link, or teleconferencing. Telecommuting by a government. M ore
represents an alternative to the traditional practice of than 4,000 years ago the
commuting, which means travelling each day from home to Pharaohs of ancient Egypt
workplace. developed an early mail
Voicemail: A voice message left by cellular or land line service. The first modern
telephone or other means.
service, using pos tage
stamps for prepayment,
I n earlier centuries, interpersonal communication was developed by Britain Figure 6.18: A Bnt1sh Gu1ana
was slow, unreliable, and costly. Today, messages can in 1840. By means of the postage stamp, 1860
be sent instantly and at almost no cost to anywhere newly established railways, letters could be delivered

1800s

1880s
......
in the world.

Sh1p

Telegraph
...... Weeks or months

Quick, wntten
words. expensive
nationally in one to two days. Using steamships,
international deliveries to the C aribbean would take
several weeks un til the 1950s, when airmail began to
be widely used, reducing international delivery time
to a few days.

.... ....
....... .......
1920s Telephone Instant. vo1ce. Telegraph
very expens1ve
The electric telegraph was developed in the 1830s
1950s A1 r mail Days, wntten words, and widely used for the next 100 years. A message
small packages was sent using an electrical impulse in M orse code,
with a combination oflong (dash) and short (dot)
1985 Telephone. Vo1ce. words or Images.
Fax, Telex wntten words
impulses for each letter of the alphabet. For the first

1990s .... Internet , cellphones

1n wider use
time there was instant long-distance communication.
The messages sent by telegraph, called telegrams,

....
were decoded and printed at a telegraph office
and delivered by a messenger. Costs were high, so
2010s . . . . Internet and Wntten words . voice.
cell phones mus1c, 1mages, v1deo messages were kept as short as possible.
widespread

Figure 6 .17: T1mel1ne of int ernational Interpersonal 000 000

commun1cat1on
"S" "0 " '' S"
Figure 6.19: Morse code for "SOS"
 The first successful transatlantic telegraph cable and packages, like a mail service. Delivery charges
was laid in 1866, and most Caribbean islands were are much higher, but:
connected between 1870 and 1873. Eventually the
o there is a clear record of collection and delivery
telegraph was superseded by the telephone, and most
o packages can be tracked while in transit
countries today no longer have a telegraph service.
o delivery is faster than a mail service.
Western Union, one of the last operators in North
America, ended its service in 2006.
Cellular or mobile phone
Telephone
Like the telegraph,
the landline telephone
service sends a
message down a wire -
but it transmits a
voice, not written
words.1he first
commercial telephone
services operated from
the 1880s. Until the
mid-20th century a
telephone was a luxury
Figure 6 .21 The f1rst cellphones were bulky and expens1ve
item. International
calls were expensive:
A cellular telephone (cellphone) uses a wireless
a three-minute call
Figure 6 .20 : A telephone from radio connection to a mast, which may be a few
from the Caribbean around 1920 kilometres away. Some cities had a service from
to Europe in the
the 1940s, but sets were expensive and weighed
1950s cost the equivalent of a week's earnings. From
around 35 kg. In the 1980s cellular telephones
the late 20th century, improved technology reduced
began to be available in many countries. At
the cost of the landline telephone service. first, handsets were heavy and could be used
only for voice calls. Charges were higher than
Telex for 'landlines. There were few masts, so service
Telex systems allowed text to be transmitted directly
coverage was patchy.
from one business to another, and were widely used
from the 1950s to the 1980s.1he technology used is Today, by contrast:
similar to a telegraph. Banks used telex messages to
o most populated areas have good service
transmit funds.
o handsets are cheaper, lighter, and smaller
o local and international call charges are lower
Fax o voicemail allows the caller to leave a message if
A fa.x (or facsimile) machine scans an image and
the receiver is not able to take a call
then transmits it through a telephone system. The
o many handsets include radios, still and video
image may be a written page or a photograph, map,
cameras, and provide Internet access
or drawing.1his system was widely used in the 1980s
o text messages, music, and photographs can be
and 1990s. Todav, documents can be scanned and
transmitted as well as voice calls.
sent bv email. This is usually cheaper than a fax, and
produ~es a higher-quality i~age. In the 1980s and 1990s, a single telecommunication
company had a monopoly in most Caribbean
Courier countries. Since then, competition between
Courier services such as Fedex and DHL provide a companies has led to increased investment, new
present-day messenger service. They deliver letters technology and lower prices.

-

Email
Email (or electronic mail) is used to send a written
message using the I nternet. There is no charge for
each message sent and, unless there is an equipment
failure, messages can reach a distant destination
almost instantly. Other documents can be attached
to an email, for example scans, digital photographs,
and music files.
Voice Over Internet Protocol
Voice Over Internet Protocol (VOIP) systems
such as Skype allow voice communication through
the Internet, sometimes with a video link as well.
Depending on how the system is used, there may be
no charge to the user.
Teleconferencing and telecommuting
New technology can provide high-quality video
and audio links between sender and receiver, with
channels for non-verbal communication through
facial expression, gestures, or tone of voice. This
reduces the need for business travel.
o Teleconferencing allows a group of people,
often in different countries, to arrange a "virtual
CASE STUDY
Telecommunications in Haiti
Figure 6.22: Sendmg funds v1 a D1g1cel 1n Ha1t1
In low-income countries such as Haiti, life has been
transformed by cellular telephones. In 2000. around 1 per
cent of households in Haiti had a landline telephone. and
a similar number had a cellular connection. In many rural
6 .4 Media for interpersonal commumcation
meeting" where they can exchange ideas and
reach decisions.
o Telecommuting allows people to work from
home or another location instead of travelling
to an office each day. With new technology,
they can keep in constant touch with colleagues
and customers.
Quick questions
When international communication took days or
weeks. what problems would this have caused for:
a businesses?
b governments?
c people with family or friends overseas?
2 What advantages and disadvantages does a cellular
telephone have when compared with:
a a landline telephone?
b a courier service?
c a telegram?
3 Which methods of communication would be most
suitable for:
a sending important legal documents?
b exchanging gossip with a friend?
c contacting emergency services?
In each case. give reasons for your answer.
communities. no family had a telephone. or a car. Lack of
communications made it difficult to:
o establish or run a small business
o access financial mformation or banking services
o contact health or emergency services
o maintain contact with family members in the capital.
Port-au-Prince, or in North America.
Since then, telecommunications companies have brought
low-cost handsets to many families. in rural areas as
well as the cities. By 2010. more than one-third of the
population had a cellular connection.
With the Tcho-Tcho "mobile wallet" service, people who
do not have a bank account can register for mobile
banking with one form of official identification and a
minimum deposit of US$2.50. They can then use a cellular
phone to deposit. hold. or withdraw funds. or send cash
transfers. Some comparues now use this system rather
than cash or cheques to pay their employees. A cellular
telephone company runs this service in partnership with
a bank.
II
 The right medium for a message
KEY IDEA
o The choice of a medium for a message is
influenced by distance, cost, technology, and by
social and cultural factors.
What is the most suitable medium in which to
communicate a message? The answer will depend on
the following factors.
urban areas. Villages and isolated settlements
without good road connections may face delay in
receiving mail or newspapers, and may not have
access to cable television.
Mountain ranges may be a barrier to some forms
of communication. Cellular telephone signals are
"line of sight", so they are blocked by hills and
mountains.

The size of the audience

Some media are more suitable for one-to-one or Tr inidad & Tobago
small-group communication. H owever, the division • D1gicel Coverage
can be blurred. For example, a business may send an
email to a large number of customers.

One-to-one or small group Mass audience

Conversattonal speech Formal speech to a large gathenng
Email Website
Text message Newspapers
Voice call Radio
Soc1al med1a Television

Table 6 .1 : The most su1table type of med1a for audience s1ze

The distance to be covered Fi gure 6 .23 : Cellular telephone coverage IS patchy 1n

Some media are suitable for long-distance mountamous areas, such as the Northern Range in Tnmdad.
communication. Others are not. Again, technology
has blurred the divisions. Skype calls can transmit Language
video, with gestures and facial expressions as well as Language is essential for verbal messages. There are
voice. Daily newspapers once circulated locally; now around 7,000 different languages spoken today. Most
they can be read worldwide, via the Internet. are written as well as spoken, and many of them are
also used in electronic media. English is one of the
A few metres A few tens of km Worldwide most common. Around 7 per cent of the world's
Conversational speech Broadcast FM rad1o Internet population speaks English as their first language,
and TV
and many more have learned English as a second or
Eye contact and fac1al Newspapers Telephone third language.
expressions
Acoustic mstruments Audience travel to live MUSIC VIdeo Clips I n some countries, more than one language is widely
With no ampl1flcat1on concerts spoken. South Africa has 11 official languages. In
India there are several hundred languages, of which
Tabl e 6 .2 The most su1table type of med1a for d1stance covered
29 have more than a million speakers each.
Population density and terrain I n the Caribbean, many people speak Creoles,
Sparsely populated rural areas or difficult which are languages in their own right. Caribbean
mountainous terrain may pose challenges. Media Creoles may use words of English, French, Spanish,
services are usually more varied in densely populated Dutch, African, Indian, or other origin, but their

•
grammatical structure is mainly Mrican. Some, such
as Papiamento in Aruba and Curas:ao, have official
status and are widely used in schools, newspapers,
and electronic media. People may find Creoles from
other Caribbean countries difficult to understand,
particularly if there are many words of French or
Spanish origin.
Dutch (Sunna me)
3%
Arabic
8%
Hmd1
Span1 sh 7%
7%
Figure 6. 24: The off1c1al Figure 6.25 : Worldwide
languages of Can com " mother t ongue·· languages
coun tnes
The social context, and differences in
social or economic status
The way we use language depends on the social
context.
o When talking to friends and family, most people
use informal language, and may use a Creole as
well as English.
o Complex legal and scientific writing is usually
in precise, formal language, with many technical
terms.
o Radio and television are often more informal in
their use of language than newspapers or books.
o In business or school settings, people use formal
language most of the time- but they may switch
into informal language or Creole if they believe
that it will aid communication by creating a more
relaxed atmosphere.
o When talking to a teacher or a supervisor at work,
most people use quite formal language. In some
languages, words such as "you" vary according to
the relationship between the speakers. In Spanish,
the singular "tti" is used with friends and family,
while "usted" shows respect and is used in more
formal settings.
The effects of beliefs and customs
For some people, language is influenced by religious
and other beliefs. When referring to a future event,
some people add "please God" to a sentence. For
Muslims, use of the phrase "'nsha'Allah", which has
a similar meaning, is set in the Koran . Beliefs and
customs may also influence the content of the media.
For example, attitudes to the presentation of the
human body vary, and some traditions in Muslim art
do not represent humans in any form . Some religions
do not encourage certain forms of music or dance.
The level of technology available
We have seen how developments in technology
have led to the increased availability of fast, low-
cost worldwide communication. However, for some
people, access to certain media is still limited, either
because of their location or their low income. I n
the Caribbean, most people have access to radio,
broadcast television, newspapers, and cellular
telephones. However, many people do not have
computers or access to broadband Internet.
Imagine you are having difficulty With the deadline
for your contribution to group work on a school
project. Write an explanation addressed to:
a your teacher
b a close friend who is a member of the same group.
2 You have enjoyed a big family event. such as a
birthday party. You want your overseas friends and
family to know what it was like. What media could
you use to give a full picture?
Working in pairs or small groups, discuss what media
could be used by:
a a food company, advertising a new snack
b new artistes. to spread the word about their new
and creative music
c the teaching staff of a school, trying to persuade
students to put their best efforts into a school-
based assessment project.
In each case, say why you think your chosen media
would be effective.
•
 Dialogue and communication
breakdown
There may be many reasons why two groups
KEY IDEAS or individuals find it emotionally difficult to
o Good communication can ease many difficult
communicate, including:
situations.
o A breakdown in communication may be caused o age differences
by emotional, language. or technical factors.
o gender differences
o A third party is often useful in restoring
o personal differences
communication.
o different beliefs and ideology
o different social status
0 We. re.Mke.d fA so11Ati0'1t. :l cie.M\e.d 1Ap ~(1 o
o
unresolved conflict
mistrust
ro01t1. .flrst, fA"Xd we. botk we."Xt to tke. 111-0V1e.
fA.ffe.rwfArds. A"Xd we. botk e."XJD(5e.d tke. dfA(j'· o stress
o strained relationships.

Examples of communication breakdown

0 :lt's fA wi~-wl~ .
The. roM Y'1A"XS o~
k1S
portio"X o.f tke. 1fA'1td1 b1At :l kcwe. PfA'd ~st o.f
tke. cost. A"Xd we. botk kfAve. •~proved Mc.e.ss to
0 Ske.'sj1Ast fA st1Apid o1d WO\tl.().")t, :r· ~
15'}1'e.fArs
old. Wk(1 CfA"X 't :l s1 fA(j' 01At fAll ~•ok f' ,.f
01AY' prope.rt(j' . :l we>.~f to?

O We. do"X't ().ore.e. fAb01At re.11010")t. B1At we. kcwe.

de.c1de.d to re.spe.c t e.fAck otke.r 's v•e.ws . We. kfAve. O.f C01AY'Se. tke. fACCide.")tt WfAS MY' .ffA1AH .
(). re.e.d 1o di.f.fe.r. &ve.~O"Xe. I<"XOWS WO\tl.e.~ CfA~ 't drive..
0

0 :l fASKe.d ~11' boss .for fA pro~otJO"X. \-!e.

SfA')1'S tkfAt, i.fY :l fl"XIsk ~(1: d1pfo~ C01AY'Se.
0 ~7t
o")\£11' re.ti .o1As ro1Ap 1A'1tde.rstfA"Xds tke.
0 0
Tr'"t~. dtke.rs kfAve. ~o se."Xse. o.f ~orfAi•t(1 . :l
s~cce.ss.f1Ali(1 i"X ~fArck, :r: will oe.t tke.
do"X't fiJ(e. ~~ ck.fdre."X to spe.~ too ~1AC~ t.~
pro....ct•o"X. ThfAt se.e.~s .ffA,r.
wd·k 01Afside. •wFi1Ae.'1tce.s.

l\Iany conflicts can be solved by communication.

Both parties listen to each other's point of view. 0 :r J("XOW ve.Y"}1' we.H it we>.s ~•Ke.(1wl!l.o tool< ~~
Sometimes they reach a solution bv themselves;
' J
dn~J( /1e.ste.rd6./1 wM"X ~}1' bMK wfAS t1Ar~e.d. :r'~
some times a third party hears both sides and makes ')tot i~te.re.ste.d 1'1\ 't,sfe."X'~o to ki~t~. .
a suggestion. Sometimes there is a breakdown in
communication for emotional reasons. When this
happens, disagreements may worsen (or escalate)
until they are out of control. 0 IS tke. t•~ ::t've. £e..ft worK .fo1A kt tke.
frfA~flc e>."Xd cooKed tke. di~"Xe.r, :r'~J1Ast
1
0
too
Some people feel that they can only communicate t1re.d fo 1isfe."X. :l !(~OW .J"fAC/(Ie. kfAS SOitl.e. se.n01AS
with people who are similar to them. Others realize prob1e.~s fAt sckoo£, b1At ske. 'i£ kMe. to defA1 w•tk
that productive communication is nearly always tke.~t~. ke.rse.U .
possible if both parties remain open-minded and are
prepared to listen.

II
Figure 6.26: Commun1cat1on breakdown can lead to conflict

possible. There may also be difficulties when two

people are speaking different forms of the same
language.

0 :r wt.\s tr~i~~ to 1A~derstl'-~ wkt.\t L-..e wt.\S

Sometimes a breakdown in commu nication may St.\~1~01 'b1At V..e spoKe too ~ic.Kil
affect social groups, or even whole nations.

0 We '~'teed ~t~.i0V..er
wl'- es. Pnces Me
0 ~OI'I'\~
1Ap
eveY]t d~'-~ · The s~££ i'l'tc.Y"el'.se tV..e~ ve of-fer-ed
w~1 '~'tOt 1'.11ow ~ to .feed ttt:}t .fl'-ttt-i1~. The.
e SV..e Keeps 1ASI~o 1o~o words . :r C.l'.'l'\ t .foHow 1

INMt s(,..e.'s St.\~i'l'tO.

• ttt-1'.111'.Qe~11 t W011 't tfSt e'l't .

0 The. c.ottt-p~'.'l't~ 1s l'.ire~'-d~ ~Ki'l'\ ~'- toss. we

0
e ThiS boo)( 1Sj1Ast too d1.f.f1c.1AH . :rt IS .f-tA£1
C.l'-11 't ~>}.ford ~'- b1 pl'.]t ~~c.rel'.se . A'l'td we wo~ 't o.f ~tv..e~tiC.I'-1 .forttt-1A1M . The se~te'l'tc.es t.\Ye
0
tl'-i)( to tv..e 1A'I'tl0'1't 1A11¥1i tke sti'-·H WoY)( kl'.rder lo'l't:t t.\~d c.o"'filc.t.\ted, t.\~d tv..e pri11t IS too s~££.
~'-~d stop Vt.\'l'tMfll)i~
:r1 sko-tAid lti.Me so~ pte. t-tAres t.\'l'td dit.\0rl'.ttt-S to
0 o-tAr propert~. • V..elp ~ 1A11derstt.\~d .

OTh.en S~'-~ tv..elJ,~'-re '1'\ot b-tAiidi'l't0 ~'- ~1Ac.1el'.r 0

wet.\p0~ 1 B1At :r OO'I'\ 't
be.iieve tv..e ...... We SV..01A1d He wt.\s tY'}ti'l'\ to v..e1p. !S-tAt v..e 1Ased
t.\ftM)( .f1rsf1 be-fore tke~ et sfro11 er . 0
words ::r 'ttt- ~of .ft.\ttt-iiit.\r witk 1 t.\'1'\d v..e kt.\d t.\~
0 0
1A'I't1AS1At.\i t.\C.C.e11t.

Causes of communication breakdown

Language barriers 0 :I. j(11ew e~01Aav.. S~~lsk to 1'-Sj( tke Wt.\~1 b1At
'~'tOt e~01A V..
There are obviously difficulties in verbal 0 to 1A~erstt.\'l'td ker t.\~swer. So sV..e
drew~ t.\ ~p.
communication when there is no common language.
H owever, non-verbal communication may still be

•
 Equipment failure
Communication may also break down for reasons
that have nothing to do with human emotions, for
example because of an equipment failure.
0 We. l.-l.~d ~11'11-ost de.c.ide.d wl.-l.e.re. ~-xo wlt..e.-x to
~eet 1 tt-xd tv..e.-x tke. u..£1 droppe.d. 1h~A.t ~lwt~:~s
l.-l.~ppe.-xs wlt..e.-x 15o1A t~ to t~£.)( i-x tl.-l.e. 111.i.-xib1As.
0 As a last resort, those involved in a dispute may
:I .-xe.e.oe.d to cl.-l.e.c)( tl.-l.e. we.bstfe. -For tl.-l.e.
.f£.'3"'-t ttl'l.e.S ~-xo boo)( ~ ttc)(e. t. ihe.-x t~.-~.ere.
w~s ~ power -F~il1Are. so :I lost tl.-l.e. :I.-xte.r-xe.t
co.-x-xe.ctio.-x. Wl.-l.e-x :I tne.o ~3~i-x 1 tl.-l.e. price. lii.M
30.-xe. 1Ap.
0 :I tne.d to re.~c.!.-1. tl.-l.e. o-F.fic.e. 1 b1At wlt..e.-x :I
pre.sse.o tl.-l.e. n~l.-l.t )(e.'}t -For tl.-l.e. e.xte..-xsto.-x 1 :I w~s
piMe.a o-x l!l.o~d -For 2.0 111.i.-x1Ate.s.
'-
GTh.e.]t tne.o to .fix ~'~~-15 cottt.p1Ate.r re.111.0te.£.15 b1At
tl.-l.(}..f 010 .-xot war)( o1At. :I MO to re.t1Ar-x it t o
tl.-l.e. M-x1A-F~c. t1Are.r .
Rebuilding communication
When communications appear to have broken down,
someone not directly involved but whom both sides
trust may be able to resolve a conflict. This could
be a:
o teacher
o guidance counsellor
o family member
o social worker
o religious leader.
They could then use one of the following processes.
o N egotiation: Both sides talk to each other, in an
agreed framework, and try to resolve the conflict.
o M ediation: A third party discusses the issues
with both sides of the dispute, separately and
together, until they reach an agreed solution .
•
o Arbitration: Both sides agree to put their
point of view to the third party, who then makes
a decision that is binding on bot h sides - even
if one (or both) think the arbitrator has been
unfair.
Businesses and other organizations may go to a
specialist body for dispute resolution. For example,
the Trinidad and Tobago Chamber oflndustry
and Commerce has a dispute resolution centre for
commercial disputes.
take legal action through the courts. This has
disadvantages:
o It is expensive. Lawyers' fees may be more than
either side can afford.
o It is complex. People who are not used to the law
may not understand what is happening.
o It is slow. Some commercial cases take many years
to work their way through the court systems of
the Caribbean.
o Neither side may be satisfied with the outcome.
Some countries have specialized courts to decide
different types of dispute:
o Family courts encourage both sides to reach an
agreement, rather than confront each other. This
may be done through a mediation process. This
type of court may also provide support to families
while a matter is decided.
o Industrial relations courts are for disputes related
to the workplace, such as cases of unfair dismissal
or compensation for injuries at work.
:I l.-l.~d ~ 3ooo re.futio-xsl!l.ip wi tl.-l. ~'~~-15 -Fon...u
~rt.-xe.r 1 B1At tl.-l.t-x~s be.u..111.e. dt.f.f'ic1A1t wl.-l.e.-x
we. 1.1.(}..0 to Oe.(}..i wttk cl.-l.ilo s1Apport ~-xo oe.ctoe.
wt.-..e.re. 01Ar ~1A~I.-I. te.r wo1Aio spe.-xo l.-l.e.r ti111.e.. We.
M~1Ae.o 1 ~-xo fMt w~s .-xot 3ooo -For (}...-x15o.-xe..
At fl.-I.e. F~~'~~-il]t Cow·t tl.-l.ere.'s ~ 1'11-t.Oi(}..tio.-x 1A-xit1
wlt..e.re. t~.-~.e /}..f~'~~-osptt..e.re. w~s ~~te. re.i~xe.o. Th.e.[j
bro1A~I.1.1 1AS to3e. tl.-l.e.r ~-xd' ltsfe.-xe.d to bot~!~.
stoe.s. We. (}..~re.e.o o-x(}.. ~'~~-o.-xtl.-l.£.15 ~lj101.e.-xt, 1}...-xO ~'~~-lj
d~1A31!1.fe.r divides l.-l.e.r ti~ be.fwe.e.-x botl.-l. p(}..re..-xts.
Now1 we. t~£.)( -Fre.e.llj1 ~-xo i-F tl.-l.e.re. 's ~ S1AOOe.-x
crisis o-x e.itl.-l.e.r Stl:ie. 1 we. MJ(e. Mj1Astl'll-e..-xts.
There. 's 3've. 1}...-xo t(}..)(.e..
 6.6 Dialogue and communication breakdown

CASE STUDY
Dispute resolution
In Jamaica. the Dispute Resolution
Foundation attempts to manage and resolve
disputes involving businesses, the police,
the courts. social service agencies, and
individuals, through a controlled process
of mediation. With support from the
United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF),
the Foundation operates four Peace and
Justice Centres in communities severely
affected by violence. These offer training
in conflict resolution, mediation and anger
management.
Students who have been suspended
from school attend one of these centres.
They continue with their schoolwork in a
safe environment, with mentors and peer
counsellors. They maintain contact with
parents and school staff until they are ready
to move on.
Figure 6.27: Releasing balloons to celebrate a successful event at the
Dispute Resolution Foundation

Quick questions
For each of the quotations in this unit showing an
example of communication breakdown. state the main
reason for the difficulty in communication.
Find out the names of any official or unofficial organizations
in your country that help resolve disputes. Choose one of
them and write a short paragraph to describe its work.
You are visiting Japan with a sports team. but have lost
your group in a crowd. Nobody around you speaks
English. The Japanese language does not even use
the same alphabet. so you cannot read the signs. You
are very thirsty because of the heat. Using non-verbal
commumcation. how would you:
a obtain a cold soft drink?
b find your way back to the hotel where you are
staying?
Discuss the following questions in pairs or small groups.
1 Can you think of any cases in your experience
where communication between two individuals or
groups has broken down? Think of situations:
a among your friends and family
b in your school or local community
c more widely in your country, or internationally.
Discuss how you think communication could be
restored. and which individuals or organizations
could help
2 Some people in the Caribbean are more comfortable
using a Creole than standard English. Do you think
that Creole should be used as well as English:
a in schools?
b in the accident and emergency department of a
hospital?
c in radio. television, and newspapers?
d in parliament?
Explain your reasons.

•
 Mass media in the Caribbean
KEY IDEAS
o There are many well-organized media operations
in the Caribbean.
o Media can promote regional integration.
Q d«•tl);1il'i
Communique: An official communication or press release
reporting events or opinions, usually issued to news
media.
Journalist: Someone who writes about news and current
affairs for print media, television, radio, or the Internet.
Journalists practise the profession of journalism.
New med ia: Electronic media, often connected to the
Internet, that provide text, images, audio, video, and
other content. Websites, social media, and video games
are examples of new media. New media are frequently
interactive, and in many cases can be accessed through
cellular telephones.
Social med ia: New media that allow social interaction
and exchange of media content between individuals. New
media include social networking sites such as Facebook,
Twitter, and Linkedln. Commercial, political, and other
organizations may also use social media to reach their
target audience.
Website: A set of related web pages produced by an
organization or individual with content such as text,
images, video, and audio clips. A website is hosted on
a web server. Most websites can be accessed through
the Internet, using a unique address known as a uniform
resource locator or uri.
News agency: A news-gathering organization that supplies
news items, video and voice recordings to print, radio, and
television media. Major news agencies include Reuters,
Associated Press and Agence France Presse.
The first Caribbean print media
Mass media can reach a wide public audience. As with
interpersonal media, new technology has brought
improved quality and lower costs. The first mass media
in the Caribbean were printed three centuries ago:
o Books: European settlers brought books, such as
the Bible. The first book authored in Jamaica was
about the Psalms, written in Spanish and printed
in 1720.
o Newspapers: The first newspaper in the Caribbean
was the Weekry Jamaica Courant, which was
published from 1718, with news of shipping,
slave auctions, and local events. 7he Gleaner was
•
established in 1834. All of its daily editions, up to
the present day, are available online in digital form.
In the colonial world, some people in authority did
not welcome education or printing, which they saw
as a threat to their power.
0 [11.-t.ere. t:\re.) 1-\0 .fre.e. sc!Aoo£s, 'XoY' pn'X1 i'X~ 1 ...
t:\1-\0 I lt..ope. we. slt..t:\2£ 1-\0t lt..Me. 1 t lt..e.se. IA1A~e.d
~e.t:\rs, .Por ie.t:\¥"1-\I'XI} 1.-tt:\ tit.. bro1A(}h.t o•sobe.o•e.'XCe.
t:\1-\d !Ae.re.~ t:\~ se.cts I'Xfo the. wodd .
Governor Berkeley of the English colony of Virginia, 1671
Media in the Caribbean today
Today, print media vary throughout the Caribbean,
and include:
o daily newspapers: larger Caribbean countries,
such as Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados,
and Guyana have two or more daily newspapers
employing well-qualified professional journalists
o weekly newspapers: smaller countries have
weekly newspapers
o magazines: most magazines cater for a
specialized readership- a niche market
o books: regional publishers produce educational
texts, cookbooks, non-fiction, novels and other
material.
A wide variety of electronic media provides
entertainment and information, including:
o radio
o cmema
o television (including cable and satellite television)
o the Internet with access to written content, music,
and video files.
Radio
Radio has been widely available in the Caribbean
since the 1920s. For many years it was the main
source of news, music, and entertainment in the
home. Compared with television, radio stations
are not costly to operate, but until the 1990s many
Caribbean countries had only one or two. Most were
government-owned.
Today, there are a large number of small, independent
stations, with a mix of music, talk, and news
programmes. In Belize, for example, there are more
than 30, serving a national population of just over
300 000. Some of them aim at a particular niche
or market segment, for example broadcasting to a
local community.
lost radio stations broadcast their programmes
within a single country. However, streaming radio
is available on the Internet, and listeners can access
stations from anywhere in the world.
Figure 6.28 : DJ Ras Dangerous Robin at Radio 102.1 Boom
Champions m Tnn1dad and Tobago plays mainly urban music,
rap, hip·hop, R & B and soca
CASE STUDY
Radio Universal, Belize
"We have four gospel programmes running on a weekly
basis. We have comedy. It's a bilingual station. We have
our friend, Mr Castillo, and a young lady by the name of
Crystal Flores. who does most of the Spanish segments.
We play all kinds of music; the only thing is that we are
not into 'crazy music'. We focus on families. Our music
has positive messages. We have children's programmes
in the morning from seven to eight."
Dillon Jones and Checkie Usher, Radio Universal, Belize
CASE STUDY
The Caribbean Super Station
Broadcasting since 2011. the station aims to "build
bridges across the Caribbean" and promote the talent of
regional performers. Produced in Trinidad and Tobago,
it can be heard in Antigua and Barbuda. Barbados.
the British Virgin Islands. Grenada. Montserrat. St Kitts
and Nevis. and St Lucia. There is also a website, with
live audio streaming and video. and links to blogs, a
Facebook page, and other features. The station carries
news and sports and entertainment programmes. It
also benefits advertisers. who can reach an audience in
several different countries.
Television
The first public
television service was
introduced in Britain
in 1936.Jamaica had
a television service
from the 1950s, but
in most of the region
it came later. Until
the 1970s broadcasts
were in black and
white; until the 1990s
most Caribbean
Figu re 6.29: A 1950s black·
countries had only and-white TV set at Cratghton
one channel. Estate, near Irish Town, Jamaica
Terrestrial television is broadcast from a transmission
mast, as are radio and cellular telephone. With this
technology, only a small number of channels can
operate in one area. A transmitter has a limited range,
so broadcasts usually reach only one country.
Cable television receives programmes by satellite or
from a terrestrial broadcast service, and sends them
by cable to subscribers. There may be a hundred or
more video and audio channels, as well as pay-per-
view channels with additional content. Some cable
services also offer broadband Internet and landline
telephone connection. Many channels serve a small
niche market.
Satellite television allows broadcasts to reach a
much wider area. Satellites transmitting to the
Caribbean also reach many other countries in North
and South America. To receive satellite TV an
outdoor antenna, usually a parabolic "dish", is needed.
New media
Since the early 1990s, people in the Caribbean have
had ready access to the Internet and new media.
Websites: Websites are easy to set up and operate.
Most est ablished media companies operate a website.
So do other commercial companies, government
organizations, sports and social clubs, and many
other groups. Individuals can easily set up their own
website, once they have registered a name.
Social media: New media have transformed
communications. Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and
other networks allow anyone to take the initiative
and link up with their friends and family, with
people who share a common interest, or with the
wider world.
The media and Caribbean integration
Mass media can help promote Caribbean integration;
and new media open up additional opportunities.
o Thanks to the Internet, newspapers from all over
the region can be accessed easily, and so can radio
streaming, video clips, music downloads and other
Caribbean content.
o Social media such as Facebook allow people to
meet friends from other Caribbean countries and
to maintain contact.
o Regional organizations such as Caricom can
maintain websites that give full and up-to-date
information about their activities.
o Regional sporting organizations and groups of
people with a common interest can maintain
contact through websites, social media, and email.
o Businesses and other commercial organizations
can develop websites to reach potential customers,
suppliers, and staff from across the region.
o Newspapers and electronic media owned by
regional companies such as One Caribbean
l\1edia may share content from different
countries, and may take a regional viewpoint
when developing news and features.
o Radio stations such as the Caribbean Super
Station are available in several countries.
o Cable television provides more choice to viewers
than terrestrial television, and offers more
possibilities for showing television programmes
and films from other Caribbean countries.
The media make it possible to follow regional
sports events such as cricket, and to compare the
performance of teams competing at a regional level.
Music and other cultural content also receive airtime
across the region. For example,Jamaican artistes are
well known throughout the Caribbean and attract a
large audience when they play at live events.
Caricom recognizes the role of the media in regional
integration. Under the Caricom Single Market,
Caribbean journalists and media workers may work
in any member country.
Behind the media
News agencies: Caribbean newspapers and electronic
media cannot afford to pay correspondents to report
on worldwide news. They rely on news agencies such
as Associated Press or Reuters, which have a regional
and worldwide reporting network.
The Caribbean Media Corporation operates a
smaller news agency, Cana, which reports on the
Caribbean. I t also runs CaribVision, producing
television programmes such as Caribbean Newsline
and Behind the Music, some of which are shown on
22 Caribbean islands and in parts of the USA.
Government information services: Regional
governments need to tell the public about what they
are doing. They also need to publicize important
CASE STUDY
A journalist
"For the past year. I've
acted as Internet and
Social Media Officer for
the West Indies Cricket
Board. It's an interesting
job. but challenging as
well. I write for our news
site, windiescricket.com. Figure 6.30: Ryan Bachoo
and keep it constantly updated. I keep our social
media sites updated and interact with cricket fans
on Facebook, Twitter and Flickr. We have more
than 15 000 followers on Facebook. from all over the
Caribbean and beyond. Before this, I worked for a TV
channel in sports and general news reporting. I'm now
22. and I'm studying part-time for a degree in Mass
Communication at the Ken Gordon School of Journalism
in Trinidad and Tobago. What's next for my career?
I'm looking at all the options. A human being can
achieve so much with hard work."
Ryan Bachoo

information on topics such as public health,
education or natural hazards. I ndividual government
departments and agencies employ professional
communications specialists to get their message
to the wider public. Many countries have a special
cable or broadcast television channel for government
information.
Corporate communications departments: Private
companies and other organizations have corporate
communications staff to reach their employees, their
customers and the wider public with messages that
CASE STUDY
A UNAIDS communications officer
Figure 6.31: A UNAIDS/ WI cncket event m Barbados
"I work with the Joint United Nations Programme on
:mvI AIDS Caribbean Regional Support Team. UNAIDS
coordinates the technical assistance that the United Nations
offers to countries to improve their :mv response. We cover
16 countries including Suriname. the Dominican Republic.
Haiti and Cuba as well as the English-speaking Caribbean
Our ultimate vision is to have zero new :mv infections.
zero :mv discrimination and zero AIDS-related deaths.
6 . 7 Mass media in the Caribbean
they feel are important. Some, such as UNAlDS,
GraceKennedy and Sandals Resorts, have a regional
or worldwide reach. Communications departments
may want to tell people about new products and
services, about company policies, or to present a point
of view on a public issue. They may also provide a
channel for feedback from their staff and customers.
For example, a company website may have a "contact
us" feature. Communications departments may issue
information to the media in the form of a press
release or an official communique.
I share messages about the successes and challenges of
responding to :mv in the Caribbean through newspapers.
TV, radio, and our website and social media platforms. For
example. we have run an event with cricketers from the
West Indies team and young people in Barbados to raise
awareness about how generations can work together to get
rid of stigma and discrimination."
Cedriann Martin
 CASE STUDY
A film festival editorial director
·r am editorial director of the Trinidad and Tobago
Film Festival. There are at least eight other festivals
across the Caribbean - from Belize to the Bahamas
and Suriname. In ours. we show films from all over the
region. including the Spanish-. French-. and Dutch-
speaking countries -
as well as from the
Caribbean diaspora in North America and Europe.
"Some of the biggest Hollywood films have been made
in the region. Pirates of the Caribbean at World's End
cost US$300 million - that is almost half the entire
annual economic output of St Kitts and Nevis. But
new technology has opened up opportunities for
small filmmakers. We have shown a great Bahamian
feature film that cost US$1 million to make. with paid
professionals and high-quality equipment.
"Anyone with talent and energy can start with a 'no
budget' film and upload it to YouTube. A Trinidad and
Tobago ftlmmaker Roger Alexis started this way with his
Santana rasta puppet character. originally developed
as a project for a film degree at the University of the
West Indies. The first shorts went viral. Soon. there
was advertising sponsorship, for example from the 'Got
it. Get it' safe sex campaign. With six million hits on
YouTube, he could raise finance for a full-length movie.
shown in cinemas and released on DVD."
Figure 6.32: Santana puppet and Roger Alex1s
•
List two newspapers. two radio stations. and two
broadcast television channels that operate in your
country. For each of them. answer these questions:
a What is the mix between entertainment. music.
news. and sports?
b Is their content aimed at a general audience or at
a particular section of the market. such as young
people or those with specific musical tastes?
Compare a local newspaper with the online edition of a
newspaper from another Caribbean country.
a What are the top three stones in each newspaper?
b How much attention does each newspaper give to:
stories from the country where it is produced?
ii other Caribbean stories?
iii stories from other regions of the world?
Discuss the following questions with a partner.
1 To what extent do you think people in your country
are interested in news. sports and personalities
from:
a the country where they live?
b the rest of the Caribbean?
c other regions of the world?
2 Should media in your country do more to promote
regional integration? If so. what could be done?
3 What opportunities have been opened up in the
media by new technology? How have organizations
and indiVIduals m your country taken advantage of
the opportunities now available?
4 Do you use social media and, if so. which ones?
How do you use them? In which countries do
you have "friends" and contacts? Can you think
of any ways in which you. your school. and
other organizations could make better use of
social media?
 Media ownership

KEY IDEAS
o There are many well-organized media operations
in the Caribbean. CASE STUDY
o Media may be owned by private companies or by One Caribbean Media
government agencies.
o Media can promote regional integration.

Q ?UeiJ);J iQ
Propaganda: Media content, such as news or current
events, designed to present a particular point of view,
for example that of a government, a political party or a
commercial or religious organization.

Most media organizations are owned by private

companies.
o Some are specialist media companies, for
example Guyana Publications, which owns
Stabroek News in Guyana, and the Gleaner
Company in Jamaica.
o Some are linked to conglomerates, which are
active in many different industries. The Trinidad
Guardian and Trinidad Broadcasting Company
are owned by ANSA MeAL, which also owns
insurance companies, breweries, and distribution
companies.The Jamaica Observer is linked to
Sandals Resorts and Appliance Traders.
The government owns some mass media. In Guyana,
for example, the government owns:
o a daily newspaper, the Guyana Chronicle
o two radio stations
o a television channel.
A small number of media operations are owned
jointly by the government and the private sector.
For example, 60 per cent of the Grenada
Broadcasting Network is owned by One Caribbean
l\!ledia and the other 40 per cent by the government
of Grenada.
With new technology, almost anyone with creativity,
information technology skills, and access to a
computer could start their own independent media
operation.
Figure 6 .33: A JOurnalist at work in the Trinidad Express
newsroom
One Caribbean Media is a regional media group. It was
established in 2006, with a merger of the Caribbean
Communications Network in Trinidad and Tobago and
the Nation Corporation in Barbados.
In Trinidad and Tobago, the company owns:
o the Trinidad Express newspaper
o the TV6 television channel
o four radio stations.
In Barbados. it has:
o the Nation and Sunday Sun newspapers
o the Starcom Network. which operates four radio
stations.
The company also holds a majority stake in the Grenada
Broadcasting Network. which runs radio and television
stations on that island, and the Caribbean Super
Station. which has radio broadcasts in many islands of
the eastern Caribbean. One Caribbean Media also offers
communications-based services. such as printing and
video production.
In 2010 the company had over 700 employees and
revenue of US$74 million from advertising, newspaper
sales. and other sources.

•
Media operation as a business
A newspaper or a television or radio station is
costly to operate. Staff must be paid. Printing and
broadcasting are expensive. There are other costs,
such as rent, utility bills, and transport. To cover these
costs, there must be a source of income, such as:
o newspaper sales
o advertising
o support from the government or another
organization.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
CASE STUDY
The BBC: public service media
Figure 6.34 : A World Med1a Summit 1n Abu Dhabi 1n the Middle East. organized by the BBC
The British Broadcasting Corporation. or BBC, is one of
the world's largest media organizations. It has television
and radio channels in Britain. as well as an online service.
and World Service radio and television. which can be
received in many parts of the Caribbean.
The BBC does not depend on advertising finance.
Households in Britain who have a television pay an
annual licence fee. wh1ch goes to the BBC. The BBC Trust
controls the Corporation. which is independent of the
government The BBC's Charter says that it must "inform.
educate and entertain", with a wide mix of programmes
for mainstream and niche markets. News programmes
must show a careful balance and must not favour the
government viewpoint
For most commercial media, the main source of
revenue is advertising.
o Businesses advertise their products and services.
o Governments and other organizations place
"public service" advertisements, for example to
promote public health.
o Sometimes private individuals place "classified"
advertisements, for example to announce a birth,
sell a car, or advertise for domestic help.
o Companies advertise their vacancies.
:r tl.~t~- Bnt,s[....1 b1At ~"-(j
(X\re.1-1.ts tl.re. .fro~t~- .:ftl.~IC.t\.
:1 Mve. be.e.1-1. £.ivi1-1. [...ere.
.for ~ve. (je.Ms, re.port''»o
0
C.t\nbbe.t\1-1. stories .for t[....e.
BBC.. :r spe.1-1.d ~t~-ost o-f ~"-(j t1~t~-e. 11-1. .:ftl.~lc.t.>- 1
b1At :r v.£.so tmve.£. to otf..\:'er p£.v.ce.s. J:1-1. f[....e.
ptl.st (je.tl.r :r [...Me. be.e.1-1. to ln1-1.1dv.d, A1-1.t1 1Av.,
0
&1A(j1A'»t\ 1 tl.1-1.d t[....e. I '!ArKS t\1-1.d C.t\ICOS 1Sft\1-1.dS.
Nick Davis
 6 .H Mea1a own ersmp

Advertisers prefer to use media with a wide the facts as seen by professional journalists, and
audience. Some advertisers may prefer a "niche" presenting features with views from all sides.
market - for example, a publication aimed at
In Britain, radio and television attempt to give
tourists or at health professionals. But all media
impartial coverage. However, some newspapers either
need to attract an audience, to earn income from
strongly support or oppose the governing party. As
advertising and sales.
there are many different newspapers, contrasting
Some media do not need to make a profit. They views are represented. In the USA, most cities have
receive financial support, usually from their owners. only one or two daily newspapers. Print journalists
In some cases, media tailor their content to meet the try to be impartial, but some television channels,
wishes of their owners or their advertisers. such as Fox News, take a clear political position on
many 1ssues.
Media independence Everywhere in the world, politicians try to use the
The media in most countries present a wide
media to promote their views, particularly during
range of views. Members of the public can
election campaigns:
consider the issues reported and make up their
own minds. The media often have to report a o Political parties ask businesses and individuals to
situation in which opposing views are strongly contribute to their funds so that they can pay for
held, for example: radio, television, and newspaper advertisements.
o In some countries, ministries use government
o during a pay dispute in an important industry,
funds for advertisements explaining the
where the trade unions want a large pay increase
achievements and plans of the current
but the employers are offering a small one
administration.
o just before a general election when government
o Some radio and television stations give live
and opposition are fighting for voter support
coverage of important political meetings held by
o if a tourism company wants to build a hotel
government or opposition parties.
on a historic site close to a popular beach, and
o Politicians make themselves available for media
some people feel that the development will be
interviews, so they can state their views.
an intrusion while others think it will bring
o Voters take part in call-in programmes, arguing
employment and prosperity
strongly for either side.
o if a "Safer Roads Society" attempts to impose
o Popular artistes may be paid to perform at
tight controls on alcohol advertising and events
political rallies.
sponsorship, and some alcohol importers and
suppliers, as well as bar and nightclub owners, see International election observers have commented
this as a threat to freedom of speech that in some Caribbean countries opposition parties
o in response to a proposal to change abortion law, do not have equal access to the media. In others,
which arouses conflicting views from religious most people accept that coverage is broadly fair.
groups and women's organizations.
0 We. 're. ~ot ow~e.d ~ tlto..e. ~ove.r~~~t, b1At we.
Media practice varies internationally.1here are
re.ce.ive. 1.\ iot o-f 1.\dve.rtis·~~ .fra... ~t~.•~•stne.s 1.\~d
many approaches to the reporting of controversial stl.\te.-ow~d c~~~e.s . :{r W01Aid be. be.st ,.p we.
issues. Some public sector media, such as the BBC, 010~ 't p1Ab£1slto.. too ~t~.1ACito.. po£1t1CI.\£ SCI.\~01.\£ .
attempt to maintain a balance between all points
of view, while other state-owned media support the
government view on all issues, whichever party is
in office. e We. 're. ow~e.d bzr 1.\ tobi.\CCO COitl.fll.\~'}1'. Yo1A
do~ 't e.Xpe.c t 1AS to r1A~ too ltl.l.\~zr twti~fe.s 1.\mt
Some private sector media reflect the views of
i1A~~ Cl.\~ce.r.
their owners or of important advertisers. Others
try to maintain an independent position, reporting
 Q We.'re. P. ~ove.r~~~t-ow~e.d stt~.tlo~, fxAt we.
se.e. it ets 01Ar 01At[j to report etit polific.eti '/le.ws
.fetiri{j et~d ol(je.c.·h vd{j. IS1Af we. t1J -to .f-tArtke.r
p1Abl•c. pol•~[j. For e.Xettt1fle.1 we. r1A~ e.d1Ac.ettio~et2
pro~rCt~~~.~s .for C.S~C. st-tAde.'"ts be..fore. tke. e.XCt~t~.S1
t:\1-\d tke.re. 's t\ re.~1Alt\r ke.t:\ltltl. pro~rCt~t~.~ to ltl.e.ip
pe.ople. tt:\l<e. C.t\re. o.f t ltl.e.ir 1-\e.e.ds et't\d tltl.ose. o.f
tke.ir .fCt~t~.Jl{j .
0 Fl]tB[jllli~kt Ctirl•~s tool< 01Ar trCtve.£ e.ditor
to ~it.\111-i 1 t.\1-\d c.\ 1-\e.w ~ve.-stt>.r kate.£ ptMd .for
c.\ we.e.l< 's stCt}t. So1 t\S " S~~~.~All tltl.£\1-\j( [j01A 1 we. 're.
r-tA't\1-\i-t\~ Ct -HAH ~~e. Ctb01At tke.~~~. 11-\ 01Ar trCtve.l
se.c.t iO't\ .
e 01Ar Ow~r iS 1.\ dose. .frie.'t\Q o.f tke. oppos1t101-\
le.etde.r. So we. ~e.t ple.~t}t o.f ~ossip Ctbo1At
~ove.r-t\~1-\t ~~~.i't\JSte.rs Ct't\J' tltl.e.Jr se.x i.ive.s. Not
t\1£ o.f •t's MC.1ArCtte. wke.-1-\ we. c.ke.c.J( 1t 01At1
tlti.01A~.
We. 're. OW't\e.d ~ t\ bi~ Qr01Ap o.f U\ribbe.Ct't\
eC.OIII.pi>-1-\ie.s.
1
The.[j ~01-\ t 11-\l-e.r.fe.re. witk wlti.Ctt we.
S"-]t i-t\ 01Ar dCtil{j 1-\e.wsMsts1 b-tAt tltl.e.[j e.xpe.c.t 1As
'to fp.J(e. et (}e.~mli{j pro-b-tASI~SS v•e.wpo11-\t.
•
0 :r do~'t tr1Ast et~~ o.f tke. ~d1et. The.~
j1Ast p1At o1At prop~>- et~'dCt .for tltl.e.ir ow't\e.rs t>.'t\d
0
Ctdve.rtlse.rsJ or .for tke. crove..r-t\~1-\t.
List two newspapers. two radio stations and two
broadcast television channels which operate in
your country. For each of them, answer the following
questions:
a Is it in national. regional, or international
ownership?
b Is it owned by the government, by a private
company. or by a partnership between the two?
Take a controversial issue in your country, on which
there are different points of view. Find out whether the
media report this issue fairly. Are all points of view well
represented? Write up your findings, giving examples.
Factual writing
Are there any government -owned media m your
country? If so. write a report that shows how they
compare with the BBC in terms of:
a dependence on advertising for finance
b variety and quality of programmes produced
c editorial independence and variety of viewpoints
 National, regional and global media
o music and video downloads
KEY IDEAS o books, music and other media ordered from
o The Caribbean has for centuries enjoyed a mix of
international suppliers such as Amazon, or
local and international media.
o The range of choice has expanded since the 1990s. downloaded on devices such as the Kindle.
o There are many attitudes to the range of media
now available.

For many years, people in the Caribbean have been

exposed to global media. Major religions in the
Caribbean draw on books that came to us originally
from outside the region, such as:
o the Bible, for Christians
o the Koran, for ·Muslims
o the Bhagavad Gita, for Hindus.
Written and oral media have created a mix of
musical and literary traditions, some locally
developed and others originally introduced from
Mrica, Asia, Europe, and both North and South
America. They have combined to produce a
distinctive culture in every part of the region.
Until the 1990s, people in most Caribbean countries
had access to a limited range of media:
o daily and weekly newspapers, and a few locally
produced magazines
o in most countries, a single broadcast television
channel, which was usually government owned,
and showed mainly North American and British
programmes produced some time earlier
o one or two radio stations, which were in some
Figure 6.35: People 1n the Canbbean reg1on can watch movies
cases government owned from all over the world
o a modest range ofbooks from local bookshops
o some local and imported recorded music, mainly New media may have no obvious physical location.
on vinyl records They exist in "cyberspace", although data are of
o films shown in local cinemas, most of them US course stored on servers, either in the Caribbean or
H ollywood productions, with some Indian movies elsewhere. Their content may be developed for any
shown in Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana. type of audience:
Today, a rich mixture of national, regional and o family and friends
international media is available to people in the o business associates or group members
Caribbean: o a local community
o a national audience
o the Internet, which provides access to newspapers,
o the Caribbean region
websites, ebooks and other information from
o worldwide reach.
across the region and the world

•
Global media and the Caribbean
The increased availability of global media in the
region ha~ ~parked debate. Some people believe
that it offers opportunities for educational, cultural,
and personal development as well as entertainment.
Others have a more negative view. They are
concerned that foreign media content may promote
violence, sexual activity, drug usc, and extravagant
spe nding habits. Many are also concerned that
locally produced song lyrics and other media carry
violent or negative messages.
0 :r. 111. .fro~~~. &~t>.~t>. 1 t>.~O
1
:! re.t>.o fke.
-xe.wspv.pe.r e.ve.1J da~ o-xle-xe. 1 v.-xd J: leste..,.. to
£eve. stre.v.tt~.e-x(} r~oeo .fro"~t~. &e.or(}e. tow-1'\.
0 w~tc"'-•-x(} A"~t~.e.n~-x pro(}rV.tt~."ltl.e.S ~)(e.s
~O-t-4-1'\
0 pe.opie. tki-x)( tke.~ cv.-x onve. v. .fv.st ~r,
we.P.r st~lts"'- dot"'-e.s t>.-1'\0 ~o to P. bt A~~~.e-n~~
0
'IA-1'\tVe.rstt~ . We. c~-x 't cJ.t. ltve. liKe. tMt.

0 J: fe)(e. e.ve.1Jt"'-e-x(} 1 wke.re.ve.r et's .fro"~t~.-

$.W~fc"'-t-x A.fri~-1'\ "lti.OVte.s ope.-1'\e.o tt~.~ e.~e.s. J:
o~-xc.e."'-vJ£ 1 S()C.(). 1 pop1 "'-•p-"'-op1 R ~ 8 1 roc)( - ~o-t-4
-xV."Itl.e. it.
0
-xe.ve.r 1<-xe.w t"'-e. nc"'- pe.opie. f"'-e.n "'-v.o so ~.,..~
bt ~rs ~.,..0 SO tt~.14ck b£i't\(}.
0
e J: fi)(e. wv.tc"'-i-x(} t"'-e. ~v.tio-x~f &e.o(}r~p"'-ic
~-xo l1est~ c.kv.-x-xe.ls - )1"014 £e.~r-x so "~t~.-t-4c.k
~mt t"'-e. world. A-xd t"'-e. X.fn~ c"'-~-x-xe.£ ope.-xs
$ We. s"'-o'!Alo ~ss ~
fuw to t ~.v.)(e.
s't-4n tk~t
v.t le.v.st "'-v.U f"'-e. r~dio co11lte.-xt is £ocv.££~
~o1Ar e.~e.s 1 too.
prod'!Ace.o. J:.f pe.opie. MVe. too ~.,..~ c.koice.s1
t"'-e.~'f£ 11lOt ~~ P.tte.11ltto11l to locv.£ C1Alt1Are.1 V.-1'\d
tt well dre..
0 There. 's too "~t~.-t-4C"'- bori-x(} .fore.r(}-x t ~.14src. We. '---
s"'-o'!Alo "'-v.ve. tt~.Ore. .:r~~i~-x v.rtiste.s v.-xo tt~.'!AStC
vioe.os .
41) ~
J: li)(e. lot o.f J:11ldtP.11l tt~.ovie.s.
For "~t~.'!ASrc1
:! fe)(e. roc)( tt~.'IAStC .fro~~~. A"~t~.e.n~ 1 P.-xo c"'-1At-xe.~.
0 S~tt"~t~.e.S t"'-e. tv.!)( s"'-ows V.Ye. ooo .for
The. 0-1'\J.~ t"'-t-x J: do-t\ 't ft)(e. IS tM t C~SStCP-f
0J:-1'\0IP.'Iil "ltl.'t-4SIC.
0
ftste.-xt -x(}, to. People. re.~££~ S~'}t ~o~M.~t t"'-e.~
t"'-i-xJ<. So"~t~.e.ti"~t~.e.s t"'-e.)t ~re. so st~pio 1 t"'-e.~ ~)(e.
"~t~.e. w~-x't to fu-t-4(}"'-·

CDThv.t SP.-1'\fv.-1'\P. p14ppe.t is t"'-e. worst. 11e. se.ts

~ bP.o e.XP.t!!.ple. to 014r ~o-t-4t"'-.
J: MVe. tii.DY"e. tM-x v. t"'-D1Asv.-xd Fv.ce.bool<
.fne.-xos1 v.H over t"'-e. world.

fl The.re. v.re. t~~.DYe. tM-1'\ v. k'!A11lono CM-1'\-xe.ls,

b'!At J: CV.-1'\ -xe.ve.r .fi-xd o-xe. J: WP.-1'\t to wv.tc"'-.
J:t 's v.£2. trv.s"'-.

0 J: fr)(e. Tn-xet~1 f:te.r-xv.£ World Tr1Af"'- ~e.twor-J<
v.-xo t"'-e. J:sfv.tt~.ec c"'-v.-x-xe.£. The.~ ~)(e. ]1'01-4 f"'-r-x)(
v.bo'!At dr-He.re.-xt sprnt-t-4v-£ O'!At£oc3'ks.
'--
fD We. 11lOw Mve. v.ro't-411lo six iocv.£ c"'-v-11l11le.£s
O'lil cv.bi.e. 1 v.-xd O'lile. .frott~. &re.-xv.dv.. ~ tt~.ot"'-e.r
wv.tc"'-e.s t"'-e. p14hirc e.11lB1A•Y'}t v.-xd t"'-e. ae.bv.te.s t'lil
. p~YiiP."~t~.e.11lt 1 s"'-e. sv.~s tt:(v.t is re.p.£ dr~tt~.v. .

Figure 6 .36: Not everyone wants to watch the same channel
e A~e.nc~1-t ~1As•c v•de.os e.1-tC01Ar~3e. dr1A~S 1
viole.1-tc.e. ~ 1-td se.x. Th.e.lj sko1Ald1-t 1f be. ~JJowe.d .
Th.e. J""~~~C~""I-\ 01-te.S ~re. 1-\0 be.tte.r.
• :r. 1ASe. tV..e. ~re.1-tt~l loc¥- to ~Y-e. S1Are. ~
.r~~·1[j 01-tllJ w~tc.JMs S1Ait~£e. proor~~~s. fL.'~-\
1
:r. ~1-\ co1-thol w"'-D.t :r. w~tck 1 ~1-td w"'-D.t tke.lj
w~tck.
~ tvl]t .f~tV..e.r &e.r~1-t ~1-td ~"}t ~tV..e.r
is is
.fro~ 'Ve.1-te. 61Ae.le>.. :r. Ct>-1-\ we>. tcV.. c:Ye.1Atscke. We.He.
~1-td p£e.1-tt"}t o.f Sp~1-tisV.. C~1-t1-te.ls . So :r. ~~ 1Ap to
spe.e.d w•f'k tV..re.e. ie>.1-t0'1Ae>.3e.s t>-1-td c1AH1Are.s.
e The. 01-tl]t locd pro(}:r~~~ •s tV..e. Ne.ws.
t:ve.1-t tv..e. ~tfve.rt•se.~1-tts ~re. ~de. 11-\ A~n~,
s-~~~~ or lr11-ti~d.
6 .9 National regional and global media
G Th.e.lj 1Ase.d to V..~ve.V..i3"'-e.rst~1-td~rds 11-t
tv..e. old a~ljS · :r. do1-t 1t ¥-1-tOW w(..l..lr' b1At A~n~""l-\
~ie.s i1-t tv..e. 1950s 1-te.ve.r stA:owe.d ~~~~
be.V..~V101Ar.
e tvl]t ~tV..e.r 3e.ts ~ lot o.f 11113e.n~1-\ ~·e.s
01-t D\10. IS1At sV..e. W01-t 1t £e.t ~ w~tcv.. . .SV..e. s~ljs
tke.lj 1re. 1-\0t S1Ait~b£e..
G 1A1-tde. tvt~rv•1-tj1Ast w~1-tts tv..e. &oU c!M:\1-t1-te.£
tv..e. wV..ole. ti~. :r.t 1S so bori1-t3·
How many television channels are available in your
country? How many fall into each of these groups?
a varied programming
b local channels
c Spanish and other foreign-language channels
d music channels
e sports channels
f news channels
g mainly movies and dramas
h religious channels
i food, travel and special mterests.
2 Ask each member of the class to name their three
favourite television or radio channels. Make a bar
chart to show which are most popular overall.
3 At home. each member of the class should ask
two adults about their favourite channels. Pool the
results. and make a bar chart to show preferred
viewing for adults. Describe two differences and
two similarities between adults' and students'
preferences.
Discuss the following questions with a partner.
1 What effect has the increased choice of media had
on Caribbean culture?
2 In what ways can Caribbean artistes and media
professionals make use of new media and the
Internet?
3 Is the range of moral and ethical standards shown
in international programmmg different from the
range seen in locally produced music and other
media?
•
6.10 Our cultural heritage
lived by his wits.
KEY IDEAS The Soucouyant
o The Caribbean has a rich cultural heritage.
story is also derived
o Cultural heritage may be passed on through an
oral tradition. from African
o Artistes develop culture. and pass it on. traditions, and
o Mass media and new media can be used to possibly also from
transmit culture. French and
o There are institutions that promote cultural European
development. vampire myths.
The Soucouyant
lived by day as an
~d!•flli ;l'l old woman, but at
Fi gure 6 .37: Anans1

Oral traditions: History, beliefs, stories, or legends passed night she stripped off her wrinkled skin and flew
down by word of mouth rather than in writing.
in the shape of a fireball, entering homes through a
keyhole or crack and sucking blood from her victims.
For a relatively small population of about 6 million A pile of uncooked rice would delay her, as she had
people, the English-speaking Caribbean has made a to gather up every grain before she came in.
great contribution to worldwide culture. Writers such as
Derek Walcott and V. S. Naipaul; musical genres such Drama
as reggae, dancehall, calypso, and soca; instmments such
as the steel pan and events such as Carnival in Trinidad
and Tobago; Jamaican athletes and West Indies cricket:
all have had an international impact.
1l1e culture of the region is constantly changing
and developing. New forms of expression and new
initiatives are always arising. At the same time, older
traditions are passed on.

Song and story

Song, poetry, and drama developed early in human
history as forms of oral communication. Using
rhythm and rhyme, and combining words with music,
made a story easier to remember and repeat. A s song
or poetry, stories were handed down over many years,
and spread over a wide geographical area.
Relig ious texts such as the Bible and the Hindu
Bhagavad Gita draw on ancient oral and poetic
traditions. So do many of the earliest writings in
the English language . In the Caribbean, traditional
stories have elements from African, Indian,
Amerindian, and European traditions.
For example, the Anansi tales are thoug ht to have
grown from the oral traditions of the Ashanti people
of Ghana. Anansi was a spider and a trickster, who
Figure 6.38: The cast from Manonette Chorale's product1on of
81zet's opera Carmen. What 1s conveyed by the fac1al express1ons?
In drama, actors perform a story. Drama can be
presented:
o through a live performance, usually on a stage
o as a film for the cinema
o as a television programme- which may be
extended to form a mini-series or a "soap opera".
A dramatic performance depends on non-verbal
communication as much as the words of the play to
communicate with the audience. A ctors use gestures,
facial expressions, posture and tone of voice. In some
productions they also use song and dance.
Calypso
Figure 6 .39: Winston "Gypsy" Peters recorded "S1nk1ng Sh1p"
1n 1986 as a hard·h1tt1ng cnt1c1sm of George Chambers, then
the pnme minister of Trinidad and Tobago. "Gypsy" h1mself
later became a politician, and in 2010 was appointed Mmister
of the Arts and Multiculturalism.
Calypso is a tradition of song that developed in
Trinidad and Tobago. An older form of the word is
"kaiso", which is thought to originate from a West
African phrase meaning "Go on!"
Calypso music was first recorded in 1912, when
Lavey's String Band made a recording of the song
"Mango Vert", with Columbia Records in New York.
Calypso was popular in North America and Europe
during the 1950s and 1960s, but is less well known
internationally today.
Calypso used word play and double meaning to
convey a half-hidden social, sexual, or political
message. In colonial times, the police scanned
calypsos for "dangerous" content. When records were
exported to the USA, customs authorities dumped
many calypso recordings at sea because they were
considered immoral.
In the Caribbean, calypso has developed into forms
such as soca, but the tradition of storytelling with
a social and political commentary continues. Other
musical forms, in the Caribbean and elsewhere, also
have commentary on social and political issues.
Carnivals and festivals
Figure 6 .40: A ''Red Devil " torments a "b1kin1 and beads"
reveller at Carnival 1n Trin1dad and Tobago
Caribbean carnivals and street festivals arc derived
from many cultural traditions.
For Catholic countries in Europe, the six weeks
of Lent before Easter were a period of fasting and
repentance. The days before Lent were celebrated
as Carnival. French settlers brought that tradition
to islands such as Trinidad, St Lucia and D ominica.
Slaves, and their descendants after Emancipation,
took elements from this tradition and developed
it further, using music and dance derived, in part,
from Mrica.
Carnivals during the 20th century were a blend of
many traditions, which continue today. Jab-jabs are
traditional devil-like dancers. Moko Jumbics, or stilt
walkers, are African in origin. Burrokcets, or donkey
costumes, are partly Spanish. Dame Lorraine, an
exaggerated "cross-dressing" character, is French. The
American navy of the Second World War inspired
"drunken sailor" bands. Indian costumes echoed
Hollywood Western movies, as well as Trinidadian
ideas of how Amerindians from South America
would dress.
Today, Carnival bands may be several thousand
strong. The best costumes have creative designs
drawn from all the continents of the world, from
history and from the designers' own imagination .
•
 The Carnival tradition has parallels and descendants 0 :1 re..part o~ t\rts t\..ui ~'!ASIC .for t\ foepl
in many other countries. Crop Over in Barbados
?\tl-WS~Y. Afti\.Os f e.ve.rzr ?II~f 1 :1 ~to\. ~t ~
ties with the end of the sugar crop, and ends on the
first Monday in August. The Junkanoo parade in
pe.r.forM~ce.. or tv..e.. ope.?ti?t(t crt
lA ~e..w ~rt skow. :r:
ft\ )(e.. pv..ot"(tr~pks 1 h.l)( to tv..e.. c.re.~tive. people. ~1td to
Nassau is derived in part from African tradition , and tv..e.. ~1Adie.?~U 1 P.1'lll write. t\ho'!At it t\ll 1tt..Xt ~1'li1'l1r .
is held at Christmas and New Year. Some islands
have changed the tim ing of their festivals. St L ucia's
Carnival is no longer held before L ent, but from
May to July. I n cities such as New York, Toronto and
London, Caribbean communities started summer
Carnivals, which now attract participants from every CASE STUDY
ethnic background.
The Calabash International Literary Festival
0 :r: do?~
't £,)(e. tooo:~ c.ost1A~s. The:~
's 're..
J1ASt • b,J<i?tl ~?ld be..~ds •. A?ld t~e. to\.'!ASIC is o?tl{j
"wP.ve. ~?td w1?te.". Ofd-t1tl\.e. c.~l'}tpso wP.s sV..~rp t\.xd
c.nt\t1ve. 1 tke.lj f(?te.w V..ow to -t¥se.. words 1?1 tV..ose..
dt\ljS.

e Cp.r?t1Vt\f IS C.kt\?11rl?la.· :1 sfifffif(e. tlt..e. old

Cp.r?t1Vt\f ckt\rt\c. fe..rs - b'!At :r:j1Ast wt\?tt to a<'
o'!At .for two d~lJS t\?!d kt\ve. .f1A?t. A?td tv..e.. bi(t
C.t\r?tivp.£ .fe..te..s 1?1 tV..e. we..e..f(s be...fore.. t\re.. ?tOw
tl\.t\f(l?t1r f~e.ir OW?! frt\dlfiO?\S.
Creativity and tradition
There are many ways in which cultural tradi tions in
the Caribbean can be passed on and developed.
o Artistes draw on traditions when they develop
new work, in music, performance, literature, or
the visual arts.
o Artistes sometimes work together in cultural groups.
o Mass media, such as newspapers, television and
radio, spread news and give airtime to cultural
events.
o A number of voluntary, independent and
government institutions encourage the
development of culture and creativity.
o Private companies and government organizations
may provide financial sponsorship.
0 f;Ve.r'}t {je.t\r1 we. r-e..port O?! Cp.r?tiVt\f t\?td
c1A£ho~rt\t' e.ve.?tts. The. b1(t stor1e..s 1AS1At\Hzr ie..t\d
tV..e. .Pro?~ t ~(te. 1 t\?td we. r'!A?t t\ spe..C.1t\l C.t\r?tiVP.f
s1Apple..~?tt &~..Pte.rwMds.
Figure 6 .41: Calabash co·founder Kwame Dawes in
conversat1on w1th Orlando Patterson, Jamaican Professor
of Sociology at Harvard Umvers1ty
The Calabash International Literary Festival was
established in Jamaica in 200 1 by three Jamaicans:
novelist Colin Channer; Kwame Dawes. a poet and
playwright; and filmmaker Justine Henzell. An audience
of 3,000 or more now takes part each year, most of
them from Jamaica and the Caribbean, with well-known
Caribbean writers such as Edwidge Danticat from Haiti
and Oonya Kempadoo from Guyana. There are "open mic"
sessions for unpublished writers. and live reggae music.
Volunteers run the festival but. as there is no charge for
attending, it relies on financial support from sponsors
such as the Jamaica Tourism Board and private sector
companies.
As with so much in Caribbean culture, the festival has an
international as well as a local flavour. Among the writers
attending have been two African novelists, Chimamanda
Adichie from Nigeria and Maaza Mengiste from Ethiopia,
and poets such as Billy Collins, the US Poet Laureate. The
Wall Street Journal, a leading US newspaper. has said
that Calabash is "smart and fun". while GQ magazine in
Britain has listed it as one of the top 100 things to do
in the world. ''I'm very proud that such a festival exists
in the Caribbean," has scud Caryl Phillips, a well-known
writer originally from St Kitts.

-

CASE STUDY
Jamaican music
Jamaica has developed musical forms from local and
international traditions that have had a worldwide
cultural impact.
The earliest influences on Jamaican music were
traditional African rhythms and European musical forms
such as quadrille. Mento developed in the 1950s, and
was followed by ska and the slower tempo of rocksteady,
taking in new musical currents from American jazz, old-
time rhythm and blues. and classic Rastafarian drummers
such as Count Ossie. Reggae developed from these
origins in the 1960s.
By far the best-known reggae singer internationally is Bob
Marley, who began his career in the early 1960s, and died
of cancer in 1981 at the age of 36. As well as his music,
he is remembered for his song lyrics, which celebrated
Figure 6.42 : Bob Marley
6 . 10 Our cultural heritage
Rastafarianism. personal freedom and universal human
values. In 1990. Time magazine in the USA chose
Exodus by Bob Marley and the Wailers as the greatest
album of the 20th century, and in 2001. 30 years after
his death. he was remembered with a Grammy Lifetime
Achievement award.
As well as influencing North American and British music.
reggae has developed musical genres such samba reggae
in Brazil. reggaeton in Latin America. Jawaiian music in
Hawaii. pinoy reggae in the Philippines. and desert reggae
among the Aboriginals of Australia. Reggae bands have a
huge following in African countries such as Nigeria and
South Africa. Reggae festivals in Germany. Italy, and Spain
attract audiences in the tens of thousands.
No musical tradition stands still. From the late 1970s.
reggae evolved into dub. ragga and dancehall; these in
turn are constantly changing and developing.
 CASE STUDY
Urban Heartbeat The event was supported by the German Embassy
Every Caribbean country has creative events. which and by Berlin artist Jim Avignon. as well as by local
bring together dtfferent communications media such as communications company Abovegroup Ogilvy, which sees
music. dance. and painting. and both local and worldwide sponsorship of the arts as part of its creative role.
cultural traditions.
Urban Heartbeat in Trinidad was one of a series of similar
events in the wider Caribbean. Local artists came together
to paint a wall on the Savanna. a grassy public space in
Port of Spain.
One of the artists, Kriston Banfield, was a 19-year-old
student from the University of the West Indies. He said.
"My pieces are Afncan influenced but are also a mix with a
lot of Buddhist images and ideals. This piece is a man with
African features meditating and reaching enlightenment.
The cloud hanging over him represents his troubles and
he is choosing between right and wrong - the birds on
his shoulders represent his conscience - but he is stuck."
Another artist was Marie-Elena Joseph, a graphic designer
who likes the work of the English street artist Banksy, and
a third was Briarma McCarthy, who was influenced by the Figure 6 .43: Knston Banfield pamtmg a wall at the Urban
French 20th-century fashion artist Erte. Heartbeat event m Tnn1dad

Research and roleplay

Watch a drama (for example. a comedy, an action
movie. or a soap opera episode) on television.
a Write a short summary of the story
b In which country was the programme made?
c Does the drama tell us anything about the society
it represents?
2 Remember a key moment from the drama. Take the
part of one of the actors. but stand still and upright.
and speak in a flat voice. How much of the meaning
comes through? How do the actors use non-verbal
communication to achieve therr effect?

Research the answers to the followmg questions.
1 What is the main carnival or public festival in your
country? Name three events that take place at the
festival. At what time of year is it held? What were its
origins? Does it receive support from any government
organization? Is it supported by private sector
businesses?
2 Is there a government agency that supports arts and
culture m your country? What work does it do?
Which voluntary and private sector organizations
support arts and culture?
3 Are there any stories or characters that come from an
oral tradition in your country? Describe them. Is the
tradition of storytelling still alive today?
4 On a world map, show five countries where music has
been influenced by Jamaican reggae.

Quick questions
Think of a song you know that tells a story or carries
a social message and another that was written purely
as musical entertainment. with no specific message. Is
the song wtth the message more effective than the one
without? If so. why is this?
2 Take the song that tells a story or carries a social
message.
a Name the artist. the country or production and the
type of music.
b Summarize the story or message. You may quote

-
any lines that illustrate your point.
6.11 Regulation and media freedom
KEY IDEAS
o Freedom of expression is a constitutional right.
o There are laws that limit freedom of expression in
some circumstances.
o Some countries have codes of ethics that set
guidelines for media practice.
~1 !•llt1 il'i
Censorship: The regulation and control of media content,
usually on grounds of politics, sexual content or religion.
Freedom of the press: The right of newspapers, television,
radio, Internet and other media to report information and
express views freely without interference or censorship
from governments or other organizations.
Freedom of expression
In all Caribbean countries, there is a constitutional
guarantee of freedom of expression. This is
usually included in a section of the constitution
headed "Fundamental rights and freedoms" . For a
democratic society to function, we must have the
right to express our own views.
"Except with his own consent, no person shall
be hindered in the enjoyment of his freedom of
expression, and for the purposes of this section
the said freedom includes the freedom to hold
opinions and to receive and impart ideas and
information without interference. and freedom from
interference with his correspondence and other
means of communication.'"
Constitution of Jamaica. 1962
Limits on free speech
Caribbean constitutions allow governments to
impose some limits on free speech. For example, the
Jamaican constitution allows its parliament to pass
laws to limit freedom of expression:
o "in the interests of defence, public safety, public
order, public morality or public health"
o "for the purpose of protecting the rights or
freedoms of other persons".
It also allows laws that impose "restrictions upon
public officers, police officers or upon members of a
defence force". In most Caribbean countries many
government workers are not allowed to make public
comments about the department or ministry they
work for.
Libel and slander
For many years, most countries have had laws that
protect people from false accusations that damage
their reputation:
o The law of libel covers print and electronic media,
and the Internet.
o The law of slander covers statements made
directly by word of mouth.
In the Caribbean, and in most Commonwealth
countries, the law of libel is quite restrictive.
o A newspaper or media house that publishes a
damaging statement must be able to prove that it
is true.
o The journalist, the owner of the media house, the
printer, and anyone selling a libellous publication
can be taken to court, and may have to pay
substantial compensation if a statement they have
made cannot be proved true.
o A statement is libellous even if the journalist
introduces words like "allegedly" or "reportedly".
o A statement may be libellous even if someone is
not named directly. For example, if the libel refers
to "the Principal of a well-known school in the
capital city", then every school principal whose
reputation might be damaged can sue.
In some cases a statement may be "privileged": for
example, most statements made in parliament or
in the law courts can usually be reported freely,
without risk of a libel suit. However, other legal
restrictions exist on the reporting of court cases.
Cameras and recording equipment cannot be used,
although making a sketch or taking notes is allowed.
Statements that could influence a court case are not
allowed; in many cases they are classed as "contempt
of court", which is a serious offence.
•
 Figure 6 .44: Hollywood mov1es such as Casablanca were made dunng the Hays Code era
Broadcasting licences
Broadcast radio and television stations need a licence
to operate. This is mainly for technical reasons. If
rwo radio or television stations use frequencies that
are too close to each other, neither can be received
properly. In most countries, a licensing au thority
allocates broadcast frequencies, such as the Eastern
Caribbean Telecommunications Authority (Ectel),
which deals with licensing in D omini ca, Grenada,
St Kitts-Nevis, St Lucia, and St Vincent. Some
frequencies are reserved for cellular telephone
services or for special purposes such as licensed
amateur operators, or communication by the public
emergency services.
Codes of ethics
In some countries, the media are governed by a code
of eth ics. This may cover areas such as:
•
o accurate reporting
o a right of reply for those who believe they have
been unfairly criticized
o violence
o pornography
o the right to privacy in the home
o reporting that may bring unwelcome publicity to
young children
o respect for crime victims and their relatives
o unfair references to race, religion, sex or sexual
orientation, or to a physical or mental disability.
In most C aribbean countries, there is no agreed
code of ethics in force. H owever, there may be legal
restrictions on some reporting. For example, in most
countries there arc careful rules that place tight
limits on reporting the names of children involved in
court cases.

"'1~ 11-.,..o-xtV.. ofd dCI.1A~V..te.r's .first sr~V..t
o-F Cl. corpse. CCI..,..e. Cl. t tv..e. s1Ape.r..w.r)(e.f. Sv..e. C\-xd
:r we.re. Cl.t tV..e. CCI.SV..re.r's wV..e.-x Cl. fo1Ad wCI.rf CCI..,..e.
.fro... tV..e. ~rP.-xt te.fevrsro-x set o-x tV..e. wCI.ff. The.
vof1A...e. se.e. ...e.d to be o-x .f1Aif b£C~.st . So1 we botV..
foof(ed 1Ap r-x p.fCI.r.,.. 1J1ASt r-x tr ...e to se.e. Cl. bod7r
bCI.~ 1A-x&ippe.d to re.ve.~Af tv..e. bfood-spfp.tfe.re.J'
.ft:\ce. o.f C\ (j01A-x~ .,..C\-x.
\ Vircd86R.com
The Hays Code
From 1930 to 1968, Hollywood movies were governed
by the voluntary Hays Code, prepared under the
influence ofWill Hays, president of Motion Pictures
Producers and Distributors of America.
Some points from the Hays Code
o "Pointed profanity (this includes the words ...
Hell, S.O.B. damn, Gawd) or every other profane
or vulgar expression, however used, is forbidden.
o Miscegenation (sex relationships between the
white and black races) is forbidden.
o Ministers of religion in their character as
ministers of religion should not be used as comic
characters or as villains.
o The history, institutions, prominent people and
citizenry of other nations shall be represented fairly.
o Excessive and lustful kissing, lustful embraces,
suggestive postures and gestures, are not to be
shown.
o Illegal drug traffic must never be presented."
With changing social attitudes, the code was first
modified and then replaced in 1968 by the Motion
Picture Association of America film rating system,
which is also voluntary. Movies are rated G, PG,
PG13, R, or NC-17.
6.11 Regulation and media freedom
Censorship
Dictatorships such as the former Soviet Union
applied strict media censorship. In some countries,
such as Myanmar in Asia, media content is still
censored. Government officials inspect books
and newspapers, and either remove content they
disapprove of or prevent publication altogether.
China restricts access to some Internet content .
In the most restrictive dictatorships, such as North
Korea, there is no freedom of speech. All newspapers
and printing presses are owned by the state. Most
people are not allowed access to the Internet or
to printers and photocopiers. The government
decides what television programmes and movies are
allowed. People who are suspected of holding anti-
government opinions can be sent to prison, or killed.
Find out what is meant by each of the film rating
codes: G. PG, PG 13. R. and NC-17.
2 Use the Internet to research the Index on
Censorship, Reporters Without Borders and the
World Press Freedom Index. Which countries have
the most restrictions on media freedom? What
ranking is given to your country. and to two other
Caribbean countries?
Working with a partner:
1 Choose two widely distributed recent movies that
would not have been allowed under the Hays Code.
For each. briefly describe their content and list the
ways in which they do not comply with the Code.
2 Discuss whether you think any of the restrictions in
the Hays Code should be applied today. Say why or
why not.
3 Discuss whether there should be any restrictions
on access to Internet content. Say why or why not.
 6.12 Protection of creative work
KEY IDEA
o The law of copyright protects artistic and creative
work.
Copyright: The lega l ownership of a literary, artistic, or
creative work.
Copywrite: To produce verbal content for an advertisement,
including text, jingles, or slogans.
Piracy: Illegal copying and distribution of copyright media
content, including computer software.
Plagiarism: The copying or taking of someone else's
language, ideas, or expressions, and trying to pass them
off as original work. From a Latin word meaning "kidnap".
Copyright
Authors, musicians, software developers, and others
use their time and talent to develop creative work.
They hope to enhance their reputation and earn
money when the work is sold. Their right to benefit
is protected by the law of copyright.
Many authors or musicians assign their copyright
to a publisher or agent, in return either for a fixed
payment or for a percentage of the sales revenue. In
most countries, copyright lasts for a defined period
after the death of the creator or artiste. Works that
arc "out of copyright" - for example, the Bible or the
works of Shakespeare- are said to be "in the public
domain" and can be reproduced freely.
Copyright may cover works such as:
o books, newspapers, and magazines
o paintings and photographs
o music and movies
o computer programmes
o Carnival costumes.
One of the first laws to protect copyright in the
Engli sh-speaking world was passed by the British
parliament in 1710. It begins:
"Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons,
have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing,
Reprinting, and Publishing ... Books, and other
Writings, without the Consent of the Authors ...
II
to their very great Detriment, and too often to the
Ruin of them and their Families: For Preventing
therefore such Practices for the future, and for the
Encouragement of Learned l\.1en to Compose and
Write useful Books ... "
The United States constitution in 1787 had a clause
to protect copyright:
"To promote the Progress of Science and useful
Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and
Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective
Writings and Discoveries."
International copyright rules date back to the Berne
Convention, which was signed in 1887. Today,
intellectual property rights are protected by:
o the World Intellectual Property Organization
(WIPO), a United Nations agency established
in 1970 with its headquarters in Geneva,
Switzerland
o the Agreement on Trade-Related A spects
oflntellectual Property Rights (or Trips
Agreement), which was negotiated in 1994
All independent Caricom countries are members of
WIPO and have signed the Trips Agreement.
Some aspects of a work are not usually protected by
copyright:
o Titles: two (or more) works may use the same
title. For example, the title Dead ofNight has been
used many times.
o Information: factual information can be used.
o Ideas: ideas may often be reproduced using
different words, or as a summary.
o "Fair use": short extracts can be used for
criticism, news reporting, research, teaching, and
other purposes.
Drawing heavily on factual information or ideas
from a source that is not acknowledged may be
plagiarism, but is not usually a legal breach of
copyright. Copyright is one form of intellectual
property. Other intellectual property is also legally
protected. For example, brand names may be
protected as trademarks.
CASE STUDY
"Rum and Coca Cola"
Figure 6.45: Lord Invader, wnter of the song "Rum and
Coca Cola"
"Rum and Coca Cola" is a classic calypso, written in Trinidad
and Tobago in 1943 by Rupert Grant, or "Lord Invader·.
During the Second World War, the United States built
military and naval bases in islands such as Trinidad.
Soldiers and sailors had money to spend, and local people
could also earn good wages in construction and service
industries. The song celebrates the easy money that
Figure 6.46: The Andrews sisters, who had a US htt tn 1945 wtth the song
some local women earned at the time. The village of Point
Cumana was close to the largest base at Chaguaramas.
"They bought rum and Cola Cola
Went down Point Cumana
Both mothers and daughters
Working for the Yankee dollar:
An American entertainer, Morey Amsterdam, heard the
song on a visit to Trinidad and Tobago. He claimed the
lyrics as his own work in New York. and a famous singing
group of the day, the Andrews Sisters. recorded a version
in 1945. It became a big hit. reaching the top position in
the US singles charts for that year.
Lord Invader contested the copyright in US courts.
He won. with US$150 000 in damages, a substantial sum
in the 1940s. when the US minimum weekly wage was
US$10. In spite of its success. several radio stations in the
1940s banned the song, because they were concerned
that it
o mentioned an alcoholic drink. undermining public
morals
o gave free advertising to a well-known brand name
o referred to social and possibly sexual relations between
American servicemen. who were assumed to be white.
and Trinidadians. who were assumed in the language
of the day to be "coloured".
•
Copyright piracy and technology
Until the 1970s, it was technically difficult to make a
good copy of most copyrighted work.
o A printing press was needed to reproduce a book
or printed work. Photocopying was expensive,
and gave poor-quality results.
o Manufacturing equipment was needed to produce
a vinyl record.
o There was no easy way to record movie screenings
or television programmes.
From the 1980s, copying became easier.
o Photocopiers gave better results at lower cost.
o Audio-cassette tapes were cheap and easy to use.
CASE STUDY
COTT
Many Caribbean countries have organizations that
protect copyright.
The Copyright Music Organization of Trinidad
and Tobago (COTT) is a non-profit membership
organization of composers. lyricists. songwriters and
music publishers. Founded in 1984, it was the first
organization of its type in the Caribbean. It collects fees
from the users of copyright music and distributes the
money as royalties to writers and publishers who own
the copyright. There are international arrangements to
cover overseas artistes whose music is used in Trinidad
and Tobago. and local artistes whose work is used in
other countries.
Radio and television stations and event organizers pay
for a COTT licence if they want to play copyright music.
o Video-cassette recorders and video cameras
allowed illegal pirating of television programmes
and movies.
Today, digital technology and Internet file sharing
mean that there are few technical barriers to
worldwide circulation of movies and audio files.
However, legal restrictions on file sharing have
been tightened. It is illegal to download or share
copyrighted movies, music and TV programmes.
Which of the following can be easily obtained in
your country?
a pirated DVDs
b books that have been photocopied or otherwise
pirated.
2 What is the maximum legal penalty for breach of
copyright?
Working with a partner. discuss the followmg
questions:
1 Why does copyright piracy deter writers, artistes.
musicians and publishers from investing time and
money in the production of high-quality products?
2 What restrictions should there be on Internet file
sharing and other copyright piracy?
3 How can restrictions on file sharing be enforced?
 Categories of consumers
or domestic/household use. However, institutions and
KEY IDEAS businesses also use goods and services and so they too
o Individuals and organizations buy goods and
are consumers. 1he words "customer""b , uyer ", an d
services and use them.
o We are all consumers. People must consume "shopper" are also used to describe a consumer.
goods and services in order to live. The consumers who buy a particular good or
o Without consumers there is no need for goods
service are described as the "market" for that good
and services.
o Consumers determine what goods and services or service . Producers produce goods for different
will be produced. market segments. For example, music producers may
produce music for particular age groups. Different
consumers prefer different genres of music.
8 it«•tl1Ji'1 In subsistence societies consumers, either as
Consumer: A person who acquires goods and services
individuals or households, produce most of what
for personal, domestic, or household use. The goods and
services may therefore be consumed by the individual and /
they consume. In our modern societies, consumers
or his household. have to depend on producers and manufacturers, and
Goods: All those tangible products which consumers use, sellers such as wholesalers and retailers, for the goods
such as bread, clothes, and ca rs. and services which they consume.
Services: All those actions performed to satisfy consumers'
needs, such as providing medical attention or transporting Consumers may be classified according to how they
students to school. pay for goods and services.
Credit: An agreement in wh ich goods, services, or money
are exchanged against a promise to pay later. Cash customers use money, cheques, debit cards, and
Consumer credit: Short·term loans for the purchase of layaway plans to acquire goods and services. A layaway
goods and services. The goods bought with consumer plan is an arrangement whereby consumers make a
credit are mainly durable goods such as furniture, deposit on an item and then make regular payments
household appliances, and cars.
until the purchase price is met. The seller/retailer keeps
Personal loan : A loan granted to an individual for personal,
the item for the consumer until the price is met.
family, or household use. It is repaid in fixed instal ments over
a fixed period with interest. Interest is a charge for borrowing.
Credit card: A card with a magnetic strip issued by a
financial company such as a bank or credit union. It
authorizes the holder to borrow money or buy goods and
services on credit up to a predetermined limit. The card
holder can choose to pay the total balance by the specified
time without incurring interest or pay part of the balance
and pay interest on the amount outstanding.
Debit card: A card with a magnetic strip issued by a financial
company such as a bank or credit union. It is connected
to the customer's account through the telephone system,
allowing customers to transfer funds electronically from their
account to the seller's, to pay for goods and services at a
point of sale without having to use cash.
Hire purchase: A credit system which allows the buyer
to pay for an item in regular installments, which include
interest, while enjoying the use of it.

We are all consumers because we all acquire goods

for either personal or domestic/household use. When
we use the term "consumer" in consumer affairs, we Figure 7.1: A deb1t card IS used to Withdraw money from the
focus on individuals who acquire goods for personal bank and can also be used to pay for purchases

•
Credit customers, on the other hand, acquire
goods and services by using a variety of consumer
credit such as personal loans, credit cards, and Working with a partner. discuss the two examples of
hire purchase. hire purchase advertisements below.
Decide which option you would choose as a consumer.
Give reasons for your choice.
Quick question
What are TWO common features of the types of
consumer credit described in the glossary list for
this unit? Deposit 20%

1.A.S I'X(t P. CY"e-01 f CP.rO IS 0'1'\e. o-F f 1M. Sl ~pfe.sf

and pay the balance in
12 monthly installments D
@)

WP.~S to (tef I'~'! tO debt. ) -

Consumer credit has now become a way oflife

and consumers need to protect themselves when No down payment
required!! Pay the

D
using credit. Consumers may protect themselves by:
hire-purchase price in
o answering questions during the interview and on 12 monthly installments,
the credit application honestly and accurately 10
o shopping around and comparing interest '' "~ .~

rates, fees, and charges of the different lending

institutions and retailers in order to get the
I ··oF.

best deal
o paying the highest possible deposit on their
purchases in order to reduce the amount
of credit
o borrowing within their means by using their
income and expenditure as a guide to how much
credit they can afford and not being influenced by
the higher limit offered by the lending institution
or retailer
o not borrowing or using credit unless they are
certain about their future employment or have
secure sources of income
o making repayments at the agreed times and in
the agreed amounts in order to avoid paying
additional interest, and keeping a copy of all
receipts for payment
o being fully informed by having all the terms
and conditions explained and keeping a copy
of the contract.
How do you think each of the measures listed above
may protect consumers who use credit?
A mortgage is a legal arrangement by which
individuals agree to borrow money from a bank or
mortgage company to buy a house, and to pay it back
over a number of years. The mortgage agreement
stipulates that the borrower consents to give up
all rights to the house if they fall behind in loan
payments and are unable to pay the arrears. A
mortgage is an example of long-term credit.
Discuss with a partner how consumers influence
economic activity in your country
Suggested SBA topics:
1 How do consumers in my neighbourhood
manage their credit?
2What are the most common sources of credit
which consumers in my community use?
3 Why do consumers in my neighbourhood
choose to use credit?
 Factors which influence consumer
demand for goods and services
KEY IDEAS
o Consumers demand goods because they get
satisfaction from them.
o Consumers choose those goods and services
which maximize their satisfaction.
o All the goods and services that you know of are
being bought and used by someone.
o All consumers do not buy the same goods and
services. nor do they all buy the same quantity of
a good or service.
o Producers and sellers use a variety of measures
to influence consumers to buy their goods and
services.
o Consumers have to consider a number of factors
when deciding what goods and services to buy.
Q fl!•tli1ii'i
Demand: The ability and the willingness of consumers to
buy a particular quantity of a good or service at a particular
price at a given time.
Supply: The quantity of a good which sellers are willing to
offer for sale at a particular price at a given time.
Income: The money which an individual receives from work,
investments, or the rental of property.
Gross income: The amount of money that individuals
receive during a specified period of time before taxes and
other compulsory deductions have been taken out.
Disposable income: That portion of the gross income tha t
is left after taxes and all other compu lsory deduc tions have
been taken out.
When goods and services are being bought and
used, we say that there is a demand for them. Some
goods and services are classified as necessities and
the demand for them is relatively fixed or stable.
Consumers need them for their survival.
Other goods and services are classified as luxuries.
Consumers can survive without them. The demand
for these goods therefore tends to be less stable than
that for necessities.
Quick questions
Can you list THREE goods which are necessities and
THREE which are luxunes for you and your household?
There are a number of factors which influence
consumer demand for a good or service. For
example, you might like to have the latest model
cell phone, iPod, or computer which you have seen
in advertisements, but you may have to do without
it at this time, perhaps because you are a student, or
unemployed, and do not have any income or savings,
and are therefore unable to get credit.
The factors which influence consumer demand for
goods and services include the following:
o Income: Income creates demand. Consumers'
disposable income determines what they can
afford to buy. As consumers' disposable income
increases, they begin to demand certain goods
and services which they could not have afforded
on the lower income. On the other hand, as
disposable income increases, their demand for
some cheap goods and services falls. For example,
they might buy a car and as a result make less use
of the bus service.
o Availability of credit and credit conditions:
Consumers must have an income in order to
qualifY for credit. Consumers whose incomes
will not allow them to purchase some items for
cash will have to use consumer credit (personal
loans). The extent to which consumers are able
to get credit will determine their demand for
these items.
Consumer credit has a price/cost in terms of
the fees and interest which consumers have to
pay for it. The level of fees and interest may
put consumer credit out of the reach of some
consumers. Some businesses do not sell their
goods on credit. However, if consumers have
savings this will help them acquire goods and
services if their income is inadequate or credit is
difficult to acquire.
o Price: The price of an item helps consumers
to determine whether or not they can afford it.
However, if consumers can afford it but they
think that it is overpriced they may not buy it.
They are more likely to buy a more competitively
priced substitute instead.
o Consumer expectations about future prices and of a good in preference to another. Persuasive
supply: The supply and the price of some goods advertisements may also contain statements
fluctuate and consumers usually respond to these which suggest that the product performs better, is
fluctuations. If consumers expect the price of an of better quality, and is more widely used than its
item to rise significantly in the near future, they substitutes. In addition to appealing to the good
will buy more of it before the price increases, if it life, persuasive advertisements may also use sex or
can be stored. On the other hand, if they expect snob appeal by featuring handsome or high-status
the price to fall significantly in the near future, men and attractive women who use the product.
they will buy less at the higher price. Consumers may be influenced by the pictures
Similarly, if consumers expect a shortage of an and the claims made in the advertisement and
item in the near future, they will buy more before buy the product.
the shortage occurs, if the item can be stored. On
the other hand, if they expect a glut, they will buy
less at the high price.
o Consumer tastes and preferences: If consumers
like a product for whatever reason, they will
buy it. I f they do not like it they will not buy
it. Some consumers sometimes develop a taste
or preference for products which their income
cannot afford. They wish to create the impression
that they are wealthy. Some consumers who can
afford expensive goods demand them because
they want to attract attention to their wealth.
These are both examples of conspicuous
consumption.
Consumer tastes and preferences are influenced Figure 7.2 : Some strategies used by sellers to stimulate
by family tradition. Individuals are likely to demand

stick with family tradition with respect to the

consumption of certain goods and services when
they leave the family household.
o Size ofhousehold: The quantity of a product
@Dan a
which consumers demand will vary as the size of
their household changes.
o Access to information about the product:
Consumers need to be armed with all the necessary
information in order to make informed choices
about the goods and services which are on offer.
o Advertising: Sellers use persuasive and
informative advertising to encourage consumers
to buy their goods and services.
SPORTS Est.1995
Clothing
DanBa offe r' a huge range of 'pon '
dothtng from the Jcadin!! brand' at
compcttti\ C pn cc' T here" 'omctlu ng
for everyone. from g) m \vcar lO r unnmg
\C\h .
Equipment
We offer J n C\tcn,l\c rang.: nf ' port ing
cqu1pmcnt 1nduding \Occcr hoot'\.
running ' Ptkc\. and ba, kcthall n ng,.

Informative advertising is aimed at giving the NEXT PAGE

consumer factual information about the good

or service, including where it can be bought, Figure 7 .3: An example of informat ive advertising

its uses, composition, price, warranties, make,

and model.
Persuasive advertising on the other hand contains With a partner. discuss why you think consumers buy
vivid and emotive language and pictures, and aims luxury items.
to persuade consumers to buy a particular brand

Ill
 o ~ality of the product: C onsumers prefer
quality products for their money. If products are
of poor quality and are overpriced they usually
will not buy them. l\1anufacturers try to stimulate
demand for their products by continually
improving the quality.
o Planned or "built-in" obsolescence: Some
manufacturers stimulate demand for their products
by deliberately producing them in such a way as to
make them become out of date or useless within a
specified time. The consumers will, therefore, have
to purchase the product each time it is upgraded in
order to benefit from its new features.
Quick questions
Look at F1gure 7 2 on the previous page. List THREE
other measures which producers or sellers may
use to influence consumers to buy the1r products
and services.
2 State TWO factors which may influence consumers
to increase their demand for goods and services.
3 State TWO factors which may influence consumers
to reduce their demand for credit during a period
of high unemployment.
4 Outline TWO ways in which a reduction in
consumer demand for goods and services in your
country over a long period may affect citizens.
5 You w1sh to purchase a refrigerator.
a State THREE factors which would help you to
decide wh1ch refrigerator to buy.
b List THREE questions which you would ask the
sales assistant about the refrigerator before
deciding to buy it.
c GIVe THREE reasons why consumers should
take care when purchasing electrical goods
6 Consumers are not always happy with the prices
they pay for some goods. As a supplier. list for
your customers the factors you had to take into
account in fixing your selling price. Explain why
you could not leave out any of the factors which
you listed.
7 Select persuasive advertisements for TWO substitute
products from a newspaper. As a consumer. state
what words and pictures m the advertisements aim
to influence your choice of product.
Discuss the following question in a small group
Is built-in obsolescence designed to exploit
consumers or give them an improved product?
-
CASE STUDY
Built-in obsolescence in cell phones
0 ::r:t se.e.~t~-s t~.-w.t ceJt pY-.o11teS
o.y.tlJ ltl.twe. P. Mrl(e.t ti.fe.-spp.-Y< o.f
12. ~t~-011l tltl.s.
e ::r:t IS so~t~.e.fi~t~.e.S
cil.f.f1c1AH to
.fl.y.d P. bP. tte.~ .for lJ01Ar 101.0bite.
pY-.o11te P. lJe.P.r p.'·Her lJD'lA b1AlJ 1t .
0 ::r: ltl.e.P.rd tkP. t ~t~-ost
o.f t~t~.e
11tew ~O'JileS P.re. 11tOf b1A1l t .fro~t~­
scrP.tck. ~11l1A.fP.ct1Arers Slltl.f'£1}
MKe twe.P.I(s to t~Ae ex1sf,11l
.fe.P.t1Are.s so tke~ CP.'Jil re.le.P.se
0
seve.rp.£ .y.ew 101.0cieJs i .y. ~ lJe.P.r.
0 The 1-tew ~t~.Gcie.ts M )(e. lJ01AY"
o£ci ltl.Ociet P.ppe.P.r 1Ase.ie.ss P.1-tci
01At dP.ted .
Handling data
A company surveyed consumers who use its
products.
The responses to the question "How did you find
out about the product?" revealed that 40% foun d
out from TV advertisements. 20% from friends,
25% from supermarket displays, and 15% because
their parents used it.
The responses to a second question "How long
have you been using the product?" revealed that
25% had used it for 10 years. 20% for 15 years,
40% for 20 years. and 15% for 25 years.
1 Put the data for each question into a table,
a bar graph. and a pie chart.
2 Identify two possible research instruments
which the researcher may have used for
collecting the data .
3 Comment on the data .
 How consumers use modern
technology to conduct transactions
Electronic banking
KEY IDEAS
o Developments in communications technology
have given consumers more choices in the way
they conduct their transactions.
o The increase in popularity of electronic
transactions has led to a rise in fraud crimes.
o Most electronic transactions require that
consumers share personal information which may
be stolen and misused.
Ican now do my banking 2 4 hours a day, 7 days a week
and from anywhere in the world as long as I have access
to the technology. It's as easy as I, 2, 3 .
\Dtd«•tl!i;lj
E-commerce: Any trading or other business transaction
Figu re 7 .4: With electronic banking your bank is never closed
that is completed solely through an electronic process; for
example, the buying and selling of products and services
by businesses and consumers or the making of a hotel or Electronic banking (e-banking) is the process by
airline reservation over the Internet. which a customer may perform banking transactions
An electronic transfer: Any transfer of funds from one electronically without visiting a bank or having face-
account to another that occurs electronically. Funds can be to-face contact with bank staff. Electronic banking
transferred electronically between an individual's various
services include the following.
accounts, from an individual's account to a business's
account for automatic recurring bill payments, or by swiping o An automated banking machine (ABM) allows
a credit or debit card at a retail outlet to pay for a purchase.
clients of a bank or other financial institution to
perform financial transactions in a public space
Consumers engage in commercial and financial without the need for a bank teller.
transactions. Commercial transactions deal with o Telephone (tele-) banking is the use of a
the trading of goods and services whereas financial telephone to perform certain banking tasks.
transactions deal strictly with money. Developments o Internet banking/online banking is the use
in communications technology, particularly the of a computer to perform certain banking
Internet and computers, have revolutionized the ways tasks online.
in which consumers acquire information about goods, o Mobile banking is the use of a smart phone or
services, and businesses, how they purchase goods other cellular device to perform similar online
and services, and how they conduct their banking banking tasks to those which may be performed
and other transactions. These transaction can now be on a computer. Mobile banking is the extension
performed without any form of human contact. of online banking to smaller hand-held devices.
Consumers use modern technology mainly to The above e-banking services allow consumers to:
conduct e-commerce and electronic banking.
o access all their banking information, such as
0 As co')\s'!A~t~-e-rs we- ki'-Ve- to be-co~t~.~?- .fl'-~t~-ifil'.r
account balances and transaction history
o transfer funds between accounts
wi tk tke- fe-ck')\oio3[j-
o view and print bank statements (except telephone
banking)
o request chequebooks

f) Te-ck')\o£o3lJ is ckl'.-)\~i-)\3 tke- w~'-lJ we- do 01Ar o

o
stop payment of a cheque
pay utility and other bills
b1A.SI ')\/?-S.S,
o obtain information about the bank and its
products and services.
Customers must register with their banks in order
to access these services and also register the specific
accounts. The service may be offered at a fee.
Customers using these services are given a bank card
and a personal identification number (PIN) which
they must use to access these services.
E-commerce
Consumers also use the Internet to order and pay
for goods. They visit the seller's website, view the
products and order online. They then supply their
payment information (name, credit or debit card
number, and expiry date) to the merchant's server.
The information is accepted and sent across the
Internet to the consumer's bank or a payment
services provider for payment. Goods bought on
the Internet may also be paid for by bank drafts or
money transfers through a bank or any other financial
institution that specializes in money transfers.
Research
Go to amazon.com to check the process for
ordering an item.
2 Record the instructions (prompts).
3 List the payment options.
4 List the delivery options.
Benefits/advantages of using modern
technology to conduct transactions
E-banking and other online services offer consumers
the following benefits:
o They provide consumers with unlimited and
convenient access to their banking information at
any time, from anywhere in the world - 24 hours
a day, every day of the week.
o They are easy to use. Consumers have to follow
the prompts over the phone or on the bank's
website.
o They offer consumers more choices for conducting
their banking and commercial transactions.
o Thev save time because there is no need to queue
at b;nks to do simple non-cash transactions.
o Thev are reasonably secure, because the customer's
infa'rmation can o~ly be accessed using a PIN,
which the customer can change frequently in
order to increase security.
o Transactions are coded for ease of reference/
retrieval.
o The use of debit and credit cards reduces the need
carry cash.
to
o Credit and debit cards provide easy access to
goods and services.
Disadvantages of using modern
technology
There are also a number of disadvantages to using
e-banking and other online services:
o Most transactions which utilize modern
technology require that consumers share personal
identification and banking information such as:
o bank card and credit card numbers
o name and contact information (address,
telephone number, email address)
o income
o national insurance (social security) and
national registration numbers.
All or some of this information may be stolen by
an identity thief and used to commit fraud or theft.
An identity thief is one who, without someone's
knowledge, uses that person's credit card, cell phone,
or bank account (debit-checking), or misuses their
personal information to open a new account, get a loan,
or commit some other crime in the person's name.
o There is no face-to-face contact between the
parties to the transaction.
o Obtaining redress, if necessary, may be difficult,
partly because the parties to the transaction may
be based in different countries- consequently
money may be lost. There is no way of finding out
the quality of products ordered before they are
purchased.
o Consumers may not be familiar with the use
of technology and this may lead them to make
costly mistakes or to be exploited.
o The bank's or online business's customer database
(customer information stored in a computer
system) may be hacked and the information may
be used to commit Internet fraud.
o The use of credit cards is the easiest way to get
into debt. The interest rate on unpaid credit
card balances is high and this can worsen the
consumer's debt situation.
A large number of people, in government offices
and other places, have access to people's personal
information. Identity theft is a real concern.
 7 .3 How consumers use modern technology to cond uct transactions
0 The. ~~rl(e.ti-tt~ ~....~~e.r ~t ~~ b~-ttl< k~s
be.e.-tt t~i-tt~ to e.-ttC01Ar~Qe. c.1Asto~e.rs to 'lASe. tke.
b~-ttl< s e.ie.c.tro-ttic. b~-ttl<i-tt~ se.rvic.e.s.
Wk~t is ide.-ttti t~ tke..ft?
,------------"'
e :I.f is tke. 1A-tt~1Atkori&e.d 'lASe. of ~ credit
c.~rd 1 c.e.li. pko-tte. 1 or b~-ttl< ~C.C01A-ttt 1 or tke. ~is1Ase.
o-F so~o-tte.'s pe.rso-tt~i i-tt-For~t io-tt to ope.-tt ~ -ttew
~C.C01A-ttt 1 ~e.t ~ io~ ...., or c.o~~it so~ otke.r c.ri~e.
i-tt tke.ir ....~~.
0 :r.-F we. ~....~~e. 01Ar pe.rso-tt~i i-tt-For~tio-tt
Mre..P1AH~ ~....a se.-ttsib£~ we. 01A~kt to be. ~bie. to
pre.ve.-ttt ide.-tttit~ fke.-Ft.
0 :r.de.-tttit~ tke.-Ft c.~-tt-ttot be. c.o~le.te.£1J
pre.ve.-ttfe.d. We. k~ve. to skMe. pe.rso-tt~l
ide.-tt hflc.~tio-tt ~-ttd b~-ttKi-tt~ i-tt-For~ t io-tt
i-tt ~i~ost ~££. 01Ar fr~-ttsMtio-tts ~....a it ~lt
so~e.ti~e.s be. ~is1Ase.d. :I.-tt ~dditio-tt 1 ide.-tttif'1J
tkie.ve.s:
o ste.~£. o1Ar ~i£. 1 wltl.ic.k ~1J co-ttt~i-tt 01Ar ~....1< ~-ttd
credit ~rd st~te.~-ttts ~-ttd t~x i-tt-For~tiO-tt
0 bre.~K i-ttto 01AY' k0tt1£.S or MY'S or S-tt~tc.k 01AY'
~....doo~s ~-ttd hKe. 01Ar :r.D, A3M ~....a 00-ttK
receipts, credit ~-ttd b~-ttK ~rds 1 ~....a ~'"1J
doc1A~-ttts t~t cO-tthi-tt pers~£ i-tt-For~tio-tt
o se.t:lrc.k tkro1A~k 01Ar ~t:lrbt:l~e. or tke. ~t:lrb~~e.
o-F b1Asi-tte.sse.s -For 01Ar pe.rso~£ i-tt-For~~tio-tt
o tncK 1AS i-ttto ~ivi-tt~ tke.~ 01Ar puso~£
i-tt-For~tio-tt t'"-ro1A~k e.~ils or fe.le.~o-tte.
re.B1Ae.sts b1J posi-tt~ t:\S re.pre.se.-ttt~tive.s o-F
b1Asi-tte.sse.s or ~ove.r-tt~e.-ttt o-F.fice.s we. de.~.£
witk or e.ve.-tt -y.o-y.-e.;<isfe.-ttt b1Asi-tte.sse.s.
0 :r. ke.~r tk~t kMI(e.rs ~iso bre.~K ''"to
c.o~p1Ate.r s ~ ....d ste.~l 01Ar pe.rso....~l ''"-For~ t io-tt.
\
Outline TWO ways in which modern technology
has changed the way consumers conduct their
business transactions.
2 Your bank has been encouraging customers to
use its electronic banking services. Write FOUR
questions you would ask the bank's marketing
manager before applying for any of the services.
In pairs, take the roles of a specialist in information
security procedures and a client. Suggest to the
client THREE measures which he/she may use
to manage their personal information carefully
in order to avoid becoming a victim of fraud or
identity theft. Explain why each measure may be
successful in preventing identity theft.
2 In pairs, take the roles of a customer and the
manager of electronic banking services at a bank
in your local community The manager should
prepare a list of at least THREE precautions which
customers should take when conducting electronic
banking activities. Explain to the customer why
each precaution is necessary
The following are three SBA topics:
How popular is the use of Internet banking in my
neighbourhood?
To what extent are members of my neighbourhood
aware of identity theft?
To what extent do members of my neighbourhood
protect themselves from identity theft?
1 Choose one of the above topics and construct
a questionnaire or an interview schedule on it
2 Give your reason for choosing the topic.
 How the consumer can protect
him/herself
KEY IDEAS
o Consumers have rights which guarantee them a
measure of protection.
o Consumers need to be aware of their rights. and
demand them.
o Consumers may safeguard their rights by
acting responsibly.
o Consumers need to be aware of the ways in
which their rights may be violated.
o Consumers and businesses have conflicting aims.
~d!•tl"f.1;ij
Monopoly: A single producer who controls the supply of a
good or service in a market (e.g. utility com panies).
Figure 7. 5: Buyer beware!
Consumers have to be aware. They want quality
products at fair prices. Business people, 011 the other
hand, want to earn the highest possible return 011
their investment and may violate consumer rights to
achieve this.
Consumer rights may be violated in several ways.
Generally consumers tend to depend on government
to protect them, through legislation and the creation
of consumer protection agencies. Nevertheless, the
well-known historic principle "consumer be aware"
implies that consumers have the main responsibility
for protecting themselves, although this was
overturned by the Sale of Goods Act of 1893.
Individual consumers may protect themselves by
simply being aware of and demanding their rights.
Consumers' rights
The world federation of consumer groups,
Consumers International, has established the
following eight basic rights for all consumers.
o Right to safety: To be protected against products,
services, and production processes that are
hazardous to health or life.
o Right to choose: To be able to select from
a range of products and services, offered
at competitive prices with an assurance of
satisfactory quality.
o Right to be infor med: To be given the facts
needed to make an informed choice, and to
be protected against dishonest or misleading
advertising and labelling.
The quotations below illustrate the usefulness of
information to consumers.
O O'"e. wt:>-}1' to protect C01'\S1A~t~.e.rs' 11'\fe.re.sts is
to ~)(e. ¥~.-~..e. prov1sio1'\ o-f e.sse..1'\ti~>.l 11'\.for~tio1'\
C0111f1A£.~.
e Co1'\S1A~t~.e.r 11'\.for~ t101'\ V..elps C01'\S1A~t~.e.rs to
decide.. WV..iCV.. o-f t~.~..e. ~1'\}1' brt:>-1'\de..d prod1Acts t:>-1'\d
services best s1Ait 'tl.l..e.ir OW1'\ 11eeds.
o Right to be h eard: To have consumers' interests
represented in the making and execution of
government policy and in the development of
goods and services.
o Right to consumer education: To acquire the
knowledge and skills needed to make confident,
informed choices about goods and services,
while being aware of basic consumer rights and
responsibilities and how to act on them.
o Right to satisfaction ofbasic needs: To have
access to basic, essential goods and services-
adequate food, clothing, shelter, health care,
education, public utilities, water, and sanitation.
o Right to consumer redress: To receive a fair
settlement of just claims, including compensation
for misrepresentation, shoddy goods, or
unsatisfactory services ..
o Right to a h ealthy environment: To live and
work in an environment that is non-threatening to
the wellbeing of present and future generations.
 for human consumption, not giving them accurate
weights and measurements (the correct quantities they
Examine a cigarette packet to see if it carries a health paid for), or not honouring guarantees and warranties,
warning. If so. who is it from? What does it say? despite the fact that all these practices are illegal.
2 What are TWO of the retailer's obligations to
consumers where a good is sold on credit terms? o Some businesses use their dominant position
3 Find an example of a manufacturer's instructions to exploit consumers. For example, credit terms
about the use of or disposal of a dangerous good. and conditions are not usually negotiated.
4 Have you seen the following signs in shops and
Consumers either have to take the terms and
stores in your country: "No return", "No exchange"
or "No refund"? Is it legal for businesses in your conditions offered, particularly when dealing with
country to display these signs? commercial banks, or not bother with the loan.
o Poor service is the norm at some business places.
For example, they may not stock spare parts for
Violation of consumer rights the items they sell.
Consumers need protection for several reasons.
The above list highlights why and how consumers'
Chief among them is the fact that many do not
rights are violated. The widespread violation of
demand their rights.
consumer rights has influenced the spread of
o There are too many similar products on the consumerism. Consumerism is all the actions
market at different prices and this makes it that are aimed at protecting the consumer against
difficult for consumers to choose. useless, inferior, or dangerous products, misleading
o Advertisers create too many false impressions in advertising, unfair pricing, and so on, while
their advertisements, which influence consumers promoting their rights and providing information so
to buy goods they later discover do not adequately that consumers can make an informed choice.
satisfy their needs.
o A monopoly producer usually restricts output
and keeps prices high. Where there are several
producers they sometimes conspire with each CASE STUDY
other to divide the market among them, fix a
Misselling of tickets
single price, and avoid competing with each other. An entertairunent promoter advertised a show featuring
The absence of competition means that consumers a very popular dance hall artiste. Tickets were sold out
will not be able to shop around for the best price three weeks before the show. During the show it was
for a product. Governments are working towards announced that the advertised artiste would not be
outlawing anti-competitive practices. performing because he was performing in a show in
another country Two days after the show the artiste
o Goods which are not available are advertised to
issued a statement saying that his agent and the promoter
lure consumers who are then offered a substitute had not reached any agreement on his performance fees.
in place of the advertised good. This is known
as "bait and switch". Consumers are tricked into
spending money on goods which were not their
preference.
o Consumer protection legislation may be ineffective,
not enforced, or non-existent. This influences some
business people to deliberately exploit consumers
because they know that they may not be charged
with breaking the consumer laws.
o Consumers are either unaware or unable to keep
abreast of the sales tactics which are used.
There are too many unscrupulous business people
who are solely interested in making money. They
may exploit consumers by selling them used products Figure 7 .6: People buy show tickets on trust
as new ones, selling goods that are unsafe or unfit

Read the case study on the previous page. Should
the people who attended the show be refunded?
Prov1de arguments to support your position
2 "The consumer 1s king." Do you agree With this
statement?
Consumer responsibilities
Just as consumers have rights, so they also have
responsibilities. Consumers should therefore exercise
their responsibilities in order to protect their rights.
It has been said that "without partnership between
rights and responsibilities, consumers cannot
operate efficiently".
Consumers' responsibilities include the following.
o The responsibility t o complain about violations
of their rights: To complain effectively,
consumers need to know how, when, where, and
to whom to complain in order to get redress if
their rights have been violated. They should also
report breaches of consumer protection legislation
to the relevant authorities to protect themselves
and others.
o The responsibility t o b e wise: Consumers have
a responsibility to read contracts and have terms
etc. explained, if necessary seeking legal advice,
before signing them. Once you have signed
voluntarily and the contract is acceptable in
law it may be difficult to get out of it. Other
documents such as receipts, cheque stubs,
credit card statements, warranties, estimates,
contracts, instructions, and letters to and from the
individual or company should be kept in order to
establish proof of purchase in case a claim has to
be made. Managing their personal identification
and other information wisely protects consumers
against identity theft.
o The respon sibility to compare prices before
purch asing: Consumers should shop around and
not buy on impulse. Prices, quality, and terms
vary from business to business. They should
also avoid conspicuous consumption. The wise
management of credit/debt helps prevent goods
being repossessed, and the accumulation of debt
which the consumer cannot repay.
o The respon sibility t o inform themselves:
Consumers should know their rights under the
-
law in order to demand them . They should try to
find out all the information about a product or
service necessary to make an informed choice.
Joining consumer protection organizations
provides consumers with consumer education
which they can use to protect their rights, and
also support in demanding their rights.
o The responsibility to carry out the n ecessary
checks: Consumers should check carefully that
the goods bought are of acceptable quality and
fit the purpose for which they have been bought.
They should also ensure that the amount and
type of the product or service paid for is received.
Information should be sought on people hired
to carry out repairs or make a product to ensure
that they are competent to do the job. These
checks should ensure that consumers get their
money's worth .
Consumers should also enquire about the
goods and the business's return or exchange
policy before purchasing in order to avoid any
disagreement or disappointment if the item has
to be returned . They should find out about the
business's privacy policy to ensure that they are
not dealing with a business that shares customers'
personal information with other businesses. This
should protect consumers from any unsolicited
offers or advertising.
Individual consumers have a responsibility to seek
information from all sources.
Advertising and the law
Various laws and regulations govern advertising.
In their advertisements sellers must not:
o make exaggerated statements about their
product or service
o omit vital information that consumers would
need in order to make an informed decision,
for example about the condition of the
product, additional costs, and the true rate of
interest in credit purchases
o make misleading statements about the
product's place of manufacture
o distort survey results to make them appear
favourable to the product
o advertise goods which they cannot supply.
 7 .4 How the consumer can protect him/ herself
Quick questions
Read the information about consumer responsibilities on
the previous page. and answer the following questions.
1 a Explain why consumers should seek independent
information about an advertised product or service.
b Suggest THREE sources from which consumers
may obtain independent information about an
advertised product or service.
c State THREE pieces of information which
consumers should look for on a label or package
before purchasing a product. Explain why each
piece of information is important to the consumer.
2 You bought a household appliance which
developed a fault three days after you bought it.
You visited the store and complained informally to
the manager of the appliances department. who
refused to accept your complaint.
a State THREE facts which you would include in a
formal letter of complaint to the store.
b State THREE rights which are available to a
consumer who was sold a faulty good.
c Give TWO reasons why companies should
accept just complaints from their customers.
d State THREE actions which you may take if the
store does not respond to your formal letter
of complaint. Explain why each action may be
successful in helping to resolve your complaint.
Figure 7.7 : A consumer looks for a bargam
Handling data
The following three questions were included in a
questionnaire which a business requested its
customers to complete by answering "Yes" or "No".
1 Did the service meet your expectations?
2 Did the service exceed your expectations?
3 Was the service outstanding?
The customers' responses are included in the
---
table below.
1 60 40 100
2 25 75 100
3 10 90 100
Table 7.1 : Customer survey results
Look at the survey questions and Table 7 .1, and
answer the following questions.
1 State the main focus of the survey questions.
2 Explain why the business would have
conducted this study.
3 Write TWO statements about the data displayed
in Table 7.1 above.
4 State TWO findings of the study.
5 State TWO recommendations which you would
make to the owners of the business based
on the findings you have stated in answer to
question 4.
6 Explain how ONE of the recommendations may
be implemented.
 The role of government and other
agencies in educating and protecting
consumers
KEY IDEAS
o Governments have a responsibility to protect
consumers.
o Governments protect consumers mainly through
legislation and education.
o Government consumer protection agencies
complement the work of each other.
o Sellers and producers are fewer in number than
consumers but may be more powerful.
o The absence of strong national consumer
protection groups in some countries makes it
necessary for governments to protect consumers.
0 1J C01-tS1A~ers t:tre o-f-fered 11-t.ferior pr001AcfS1
i.f pnces t:tre e)(orbitt:t1-t t 1 i.f dr1A s t:tre 1A1-tSt:t.fe or
0
wort~£ess 1 ~is doHt:tr is wt:tsted 1 ~is ~et:tH~ et1-td
St:t·fet~ ~~ be t~ret:tfe1-ted 1 t:t1-td t~e 1-tt:tfio1-tt:t£
i~terest S1A·Hers.
I o
John F. Kennedy, 1962
Although consumers outnumber business people
many times over they are still the weaker group and
therefore need to be protected. The objectives of
governments' consumer protection policies include:
protecting consumers from wasting their money;
protecting their health and safety; and safeguarding
the economic prosperity of the country as a result.
The governments' consumer protection policies are
carried out mainly through legislation and consumer
education.
Consumer legislation
Some of the oldest and best-known examples of
consumer legislation include the Sale of Goods
Act, the Trade Descriptions Act, and the Hire
Purchase Act.
Under the Sale of Goods A ct the seller guarantees
that the good is of"acceptable quality". In other
words, it is fit for the purposes it might be commonly
used for and it is safe and durable. It will do whatever
the seller says it will and it is the same as any
demonstration model, sample, or description of it.
With respect to services, the seller guarantees that
the service will be carried out with reasonable care
and skill and it will be fit for purpose.
The Trade Descriptions Act protects consumers by
prohibiting producers and sellers from deliberately
making false or misleading statements about their
products.
The Hire Purchase Act stipulates that the consumer
must be given information about the cash and credit
price of the good and the terms and conditions of
the agreement. It also gives the consumer the right
to withdraw from the agreement. The buyer does not
become the owner of the item until the full contract
price is paid.
Quick question
Can you give THREE reasons why consumers should
only purchase goods of acceptable quality?
Government consumer protection
agencies and their functions
Government ministries which are involved in
consumer protection include the Ministries of
Consumer Affairs, Commerce, Industry, Trade,
Health, and the Environment. These ministries
may have a number of agencies or departments
attached to them, created by acts of parliament,
and responsible for specific consumer protection
measures. These agencies:
o monitor and regulate business activities
o monitor and enforce compliance with consumer
legislation and deal with breaches
o initiate consumer legislation
o educate consumers about their rights and how to
protect themselves
o certify the safety and quality of products
o deal with consumers' complaints.
Government-sponsored consumer protection agencies
in some Caribbean countries include the following.
1 The Fair Trading Commission
Figure 7.8: The Fa1r Trading Comm1sion logo for Barbados
The role of a fair trading commission in consumer
protection includes:
o educating consumers about their rights and
responsibilities
o receiving, investigating, and resolving
consumer complaints
o regulating the rates charged for utilities such
as water, telephone, and electricity in order to
ensure that they are fair; in some Caribbean
countries this function is carried out by the
Public Utilities Board
o monitoring the standard of service supplied by
electricity and telephone service providers
o monitoring and investigating the conduct
of service providers and other business
enterprises in order to promote and maintain
fair competition
o safeguarding the interests ofboth consumers
and businesses in trading matters.
2 The Bureau of Standards:
o tests goods for quality and safety and certifies
goods which are of acceptable quality; this
gives consumers confidence that the product
they are buying meets specified requirements
for quality and safety
o issues guidelines abou t the amounts, quality,
and types of materials which manufacturers
should use in their products to meet
international standards
o issues guidelines for the labelling and
packaging of goods, which may include:
1 brand name of the product
ii name and address of the manufacturer
iii size, weight, and ingredients of the product
iv health risks associated with the use of
the product
v the name and address of the business's
consumer complaints department.
3 The Public Health Division of the Ministry of
Health safeguards the public's health by setting
and monitoring regulations for the preparation,
serving, storage, and sale of food and drink for
consumption at public events.
4 The Food and Drugs Division of the Ministry
ofHealth certifies the fitness of new drugs and
food products for human consumption by testing
them before approving them.
5 The Weights and Measures Division checks
instruments used for measuring in business places
to ensure that they are measuring accurately; this
helps to guarantee that consumers get the amount
they pay for.
Figu re 7 .9: Measunng instruments must be checked regularly
6 The Prices Commission has the authority to
monitor and control prices by fixing the legal
maximum percentage wholesale and retail mark-
up on price-controlled items. The objective
is to ensure that certain basic food items and
basic consumer durables can be purchased by
•
 the average consumer. The controlled prices are
publicized in the official gazette and the mass
media and monitored by price control officers
who may prosecute those who exceed them.
7 The M inistry of Consumer Affairs initiates
action for consumer legislation and coordinates
the work of the other consumer protection
agencies. It also undertakes similar functions to
those of the Fair Trading Commission.
8 The Financial Services Commission regulates
the activities of all non-bank financial institutions,
such as insurance companies and credit unions, to
ensure that customers' deposits are safe.
Governments do not always live up to their
responsibility for providing consumer protection. The
following case study illustrates this point well.
CASE STUDY
CL Financial
In January 2009. CL Financial. the parent company of
the Colonial Life Insurance Company (CLICO), which
claimed to have assets worth US$ 16 billion, applied to
the Trinidad and Tobago government for assistance in
helping CLICO to meet its commitments to depositors.
On hearing this news. the company's clients in the
Bahamas, Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados. and
the OECS tried to redeem their insurance policies. only
to find that CLICO was unable to pay them. In every
territory where the company operated, its liabilities
were worth more than its assets. Many depositors
who had invested their savings and pensions with the
company stood to lose everything.
However, in Guyana and in Trinidad and Tobago the
government stepped in and refunded those individuals
who had bought special policies called Executive
Premium Annuities (EFPAs).
The consensus is that the failure of CLICO highlights the
need for greater and stricter government regulation of
the financial services sector in the Caribbean.
Discuss the following questions in a small group.
1 Should governments refund the depositors of a
collapsed financial institution?
2 Why should governments enforce strict regulatiOns
for financial institutions which accept deposits
from individuals?
-
Non -governmental consumer
protection agencies
Voluntary consumer associations are registered non-
profit organizations which inform consumers of their
rights as consumers and help them to enforce those
rights. They publish consumer magazines and report
on products and services available in the market, so
that consumers have enough information to make
informed choices. Their members are ordinary
consumers from across a coun try.
Groups of consumers may band together to form
pressure groups.
Protection by businesses
Some businesses:
o publish a customer charter, which sets out the
kind of service customers can expect
o voluntarily recall defective products when
consumers complain of faults
o provide consumers with up-to-date and reliable
information about their products and services,
privacy policy and guarantees and refund policy
o have a specialized department to deal with
consumer complaints.
Quick questions
1 Outline THREE ways m which consumers may be
exploited.
2 State ONE consequence of each form of exploitation
which you have Identified.
3 Give TWO reasons why it is Important for
governments to protect the health and safety of
consumers.
4 Give THREE reasons why consumer protection
agencies are necessary.
5 Suggest THREE measures which consumers may
take to protect their health and safety when buying
products. Explain how each measure will help to
protect consumers' health and safety.
 How consumers practise thrift
Consumers who adopt thrift as a way of life usually
KEY IDEAS do the following:
o Thrift is more than a money-saving strategy. It is a
way of life. o Budget: They make a plan in which they estimate
o Thrift can lead to prosperity. their personal or the household's income and
expenses over a specified future period of time
and they usually stick to it. The budget tells them
~ii«•tli1;i'i what they can afford. It therefore helps them to
Thrift: The wise and careful use of money and other prioritize their needs and wants and helps them
resources in order to avoid wastage. to avoid conspicuous consumption and unplanned
A budget: An estimation of an individual's or household's debt. It also encourages them to shop around and
income and expenses over a specified future period of time.
avoid impulse buying. Their plan may be reviewed
Recycling: The process of turning an old product into a new
one or reusing a product beyond the purpose for which it
as prices and income change.
was intended. o Shop wisely: Budgeting helps consumers stretch
their hard-earned income by shopping wisely.
Wise shoppers:
Some people mistakenly associate thrift only with
a prepare a shopping list and stick to it to avoid
penny-pinching and money hoarding. Thrift is about
unplanned spending
managing money and other resources wisely.
b shop around for the best quality and prices in
l\Iost consumers have limited income and unlimited order to get the best value for their money
needs and wants. Therefore, they have to avoid c buy items in bulk in order to benefit from
wasting their income and other resources in order reduced prices
to satisfY as many of their needs and wants as d buy quality items even if they are more expensive:
their income will allow. This makes it necessary for they get value for money and the items last longer
consumers to adopt thrift as a way of life. However, e avoid impulse buying to avoid unplanned
it is not always possible for consumers to avoid spending and wasting money
wastage of their income and other resources. f buy produce in season when it is usually cheaper
g examine items for defects, expiry dates, and
Item Dollar value % of income ingredients in order to avoid risks to health
Food 1,200 30 h keep receipts and warranties as proof of
Rent 600 15 purchase if items have to be returned.
Ullht:es 400 10
Vehicle loan repayment 480 12
Sav:ngs 360 9
Entertainment 120 3
Cloth:ng 120 3
Gasoline 320 8
Cred:t card payment 320 8
L:fe :nsurance prem:um 80 2
Total 4,000 100
Tabl e 7.2: A monthly budget for a d:sposable :ncome of
4.000 Barbados dollars (two Barbados dollars are equ:valent
to one US dollar)

rigure 7.10: Plac:ng goods on supermarket shelves for

customers to choose.

II
 o Save regularly: Saving is an important feature of
a budget. Thrifty consumers, who are able, try to
avoid spending all of their disposable income.
o Practise the three "Rs"- reduce, reuse, and
recycle: Through recycling, consumers avoid
throwing away items which they or others can
reuse. Some items may be recycled: this means
using them beyond their original intended use
or using them to create a new product. The end
result of reusing and recycling items is that the
consumer saves money.
o Use possessions wisely and carefully: The wise
and careful use of our household and other
possessions helps to ensure that they last and
that we don't have to spend money frequen tly to
replace them.

Figure 7.11 : A bin used for recycl1ng

Make a list of FOUR personal or household items
which may be reused.
2 Describe how ONE household product may be
reused beyond its intended use or recycled to
create a new product.
1 Discuss your household budget w1th your parents.
Examine it to see whether any important elements
of a budget are missing and. if so. identify why
this is. Discuss with your parents any possible
improvements which may be made to the budget.
2 Use your household income to construct a budget
for your family and present 1t to your parents for
their comments.
3 Give THREE reasons why consumers should make
a budget.
4 Suggest to a group of shoppers THREE ways in
which they may practise thrift when shopping for
their household. Explain how they will benefit from
each way you suggested.
5 Explain to consumers in your country TWO ways
in which being thrifty could help to reduce the
country's import bill.
Form a thrift club with fellow students who are
mterested in being more resourceful and also in
saving money.
How consumers benefit from thrift
Consumers who practise thrift regularly are able to
enjoy certain benefits.
o They develop financial discipline from budgeting
and prioritizing their needs and wants.
o The savings which they accumulate from not
wasting their money and other resources give
them a sense of achievement and self-worth.
o They develop creative skills and abilities from
learning to reduce, reuse, and recycle waste.
o The accumulation of savings helps them to reduce
credit transactions and experience an improved
standard of living.
o The habit of making sacrifices helps them to live
through economic crises better than those who
do not practi se thrift.
How a country benefits from thrift
o Thrift can help a country to achieve economic
prosperity. The accumulated savings become
available to government, businesses, and
individuals for investment.
o There is reduced pollution of the land as more
consumers practise the three Rs.
o Thrift causes consumers to reduce demand for
products which are not essential. This helps the
country to conserve its natural resources.

Ill
 Reasons for saving
KEY IDEAS
o Savings are made from disposable income.
o People save money in different ways.
o People are always likely to have a reason to save.
o There are special institutions to encourage saving.
o Saving can bring prosperity to individual
consumers and the country.
Q a«·tttt;l1
Saving: The act of setting aside money for future use.
Savings: Money which has been set aside for future use.
Investment: The act of putting money into a financial
institution or a business venture with the expectation of
earning interest or making a profit.
Withholding tax: Tax levied on income from interest and
dividends.
Saving is an economic activity which takes place
in most communities. The reasons for saving may
vary from individual to individual; the form in
which individuals save may also vary. People save
for short-term and long-term goals. An individual's
ability to save depends on a number of factors. If the
individual's expenses are equal to or greater than the
individual's income he/she will not be able to save. If
government's taxation policies encourage people to
save they are more likely to save.
People save:
o to provide for their needs after retirement, since
they will have no steady flow of income apart
from a pension
o to provide emergency funds for unexpected
or unforeseen expenses, (e.g. sickness or
unemployment- "saving for a rainy day")
o for planned future expenses (e.g. for a deposit
on a house, or to finance children's tertiary
education)
o to open a business
o to enjoy life (e.g. paying for holidays and luxury
items)
o to provide collateral for a loan
o to take advantage of investment opportunities
(e.g. buying bonds, stocks, and shares)
o to leave assets for children when they die .
Figure 7.12: People need to save for their retirement
Forms of saving money
The form in which people save money varies from
the traditional to the modern.
o The sou-sou (meeting-turn) is an informal,
traditional form of saving. In this form of saving a
group of individuals contributes money to a fund
at regular intervals. Members of the group take
turns in receiving the funds.
o Consumers make regular deposits to regular
savings accounts at banks, credit unions, friendly
societies, and other financial institutions. They get
back what they deposit plus interest. Money can
be withdrawn at any time.
o Consumers deposit a sum of money at a bank or
other financial institution for an agreed term/ time
and a fixed rate of interest. The deposits made
in this manner are called term/certificate/time
deposits. If the depositor breaks the agreement by
withdrawing the money early no interest is paid.
o Individuals may also save by setting up individual
retirement accounts (retirement savings plans)
with a bank or life insurance company, to provide
them with a pension income on retirement.
Regular deposits are made to this account.
Individuals may also save by contributing
to a pension plan at their workplace. With
some pension plans the employer matches the
employee's regular contribution to the plan.
Consumers may also buy life insurance policies
from life insurance companies.

CASE STUDY
How to save in a recession
Marisa: "The country is in a recess1on. Unemployment
is rising. retail sales are falling, and workers are not
getting any mcrease in wages and salaries.
"The Situation is very challenging for many people,
particularly those on fixed incomes. They complain that
it is very difficult to save and they have to be constantly
making adjustments to their lifestyle in order to survive.
I am able to save because I am following the advice
of the experts who have suggested that we can save
during this period by:
o reusing disposable or used items
o cutting clothing costs by reusing clothing
o trimming cell phone costs
o shopping where I can get deals
o doing my housework myself instead of using a helper
o cutting food costs by eating at home more and
switching to a cheaper and healthier diet."
Toni: "I have tried most of those but I am still finding it
difficult to save because energy costs and food prices
keep nsmg sharply."
The paradox of saving is that:
o saving reduces demand
o there can be no prosperity without saving, but no
prosperity without spending!
Mary, Jake. and Chris each have US$50 000 Jake puts
his money m the bank while Chris borrows another
US$50 000 from the bank and starts building a house. He
employs construction workers and buys construction
matenals. Mary keeps her money at home under her bed.
Discuss the following questions in a small group.
1 Which of the three individuals above is directly
creating a demand for goods and services?
2 Which individual is not helping to create a demand
for goods and services?
3 If the bank lends Jake's money to a customer who
wants to start a business. is Jake also helping to
create demand for goods and services?
4 Can individuals contribute to the prosperity of their
country Without opening businesses?
5 Explain how saving may lead to.
a an mcrease in the demand for goods and serv1ces
b a decrease m the demand for goods and
services.
6 Should consumers be encouraged to save. g1ven
the paradox of saving?
The benefits of saving to individuals
The benefits of saving to the individual include:
o providing a source of money which can be spent
in future years to improve future life
o providing peace of mind from knowing that
unexpected expenses can be met
o giving a sense of control/achievement from
knowing that finances are being managed
o providing a source of additional income once
properly invested.
The benefits of saving to the country
Saving benefits a country in the following ways.
o The withholding taxes levied in some countries
on the interest which individuals earn on their
savings in financial institutions help to increase
the government's revenue.
o The habit of saving promotes a culture of thrift
which can be passed on to future generations.
o Saving helps to reduce the demand for imported
goods and thus helps the country to save much-
needed foreign exchange.
o All savings institutions usc their customers' savings
to provide credit to government and entrepreneurs
for the economic development of the country.
o Individuals may make their savings available to
government directly by buying treasury bills and
government bonds.
The benefits of saving to the region
Saving also benefits the Caribbean region.
o Surplus savings in one country may be used to
finance development in another country.
o Investment in regional businesses by Caribbean
citizens helps to develop the regional financial
market.
Essay writing
Write an essay on saving. using the following plan.
1 Begin by stating TWO reasons why people save and
list TWO financial institutions that encourage saving
2 Then outlme ONE way m which the country benefits
from savings.
3 Fmally, recommend to the minister of finance THREE
measures that would encourage citizens to save
more. Explain why each measure may be successful
in increasing savings.
 --------------------------------- --- --~----- --

Benefits of credit unions to

consumers in the region
KEY IDEAS
o Credit unions are "not-for-profit"financial
institutions created for and by their members.
o Credit unions are non-bank financial institutions
but they offer their members a number of
banking services.
o Credit union members share a common bond
which qualifies them for membership, e.g.
profession, religion. or geographical community.
o Credit unions emphasize service over profit.
Ota«·ttt'i'''
Credit union: A financial institution which is equally owned
and managed by its members and serves its members
only. It is run as a cooperative and provides many banking
services, including regular savings deposit, time deposit
and checking accounts, consumer loans, and credit and
debit cards.
Consumers who are credit union members share
certain common criteria such as membership in a
religion, profession, or geographical community.
Therefore they enjoy a certain sense of community.
Credit unions operate by accepting deposits, called
shares, from their members and in turn loaning them
out to other members. They offer their members
e-banking and other services similar to those ofbanks.
Credit union members enjoy the following benefits,
many of which result from the principles and by-
laws by which credit unions are operated:
o Members are paid a small dividend on their
shares. Interest rates on deposits are usually
higher than the market rate; therefore members
earn more on their savings.
o Compared with a commercial bank, credit union
members may have easier access to loans. In
addition, interest rates on loans are usually lower
than the market rate and the fees charged for
other financial services are lower and fewer than
from banking institutions. This results in savings
for the members.
o Part of any excess earnings of the credit union is
used to reduce fees and interest rates to members.
Some is also divided among members in proportion
to the use made of the services of the credit union.
This is known as "patronage refund". Members are
rewarded for doing business with the credit union.
o Members develop a sense of ownership from
owning shares in the credit union .
o Members sit on the various committees and
are thus able to acquire leadership and business
management skills.
o Consumer education is provided for members
through the credit union's continuous education
programmes. Members also receive financial
counselling through seminars: this helps them to
manage their finances better.
o Members are encouraged to save regularly and
this may help them to develop thrifty habits.
o Members are able to develop a sense of solidarity
and cooperation. Through the principles of
self-direction and self-reliance, members are
encouraged to provide resources and to find
solutions to their problems.
o Members have the right to vote and influence the
policies of their credit union. All members have
one vote each and therefore have an equal voice
when voting. The cooperative principle of"one
person, one vote" helps to promote the principle
of democracy.
o Deposits are usually insured and should therefore
be safe. Credit unions therefore provide another
avenue for members to spread their deposits and
thus reduce their loss in the event of a collapse of
financial institutions.
Figure 7 .13: A postage stamp commemorating the cred 1t
un10n movement 1n Jama1ca
 0 4~ ~over11~11t f...u:\s be.e.-11 e-y.co1Ar£\}tl11~
tke. r0Wfk o-F credit 1A11i011s be.CI>.1ASe. 'fke.?J t>.re.
0
111d1 e1101AS .fl-y.l).-y.Cil).£ i11Stlt1Ati011S 1).-y.d tke[j {).Ye. CASE STUDY
0
o'"'11o tke. b£\11/(S sti-f-F co-.o..petitJ011. Why be a member of a credit union?
There are many reasons why people might prefer to join
a credit union rather than a bank.
0 The.?J re.{).££?1 Sk01A£d be. e.-y.CQ1Ar{).
0e.d be.CI).1A.Se
tke.(j Oil/e. C011S1A~YS wko t\Ye. ~~De.rs ~e Ck01Ce.
0 :r t>.~ spre.t>.d111 ~?J ns)(s betwee11 t1,...e
0
co~~rc.i£\£ h£\-y.J( t>.11d tf..l.e. c.re.d1t 1A111011.
witl.-1. tke.ir ~111).11Cit>.£ trt>.11St\Ctio11s.
:r £\~ 11ot p1Atti110 t>.££ ~?J e. s (st>.Vi11 s) i11
00 0
o11e b{).sl(e t .
'-
0 Witk tke. credit 1A11i011s service. co~s
.first
/).11d tke.?J 1AS1At>.£i(j ~l<e. s1-tre. t~t tke.1r services
~e.t tl,...e. 11eeds o-F tke.ir C1Asto~rs. 0 :r t>-111. ().£so ~>.ttrt>.Cte.d to tke. cre.d1t
'--- 1A11io11 be.ci).1Ase it does 11ot c~r e ~ .fees
0
.for wJtkdrl).wJ11 ~l'i .f1A..,..ds1 i.J)(e. so..e. o.f
0
tke. bt>.111<s 111 &rbt:J!os 1 tke. serv1ce IS ~t~.Gre
perso111>.l t~11 tke. COIIl.~rCJt>.l b£\111<S.
\,.,

f) A11otker pl1As .for tke. cre.d1t 1-t111011 is

Quick questions
Give THREE reasons why an individual may choose
to save with a credit union.
2 At the annual general meeting of a credit union it
was reported that there was a decline in savings
compared to the previous year. Suggest to the
management committee TWO measures which it
may use to encourage members to increase their
savings State why each of the suggested measures
may be successful.
3 Suggest to the management committee of a credit
union THREE ways in which it may educate
members about the benefits offered by the credit
union Explain why each of the measures may be
effective.
t1,...t>.t its excess et\r11i11 s 1 ,.p "-11(j1 }to b"-cl<
0
to t1,...e ~~bers tkr01Ao"'- Lower 111fere.st
rt\te.s t\11d .fees1 wke.ret\S tke pro.flts o-F t1,...e
co~~ercit\£ bt\11)(S o to tke skt>.re.koide.rs
0
011£?) t\11d 11ot to bt\11)(111 c1Asto~ers.
0
Visit these websites. then answer the following questions.
http:/ / www.caribccu.coop/
http:/j www.caribccu.coop/ affiliates
1 How many credit unions are there in your country?
2 What is the size of the credit union membership in
your count ry?

Ill
 Strategies to deal with the effects
of devaluation, depreciation, and
inflation

KEY IDEAS
o Devaluation. depreciation. and inflation have the
Can you list THREE things. except paying for imported
effect of reducing the value of money.
goods. for which consumers may need to purchase
o The real value of money is the amount of goods
foreign exchange?
it can buy.
o Devaluation, depreciation, and inflation have the
effect of increasing in the cost of living. The reduced demand for goods and services as a
o Whereas all Caribbean countries experience
result of the reduced purchasing power of money
inflation. only Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica. and
may affect the profitability of some businesses
Guyana experience depreciation in the value of
their currencies. which depend on local consumers. This may result
in the closure of the business or the retrenchment of
some workers.

Q at•ttt' ;'''
Devaluation: The official or deliberate reduction in a
country's official exchange rate relative to other currencies.
Depreciation : The reduction in the exchange value of
a currency which occurs whenever the price of foreign
exchange increases as a result of scarcity.
Inflation: A creeping inc rease in the prices of most goods
and services in a country.
Exchange rate: The price for which the currency of a country
can be exchanged for another country's currency.
Subsidy: Money that is paid by a government to a business
to reduce the cost of producing goods, in order to make the
price to consumers lower.
Cost of living: The price of the basic goods and serv:ces
required for maintaining a minimal standard of life such
as food, energy, clothes, and shelter.
D evaluation and depreciation mean that the value of
the domestic currency falls and correspondingly the
price of foreign currency increases. Since importers
will then have to pay a hig her price for foreign
currency, it also means that consumers will have
to pay a higher price for imported goods, and for
locally produced goods made using a hig h number of
imported components.
Devaluation, depreciation, and inflation all have the
effect of reducing the purchasing value of money.
Devaluation, depreciation, and inflation all have a
greater negative impact on consumers with fixed
earnings because as prices increase their income
buys less. Consequently their standard of living
falls as they are no longer able to purchase the same
On the other hand, businesses which depend on
overseas customers may fare better because devaluation
and depreciation make local exports cheaper and this
may lead to an increased demand for them.
Strategies for coping with the effects of
devaluation, depreciation, and inflation
Coping with the effects of devaluation, depreciation,
and inflation essentially means trying to survive
with an income which is very much lower than the
existing price level of goods and services. To do this
consumers may have to:
o prioritize their needs and wants, since their
incomes can no longer afford them the same
quantity and quality of goods and services as they
previously enjoyed
o examine the possibilities of supplementing their
income by additional employment in the country,
if available, or migrate to work and support their
family
o examine the possibility of upgrading their skills in
order to earn a higher income
o produce some food items, such as ground
provisions, in backyard gardens
o reduce their food bill by eating more home-
cooked meals
o keep items longer before purchasing new ones
(e.g. clothing and consumer durables such as
refrigerators and washing machines)
o seek financial assistance through remittances

•
quantity and quality of goods and services as before. from friends and relatives overseas
 o utilize any welfare measures which the
government may have implemented to help
those who are most vulnerable to the effects of
devaluation, depreciation, and inflation.
Figu re 7 .14: Strategtes for survivtng n smg prices tn clude
mak tng mea ls at home mstead of eat 1ng out
Discuss the following questions m a small group
1 Why are consumers likely to spend more and save
less during a period of inflation?
2 One of the factors which causes depreciation of a
country's currency is the high demand for foreign
currency to pay for imports when money is scarce.
Should consumers ask for large wage increases in
order to cope with the effects of depreciation?
3 Suggest to a consumer with very large savings
at least one way in which he/she may reduce
the effects of depreciation or inflation on his/her
savings.
Wi=tj•
Research
Find out the exchange rate of the following
currencies in relation to the United States dollar.
Present your findings in a table.
o East Caribbean dollar
o Trinidad and Tobago dollar
o Jamaica dollar
o Belize dollar
o Barbados dollar
o Guyana dollar
-
CASE STUDY
Rising food prices
At the end of April 2008. it was estimated that in less
than a year the price of wheat on the world market had
risen by 130 per cent. soya by 87 per cent, and rice by
74 per cent. Oil prices had increased from below US$30
a barrel to over US$126 a barrel in less than two years.
In an effort to reduce the effects of these rising prices
on consumers, the government of a Caribbean country
subsidized the price of flour to 22 bakeries which
controlled 95 per cent of the market for bread, pastries.
and biscuits. It also increased the salaries of government
workers by 5 per cent and gave tax allowances to
workers at the lower end of the salary scale.
The government also distributed seeds, chemicals, and
fertilizers to commercial and subsistence farmers to
encourage citizens to grow more of their own food and
increase food production.
Quick questions
Give ONE reason why the government in the case
study subsidized the price of flour to bakeries.
2 Describe THREE ways in which high oil prices may
affect consumers in the Caribbean.
3 Outline TWO posstble consequences for the country
lf the government in the case study had not taken
the measures it did.
4 Outline TWO measures which your government has
taken to reduce the cost of livmg.
2 Which Caricom countries have had their currency
devalued since the 1970s?
3 In 1982 the exchange rate for the Jamaica dollar
was J$1. 78 per US dollar. In 199 1 it was J$21.50
per US dollar, and in February 2012 it was
J$86.95 per US dollar. Explain how the reduction
in the exchange rate of the Jamaica dollar may
have affected Jamaican consumers.
 The effects of globalization and
7.10 trade liberalization on consumers
KEY IDEAS
o Globalization and trade liberalization are twin
forces.
o The real beneficiary of globalization and trade
liberalization is the consumer.
~1«•tl!1 ;i'i
Dumping: In economic terms, the practice of exporting
goods at prices lower than the home-market price.
The Internet a nd global television and radio
networks have spread information about products
and services to all parts of the globe. This has not
o nly introduced consumers to new products and
services; it has introduced them to new ways of life
and thinking.
The spread of information by the global media, and
the mass-marketing techniques used by producers,
have created increased pressures on some consumers,
particularly in poorer countries. They have been
encouraged to develop aspirations for goods and
services and a way of life which they cannot support.
The global media h ave also influenced consumers to
adopt worldwide fads such as Facebook, YouTube,
and MySpace.
Similarly, the spread of multinational franchises and
brands such as Burger King, Pizza Hut, and KFC
throughout the region has changed our diets and our
culture of home cooking.
One positive result of globalization and trade
liberalization for consumers is that only those
businesses that produce the best goods and services
at the most competitive price will survive. The
intense competition among businesses has resulted in
consumers benefiting f rom lower prices, better-quality
products, and a more varied ch oice of products .
Some of the lower prices may be as a result of
dumping by unscrupulous manufacturers exporting
to their country. Since the aim of dumping is to force
competitors out of the market, it has the potential
to reduce consumers' ability to choose between
competing products.
Essay writing
Write an essay discussing the following statement:
Globalization will bring challenges and benefits
for consumers.
1 Begin by explaining what is globalization.
2 Then state THREE effects which globalization may
have on consumers.
3 Finally, suggest THREE actions which governments
may take to assist consumers in avoiding the
negative effects of globalization Explain why each
action may be successful.
CASE STUDY
The telecommunications market
"One benefit of globalization and trade liberalization to
my country has been the opening up or liberalization of
the telecommunications market.
"When the monopoly company controlled the
telecommunications sector in my country the cost of
international calls was beyond the reach of the man or
woman in the street. It was often difficult dialling into or
out of my country because the company was not using
up-to-date equipment to accommodate the volume
of calls being made. Consumers also had to wait -
sometimes years - to have a telephone installed. The
company apparently was not interested in expanding its
service because it was making handsome profits.
"Now that the market has been opened up, consumers
have a choice of service providers. They compete with
each other fiercely and this has brought down prices
and improved the quality of the service."
Name the telephone service providers which
operate in your country.
2 Describe TWO ways in which they compete with
each other.
3 Outline some of the complaints which consumers
make about the telephone service in your country.
Talk to an older person to find out what telephone
services were available in the 1980s or before.
•
 7.11
• How consumers can contribute
to the sustainable development
of the region
KEY IDEAS
o Consumer choices influence the sustainable
development of the region.
o Sustainable patterns of consumption help to
conserve the environment and contribute to
sustainable development.
Q il«•tt!J ;i'i
Sustainable production and consumption : The use of
goods and services that provide basic needs and bring
a better quality of life, while minimizing the use of non·
renewable natural resources and toxic materials, and
reducing emissions of waste and pollutants, so as not to
jeopardize the needs of future generations.
Sustainable development: Development that meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs.
(Adapted from the World Commission on Envi ronment and
Development's (the Brundtland Commission) report Our
Common Future, Oxford University Press, 1987)
Cultural industries: The industries that create and produce
goods and services that are of a cultural nature.
The two definitions above imply that the actions and
decisions which consumers make in meeting their
needs today may have either a negative or positive
effect on the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs and enjoy a good quality of life.
The objective of the regional integration movement
is to promote the sustained development of the
region. This means bringing a higher standard of
living to the citizens of the Caribbean. A higher
standard of living means that citizens will be able to
have more of their needs met.
Conservation of the region's resources
The activities involved in meeting consumers' needs
have some negative impact on the environment.
Caribbean consumers need to be aware of this
in order to avoid reducing the ability of future
generations to satisfY their needs. For example,
Haitians' need for wood as a fuel conflicts with the
need to conserve topsoil and prevent soil erosion so
-
•
that the soil can produce crops to feed current and
future generations. Consumers must therefore be
aware of the effects of their consumption practices
on the environment and its capacity to provide for
future generations adequately.
You saw in Section 3 .25 that some resources are
non-renewable. Present-day consumers must
therefore be careful not to exhaust them so that
they will still be available for future generations
to meet their needs. The use of some of these
resources also has some undesirable effects on
the environment.
Sustainable consumption
In order to contribute to the sustainable
development of their countries and the region,
consumers should/must adopt sustainable
consumption practices. Sustainable consumption
requires us to:
o minimize the use of the region's natural resources;
for example, decrease water wastage and
deforestation
o minimize waste and pollutants by reducing
household waste (through reusing and recycling
household items)
o reduce/ minimize the use of toxic materials
which damage ecosystems and also pollute
the environment.
Quick question
Suggest ONE way in which consumers in the
Caribbean may reduce their negative impact on the
environment while meeting their needs for each of the
following.
a energy c food
b transport d tourism/leisure
Awareness of integration objectives
A number of factors hinder the sustainable
development of the region. Regional integration
aims to deal with these factors through a number
of strategies. To be successful, these strategies all
require the full participation of the consumers of the
region. However, consumers can only participate in
them if they are aware of them. Consumers therefore
need to take the opportunities presented by their
governments and by regional and private sector
organizations to become informed about the regional
integration objectives and how they can contribute
to their success. Having become aware of them, they
also need to persuade others to learn about them and
support them.
Preference for regional goods
and services
One of the objectives of regional integration
is to promote free trade in regional goods and
services.This aims to ensure the survival of regional
businesses by creating greater demand for regional
goods and services, promoting more efficient use
of the region's resources and the development of
bigger and more competitive businesses throughout
the region.
Caribbean consumers can help regional businesses
to survive in a competitive global environment by
buying their products in preference to extra-regional
products. This would help businesses to retain their
share of the regional market, increase production and
achieve economies of scale and thus improve their
competitiveness. Improved competitiveness can lead
to increased extra-regional exports, increased foreign
exchange earnings, and increased employment,
leading ultimately to an improvement in the
standard of living in the region.
Saving for investment
Another way in which Caribbean consumers can
contribute to the sustainable development of the
region is by being thrifty and using their savings to
invest in national and regional businesses by buying
their shares when they are available. This investment
will help businesses to expand and also to acquire
modern machinery to improve their production
process while improving their competitiveness.
Additionally, consumers may use some of their
savings to help provide the capital their government
needs to spend to bring about improvements in
the country. They may do this directly by buying
government bonds or treasury bills issued by
the government. These are in effect loans to a
government, the repayment of which is also
guaranteed by the government. This is very
important when we realize that the shortage of
investment capital is one of the factors hindering the
sustainable development of the region.
Prudent use of foreign exchange
The shortage of foreign exchange is another factor
hampering the sustainable development of the
region. Most Caribbean governments use substantial
amounts of foreign exchange to repay foreign debts
and to pay for imports. Very little is left to help
finance improvements in the country.
Too much foreign exchange is wasted in paying
for imported foods and products which can be
produced in the region. The food import bill for
the region gives many governments great cause
for concern. Some foreign exchange is also wasted
on unnecessary imported products. Caribbean
consumers can help to reverse the problem by using,
where possible, local and regional goods and services
in preference to imported ones. They may also grow
some of the foods they currently consume from
extra-regional sources. The foreign exchange saved
can be used to improve the infrastructure necessary
for the development of their countries.
Caribbean consumers may also help their region to
save foreign exchange by increasing their support
for regional tourism. This includes spending
more of their holidays in their own country or a
neighbouring country. Many consumers spend their
holidays outside the region, thereby spending large
sums of foreign exchange abroad supporting foreign
airlines and hotels.
The creative use of regional
agricultural food products
Another way in which Caribbean consumers can
help promote the sustainable development of the
region is in the creative use of regional agricultural
food products. This would involve using food
products in new and exciting ways to create new
dishes and beverages, which may then become
attractive to consumers who did not use them
before. The resulting recipes can also be shared with
friends and relatives in the Diaspora. Consumers
can also use regional products instead of imported
ingredients in their food preparation. These measures
•
would help to stimulate the regional agricultural
sector as a result of increased demand for regional
agricultural food products.
Healthy lifestyle practices
Caribbean consumers make up the present and
future workforce of the region, which depends
heavily on its human resources to promote its
development. Consumers must therefore adopt
healthy lifestyles in order to ensure that the region
has a healthy and productive workforce . Healthy
lifestyle practices include eating the correct diet,
exercising regularly, engaging in recreation, and
avoiding the consumption of harmful products.
Support for local/regional culture
and artistes
The international mass media constantly expose
the Caribbean people to foreign culture, much
of which we have adopted. However, our own
cultural industries are seen as potential large foreign
exchange earners for the Caribbean. If the region
is to reap the fullest benefits from its cultural
industries, Caribbean consumers must continue
to support local and regional culture and local and
regional artistes. The development of our cultural
industries is critical to Caribbean countries, since
they need a major export product to replace their
uncompetitive agricultural exports.
Define the term "sustainable development".
2 Give TWO explanations to show how the region may
benefit from consumers leading healthy lifestyles.
3 Suggest to a group of consumers why they should
be informed about the objectives of regional
integration.
4 Give TWO reasons why regional consumers may
choose to buy foreign goods in preference to
regional goods. Explain TWO ways in which this
action may affect the sustainable development of
the region.
Find out TWO recipes that use one of your favourite
agricultural food products.
2 Find out if any research is being undertaken in your
country to find new ways of using an agricultural
food product.
Research in
Social Studies
 Research in Social Studies: School-Based
Assessment (SBA) and Paper 03/2
Research is very important in the Social Sciences
and by extension in Social Studies. Research is a
way of finding information on a particular topic. In
Social Studies, research should be done following a
specific methodology (system or way of working).
The School-Based Assessment (SBA) and Paper
03/2 (the alternative to the SBA) test whether you
have mastered the skills required for conducting a
simple research project. The SBA takes the form
of a simple research project, requiring students to
investigate a chosen question in their community.
The Social Studies SBA and Paper 03/2 test
the Application, Evaluation and Problem Solving
profile only. It accounts for 20 per cent of your
final examination mark. This is outlined in Table 8.1
--
below.
SBA/ Paper 03/ 2
Type of test ProjecVshort Multiple choice
answers
Profile tests AE&P* 100%
K&C* 100%
Percentage of 20% 33%
final grade
* AE&P- Appl1cat1on, Evaluat1on and Problem Solv1ng; K&C- Knowledge
and Comprehension
Ta bl e 8.1: Profile breakdown 1n Soc1al Stud1es assessment and
the percentage of the f1nal grade for each paper
Examination candidates who are doing Social
Studies at school are required to do the SBA; private
candidates do Paper 03/2 instead. Both methods of
evaluation test the same skills and both carry the
same percentage of the overall mark.
Units 1 to 7 of this section focu s on the SBA, while
Unit 8 describes Paper 03/2; however, all the units
should prove useful to all Social Studies candidates,
as the skills and knowledge required are the same for
both types of evaluation.
What is an SBA?
The initials "SBA" stand for "School-Based
Assessment". As stated in the Caribbean
Examination Council's (CXC) Syllabus, "The
School-Based Assessment of the Social Studies
•
Syllabus is a single guided research project." It
should be done under the guidance of your
teacher. The syllabus also states that "It is
intended to assist students in acquiring certain
knowledge, skills, and attitudes that are critical
to the subject."
This component of the CXC Social Studies
programme is designed to give you the
opportunity to:
o conduct research on an area of the syllabus of
your choice, putting the skills and knowledge
you have learnt in the subject to practical use
o build your self-confidence
o earn 20 per cent of the final examination mark
before the final examination and with guidance
from your teacher.
The SBA is a form of continuous assessment,
Short answers/
essay meaning that you are assessed on work done
over an extended period, as well as in a final
K&C40%,
AE&P 60% examination: your final grade is calculated
47% using both your SBA mark and your examination
marks. This should relieve some of the pressure
of the final examinations, as you can go into
them having already achieved a portion of your
final mark.
The SBA is a compulsory part of your
examination. A student who does not submit an
SBA project will not be awarded a grade in the
examination.
Preparing an SBA
The Social Studies SBA is task-based. This means
that accurate completion of the tasks should lead
to a good score. Your SBA should be between
1,000 and 1,200 words. There are nine basic tasks
to be completed and they are all interrelated.
Each task should be executed easily if your SBA
is well planned. Figure 8.1 outlines the nine tasks
required to complete your SBA. The tenth and
final task is what you have to do after you have
completed it.
 Do not begin your SBA unless your teacher has
Task 1 : State the topic in the form of a question approved your topic. At each step in the process you
should follow the guidance of your teacher. Try to

+
Task 2: State the reason for selecting the area of research
submit each part of your SBA as many times as your
teacher will allow. This will help you find and correct
your errors and improve your grade. You can also
submit your completed SBA as many times as your

+
teacher will allow. Before submitting th e final draft
of your SBA, make sure all of your tasks have been
completed accurately.
Task 3 : Just ify the method used for collecti ng data Before beginning your SBA project you should do

+
some reading and preliminary research on your
chosen topic, in order to gain some background
knowledge. Find out as much about it as you can
using the Internet, books, and newspapers, and by
Task 4 : Identify and construct a data collection instrument talking to people who are familiar with your topic.

+
You could also do a quick survey of friends and
family before beginning your formal research to
make sure you have chosen the right topic.

Task 5 : Describe t he procedure used to collect data The following units cover the nine tasks involved in
doing your SBA, with detailed tips and suggestions

+
Task 6 : Present data us1ng tables, graphs, char ts, etc.
for their completion. The final box in Figure 8.1
represents the final part of the process: editing and
correcting and then submitting your work.

+
Task 7: Analyse and mterpret the data

+
Task 8: Extract and state fmdmgs based on the data presented

+
Task 9 : State you r recom mendat ions and
1mplementat1on strategy

+
Final task: Ed1t, rewrite and perfect your presentation.
Submit a well·presented SBA on ti me.

Figure 8 .1 : Prepanng an SBA, step by step

•
 ---------------------------
Choosing an area of research
Task 1: State the topic in the form of
a question
Clearly state and explain the problem/topic/issue
that you are researching. This should be done
in the form of a question. Your topic can come
from any area of the Social Studies syllabus. In
choosing your topic, give some thought to the
group you will be using for your survey. This will
be further discussed in Unit 8.4 (Task 5). Do not
structure your research question in a hurry: take
time to plan what you will do with your question
and make changes if necessary. Your teacher
should be able to help you to develop a question
which is practical and correctly structured.
Problem clearly stated in the form of
a question (2 marks)
H ere are some examples of well-structured SBA
questions taken from various parts of the syllabus.
o Which family type do fifth-form students in my school
think is best?
o I s child labour a problem in my country? The views of
an expert in thefield and a victim.
o Do men and women in my community have the same
views on whether the country should become a republic?
o Is enough being done to decrease unemployment in
my country? A comparison ofthe views oftwo local
communities.
o Should cell phones be allowed in schools? An
investigation into the views of teachers at two
secondary schools.
o Are adults willing to use electronic banking? A study
ofadults in my community.
o Are workers in the tourism industry satisfied with
how they are treated? An investigation among the
staffat a local hotel.
Do not ask questions which are personal or
impossible to find answers to. You should also make
sure that the answers to your questions are not
obvious. Here are three poorly constructed questions:
o Too personal: Are the teenagers at my school
sexually active?
•
o Obvious answer: Do teenagers like cellular phones
as a form of communication?
o Impossible to answer: I s the approaching hurricane
season going to cause damage to the housing stock of
my country?
Task 2: Reason for selecting the
area of research
Clearly state the reason for researching the
topic. Your reason may be personal or related
to a need or concern about your school,
community, or country. You may also choose a
topic because it interests you for some reason.
Reason clearly stated (2 marks)
Here are two examples of the way in which this task
should be presented:
Example 1
Area of research
Should cellphones be allowed in schools? An investigation
into the views ofteachers at two secondary schools.
Reason for selecting the area of research
The reason why I chose the topic was because material
which I read and things which I observed happening
in my school led me to become curious about cell phones
being banned. I also wanted to investigate how
teachers feel about it in two schools, because they use
their phones regularly. I wanted to know if they think
students should be given the same privilege.
Example 2
Area of research
I s enough being done about the problem of illegal
garbage dumping in my community? A survey of the
views of residents ofthe community.
Reason for selecting the area of research
I chose my research topic because members ofmy
neighbourhood complain bitterly about the illegal
dumping problem. The garbage which is dumped close
to my home has also led to the spread ofdiseases in my
community. I also wanted to know why such a simple
problem has not been solved.
 Planning your investigation
Task 3: Method of investigation
You should state your method of investigation
and justify your choice. In choosing your
method of investigation you should consider
two things:
o Which research method is best to get data
(information) for your topic?
o Your population and sample (both of these
terms are explained in detail below).
Method of investigation justified and
described (2 marks)
Types of research
D ata can be gathered through a number of different
types of research.
o Survey: A detailed investigation into
something. A survey may be carried out using a
questionnaire, grid-sheet, or checklist.
o Questionnaire: An instrument used to conduct
research; a questionnaire is composed of a series
of questions and space to answer them.
o Grid-sheet: A simple grid used to collect large
quantities of information by inputting brief
answers to basic questions.
o Checklist: A list of items to be covered when
doing an inspection or investigation; for example,
a checklist was used by students who were
examining the state of classrooms at a secondary
school to make sure they checked the same items
in each classroom.
o Interview: A meeting during which a person or
group of persons is asked a series of questions.
C ase studies may be conducted using interviews.
o Telephone survey: A n interview conducted on
the telephone, during which respondents are
asked a series of questions.
o Case study: The study of a person, small
group, or situation that exhibits the issue being
investigated. This is usually carried out by means
of an interview, investigation, or observation.
Quantitative and qualitative research
There are basically two types of research:
qualitative research, which deals with getting
detailed information from a small number of
people or situations, and quantitative research,
which concentrates on reaching large numbers
of people.
Type of research Research method
Questionnaire
Quantitative Telephone survey
ChecklisVgnd-sheet
Interview/ case study
Qualitative Observation
Secondary sources
Table 8.2: Methods used in quantitative and qualitative
research
{blantitative research collects numerical
data which can generally be used to produce
diagrams. It allows the researcher to reach
large numbers of people in a short space of
time. Qyestionnaires can be more comfortable
for respondents as they do not have to face
the researcher directly and therefore there is a
certain level of anonymity. Telephone surveys
can reach respondents who are not in close
proximity to the researcher.
{blalitative research concentrates on getting
detailed information from one or a small
number of persons. The emphasis is on
· discussion and dialogue, enabling the researcher
to ask questions, whether structured (pre-
prepared) or unstructured. The researcher is
also able to observe the interviewee's body
language (the things they do as they respond to
questions). The personal relationship established
between the researcher and the person being
interviewed may lead to a higher degree of
honesty compared to other research methods.
•
 Challenges of various research
methods
All research methods can be time consuming:
conducting interviews takes longer than
administering questionnaires (e.g. it would take a lot
longer to hold interviews with each member of your
class than to simply hand out questionnaires to them
all at the same time); however, a good questionnaire
takes a considerable amount of time to construct.
When choosing your method of research, consider
the amount of time you have to do it, and choose
a method which fits. For example, do not try to
interview all the youth leaders in your community:
give them questionnaires instead or interview just
one or two of them, depending on your aim.
The researcher has to consider which method of
research is best, depending on the subject they
are researching and the people they are using to
do the research. A questionnaire may not capture
the emotions or thoughts of a person who has a
long story to tell: in this case an interview or case
study would be preferable. On the other hand, a
questionnaire, if administered correctly, allows more
anonymity than an interview would.
If your resources arc limited, preparing and
photocopying questionnaires may be problematic: in
this case, a grid-sheet or checklist may help.
A telephone survey will help you to reach people
who arc br away but it may also raise suspicions
among respondents. People who do not trust the
researcher, or have concerns about what they will do
with the information collected, may not tell the truth
or may not complete questionnaires. ~estionnaires,
grid-sheets, and checklists can also lead to "best-fit"
answers as the most appropriate answer may not be
among those offered on the instruments.
Secondary sources such as books and the Internet
can also provide useful information, although it
must be remembered that not all sources are reliable
and truthful, particularly on the Internet. I f you use
the Internet to find data for your SBA you should
be careful to look for information specifically on
the Caribbean: not all information which you find
for other regions will be applicable to life in the
Caribbean .
•
Population and sample
If you have decided to survey a large group of people,
the next task is to determine your population and
sample.
Fi gure 8.2: Determtne your populatton and sample for a survey
The group you are researching is called the
population. l\lake sure the population you choose
is practical. If the group is too large or too far away
you will not be able to reach an adequate number of
members. For example, you may want to research the
disposal of garbage in your community instead of the
whole country. A school study could focus on fifth
formers at your school instead of all the students in
the school.
The sample is the actual number of people or things
in the population that you are going to investigate,
interview, or sun'ey. A good sample size at thic; level
is between 25 and 30 in number.
After working out how many people you want as
your sample, you then need to figure out whom
to approach. In choosing your sample you should
consider the following:
o Your sample should not be restricted to one group
in the population, unless this is the aim of your
research; for example, if you conduct research at
a coeducational school then your sample should
include both boys and girls.
o Your sample should be selected from a suitably
wide enough group; for example, if you are doing
a survey in your community you should not
only go to the houses close to yours because it is
convenient- try to visit as many streets, roads, or
avenues as possible.
 8 .3 Planning your investigation

o Your sample should not be restricted to your
friends or people you know. People from within
a small grouping tend to think in a similar
fashion; for example, if you hand out all your
questionnaires to people leaving a church they are
likely to report that they are all churchgoers.
Table 8.3 shows one way of determining a sample of
25-35 people within a population of 200, ensuring
that the sample includes appropriate numbers of
males and females.
Population 200
Sample size 30
Male/female breakdown of population Males: 40%
Females: 60%
Male/female breakdown of sample Males: 40% of 30 12
Females: 60% of 30 = 18
Ta ble 8.3: One way of determming a sample
Practice exercise
Can you determme the samples that should be used in
the three examples gtven below?
1 In a population of 100 houses in a community under
study. 20 are stone houses. 50 are wooden and the
other 30 are a combination of wood and stone.
2 In a hotel wtth 260 employees. there are 20 people
working m the office. Equal numbers of people work
on the grounds and in the rooms
3 There are 50 teachers at school A. of whom 30 are
female. There are 55 teachers at school B. mcluding
only 20 males.
You do not have to use more than one method
of investigation; however, collecting data in more
than one way could make your study stronger. For
example, using a questionnaire among students at
your school could be complemented by an interview
with an adult at your school who knows a lot on the
particular issue.
The following two examples show how this task
should be presented in your SBA.
Example 1
Area of research
Are adults willing to use electronic banking? A study
ofadults in my community.
Method of investigation
I decided to conduct a telephone survey using a
grid-sheet to do my research. 1his will be usefulfor
three reasons:
1 I need to reach the people in my neighbourhood on
evenings when they have come homefrom work.
1hose whom I cannot reach at home I will be able to
contact at work because I get homefi·om school early.
2 1hey all know me and will not be afraid to
answer my questions on the telephone.
J I want the view ofat least 20 members ofmy
community: using the grid-sheet and conducting
the research on the telephone is thefostest way to
reach them.

Example 2
Look at the table below to help you determine the
Area of research
correct method of investigation to usc for your study.
Is child labour a problem in my country? 7he views
Sample Suggested method ofan expert in thefield and a victim.
large group Questionnaire Method of investigation
Checklist
I decided to do a detailed structured interview with an
Gnd-sheet
Telephone survey expert in the area ofchild labour. I chose this method
Secondary sources because many people in rny country do not seern to be
Individual Interview aware ofthis problem or how it occurs in my country.
Case study 7he expert will also be able to provide statistics on the
Secondary sources problem and tell me about legislation on child labour.
S1tuat1on Observation usmg notes or checklist
Secondary sources I will also do a case study using an interview with a
victim ofchild labour. 1he case study will allow me to
Table 8.4: Appropnate research methods for different types of
sample get a better understanding ofhow child labour makes
the victim feel and affects their life. This is something
that the expert would not be able to fidly explain

•
bemuse she has never experienced child labour herseif.
 Collecting data
Task 4: Design and construct a
data -collection instrument
You need to design the questionnaire, interview
schedule (questions used in an interview),
telephone survey instrument, observation
schedule (guidelines for observation), checklist,
or grid-sheet to be used to collect data for your
research. You should include a copy of your
instrument(s) in your SBA.
Whatever instrument you use, the questions
should be well structured and sequenced in
order to clearly capture the data needed to
answer your research question.
Well-constructed and sequenced
instrument
Your questionnaire should be based on your research
question. It should be no longer than two pages (or
between 10 and 20 questions) and should include
a title and instructions to guide respondents. This
should be followed by questions used to collect
demographic data.
The questions related to your research topic should
include space for answers; for example, check boxes
or lines to write on. Remember that the easier your
questionnaire is for the respondent to answer, the
more likely it is to be completed.
Demographic data
Demography is the study of statistics about human
beings in the community, for example age and sex
composition, birth rate, and death rate.
Sex malcO tcmaleO
, Age. _ _ )CilP\
or
Age group: 1 1 - 1~0 16--200 21 so
3. Fonn lc\el 1-.10 2nd0 3rd0 .tth 0
Figure 8.3: Example of questtons used to collect demographiC
data
In constructing your data-collection instruments,
make sure you follow correct guidelines. You should
always start by collecting demographic data on the
individual or group; for example, in an interview ask
the person for their full name and title (however,
names should not be used in your analysis of the data
to maintain anonymity). A questionnaire, grid-sheet,
or checklist should begin with details of the person's
age and sex. If investigating conditions the name
of the class, school, or street should be recorded. If
research is on a particular situation notes should
include the time of day and location.
This data will help when you do your comparative
analysis, and can also be used to generate charts and
graphs for your SBA.
(3 marks} Types of question
A good question should be clearly written, easily
understood, and free from bias. Look at the two
questions in Figure 8.4- the first one shows bias.
What do you think of the -.ub--.tandard food at the \chool canteen?
Abo'e a\erage 0 A\crage 0 BelO\\ average 0
Ho\v \\OUld you rate the food at the -.chool canteen?
Above average 0 Average 0 Belo\\ a\erage 0
Figure 8.4: Examples of btased and unbtased questtons
Handling data
Rewrite the following questions to eliminate bias.
1 Does management prejudice at some hotels
show bias toward some workers?
Yes 0 No 0
2 How often do you take the risk of using e-banking?
Always 0 Sometimes 0 Never 0
3 How would you rate our unfair system of elections?
Fair 0 Average 0 Unfair 0
5th0
4 Do you think the large number of unemployed
people in our community proves there is a
national problem?
Yes 0 No 0
 ,.-- /'. ....... ~~
A well-constructed questionnaire should also include A new c heckli~t ''"'completed during lunch·time every day for one week .
I
both open-ended and closed questions. Open-ended Swearing Cell phone Fighting Inappropriate Littering
questions allow the respondent to respond freely. usc contact
For example: Canteen ./ ./
Playmg ./ ./
fi eld
Expla1n how you feel about 11orking in the touri '> t industry.
Hall"a)s
Be hind ./ ./ ./
~ch oo l

Clas;rooms ./
"-
- - --
Figure 8.5: Example of a checklist for use w1th the research
--- .-.

This type of question is not easy to report on in a quest 1ons "Are students at my school break tng school rules
diagram, but will allow more detailed responses. du ri ng lunch·t1me? If so, where are they dotng 1t? "

Closed-ended questions require the respondent to

choose from pre-determined responses. For example:
How do you feel about worl..mg 111
Love it 0 Do not enjoy it 0 Hate ll
Checklists and grid-sheets restrict the researcher
to closed-ended questio ns, but could include
questions where respondents give a one-word
answer. Alternatively, an interview or case study
could be conducted to complement the checklist.
An example of a well-constructed grid-sheet
is g iven below.
Handling data
Choose one of the sample questions listed at
the touri>t mdu'> try? l the beginning of Unit 2 and answer the following
0 questions.
1 Explain whether it would best be investigated
by collecting data from a large number of
people (e.g. using a survey) or by focusing
on one or a small number of people (e.g. by
observation).
2 Choose TWO research methods you could use
with this topic.
3 Construct a questionnaire or grid-sheet you
could use to investigate this topic.

( ~~ Ql
all/some/none
Q~
all/some/none
Q3
all/some/ none
Q4
yes/no
Q5
yes/no
Q6
good/satisfactory/
Q7
yes/no
~

l
poor
)
::! I all '>0111C none yes satisfactory

~·
no yes
1 2

J 3-4
t
4-1
( 4-3
~

) 5 I
5-5
~
Que'>tion I Do the 01erhead lighh 110rl..?
Quesuon 2. Do the electncal ~ocl..w. 111 the room work?
Ques tion 3: Do the lntcmet port> in the room work?
)
Question 4· Is the re enough fum llurc?
Question 5 h there fumllure a1 allable for the teacher''
Question 6: What conditiOn is the furniture in?
Question 7: h there graffiti in the classroom''
1
Figure 8 .6: Example of a gnd·sheet for use w1t h the research quest1on "Are classroom cond1 t 1ons satisfactor y at a secondary
school 1n Barbados?"

•

Task 5: Describe the procedure
used to collect the data
You should describe how the information
was collected, step by step. It is important to
be responsible with data collected: people's
information should be handled confidentially
(see the section below on research ethics).
Procedure to collect data identified
and clearly described (2 marks)
l\Iake sure you have answered the following questions:
o When did you collect the data?
o How did you decide who to approach or what
situation to observe? Did you consider the sex,
age, location, or ethnicity of your sample?
o How long did it take?
o How was your instrument used?
o Where did you do your data collection?
While names may be omitted to protect the people
and groups involved, you can describe the location or
person; for example, "Research was conducted in a
large rural secondary school in Grenada."
You may encounter several challenges when
collecting data: your most important consideration
must always be your safety- do not take chances or
approach people who may be hostile or violent. Other
challenges and suggested solutions are listed below.
o Refusal to return questionnaires: It is always
a good idea to prepare and distribute more
questionnaires than needed- if they are not
all returned you will still meet or be close to
the desired number. You should also wait while
participants complete questionnaires, where
possible, or agree on a time for their collection.
o Incomplete information: If you conduct an
interview or case study you should always take
contact information, allowing for a simple
telephone call or email if you need to collect the
further information. If people did not answer all of
the questions on a que~tionnaire, do not fill them in
or ignore them. When doing your tally or diagrams,
simply record the question as "not answered".
o Dishonesty: This is difficult to prove and
therefore all efforts should be made to choose
reputable interviewees. The environment in which
-
questionnaires are handed out is also important
in encouraging participants to take your research
seriously.
o Time constraints: Always begin your research
early, allowing enough time for unexpected delays.
o Shortage of resources: Grid-sheets and
checklists (see Figures 8.5 and 8.6) are cost-
effective alternatives to the questionnaire. SBA
projects may also be handwritten - this can save
on cost if facilities are not available for printing.
Remember that your SBA is your responsibility:
members of the public do not have to participate
in your research. Always be courteous in asking
for their participation and thank them when they
are finished.
Research ethics
Q fl!•llDii'i
Research ethics: "The application of moral rules and
professional codes of conduct to the collection, analysis,
reporting, and publication of information about research
subjects."
Oxford Dictionary of Sociology
When individuals participate in research they expose
themselves to the researcher: it is the responsibility
of the researcher to protect the individual's
information and identity. In reporting on any form
of research, including your SBA project, names
should be omitted to protect those involved.
Surveys involving large numbers of people rely
heavily on anonymity. This in itself protects the
respondent's identity, if the data is handled correctly.
In doing research, preserving the privacy and
confidentiality of participants is more likely to be
achieved if you consider:
o the types of questions asked
o the way in which questionnaires are handed out,
collected, and stored
o the way in which information is reported.
People taking part in your research should also be told
what your data will be used for. It is your responsibility
to use the information as you have outlined.
Research involving interviews and observation
requires you to be even more responsible and
respectful of people's information. If you expect

participan ts to be open and honest with yo u
they mu st be able to trust you as a responsible
researcher.
Participants should be allowed to withdraw at any
time. As the researcher, you are also expected to be
honest when reporting findings, even if you don't
agree with them.
Example 1
Area of research
Which family type do fifth-form students in my
school think is best?
Procedure used to collect data
We constructed a questionnaire made up of15
questions. The sample was chosen by selecting the
first boy and last girl listed on each register. Prior
permission was soughtfrom the principal, who
allowed us to select names from school registers.
Teachers were notified that the survey would be
conducted.
On M onday 10 j anuary we administered
20 questionnaires throughout 5 .fifth-form classes.
It took us 55 minutes to visit all 5 classes, locate the
students, and have them complete the questionnaire.
They were assured that their data would be kept
confidential.
8 .4 Collecting data
Example 2
Area of research
of
A re the schoolfacilities in an adequate state
repair? The study ofan urban secondary school.
Procedure used to collect data
I designed a checklist which would allow me
to survey 20 of the classrooms in the school and
5 speciality rooms.
O n M onday 27 October I sought the principal's
permission and he allowed me access to a map of the
school. I identified the rooms I wanted to survey by
starting on one end of the compound and choosing
every ot her classroom until I had identified 20
rooms. I chose the.five speciality rooms by choosing
one science lab, one computer lab, one industrial
arts room, one home economics lab and the music
room. This took me half an hour.
Teachers were notified and on the following day
I visited the rooms and used my checklist to do my
investigations. This took 42 minutes to complete.
 Presenting and analysing data
Bar charts
Task 6: Presentation of data A bar chart is a type of graph using labelled bars to
The CXC syllabus states that at least th ree show numerical data. Bars may be horizontal or vertical.
diagrams should be included in your SBA. The
15
graphical presentation of your findings is an "'<1>
important part of your research: preparing good "'c0
0.
10 - ....---
diagrams on key questions will make it easier to "'~
do your analysis. More than three diagrams may 0
a; 5
be presented but are not necessary. .0
E
D ata presented using tables, graphs, and
::J
z 0 n
Car Bus Tax1 Mmibus
charts that are appropriate, well labelled
Form of transport
and accurate (6 marks)
Figu re 8.8: An example of a bar chart

Data can be presented in a variety of ways. Some Pictograph

types of research, such as interviews, will not produce Similar to a bar chart, a pictograph uses drawings
numerical data and therefore should be reported in or pictures instead of bars to represent data. In
well-constructed paragraphs. Pictures, drawings, and Figure 8.9, one vehicle symbol is used to represent
photographs may be especially useful when reporting every two vehicles recorded.
on observations. Newspaper or magazine clippings
can be used to show that you have used secondary
sources. These should all be placed in your appendix
(the appendix will be discussed in more detail in
Car ~..-...

~~~...a~
...................
Form of transport

-...
Unit 8.7). Bus

Tax1
Diagram s are simply graphical representations of
data: they should relate specifically to the topic and Min1bus ~ ~ ~ ~ Oiliiij ~
should be accurate. Many types of diagram can be
Each drawmg represents two vehicles
used to present data.
Figure 8 .9 : An example of a pictograph
Tables
Tables are perhaps the simplest and easiest way to Pie chart
present numerical data. Figure 8. 7 shows a tally A pie chart is circular in shape and shows how
table. You should consider using a tally table when different groupings make up a whole. For example,
compiling the results of your research. a pie chart could be used to show what proportion
of teachers use corporal punishment in a school
Form of t ransport Tally Tot al compared with those who do not.
Car Jltr Jltr I 11 Figure 8.10 clearly shows that a very small
Bus JltfJHf 10 proportion of the vehicles recorded were taxis - this
Taxi II 2 "slice" of the "pie" is smaller than the others.
M1n1bus Jltr Jltr II 12
D ear
Figure 8 .7: An example of a tally table 0 Bus

0 Taxi
D MinibUS
Figure 8 .10 : An example
of a pie chart
Line graph
A line graph can be used to show the relationship Handling data
between two variables. Line graphs are often used Forty households were surveyed about their
to show how a value changes over time; for example, recycling habits. Table 8.5 shows the results of the

-
Figure 8.11 shows the number of suspensions at a survey. Use it to answer the questions below.
school for each month of the school year.
Items recycled by households Tally
12 Newspapers JHIJHI JHI JHI 20
C/)
c Bottles JHIJHI!Hf!HfJHIJHI 30
0 10
iii Compost !Hf !Hf II 12
c
~ 8 Cans JH1' Ill 8
C/)
:::l
C/) 6 Note: Ten households sa1d they do not recycle at all.
0
~ 4 Table 8.5: Results of recycling survey
.D
E 2 1 How many households recycle bottles?
:::l
z
2 Which item is recycled the least?
Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul
3 Construct a pie chart to show the number of
Mont hs
households that recycle each item.
Fi gure 8 .11: An example of a lme graph 4 Construct a pictograph and bar chart to show
Each diagram should be properly labelled, identified, the data in the table.
and titled. D o not explain or analyse the data at this
stage- simply present it. Figure 8.12 shows the
correct way to present a diagram. Task 7: Analysis and interpretation
T1 tle, mcludmg the f1gure number and the
of data
Diagram is framed question used 1n the quest 1onna 1re Your SBA is an investigation, and it is therefore
important th at you spend some time trying
FIGURE 1
Do you th ink teenage violence is on t he to understand your data. This can be done by
increase i n your co mmunity? asking questions of the data you have found: this
40
is called analysis. I n Task 7 you are required to
:;') 35
C/)
0 Males
write out your analysis and interpretation of the
gCl. 30 0 Females data you have collected.
~ 25
0 20 Analysis and interpretation relevant and well
Q)

2 15 developed (5 marks)
~ 10
~
~ Before you analyse the data, your results should
be tallied. An easy method is to use a tally table
No
(see Figure 8.7) to count responses and then record
the results on a copy of your questionnaire. This
Both axes Ba rs co rrectly shaded Key expla1n1ng questionnaire can be included in your appendix
labelled the meanmg of
shadmg (see Unit 8.7). If you are doing a comparative study,
the questionnaires should first be divided, then
Fig ure 8 .12: The correct method of presenting a diagram
tallied separately.

I. Sex: male ITIJ female[@]

2. Age group: 16-IRITQ] 19- 2 1[II] 22- 5W

3. Do you think the ~y-. t e m of election~ -.hould be changed'?

yes ITQ] no ITQ] not ~urc (]]

Fi gure 8.13: An example of a quest 1onna1re showmg the

res u lts collected
The use of a comparative study (where two groups
are asked the same questions) will make analysis
easier. You can then compare what is found in one
location or group to what is found in another. The
collection of good demographic data also helps with
analysis as you can compare answers based on age,
sex, or even location. When analysing your data, try
to answer the following questions.
o I s any of the information you ha,•e found ou t
surprising?
o I s the data what you expected, or different f rom
what you expected?
o When considering the demographics of your
sample, do different groups have different views?
For example, do boys give different answers
from girls?
o H as any of your data answered your research
question?
o H ave other questions arisen based on your research?
o If you have used more than one method of
investigation, are the results the same or do
they conflict?
Analysis should be presented in paragraph form. You
should make reference to the diagrams presented
in the previous section. Additional data from your
research may also be presented to assis t in making
points. This will show the depth of your research.
The following example shows just one part of the
analysis which is possible if your research is correctly
conducted and analysed . E very item on your
questionnaire grid-sheet or interview schedule could
be analysed in a similar way.

Example FIGURE 3
Is vio l ence on th e increase
Topic in your school ?
Is teenage violence on the increase in schools? The
views ofteenagers in two secondary schools. G"''
Boys
I :
I
Presentation of data 1
0 20 40 60 80 100
FIGURE 1
Is violence on th e increase in your school? Boys
D Yes D No D Yes 79 65
0 No 21 35

Analysis of data
Students involved in this research project st•emed
very concerned about teenage violence. I say this
because almost every student expressed conurn in
their responses to the open-ended questions on the
FIGURE 2 questionnaire. Most ofthem thought that violence was
Is viol ence on the increase on the increase among teenagers. The statements they
in your schoo l?
made are shown in Appendix A.
D School A
D School B As shown in F igure 1, 77% ofstudents said violence
was on the increase in their school. The percentage
ifst udents who thought that violence was on the
increase was higher in Schoof B (94%) than in Schoof
Yes No
A (60%}; see F igure 2. M ore boys {79%) than girls
Response {65 %) in both schools thought violence was on the
increase, as shown in F igure J. This is not surprising
comidering that the research done in focal newspapers
(see Appendix B) a/.w shows this trend.
 Findings and recommendations
Task 8: Statement of findings
You are required to state at least three findings
or conclusions drawn from the data collected.
Use your research question to guide you
when considering the main questions on your
questionnaire, research schedule, or checklist.
Your findings should be clearly written, relevant,
and based on the data presented. Remember
that every step of your SBA is tied together.
Three statements of findings based on
the data presented (3 marks)
H ere are three possible findings based on three
different topics discussed in this section.
A s shown in F igure 1, it may be concluded that those
who view the problem ofyouth violence as increasingfa r
outnumber those who do not.
I n doing my research I found that the tourism workers
who were interviewed are mostly dissatisfied with
the way in which they are treated in the industry. The
interviews in Appendix C demonstrate this clearly.
M ost malefifth-year students who took part in the survey
believe that the nuclearfamily is the best arrangementfor
a happyfamily. This is shown in F igure 1.
Task 9: Recommendations and
implementation strategy
As a researcher you are encouraged not only to
research problems but also to find solutions to
them. Remember that the tasks in your SBA are
interrelated: therefore your recommendations
should be related to your original question,
research, analysis, and findings. You are expected
to end your SBA by offering two solutions to
the problem you explored and one strategy for
its implementation. If no findings are presented,
no marks will be given for recommendations.
This is because your recommendations should be
based on your findings.
Two recommendations and one associated
implementation strategy (3 marks)
Handling data
Write ONE finding based on the data presenteu
in Figures 8.7-12 (Unit 8.5).
One way of finding recommendations and
implementation strategies is to include a solution-
based question in your questionnaire or interview
schedule. For example:
List one way in which you thinl.. member~ of the community can
help in solving the problem of illegal dumping.
In an interview, you could ask:
What do you thinl.. fami lies can do differently to prevent an increase
in child labour in thi~ country?
Recommendations should be clear and specific
and must be accompanied by implementation
strategies. D o not make recommendations which are
impractical because you will not be able to offer an
implem entation strategy. H ere is a well-structured
recommendation:
I recommend that a conflict resolution seminar be held
for youths in my neighbourhood at the community centre.
This recommendation m akes it easy to develop an
implementation strategy. For example:
The conflict resolution seminar could be easily
implemented by enlisting the support ofthe community
council in facilitating the use ofthe community centre.
P rimary schools within the community could supply
names ofstudents who are at risk and therefore in need
ofthe seminar. F inancial support could be solicitedfrom
business houses in the community to provide stationery
and lunch for participants.
•
 Writing and presentation
Final task: Writing and presentation
skills
CXC has outlined nine tasks that need to be
done in order to complete the SBA. A final
step is necessary before your SEA is complete:
rewriting and editing. This will ensure that you
have a high-quality presentation.
There are certain writing and presentation skills
which must be demonstrated in your SEA
project: together they account for 8 marks or
20 per cent of the total SEA mark.
Excellent organization -paragraphing, use of
language, spelling, and grammar (4 marks}
Overall presentation - appropriate layout
with four elements such as acknowledgments,
table of contents, bibliography, cover page,
appendices. (4 marks)
When organizing your SEA, you should consider the
following two areas: order and format.
o O rder: Your SEA must be well organized,
with sections following the correct sequence as
outlined in the CXC syllabus. In other words,
the tasks should be presented in the correct order
(see Figure 8.1 in Unit 8.1). Your work should
be well structured, using paragraphs. Your SEA
should never be a first draft. Check for spelling
and grammatical errors: eliminating them will
make your work easier to follow and will help to
improve your final examination mark.
o Format: Research projects must be presented in a
particular format. You are required to include the
following elements:
o cover page
o acknowledgments
o table of contents
o bibliography
o appendices.
iil:i
Your acknowledgments are an opportunity to
thank those who have helped you to complete your
SEA project, but they should be brief. They should
appear immediately after your cover page. The other
elements listed are defined and described below.
It is important that you present your SEA in a neat
and legible fashion. Here are some tips to assist you:
o The cover of your SEA should include your name,
the name of your school, your research question,
and your school and examination code (if you
know it). Decorations are optional and do not
improve your score.
o SEAs may be typed or neatly handwritten. Typed
SEAs should be double spaced.
o Write or print on only one side of the page.
o Number your pages and use these numbers in
your table of contents.
o Proof-read your SEA (or ask someone to do it
for you): this will reduce errors. Do not hand in a
first draft. Some teachers will allow for more than
one subm ission: take advantage of this.
o All additional information not used in the
section entitled "Presentation of data" should be
placed in your appendix (e.g newspaper articles,
photographs, interview or case study notes).
o Tables, pictures, graphs, and drawings should be
correctly labelled (see Figure 8.12 in Unit 8.5). If
pictures or data are taken from a website, book,
article, or newspaper the source should be given
in your bibliography (see the example below).
Table of contents
A table of contents is a directory of sorts placed at
the beginning of a document to allow readers to find
their way around easily. It includes chapter names or
major headings and the page on which they can be
found. Items in a table of contents are placed in the
order in which they appear. The following example
shows a simple table of contents; to aid navigation
you may also add second-level headings or section
titles under each main heading.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ackno" Jedgment~
PAGE
OJ [I]
Brunm. F. (~010. Fcbrual) 10). Cellphone; banned in
lntroducuon
>choob. Barbados Adt·ocate ]nattonal ed.]. p.21

I
Rea\on for selectmg the area of re~earch 3 \_)

Methods of Ill\ cstigation 4 [I]

,.--,
[TI w
Data-collection in-.trument 5 Lipton. C . (2010). The Ell\ ironment in the Caribbean.
Procedures used to collect data 6 Retrie\'ed from http:. """ .gtsbarbados.com.bb

I
Presentation of data 7 Parry. J 11 . ( 197 1). ,\ Shorr //won- of rht• \Vesr lmlie.1 .
Analy~i~ and interpretation of data II London. Macmi llian.
Statement of finding'> 13
Recommendation-. and implementation '>tratcg) 15 1
Scott. J . and Mar,hall, G. ( 1992)'- 0.\}iml Dicriorwr\' of
Appendix 17 ) Sociology. Nc" York . O'ford Uni\'Cr'>ll} pre-.s.

[ill @) [I] [@)

Figure 8-14: An example table of contents ,------,.~

Statistic'>. (n.d.). In Encyclopedia Brirmmica online .

Retrie\'ed from http:. \\\\\\.bntannica.com
Bibliography
A bibliography is a list of the sources you have used,
such as books, articles, websites, and newspapers. I Name of author: \Urname first. fo llo\\Cd by fir,t tlllttal
2 Date format for nc" spapcr anicles
The Social Studies SEA requires the inclusion of a 3 Title of antcle
4 Name of llC\\ ;paper 111 ttahc'>
bibliography. The bibliography allows you to: 5 Page number
fl Year of pub1icallon 111 brad.ch
o provide evidence of having done research 7 Multiple author-. placed in the order a-. sho" non the book
I! Name of book Haltctzed
o give details of sources mentioned in your SEA 9 Place of publicallon (cit) not count!) l
o strengthen your SBA, by providing expert IU Publi>hcr
II Term bemg defined
references 12 No date available
o avoid plagiarism, by giving credit to authors 1.' Web\lle as reference

whose work you have used

o give references for the diagrams, data, and
statistics presented in the project.
In Social Studies we use the bibliographical style
of the American Psychological Association (APA).
Figure 8.15 shows the correct way in which to
present your bibliography. There are five examples
given: a newspaper article; an online article; a book
with one author; a book with multiple authors; and a
definition from an online encyclopedia.
Information must be given in a specific order; this
order varies from one type of source to another.
Study Figure 8.15 and note the order in which the
information is written. Here are some tips to help you:
o Books are placed in alphabetical order based on
author's surname.
o Note the format for punctuation and use of
brackets.
o Second and all subsequent lines are indented.
Fig ure 8.15: A b1bl1ography usmg the APA style
Appendices
An appendix (plural appendices) is the final part of
any document and includes any information which
is appended or added on to a document. Include here
a blank copy of the instrument you used to collect
data.1he appendix is also a good place to place your
questionnaire with results, newspaper clippings,
photographs, and so on. These pieces of information
are important but do not necessarily fit into the flow
of the SEA. Each document in your appendices
should be placed on a separate page and numbered at
th e top (e.g. Appendix 1, Appendix 2, etc.).
Reviewing and revising
After completing the first draft of your SBA, try
marking it yourself to determine what can be done
to improve your next draft . Reread this section to
make sure that you have covered all the elements of
the final task: Writing and presentation skills.

•
 Paper 03/2: alternative to the
School-Based Assessment
If you are a private candidate you are required to write
Paper 03/2. This is an alternative to the SBA and
simply seeks to test if you are familiar with the research
techniques used for the SBA. The time allotted for this
paper is one hour and ten minutes.
Paper 03/2 includes five questions . Although it is
not divided into sections, two clear parts can be
seen - we will refer to them as sections one and two.
The first section examines your ability to plan and
execute a research project; the second section tests
your ability to analyse data, draw diagrams, and
reach conclusions. It is important to remember that
you do not actually do a research study in the exam,
but mimic some of the behaviours of someone who
is doing a study.
Private candidates are encouraged to use Units 8.1-8
to simulate the SBA by following the steps given.
The skills required are the same for both the SBA
and Paper 03/2. Mastering the skills required to
complete a SBA will prepare you for Paper 03/2.
Section 1
The first part of the paper aims to find out how you
would design a research project on the topic you
have chosen.
The paper will begin by asking you to choose
between two research questions. You should
choose the one with which you are most familiar.
However, it is important to note that you do
not have to know a lot about the topic. You are
simply choosing it so that your answers show an
understanding of research techniques in relation
to a particular topic.
You will then be asked to do the following.
o Iden tify the main variables in your research area
(see glossary box at right for an explanation of
variables).
o Create a research question related to your chosen
topic.
o Identify the aim of your study (practise by
beginning your response with "The aim of this
study is ... ").
-
For example:
Topic
The effect ofwater pollution on my community
Question
What is the effect ofwater pollution on my
community?
Aim
The aim of this study is to determine how water
pollution has affected my community in the past and
how it is affecting it at present.
o Identify the population and sample that would
best suit the research study. You should be able to
explain the reason behind your choice.
o Choose the best instrument with which you could
collect data for the topic and population you have
chosen. The instrument used to collect data is
central to all research, and Paper 03/2 seeks to
make sure you are familiar with different types of
instrument, their advantages and disadvantages.
Review Units 8.3 and 8.4, looking particularly at
T ables 8.2 and 8.4.
Q;!d«•ti!!;\1
Variables: "Attributes which are fixed for each person,
but which are observed to be at different levels,
amounts, or strengths across samples."
Adapted from the Oxford Dictionary of Sociology
A good example of a variable is your age, which
is fixed- at least until your next birthday;
however, the ages of the students in your class
vary.
Variables are very useful in research because
they show how a population varies or differs.
Variables also allow you to analyse responses
based on different groupings in the population.
For example, knowing which respondents are
male and which are female means you can
compare responses based on sex. Your variables
are the things that change or vary from one
member of your population to another.
 o Analyse the data: using the description given
Handling data you should be able to come up with findings and
Identify the variables in the following topics. recommendations. Reading Unit 8.6 should help
What are the social issues faced by Caribbean you practise these skills.
families? A study of my community. o Use your knowledge of statistical measures to
2 Are workers in the tourism industry satisfied explain data (see the box on "Reporting on
with how they are treated? An investigation statistics" below).
among the staff at a local hotel.
A close examination of the requirements fo r
completing section 2 of Paper 03/2 will reveal how
closely they mirror the nine SBA tasks. The more
familiar you are with the SBA the more easily you
Handling data
will be able to complete Paper 03/2.
Create a research topic and identify a research
aim for the following topic.
The treatment of the elderly in my parish Reporting on statistics
Statistics are numerical data. There are some
basic statistical measures you should be aware of
and prepared to use in analysing and reporting
Section 2 on research. These are:
In the second part of the paper you will be given
o the mean: average
an excerpt describing a research project and
required to answer questions about it based on your o the mode: the most frequently occurring
understanding of research. Some of the tasks may value
involve simple calculations. To prepare for this part o the median: the middle value, if all the values
of the paper, ensure that you can do the following. are placed in numerical order.
o Perform simple calculations: data may be given 1- 1 1- 2 1-3 1-4 1-5 1-6 1-7
and you will be required to tabulate the answer. 28 30 31 31 29 30 31
For example, the information given may say Table 8.6 : Numbers of student s m the seven forms
that 40 per cent of respondents prefer public at a school
transport; the question may ask what percentage The mean, mode, and median for the data in
of respondents do not prefer public transport. This Table 8.6 are calculated as follows:
is a simple subtraction.
o Mean = (28 + 30 + 31 + 31 + 29 + 30 +
o C hoose the best instrument to collect the data
31) -:- 7 = 210 -:- 7 = 30
described.
o Complete simple diagrams, like those shown o M ode = 31
in Figures 8.10- 8.14, accurately, using the data o M edian: 28 29 30 @ 31 31 31 ---+ 30
provided. You will not need to do calculations to
prepare these diagrams. You will also be required
to make statements drawing information from
Handling data
the diagrams you prepare.
o M ake statements of fact from the extract. House no. 1 12 13 24 15 36 27 48 19 10
o Explain the best population and sample in which No. of occupants 2 4 5 2 6 2 3 3 4
to do your research . You should be able to explain Table 8.7: Numbers of occupant s in t en houses in a
why and how you chose your population and street
sample. (Populations and samples are explained in Calculate the mean. mode. and median for the data
detail in Unit 8.3.) in Table 8.7.
 Paper 03/2: practice
Try completing the following questions, which take b Write ONE statement that gives a description
the same format as the second part of Paper 03/ 2. of the sample.
Start by reading the following extract. (2 marks)
c Make TWO factual statements about March
March Meadows survey Meadows.
(2 marks)
The environmental department conducted a
survey am ong the residents of M arch M eadows d A survey using a checklist was used in this
to find out their experience with dengue fever investigation; identifY TWO other appropriate
in the area. M arch M eadows is a rural village instruments that could have been used for
situated close to a swamp. The local population collecting data in this study.
numbers 5,000; there are 2,000 households. (2 marks)
M ost of the homes in the village are modest: e Write down TWO findings the researchers
1,000 are wood and wall, 800 are all wood, and made about March M eadows.
200 are all wall. While all houses have running (2 marks)
water, drainage is a problem and there is water Total: 10 marks
settling in one of the four main streets.
2 a Complete the table below to show the type
A survey was carried out in which public of houses in March 1 1eadows.
health inspectors visited 500 randomly selected (2 marks)
households. A checklist was completed in
Type of housing No. of houses %of sample
each household . Of the sample, members of
Wooden
100 h ouseholds had been diagnosed by a doctor
Wall
as having had dengue fever in the last year.
Wood and wall
Inspectors were able to find mosquito larvae
on 50 premises; another 100 had been known ii Draw a pie chart to show the data
to h ave mosquito larvae in the past; and of the displayed in the table in QJ a i.
remaining households, 350 had never been found (4 marks)
to h ave mosquito larvae.
b Write TWO statements about the housing
The information collected was used to form a data which you displayed in QJ a ii.
policy for the eradication of dengue from the (2 marks)
village of March M eadows. c List TWO recommendations which the public
health inspectors should include in their report
1 a What was the !\ JAIN focus of the investigation on March Meadows. Explain how O N E of these
carried out by the environmental department? recommendations should be implemented.
(2 marks) (4 marks)
Total: 12 marks

•
 Exam-style questions
Cl The individual and the family
~1 a Name Two family structures found in the Caribbean. (2 marks)
b Identify ONE advantage and ONE disadvantage
of a named family structure listed at (a). (2 marks)
c Give TWO reasons why there are laws to protect partners
in common-law unions. Outline ONE such law found
in the region. (4 marks)
d Imagine you are a family counsellor.
1 Suggest to a young couple, giving full details, THREE
measures they may take to provide for their unborn
child. Justify each measure you have suggested. (6 marks)
u Explain fully why each of your actions would work. (6 marks)
Total: 20 marks
2 a Name TWO ancestral customs found in the Caribbean. (2 marks)
b Explain how these ancestral traditions survived in
the Caribbean. (2 marks)
c Outline TWO ways in which customs affect the types
offamilywe form. (4 marks)
d As a cultural officer for your country, describe, giving full
details, THREE activities you would include in a campaign to
promote any named ancestral practice. Explain fully ONE reason
why you think your campaign would work and ONE challenge
you might face. (12 marks)
Total: 20 marks
2 The individual and society

EDUCATIONAL J~IGIOUS J[ POLITICAL J

L FINANCIAL ~CREATIONAL I

1 a Identify TWO differences between a group and

an institution. (2 marks)
b Look at the diagram above and give TWO examples
of any one of the types of institution shown. (2 marks)
c Outline TWO reasons why institutions are important
to society. (4 marks)

•
 d Suggest to the government of your country, giving full
details, THREE measures they could employ to encourage
citizens to use the services of recreational institutions.
Explain fully why each of the ways you have suggested
may be successful. (12 marks)
Total: 20 marks
2 a Name TWO types of electoral system which are used
in the Commonwealth Caribbean. (2 marks)
b State ONE responsibility of the Electoral and Boundaries
Commission/Elections Commission:
before election day and
li on election day. (2 marks)
c Give TWO reasons why it is important that elections
are conducted according to the laws governing the
election process. (4 marks)
d Suggest, giving full details, THREE measures which the
Electoral and Boundaries Commission/Elections
Commission may take to ensure that the voters' list is
accurate. Explain fully how each measure would help
to ensure that the election is conducted fairly. (12 marks)
Total: 20 marks
3 a Define the term "floating voter". (2 marks)
b Explain why some people do not reveal which candidate
or party they are voting for. (2 marks)
c Give TWO reasons why the governing party may call
elections well ahead of the constitutionally due date. (4 marks)
d As a member of a political party, suggest to the executive
of the party, giving full details, THREE measures wh ich
the party may use to improve its chances of winning an
election. Explain fully why each of the measures may
help the party to be successful. (12 marks)
Total: 20 marks
4 a Define the term "constitution". (2 marks)
b List Two rights set out in the constitution of
your country. (2 marks)
c Give TWO reasons why government should observe
the rules set out in the constitution. (4 marks)
d Suggest, giving full details, THREE lawful actions which
a citizen may take if his or her human rights have been
violated by the government. Explain fully why each
action is likely to be successful. (12 marks)
Total: 20 marks

II
 Exam-style questions

3 Resources
1 a Identify TWO physical resources found in the Caribbean. (2 marks)
b Outline TWO major uses of ONE resource you have named. (2 marks)
c Explain ONE consequence for good use and ONE for
abuse of ONE of the resources. (4 marks)
d 1 Suggest to a conservation agency in your country,
giving full details, THREE measures which can be put
in place to protect the environment. (6 marks)
11 Explain fully why EACH strategy is likely to
be successful. (6 marks)
Total: 20 marks
2 Study the diagram below and answer the questions which follow.
Age
85+
80-84
75-79
[
F
f---J
70-74
f--
65-69
60-64
Men Women Men Women
55-59
50-54
45-49 I 1
40-44
35-39
30-34
25-29
20-24
15-19
10-14
5-9
0-4
10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10
Percentage of population Percentage of populat1on
COUNTRY A COUNTRY 8

a i Give a suitable name to the type of diagram

shown above. (1 mark)
ii What is a population census? (1 mark)
b Explain ONE way in which a population pyramid
is useful. (2 marks)
c Which pyramid shows a more economically developed
country (MEDC)? Give ONE reason for your answer. (4 marks)
d 1 Suggest to government ministers of"country N.', giving
full details, THREE strategies they could use to achieve
a population structure like that shown at "country B". (6 marks)
11 Explain fully why each strategy is likely to
be successful. (6 marks)
Total: 20 marks
 4 Integration
1 a Define the term "common market". (2 marks)
b State TWO objectives of the Caribbean
Common l\1arket. (2 marks)

c Describe ONE feature which distinguishes a

common market from a free trade area. (2 marks)
d Describe one negative effect membership in
the Caribbean Common Market is likely to have
on a less developed country. (2 marks)
e You are the chief economist in a less developed country.
Suggest to your country's delegation to the next Caricom
meeting, giving full details, THREE concessions it should
ask for in order to reduce the negative effects of free trade
on your country's economy. Explain fully why each concession
you have suggested is likely to be successful. (12 marks)
Total: 20 marks
2 a Define the term "single market". (2 marks)
b State TWO ways in which the Caricom Single Market differs
from the Common Market. (2 marks)
c Explain TWO ways in which the achievement of international
competitiveness for regionally produced goods and services
will benefit Caribbean citizens. (4 marks)
d Suggest, giving full details, THREE measures which Caribbean
governments may take to help Caribbean producers achieve
international competitiveness. Explain fully why each
measure may be successful. (12 marks)
Total: 20 marks
3 a. Define the term "functional cooperation". (2 marks)
b. Complete the table below by inserting the name of
the correct institution next to the area of cooperation. (4 marks)
AREA OF COOPERATION CARICOM INSTITUTION
Health
Agnculture
Disaster management
Development finance

c. Give ONE reason why the Conference should communicate

the decisions of its meetings to Caricom citizens. (2 marks)
d. Suggest, giving full details, THREE measures which the
Conference may use to create more interest among Caricom
citizens in its meetings . Explain fully why each measure
is likely to be effective. (12 marks)
Total: 20 marks

-
 Exam-style questions

4 "The Caribbean must cooperate".

Write an essay on the above topic. Begin by identifying TWO factors
which may promote cooperation among Caribbean countries and
TWO regional organizations which have been established to promote
cooperation among Caribbean countries.
Then give TWO explanations to show how regional cooperation may
help Caribbean producers to compete in international markets.
Finally, suggest, giving full details, THREE strategies which
Caribbean producers may use to encourage Caribbean citizens to
support regional integration. Explain fully why each strategy is likely
to be successful.
Total: 20 marks
5 "All Caricom citizens benefit from regional integration."
a Give TWO examples to show a visitor to the Caribbean
how Caricom states have benefited from regional
integration. (4 marks)
b Outline TWO factors which may have prevented some
Caricom citizens from benefiting from regional
integration. (4 marks)
c Suggest, giving full details, THREE strategies which a
group of regional integration supporters may use to
make more Caricom citizens aware of the benefits of
regional integration. Explain fully why each strategy
is likely to make more citizens aware. (12 marks)
Total: 20 marks
5 Tourism
1 Write an essay on "Tourism and the economy". Outline Two ways
in which Caribbean economies benefit from tourism . Explain TWO
ways in which developments in tourism have negatively affected your
country. Finally, make detailed suggestions to the local tourist board
of THREE strategies which may provide additional accommodation
and facilities for tourists. Explain in detail why each of the strategies
which you have suggested would help. 20 marks
2 Write a speech to be presented to Caribbean heads of government
on the topic "Developing our tourism destinations". In your speech,
define the term tourist. List TWO types of tourism important
to the Caribbean tourist industry. Describe TWO examples of
features of the Caribbean which could be developed into tourist
attractions. Suggest, giving details, THREE actions which the heads
of government can take to develop the tourism industry to make it
more attractive to visitors. Explain fully why each action is likely to
be successful. 20 marks

•
 6 Communication
1 Write a speech on communication to be presented at your school
assembly. In your speech, define communication. Differentiate
between verbal and non-verbal communication. Explain why good
communication is important in the home and at school. Make
detailed suggestions to your school mates of THREE ways in which
they can improve their communication skills. Explain fully why you
think each suggestion would work. 20 marks
2 Write a newspaper article on the topi c "Technology and
communication". In your article, give TWO examples of modern
technology used in communication. Describe ONE factor that
influences forms of communication. Describe Two dangers of
modern technology to communication within families. Make THREE
detailed suggestions of how families can use modern communication
methods to improve their communication. Explain fully why each of
the ways you h ave suggested is likely to work. 20 marks

7 Consumer affairs
1 "Consumers arc cautious about using electronic banking services."
Write an essay based on the above statement.
Begin your essay by defining the term "electronic banking" and
describe TWO ways in which consumers benefit by using electronic
banking services. 1hen give ONE reason why consumers may be
cautious in using electronic banking services. Finally, suggest, giving
full details, THREE precautions which consumers should take when
using electronic banking services. Explain fully why each precaution
is likely to be successful. Total: 20 marks
2 "Consumers need protection."
Write an essay on the topic above. Begin by identifying
TWO government organizations which protect consumers and
state ONE function of each organization you have indentified.
Then give two reasons why consumers need protection. Finally,
suggest, giving full details, THREE actions which consumers
may take to protect themselves. Explain fully why each action
is likely to be successful. Total: 20 marks
3 "The effects of devaluation, depreciation and inflation on consumers"
Write an essay on the above topic. Begin by defining the term
"exchange rate" and outline ONE way in which it may be changed.
Then give TWO explanations to show how either devaluation,
depreciation, or inflation may have a negative effect on consumers.
Finally, suggest, giving full details, THREE actions which consumers
may take to reduce the negative effects of depreciation. E xplain fully
why each action is likely to be successful. Total: 20 marks

-
.
 Exam-style questions

4 "Keeping up with sales tactics"

Prepare an address on the above topic.
In your address, outline TWO strategies, other than having a sale,
which business people use to increase sales of their products. Give
TWO reasons why it is important for consumers to keep up with
sales tactics.
Finally, suggest, giving full details, THREE actions which
consumers should take when buying goods in a sale. Explain
fully why each action you have suggested is likely to
be successful. Total: 20 marks
 Glossary
Note: Entries in quotes are taken from the Oxford Dictionary of Sociology.
Absolute monarchy A system of
government in which the country
is ruled by a king or queen whose
powers are not limited by laws or
a constitution.
Abuse The improper, illegal, or
harmful use of a substance. The
physical, sexual, or psychological
maltreatment of a person.
Abuse To ill-treat a person in
some way - verbally, physically
or sexually.
Accountability The act of
persons in positions of authority
demonstrating that they have
used their authority and
performed their duties properly.
Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome (AIDS) A disease
of the immune system caused
by the HIV virus. This disease
leaves the body susceptible to
infection and can be fatal. If
treated, it can revert to HIV,
which can be managed like other
chronic illnesses.
Act A bill passed by parliament and
proclaimed by the head of state;
in other words, a law passed by
a country's government.
Adoption The formal legal
procedure of taking someone
else's child as your own.
Adult suffrage The right to vote
on reaching adulthood.
Alphabet A writing system based
on vowels and consonants, with
several letters making up each
word, in contrast to a writing
system where each character
stands for a whole word.
Alternative lifestyles Choosing
to live in a way which is different
from the rest of the society; for
example, living in a commune or
cooperative settlement, or same-
sex couples forming families.
Electronic transfer Any transfer
of funds from one account to
another that occurs electronically.
Funds can be transferred
electronically between an
individual's various accounts,
from an individual's account to a
business's account for automatic
recurring bill payments, or by
swiping a credit or debit card at a
retail outlet to pay for a purchase.
Annulment The declaration by the
law court that a marriage is null
and void, as if it never happened
in the first place.
Aristocracy Rule by the highest
social class.
Art form A medium used in
creative work, such as painting,
drama, music, or photography.
Bauxite A mineral which is used
to make aluminium.
Bigamy The criminal offence of
marrying a person while still
legally married to another.
Bi-lateral agreement An
agreement between two groups
or countries.
Bilineal Line of descent traced
through both lines.
Bill A written document which
contains a recommendation for
a new law.
Birth rate The number of births
each year per 1,000 population;
e.g. 12 births per 1,000 population.
Brain drain Emigration of
educated and skilled workers,
such as nurses, teachers, or
engineers.
Breadwinner The member(s) of
the family who provides financial
support for the family.
Budget An estimation of an
individual's or household's
income and expenses over a
specified future period of time.
Cabinet A group of
parliamentarians selected and
led by the head of government to
give the government advice, to be
responsible for its policies, and
to head the various government
ministries or departments.
Candidate An individual who
competes in a parliamentary
election either as a member
of a political party or as an
independent candidate.
Capital Funds used to start
a business. There are other
meanings, but this one is
relevant here.
Censorship The regulation and
control of media content, usually
on grounds of politics, sexual
content, or religion.
Census A government survey
to collect information on the
population, usually repeated
every ten years.
Child abuse "The maltreatment
or injury of a child by an adult
or adults. Such abuse can be
physical, emotional, sexual, or
a combination of all three."
Climate General conditions of
rainfall, temperature, and winds
at a particular location.
Colony A country which is
governed by a more powerful
country.
Common External Tariff (CET)
A rate of customs duty which is
uniformly applied by countries in
an economic grouping to imports
from countries which are not part
of the group.
Common Market A group of
countries which agree to:
o promote free trade by removing
all tariff and non-tariff restrictions
on goods which they produce and
trade between themselves
o allow the free movement of
capital and labour across member
countries
o charge a common external tariff
(CET) on goods imported from
countries which are not members
of the group.
Communication Interaction
through messages or signals,
usually between people but also,
for example, between computers
and other machines or between
animals.
Communique An official
communication or press release
reporting events or opinions,
usually issued to news media.
Conservation Protection of
natural and man-made resources
for future use.
Constituency A body of voters in
a specific geographical area who
elect a representative to sit in the
House of Representatives; the area
represented in this way.
Constitutional monarchy A
system of government in which
a country is ruled by a monarch
whose powers are limited by a
constitution.
Constitution The set of laws by
which the people of a country
have agreed to be governed. It is
the supreme law of the country.
Consumer A person who acquires
goods and services for personal,
domestic, or household use. The
goods and services may therefore
be consumed by the individual
and/or his household.
Consumer credit Short-term
loans for the purchase of goods
and services. The goods bought
with consumer credit are
mainly durable goods such as
furniture, household appliances,
and cars.
Contraceptive A device used to
prevent fertilization of the egg
in the female, and therefore
pregnancy.
Copyright The legal ownership of a
literary, artistic, or creative work.
Copywrite To produce verbal
content for an advertisement,
including text, jingles, or slogans.
Corruption Illegal or dishonest
behaviour on the part of someone
who is in a position of authority.
Cost of living The price of the
basic goods and services required
for maintaining a minimal
standard of life - such as food,
energy, clothes, and shelter.
Courtship The period before
engagement or marriage when
a couple gets to know each
other better.
Credit An agreement in which
goods, services, or money are
exchanged against a promise to
pay later.
Credit card A card with a magnetic
strip issued by a financial company
such as a bank or credit union. It
authorizes the holder to borrow
money or buy goods and services
on credit up to a predetermined
limit. The card holder can choose
to pay the total balance by the
specified time without incurring
interest or pay part of the balance
and pay interest on the amount
outstanding.
Credit union A financial
institution which is equally
owned and managed by its
members and serves its members
only. It is run as a cooperative and
provides many banking services,
including regular savings deposit,
time deposit and checking
accounts, consumer loans, and
credit and debit cards.
Cruise passenger An excursionist
travelling by cruise ship.
Cultural diversity The variation in
cultural practices found within a
specific place (the world, a region,
or country). This extends to all
aspects of life, including social
structures.
Cultural industries The industries
that create and produce goods
and services that are of a cultural
nature.
Culture Culture is all the customs,
ideas, behaviours, and beliefs
of a society that have been
passed on from generation to
generation.
Curative health care Treatment
of a disease, through primary or
secondary health care.
Customs union An agreement
between neighbouring countries
to remove trade barriers, and
reduce or eliminate customs duty
on mutual trade. The member
countries also agree to impose
a common external tariff on
imports from non-member
countries.
Death rate The number of deaths
each year per 1,000 population;
e.g. 8 deaths per 1,000 population.
Debit card A card with a
magnetic strip issued by a
financial company such as
a bank or credit union. It is
connected to the customer's
account through the telephone
system, allowing customers to
transfer funds electronically
from their account to the seller's,
to pay for goods and services at
a point of sale without having to
use cash.
Demand The ability and the
willingness of consumers to buy
a particular quantity of a good or
service at a particular price at a
given time.
Democracy A form of government
in which a substantial proportion
of the citizens participate in
governing the country. Former
United States President Abraham
Lincoln (1809-65) defined
democracy as "Government of
the people, by the people, for the
people':
Demographic transition Historic
changes in birth and death rates
producing a period of rapid
population growth, after which
the population stabilizes.
Demography The study of
population.
'"'
Dependency ratio The ratio of
children and old people to the
population of working age.
Example:
Under 15 25%
Over 65 15%
Total dependent population =
25 + 15 = 40%
Working age population =
100 - 40 = 60%
Total dependency ratio =
40:60 = 0.67
Depleted Used up or finished.
Depopulation A decline in
population, often because of
large-scale outward migration.
Depreciation The reduction in
the exchange value of a currency
which occurs whenever the price
of foreign exchange increases as a
result of scarcity.
Desertion Abandoning a duty or
responsibility, such as that of
parent or spouse.
Destination A place which tourists
or others travel to. It may be a
country, a city, or any point of
attraction.
Devaluation The official or
deliberate reduction in a country's
official exchange rate relative to
other currencies.
Developed country A country
which has a low birth rate, high
life expectancy, a high level
of literacy, and a well-trained
workforce, and exports goods of
high value. The citizens enjoy a
high level of prosperity as a result.
Development Use of resources and
technology to improve standard of
living and quality of life.
Dictatorship Rule by an individual
or a group that exercises absolute
authority.
Discouraged workers Potential
workers who are no longer
seeking work because they believe
there are no jobs available. Also
called inactive workers.
Disenfranchisement of voters
Any official action that results
in an eligible voter not being
able to vote in an election. This
may include non-registration,
omission from the voters' list or
not being given sufficient time
to vote.
Disposable income That
portion of the gross income that
is left after taxes and all other
compulsory deductions have been
taken out.
Dissolution of parliament The
formal ending of a parliament
before an election.
Divorce "The formal legal
dissolution of a legally constituted
marriage."
Domestic tourist A tourist visiting
a destination within their country
of residence.
Domestic violence Any abusive,
violent, coercive, forceful, or
threatening act or word inflicted
by one member of a family or
household on another.
Double burden The term used
to describe the work of many
adults, mostly women, who do
full-time work but still assume
responsibility for unpaid
domestic duties.
Dumping In economic terms,
the practice of exporting goods
at prices lower than the home-
market price.
E-commerce Any trading or
other business transaction that
is completed solely through an
electronic process; for example,
the buying and selling of products
and services by businesses and
consumers or the making of a
hotel or airline reservation over
the Internet.
Economic integration An
arrangement in which a group of
countries agree to remove tariff
and non-tariff barriers to trade
and the movement of capital and
labour between the members of
the group. The terms "economic
integration" and "economic
cooperation" are sometimes used
synonymously.
Economic leakage An immediate
outflow of foreign exchange
which has been earned; for
example, expenditure by a hotel
or restaurant on imported food
and drink.
Economic linkage A link between
two businesses or industries,
for example when one provides
a market for goods or services
produced by the other.
Economic union An economic
union is a common market with
a common currency and the
exchange of capital and labour.
Economies of scale The financial
advantages which result from
producing goods in large
quantities. For example, the unit
cost of production may fall as
output increases.
Eco-tourism Tourism which
is centred on the natural
environment, and is designed to
minimize negative environmental
impacts.
Electoral process The method
by which candidates/parties are
elected to parliament; includes the
management of the procedures
for voting and for competing in
elections.
Electorate All those persons who
are eligible to vote in an election.
Emigration Movement of people
out of a country.
Employee A person who takes a
job from an employer.
Employer A person or business
which gives employment.
Encoding Putting messages and
other information into a form
where they can be communicated.
Energy In social science, this word
indicates power sources used for
transport, electricity generation,
or other purposes. In a physics or
scientific context, the word has a
different and precise meaning.
Entrepreneur A person who starts
and owns a business, makes
decisions and takes risks, in order
to make a profit.
oral traditions 324
Organization of American States 286
Organization of Eastern Caribbean
States see OECS
organizations 85-6
outward tourism 258
over-qualified workers 183, 184
overpopulation 154-5
ozone 200
Pan-America Health Organization
( PAHO) 57
Paper 03/2 380
practice 382
section l 380-1
section 2 381
parasites 149, 167
parents 20-2, 29, 30
preparing for parenthood 17-19
Parliament 115
head of state 118
House of Representatives 115,
116, 118, 213
Senate 115, 117, 213
Westminster model115, 116, 119,
120
parliamentary elections 93, 100-3
parliamentary questions 131
patois 63
patriarchal families 6
patrifocal families 6
patrilineal descent 2
Patterson, P.J. 252
peer groups 76, 77
Peters, Winston "Gypsy" 325
physical abuse 50
pictograms 298
pictographs 374
pie charts 374
Pilgrim, Cecil 245
piracy 332, 334
plagiarism 332
police 114, 124, 126
political institutions 91
political parties 95, 100-1
bribes 107
campaign financing 102, 105
campaign strategy lOS, 107
candidates 95, 100, 101, 107
coalition 104, 1OS
election results 104-5
house-to-house canvassing 100,
101
manifestos 100, 101
political violence 107
pollution 200-4
polyandry 23
polygamy 23
polygyny 23
poor parenting skills 22, 31
population 136-9
birth and death rates 148-50
census 140-2
natural increase 146, 147
population density 144
population distribution 144-5
population groups 137
population problems 154-6
population structure 149
register of births and deaths 143
social planning 136
population pyramid 151
demographic transition 152
dependency ratio 153
Portuguese Carib beans 61, 139
posture 298
poverty 45, 51, 55, 240
preferential trade agreements 222
pressure groups 76, 77
primary groups 76-7
primary health care 167
primary industries 191, 192
prime minister 95, 110-11, 118, 121 ,
129
printing 302
prison system 114
Privy Council112, 113, 243, 244
problem-solving skills 20-1
procreation 11
products 208-9
tourism 258, 260, 281-2
professional education 170
propaganda 317
proportional representation (PR)
97-8
protection, constitutional 125-6
public health see health
public opinion polls 100, 101 , lOS
qualitative research 367
quality of life 167, 195
quantitative research 367
Queen Elizabeth II 119
questionnaires 367
difficulties 372
types of question 370-2
radio 312-13
Radio Universal, Belize 313
Ramotar, Donald 122
receivers 296
reconstituted/reconstructed families
6, 7
recreational institutions 89-90
recycling 200, 201
referendum 92
regional integration 206-7
benefits 248, 251
benefits to businesses 249-50
benefits to citizens 248-9
benefits to countries/the region
250
extra-regional factors promoting
integration 241
factors hindering integration
245-7
governance factors 242-4
limited participation 246
national and regional interests
243
organizations of regional
cooperation 255-6
regional factors promoting
integration 239-40
role of businesses 253
role of citizens 252-3
role of government 253, 254
Regional Security System (RSS) 58,
59
rehabilitation 187
relationships 17, 30, 54
relief 144
religion 90-l, 137, 139,321,324
elections 107
remittance 163
renewable resources 191
republicanism 121-2
Republic of Guyana 121
role of Guyana president 121
research 366
challenges of research methods
368
findings and recommendations
377
populations and sample 368-9
research ethics 372-3
types of research 366-7
resorts 258, 259, 274
resource management 124, 129
resources 134-5
tourism 258-9

journalists 312, 314
judiciary 112-14, 129
juvenile delinquency 45, 51, 55
Kaieteur Falls, Guyana 292
kinship 2
Kweyol63
labour force 183-4
skills 185, 209, 240
tourism 288-9
Labour, Ministry of 179
land pollution 20 l
language 63, 306-7
beliefs and customs 307
language barrier 309
social context 307
Lara, Brian 173
latch-key children 39
laws 57,79
protection of law 126
stages in making law 117
leaders 82
authority 83-4
autocratic leaders 83
democratic leaders 83
laissez-faire leaders 83
political parties I 04
legal separation 8, 24
legislature 115
functions 116-17
role of head of state 118
stages in making law 117
leisure 37
libel329
life expectancy 148, 149, 167
lifestyle diseases 168
line graphs 375
literacy 301, 302
living conditions 145
local government 124
location 134, 258
love 22
machinery 201
magazines 50, 3 12, 321
mail303
maintenance 25
males 33, 34-5
male marginalization 41-3
malnutrition 149, 167
Manning, Patrick 103
manuscripts 301
Margaret, Princess 280
marine life 191, 198
marine resources 258
Marley, Bob 69, 173, 327
marriage 8, 9, 14
forms of marriage 23-4
Maslow, Abraham
hierarchy of needs 13
material possessions 37
matriarchal families 6
matrifocal families 6
matrilineal descent 2
media 105
behind the media 314-16
broadcasting licences 330
censorship 329, 331
code of ethics 330
communication 296-7
early Caribbean media 312
freedom of the press 329
global media 321-3
Hays Code 330, 331
interpersonal communication
303-5
media and Caribbean integration
314
media independence 319-20
media operation as a business
318-19
media ownership 317, 320
media regulation 329-31
modern Caribbean media 312-14
multimedia 297
mediation 310
medical care 149
mental health 31, 54
mercury 200
messages 296
messengers 303
Mestizo Caribbeans 138
migration 157-8
Caribbean migration 161-2
international migration 163-4
push and pull factors 158
rural-urban migration 159, 160
urban-rural migration 159
urban-suburban migration 159,
160
Miller, Errol41, 42
mime 298, 299
minerals 191, 192
Minshall, Peter 69
Mitchell, Keith 252
mixed heritage Caribbeans 139
mobile phones 304
Index
monarchy 115, I 19-20
monetary policies 228
money-management skills 22, 30
monogamy 23
mores 79
mosquito-borne diseases 168
multi-lateral agreements 212
multiple voting 104
music 65, 69, 173, 174
noise pollution 201
steel pan drumming 64
aipaul, V. S. 69-70, 173, 324
natural disasters 209-10, 239-40
benefits of regional integration
249,250,252-3
natural resources 134, 191, 195, 240
conservation 197-8
food security 199
products 208-9
sustainable development 195-7
tourism 263
nature touri!>m 258, 260
negative groups 79
neglect 20, 22, 50
negotiation 310
net migration 157
new media 312, 314
news agencies 312, 314
newspapers 312,317,321
noise pollution 20 I
non-renewable resources 191, 192
non-tariff barriers 215
normal unemployment 186
norms 79, 85
orth American Free Trade
Agreement (NAFTA) 215,216
nuclear families 6, 8
nutrition 21-2, 149
occupational groups 137, 194
OECS 25, 58, 206, 234-5, 242
Economic Union 235
governing structure 236
objectives 235
OECS Assembly 236
OECS Commission 236
oil and gas in national development
196
oligarchy 92
ombudsman 132
One Caribbean Media 317
online campuses 89
oral communication 296
 frictional unemployment 186
Garifuna 65, 138
garrison communities I 07
gas and oil in national development
196
gender 33,34-5,41, 137
general elections 93
generation gap 20
gerrymandering 95
gestures 298
global warming 200
globalization 222- 3, 241
goods 192,193,249
governance 128-30
role of citizens 129
role of institutions 132
role of opposition 131
government 92
access to government records 129
cabinet 109, 110
civil/public service 111
coalition government 104
constitutional rights and
freedoms 125-7
employment 179
executive 109-11
freedom of expression 129
functions of governments 123- 4
government information services
314-15
government o ~ national unity 104
government systems in the
Caribbean 119
judiciary 112- 14, 129
legislature 115- 18
opposition 95, 100, 101, 104, 105,
107, 115, 116, 118, 131
participation 129
prime minister 95, 110-11, 118,
121, 129
principle of separation of
collective responsibility 110
principle of separation of powers
109
public accounts committee 131
role in regional integration 253,
254
shadow cabinet 131
unemployment 185, 189
GraceKennedy 166,315
grandparents 29
Great Guana Cay, Bahamas 275
green development 204
Ill
Green Globe 21 programme 274
greenhouse effect 200, 202
grid-sheets 367
groups 72-5
cohesion 79-80
functions 78
group dynamics 80-1
leadership 82-4
types 76-7
see also social groups
Gutenberg, Johannes 302
Guyana 121
Kaieteur Falls 292
proportional representation (PR)
97
Haiti
environmental damage in Haiti
197
telecommunications in Haiti 305
tourism in Haiti 266
Harry, Prince 280
Hays Code 330, 331
Heads of Government Conference
(CARIFTA) 21 7
health 54, 142, 167-9
health tourism 258, 260-1
illness 31, 149, 167- 8
Heart Academy, Jamaica 285, 286
Hispanic Caribbeans 61, 138
historic sites 275-6
HIV (Human Immunodeficiency
Virus) 18, 44, 51,56
tackling 57-8
transmission 45-6, 47
Hospitality Institute, Barbados 285,
286
hotel access 279
households 2, 3, 137
joint family households 6, 7
housing 17, 142
Hoyte, Desmond 248
human resources 134, 135, 136,
165-6
education 170- 2
human resource productivity 167
sports and culture 173-4
human rights 124, 125
identity crisis 39, 40
immigration 157, 243
Imperial Department of Agriculture
206
imports 239
inactive workers 184
Ince, Shanntol 173
incest 20, 45, 50
independent states 215
Indo-Caribbeans 61, 138, 168
industrialization 36, 37
infant mortality 148, 149
infectious diseases 149, 167
informal groups 72, 76
infrastructure 123, 140, 142
tourism 263, 265, 270, 283
inheritance 8, 9, 25, 27- 8
institutions 85
economic institutions 87-8
educational institutions 88-9
endurance 86
fixed sanctions 86
hierarchical structure 85
organizations as institutions 85-6
political institutions 91
recreational institutions 89- 90
religious institutions 90-1
social norms as institutions 85
specific functions 86
symbols and rituals 86
written rules 86
interest groups 76, 77
International Development Agency
(Canada) 286
International Labour Organization
179,209
International Planned Parenthood
Federation (IPPF) 18
Internet 293-4, 321 , 331
interviews 367
investment 57, 185, 189,253
tourism 283-4
involuntary membership 72
irresponsible behaviour 31
irrigation 134
Islam and polygamy 23
Jamaica
internal migration in Jamaica 159
Jamaica and the CSME 227
Jamaica's awareness of Caricom
246
Jamaican music 327
Jamaica's 2011 census 141
Jewish Caribbeans 139
job creation schemes 189
jobs 175-6
job application 177-8
Jones, Jim 84

less developed countries (LDCs)
215,216-17,246
more developed countries
(MDCs) 215, 216,246
development 195
diagrams 374
Dickenson Bay Agreement 216
dictatorship 92
disciplinary skills 21
discouraged workers 183, 184
disenfranchisement of voters 104
dispute resolution 310, 311
dissolution of parliament 100, 120
divorce 8, 9, 24
divorce law 25-6
effects on family members 26
domestic violence 25, 28, 45, 48, 49,
54,55
Dominica
The Cabrits 276
Dominican law and intestate
succession 28
double burden 39, 40
Douglas, Denzil 235
drama 324-5
drug abuse 54, 55
dust 200
Eastern Caribbean Central Bank 236
Eastern Caribbean Civil Aviation
Authority 236
Eastern Caribbean Common Market
(ECCM) 234
Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court
236
eco-tourism 258, 261
Economic Affairs Council (OECS)
236
economic integration 215,216
economic leakage 269, 270
economic linkage 269
Economic Partnership Agreement
(EPA) 238, 250
economic union 224, 225
economy 123, 124
economic institutions 87-8
economies of scale 208, 239
tourism 269-70
world economy 241
education 17, 56,142,170-2,189
adult education 171, 172
educational institutions 88-9
tourism 283
women 36,38
egalitarian families 6
Elections Commission 100
Electoral and Boundaries
Commission 100
electoral processes 93-4, 99
code of conduct 100
dead heat 104
election gimmicks 105
election results 104-6
ethnic factors I 06, I 07
first-past-the-post 95-6,98, 105
hung parliament 104
media coverage 105
proportional representation (PR)
97-8
timing of elections 105
voter participation 107-8
electorate 95
electricity 142
email305
emotional maturity 17, 22
employees 175, 179, 180-1
employers 175
employment 17, 142, 175-6
looking for work 177-8
regional integration 248
rights and responsibilities 179
tourism 269, 288-9
women 36
encoding 296
energy 195
energy use and climate change
202-3
entrepreneurs 180, 252
starting a business 181-2,273
enumerators 140
environment 195, 197,204,284
cleaner environment 201
climate change 202-3, 275
environmental damage in Haiti
197
Green Globe 21 programme 274
historic sites 275-6
resort development 274
ethnicity 137
electoral process 106, 107
ethnic groups in the Caribbean
61,62,64-5, 138-9
European Union (EU) 229, 241, 286
Economic Partnership Agreement
(EPA) 238, 250
exchange rate 228
Index
exports 208, 246
extended families 6, 7, 8
factors of production 224
family 2-3, 137
excessive demands from work 32
factors affecting family relations
30-2
forming families 14-16
functions of family 11-13
law and family 25-8
outside family 10
outside interference 31
parenthood 17- 19
social problems 54-5
family planning 17, 18-19
Family Planning Associations (FPAs)
18
family roles 29-30, 33-5
causes of changing roles 36-8
negative effects of changing roles
39-40
positive effects of changing roles
39
family trees 2, -1-5
family types 6-7
advantages and disadvantages
8-10
fax 304
federations 212
females 33, 34-5
fertility 11, 12- 13
fertility rate 148-9
festivals 325-6
films 316, 321
Hays Code 330, 331
financial problems 31
fiscal policies 228
Fleming, Ian 280
floating voters 104, 105-6
Flynn, Errol 280
folkways 79
food security 195, 199
foreign affairs 123
formal groups 72, 76
franchise 107
free trade associations (areas) 215
freedom 125-6, 127
freedom of expression 126, 129,
329
limits on free speech 329
suspension of rights and freedoms
127
 state of emergency 127
steel pan 64
tackling HIV I AIDS 58
Tara, an adopted child 15
team building for cohesion 79
telecommunications in Haiti 305
The Cabrits, Dominica 276
tourism in Haiti 266
UNAIDS communication officer
315
unequal distribution of resources
247
Urban Heartbeat 328
use of resources 135
Victor and his siblings 3
violent crime and tourism 265
volcanic eruption in Montserrat
156
when relationships within the
family fail 31
William 48
Women's Centre of Jamaica
Foundation (WCJF) 56
casual unemployment 186
cellular phones 304
censorship 329, 331
census 140-3
challenges for the Caribbean 208-11
checklists 367
chemicals 201
Chevannes, Barry 43
child abuse 45, 48, 49- 50
child dependency ratio 153
child protection 27
children 20-2, 30
Chinese Caribbeans 61, 139
civil/public service 111
climate 145, 191, 258, 259
climate change 202- 3, 275
coffee 192
collective bargaining 179
colonization 61, 206, 245
Commission for Pan-African Affairs
(CPAA), Barbados 66
Common External Tariff(CET) 212,
220,221,250
Common Market 218, 220, 224, 225
objectives 220-1
success 221
common-law or consensual union 9
Commonwealth Caribbean
Regional Secretariat (CARIFTA
Secretariat) 217, 233
communication 296
combining verbal and non -verbal
communication 302
communication breakdown
308-10
communication skills 21, 30, 308
interpersonal communication
media 303-5
media of communication 296- 7
media services 306
non-verbal communication
298-300
personal distance 300
rebuilding communication
310-11
written communication 301 - 2
communications technology 293-4,
307
equipment failure 310
communiques 312
Community Council of Ministers
(CARICOM) 219,230,231,232
ministerial councils 231
other bodies 232
commuting 303
composting 201
Conference of Heads of Government
(Caricom) 219, 230-1
Bureau of the Conference 231
conjugal families 2
consanguine families 2
conservation 195, 197-8
constituencies 95, 107
constitution 92, 112
fundamental rights 125-6
constitutional monarchy 119, 120
consumers 249, 253
contraception 17, 18-19
contractor general 132
cooperation between countries 212,
240,255-6
copyright 332-3
copyright piracy and technology
334
Copyright Music Organization of
Trinidad and Tobago (COTT) 334
copywriting 332
corporate communications
departments 315
corruption 128, 132, 283
Council for Finance and Planning
(COFAP) 231, 232
Council for Foreign and Community
Relations (COFCOR) 231
Council for Human and Social
Development (COHSOD) 231
Council for Trade and Economic
Development (COTED) 231
Council of Ministers (CARIFTA)
217,219
Council of Ministers (OECS) 236
courts 112, 113
prison system 114
role of the police 114
courtship 14
credit unions 87
Creole see Kweyol
crime 265, 290
cruise ships 258, 262, 270, 287-8
culture 60-2, 173-4, 239,324,327-8
calypso 325
carnivals and festivals 325-6
creativity and tradition 326
cultural and heritage tourism 261,
281-2
cultural diversity 63
cultural influence and change 70
drama 324-5
family 64-5
global recognition 69-70
language 63
protecting and developing 66-8,
124
song and story 324
curative health care 167
currencies 245
curriculum vitae (CVs) 177
customs unions 212, 216
cyclical unemployment 185
data analysis 375-6
data collection 370-3
data presentation 374-5
death rate 146, 149
debt burden 209
Demas, William 207
democracy 92
demography 136, 370
demographic transition 151, 152
Department for Overseas
Development (UK) 285
dependency ratio 151, 153
depletion of resources 191
depopulation 154, 156
desalination 289
desertion 45, 51
developed countries 208
Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre (CCCCC)
255
Caribbean Congress of Labour 179
Caribbean Court of Justice 112, 113, 242-3, 255
Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) 209, 217, 256, 285
Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency
(CDEMA) 255
Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC) 249, 256, 285
Caribbean Family Planning Affiliation Ltd (CFPA) 18
Caribbean Federation Act 1956 212
Caribbean Free Trade Area see CARIFTA
Caribbean Hotel and Tourism Association (CHTA) 285,
286,291
Caribbean Media Corporation 314
Caribbean Meteorological Organization (CMO) 255
Caribbean Public Health Agency (CARPHA) 255
Caribbean Single Market and Economy 206
Caribbean Super Station 313
Caribbean Tourism Organization (CTO) 285, 286, 291
Caricom 58, 179, 206, 217, 218, 248
Caricom Single Economy (CSE) 228-9
Caricom Single Market (CSM) 224-5, 227
objectives 226
regional development fund 226
Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas 225
Caricom Single Market and Economy (CSME) 224
governing structure 219, 242
governing structure under Revised Treaty 230-2
intra-regional exports 246
members 219
objectives 219
Office of Trade Negotiations 250
tourism 291
Treaty ofChaguaramas 218,219,242
CARIFESTA (Caribbean Festival of Arts) 68, 174
CARIFORUM 237-8, 241
CARIFTA 174,206,215- 16,218,219,220
Dickenson Bay Agreement 216
governing structure 217
objectives 216-17
success 217
carnivals 325-6
Carrington, Edwin 233
Carter, Anthony "Mighty Gabby" 60, 61, 278
case studies 367
adult education in Trinidad and Tobago 172
Ann and Michael 10
BBC: public service media 318
Calabash International Literary Festival 326
Caribbean heritage 62
"Caribbean severs link to Privy Council" 244
Caribbean Super Station 313
Caricom compared with the EU 229
CARIFESTA (Caribbean Festival of Arts) 68
CARIFTA 217
Clark family 44
COHSOD's 12th Special Meeting 231
Commission for Pan-African Affairs (CPAA),
Barbados 67
constitutional monarchy 120
COTT copyright 334
dealing with corruption 132
demographic transition in Trinidad and Tobago 151
dispute resolution 311
dissolving parliament 120
double burden 40
Dominican law and intestate succession 28
elder abuse 52, 57
election results under first-past-the post 98
election results under proportional representation
(PR) 98
elements of poor governance 130
environmental damage in Haiti 197
film festival editorial director 316
food security 199
from Grenada to Barbados 226
Garifuna 65
Great Guana Cay 275
Hakeem, a separated father 17
housing conditions in the 1940s 150
independence of the judiciary 113
Indo-Trinidadians in the 1930s 168
internal migration in Jamaica 159
Jamaica and the CSME 227
Jamaica's 2011 census 141
Jamaica's awareness of Caricom 246
Jamaican music 327
Jim Jones: charismatic authority 84
journalist 314
kick -down- the-door pol ice tactics 126
Marie and Stefan employment 184
marine conservation in Belize 198
negative groups 81
oil and gas in national development 196
One Caribbean Media 317
political ideals 103
population density in Grenada 145
private-sector company and human resource
development 166
Radio Universal, Belize 313
Regional Security System (RSS) 59
republicanism 122
results of2011 elections in St Lucia 95
Ross and his family 1
"Rum and Coca Cola" copyright 333
Rupununi Savanna underpopulation 155
School for the Deaf, Trinidad and Tobago 300
secret donation to political party 102

Enumerator A worker who collects
information during a census.
Environmental impact
assessment A study of a
proposed project, indicating
how it is likely to affect the
environment.
Environment The living space for
human society; includes natural
features such as climate, as well as
human features such as the built
environment of towns and cities.
Equalitarian A family arrangement
in which authority is shared
between mother and father.
Ethnic group A group of
people who are seen as sharing
common cultural characteristics
within a society; for example,
the Amerindian population in
Guyana or the Afro-Caribbean
population in New York.
Exchange rate The price for which
the currency of a country can be
exchanged for another country's
currency.
Excursionist A short-term day
visitor to a destination, who does
not spend a night there.
Extended family A family
composed of more than two
generations of a family, or two
generations but including aunts,
uncles, or cousins, living together
under the same roof.
Factors of production All
the resources, such as natural
resources, labour, capital, and
enterprise, which are needed to
create goods and services.
Family A group of people living
under the same roof. Made up
of parent(s) (a mother and father
who are intimately involved or
a single parent) and their child
or children, whether by birth or
adoption.
Family planning The act of
deliberately choosing how many
and at what intervals to have
children, and the use of birth
control methods such as condoms
to implement those choices.
Family tree A diagram used to
show the relationships between
family members.
Federation (political union)
A group of countries or states
that have joined together to
form a single group; power
is divided between a central/
federal government and the
governments of the countries or
states. 1l1e group is recognized
internationally as a single political
entity. The Federation of St Kitts-
Nevis, Australia, Canada, and
the USA are four examples of
federations.
Fertility The capability to reproduce
or have children.
Fertility rate The average number
of children which a woman
can expect to have during her
lifetime. If the fertility rate is 2.0,
the average woman can expect to
have two children.
First-past-the-post An
electoral system in which the
candidate winning the most
votes in a constituency wins
the constituency election and
becomes the representative for
that constituency in parliament.
A political party gains a seat
in the parliament for every
constituency its candidates win.
Fiscal policy A government's
revenue (taxation) and spending
policy.
Floating voter "A person who has
not decided which way to vote
in an election, or one who does
not consistently vote for the same
political party."
Folkways Customs which relate to
the culture of a particular group.
In some Caribbean countries
many people celebrate Carnival;
however, if you choose not to
there will be no penalties attached.
Food security A secure supply of
food, usually from local sources
as well as imports.
Formal group A social group with
a formal structure, membership
Glossary
requirements, and formally
chosen leadership.
Franchise The right to vote in
national elections.
Freedom of the press The right
of newspapers, television, radio,
Internet, and other media to
report information and express
views freely without interference
or censorship from governments
or other organizations.
Free trade association (area)
A group of countries which
agree to remove the tariff and
non-tariff barriers on goods
which they produce and sell to
each other, while imposing their
individual tariffs on imports from
countries which are not members
of the group.
Functional or non-economic
cooperation An organized
group of countries jointly sharing
the costs of providing common
services; for example, Caribbean
countries sharing the costs
of providing education at the
University of the West Indies.
Fundamental rights Rights
which the constitution guarantees
citizens.
Gender The different
characteristics, roles and
behaviours a culture or society
assigns to males and females.
Generation gap The issues
which occur between people of
different generations because
of their varying attitudes,
beliefs and behaviours. This is
very common between parents
and children.
Gesture A body or facial movement
used to communicate a message.
Globalization The process by
which the world's separate
economies are becoming
interconnected as a result of the
improvements in transportation
and communication and the
removal of the barriers to trade
and the flow of capital and
information.
Global warming An increase in
worldwide temperatures, usually
ascribed to the greenhouse effect.
Climate change is a broader
term which includes changes in
rainfall, hurricanes, and other
aspects of climate.
Goods All those tangible products
which consumers use, such as
bread, clothes, and cars.
Governance The act of exercising
authority.
Government A group of officials
elected by the people to conduct
the affairs of a country. They
do this in accordance with a
constitution.
Greenhouse effect Trapping
of heat in the earth's
atmosphere by gases such as
carbon dioxide, or C0 2• The
atmosphere operates like a
greenhouse, a glass-covered
structure used to grow crops,
which also traps heat.
Gross income The amount of
money that individuals receive
during a specified period of
time before taxes and other
compulsory deductions have
been taken out.
Health tourism Tourism for
medical reasons: either for a
specific medical procedure
or to improve general health
and wellbeing.
Hire purchase A credit system
which allows the buyer to pay for
an item in regular installments,
which include interest, while
enjoying the use of it.
Host country A destination
country, which attracts tourists
from overseas.
Household "A group of people
sharing a home or living space
who aggregate or share their
income, as evidenced by the fact
that they regularly take meals
together:'
House-to-house canvassing
Visiting an area to ask people for
their votes.
Human Immunodeficiency
Virus (HIV) A sexually
transmitted disease. HIV
disables the immune system
and, if untreated, can lead
to AIDS. Treatment with
antiretroviral (ARV) medication
slows the progression of
the disease.
Human resource People, when
considered as elements in a
productive process.
Human resources Human skills,
abilities, and qualities, when
considered as a resource for the
development of a country or a
business.
Human rights Rights that we are
all born with, for example:
o the right to life
o the right to earn a livelihood
o the right to adequate food, water,
and housing.
Identity crisis A crisis in one's
sense of self.
Immigration Movement of people
into a country.
Incest Sexual relations between
close family members.
Income The money which an
individual receives from work,
investments, or the rental of
property.
Independent candidate An
individual who contests an
election without being supported
by a political party.
Independent state A self-
governing country which is
neither dependent on nor subject
to any power or state.
Industrialization The introduction
of manufacturing and
mechanization on a large scale
into a society.
Infant mortality The proportion
of babies who die before reaching
their first birthday. It is given as a
rate per 1,000; e.g. 7 infant deaths
per 1,000 births.
Inflation A creeping increase in the
prices of most goods and services
in a country.
Informal group A social group
with no written rules or
membership requirements.
Informal groups are more
spontaneous and activities and
leadership, if any, may change
regularly.
Infrastructure Roads, ports,
airports, electricity and water
supply, and communications
facilities, which are needed
as a basis for businesses and
households to function in a
modern society.
Infrastructure Structures and
equipment used for transport,
communications or utilities,
including roads, ports, and
electricity generation and
transmission systems, etc.
Inheritance Property or other
assets passed at the owner's death
to those entitled to receive them,
either by a will or by the laws
governing inheritance.
Institution "A social institution
consists of all the structural
components of a society through
which the main concerns and
activities are organized, and social
needs (such as those for order,
belief, and reproduction) are met."
Integration The uniting of a region.
Interest group:
1 A small group focused on a
particular area or endeavour
whose main goal is to exchange
information and ideas.
2 A voluntary association also
known as a pressure group with
specific and narrowly defined
goals, organized by members, and
seeking to influence legislature,
government agencies, and public
opinion. Also known as a lobby
group, party group, political
action committee, or social
movement.
Investment The act of putting
money into a financial institution
or a business venture with the
expectation of earning interest or
making a profit.

Involuntary membership
Members who do not choose
to join a group but are forced
to do so, as when prisoners are
forcibly incarcerated by the
law courts.
Irrigation Use of water from wells
or rivers when rainfall is not
sufficient for growing crops.
Joint family household A type of
extended family in which married
children bring their families to
live together with their parents.
Journalist Someone who writes
about news and current affairs for
print media, television, radio, or
the Internet. Journalists practise
the profession of journalism.
Juvenile delinquency The
participation in illegal acts by a
minor; for example, drug use,
violence, or theft.
Kinship Family relationships.
Labour force The labour force is
made up of people who have jobs,
run a business, or are actively
looking for work. Excludes
discouraged workers, full-time
students, retired people, etc.
Laws Rules which have been set
out by the state or some other
formal structure. Breaking laws
can carry heavy penalties, such
as imprisonment.
Leader Someone who directs or
guides a group or institution.
Legal separation The legal
procedure by which a married
couple remains legally married
while living apart. They formalize
an arrangement through the Jaw
courts whereby they outline their
rights and responsibilities during
this period.
Less developed country
A country which is heavily
dependent on agriculture and
lacks competitive industries,
infrastructure, and exploitable
natural resources.
Life expectancy The number of
years which an average person
can expect to live.
Limestone A rock made mainly of
calcium carbonate, found in many
Caribbean countries.
Literacy The ability to read and write.
Maintenance A legal arrangement
whereby, upon divorce, either
party is made to contribute
financially to the welfare of
a former spouse and/or any
children of the family.
Male marginalization The social
process of assigning men to the
fringes of society; exclusion or
discrimination against males,
based solely on their sex.
Manifesto A public written
declaration of policies and
objectives issued by a political
party.
Manuscript A book or written
document that is produced by
hand.
Marriage "A legally recognized
relationship between an adult
male and female that carries
certain rights and obligations."
Matriarchal Family arrangement
in which authority lies with the
mother.
Matrifocal A family unit which is
headed by a mother and lacking
a father permanently or for an
extended period of time.
Matrilineal Line of descent traced
through the mothers.
Medium An agency or channel
used for communication,
such as conversational speech,
newspapers, radio, television, or
email. The plural of medium is
media. Mass media are able to
reach a large number of people
at one time; television is a mass
medium but conversational
speech is not.
Message Information, content
and meaning, which are
communicated through a
medium.
Migration The movement of people
from one area to another; involves
a change of residence, not a daily
or short-term movement.
Glossary
Mime Careful use of gestures and
posture to convey a complex
meaning. A "mime" can also
mean a person who uses mime
to communicate.
Monetary policy Actions by
government to control the
availability of spending money to
businesses and consumers.
Monogamy The legal marriage of
one man and one woman.
Monopoly A single producer who
controls the supply of a good or
service in a market (e.g. utility
companies).
More developed country
A country which has more
infrastructure, more competitive
industries, and more exploitable
resources than those countries
considered less well off.
Mores Cultural norms which deal
specifically with respect for
others; getting up in the bus to
allow an elderly person to sit is
one such example.
Multi-lateral agreement An
agreement among many groups
or countries.
Multiple voting The act of voting
more than once in the same
election.
Natural increase The birth rate
minus the death rate. In most
countries, there are more
births than deaths, so the
population is increasing. If the
birth rate is 12 per 1,000 and
the death rate is 8 per 1,000,
the rate of natural increase is
12 - 8 = 4 per 1,000.
Natural resources Features
of the physical environment
which humans can use to satisfy
their needs.
Nature tourism Tourism based
on nature and wildlife as an
attraction.
Negative group A group whose
aims, interests, and behaviours
are contrary to the social norms
and morals of the community, or
are even illegal.
 Neglect A form of abuse involving
inadequate care and attention
paid to someone or something.
Net migration 1l1e balance
between emigration and
immigration. If more people
move into an area than move out,
net migration is positive. If there
is more outward movement, net
migration is negative.
Example:
Immigration 20 000
Emigration 15 000
Net migration = 20 000 - IS 000 =
-r 5,000
New media Electronic media,
often connected to the Internet,
that provide text, images,
audio, video, and other content.
Websites, social media, and
video games are examples of new
media. New media are frequently
interactive, and in many cases
can be accessed through cellular
telephones.
News agency A news-gathering
organization that supplies
news items, video and voice
recordings to print, radio,
and television media. Major
news agencies include Reuters,
Associated Press and Agence
France Presse.
Non-renewable resources
Resources which are not naturally
replaced when they are used, such
as oil or bauxite.
Non-tariff barriers Non-tariff
barriers to trade include quotas,
licensing arrangements, and
foreign-exchange controls.
Norms Unwritten rules that define
acceptable behaviour in particular
situations; for example, in the
Caribbean children are raised by
their parents in most cases.
Nuclear family A family including
both parents and their child or
children.
Oligarchy Rule by a small group
or elite.
Oral traditions History, beliefs,
stories, or legends passed down
-
by word of mouth rather than
in writing.
Oral Using spoken words.
"Overpopulation" A term used
if it is thought that an area has
too many people. This may result
in poverty, unemployment or
malnutrition. However, some
prosperous areas have a high
population.
Over-qualified Holding more
qualifications than those required
for a job.
Parliamentary /general
election A method of choosing
parliamentary representatives
and a government by a process of
voting.
Parliamentary question A
question asked of a minister on
the floor of parliament about a
matter relating to his/her ministry.
Patriarchal Family arrangement
in which authority lies with the
father.
Patrifocal A family unit which is
headed by a father and lacks a
mother permanently or for an
extended period of time.
Patrilineal Line of descent traced
through the fathers.
Peer group Group made up of
members of the same age or social
status. Members may be very
loyal to peer groups.
Personal loan A loan granted to
an individual for personal, family,
or household use. It is repaid in
fixed installments over a fixed
period with interest. Interest is a
charge for borrowing.
Pictogram A simple representation
of a physical object, used as a
form of communication.
Piracy Illegal copying and
distribution of copyright media
content, including computer
software.
Plagiarism The copying or taking
of someone else's language, ideas,
or expressions, and trying to pass
them off as original work. From a
Latin word meaning "kidnap".
Political party A group of people
with the same political views,
ideas, and beliefs, who aim to
gain political power in a country
by winning mass support in
elections.
Pollution Release of a substance
which causes undesirable changes
to the environment.
Polyandry The legal marriage of
one woman to two or more men
at the same time.
Polygamy The legal marriage to
multiple partners.
Polygyny The legal marriage of one
man to more than one woman at
the same time.
Population The number of people
living in a place at a particular time.
Population density The
concentration of people within a
particular area, usually measured
as the number of people per
square kilometre.
Population distribution 1l1e
location of people within a wide
area, which may include smaller
areas of high or low population
density.
Posture A way of standing or sitting.
Poverty Not having enough money
to take care of the basic needs of
food, clothing, and shelter; the
state of being poor.
Preferential trade agreement
An agreement which allows
countries which are usually
poor to export selected goods
to richer countries duty free.
The objective is to help promote
the development of the poor
countries.
Primary group A basic group,
which is usually small, and whose
members share a high level of
intimacy.
Primary health care Policies and
institutions which promote better
health in the community, attempt
to prevent disease, and provide
initial curative treatment.
Procreation The biological process
of conceiving and bearing children.

Professional education and
training Advanced academic
and practical training for
professions such as law, medicine,
teaching, or engineering.
Propaganda Media content, such as
news or current events, designed to
present a particular point of view,
for example that of a government,
a political party or a commercial or
religious organization.
Proportional representation
An electoral system that gives
all parties representation in
parliament in direct proportion to
the percentage of votes they gain.
Public accounts committee A behaviour.
group made up of government
and opposition members of
parliament which is responsible
for examining government
expenditure, to ensure honest
practices.
Public health Social action to
protect and promote health,
or prevent illness, injury, and
disability; for example, by
providing a clean water supply.
Public opinion poll A survey of
randomly chosen individuals
to get their views on political
issues in order to predict
election results.
Quality of life Wellbeing; includes
health, education, freedom, and
security, as well as material wealth.
Receiver(s) The person (or
people) who receives a message,
for example someone reading a
book or the audience of a radio
or television programme. The
receiver may give feedback to
show that a message has been
received.
Reconstituted/ reconstructed
family A family unit made up
of two adults and their children
from previous relationships.
Recycling Process ing of
discarded glass, paper, and
other waste as material
for manufacturing bottles,
cardboard, paper, etc.
Recycling The process of turning
an old product into a new one
or reusing a product beyond
the purpose for which it was
intended.
Referendum An occasion when
every citizen in a country may
vote on a particular matter.
Rehabilitation Restoration to
a good condition. In a human
resources context, "rehabilitation"
may be used to help those who
have suffered from a physical
injury, drug abuse, or mental
illness; or who are trying to
break from a pattern of criminal
Relief Describes the surface of
the earth, which may be flat,
mountainous, or gently sloping.
Remittance Money sent home by
migrants.
Renewable resources Resources
which remain in existence
when they are used, or which
are naturally replaced, such as
rainfall.
Republicanism A form of
government which does not have
a monarch as the head of state
but a president who is elected by
parliament or the electorate.
Research ethics "The application
of moral rules and professional
codes of conduct to the collection,
analysis, reporting, and
publication of information about
research subjects:'
Resort This word has two
meanings:
a destination with many hotels
and tourism services, such as
Montego Bay or St Maarten .
2 a very large hotel, such as the
Atlantis Resort in the Bahamas.
Resources Factors which can
be used to meet human needs
and wants, and contribute to
economic activity.
Resume or Curriculum vitae
(CV) A document presenting
the background and skills of a
candidate for employment.
Glossary
Retraining Mid-career training in
new skills not directly related to a
previous occupation, for example
a sugar cane worker retraining as
a plumber.
Rights Those things to which
all human beings are entitled,
equally and without prejudice,
e.g. freedom and justice.
Role conflict When the
expectations from various roles
are in disagreement.
Role "The behaviour expected
of someone because of their
particular social position."
Rural Connected with the
countryside.
Savings Money which has been set
aside for future use.
Saving The act of setting aside
money for future use.
Secondary group A larger
group than a primary group
with a more formal structure
and limited social contact
among members.
Secondary health care More
complex medical services, often
provided in a hospital or by a
speciali st practitioner.
Self-rule / self-government
Government by the inhabitants
of a country and not an outside
authority.
Sender(s ) The person (or people)
who sends a message, for
example the current speaker in
a conversation or the person
writing an email.
Services All those actions
performed to satisfy consumers'
needs, such as providing medical
attention or transporting students
to school.
Sex The division of human beings
into male and female based on
secondary sexual characteristics.
Sexually transmitted infections
(STis) Previously known as
venereal diseases (VD), these
infections are passed from one
person to another through
sexual intercourse. In some
•
 cases these infections may also
be passed through the use of
infected needles, contact with
contaminated blood, or from
infected mother to child during
pregnancy or childbirth.
Shadow cabinet A group of
opposition politicians who would
become ministers if their party
won the government.
Share One of the equal fractional
parts into which the ownership
of a company is divided.
Sibling A brother or sister.
Sign A symbol with a fixed meaning.
Signal A word with a number of
meanings, such as:
o the means used to transmit
a message, for example the
electromagnetic waves used to
broadcast a radio programme
o an agreed indicator, such as the
firing of a starter's pistol in a race
o a bodily cue used in human non-
verbal communication.
Single-parent family A family
unit including only one parent
and his/her child(ren).
Social group Formed when
more than two people come
together repeatedly. There must
be some level of permanence and
purpose; group members must
also have <;ome characteristics
in common.
Social issue TI1ese are questions
which are discussed within a
society. No negative connotation
is implied. They may include such
issues as:
o "Is changing technology
impacting family structure?
If SO, how?"
o "What are the principal impacts
of globalization on Caribbean
societies?"
o "Should the laws against
marijuana be repealed?"
Socialization "The process by
which we learn to become
members of the society both by
internalizing the norms of the
society and also by learning to
perform our social roles."
Social media New media that
allow social interaction and
exchange of media content
between individuals. New media
include social networking sites
such as Facebook, Twitter, and
Linkedln. Commercial, political,
and other organizations may also
use social media to reach their
target audience.
Social problems A term used
to describe many conditions
and undesirable behaviours in
society. These behaviours lead
to social disorganization and
therefore create a need for change
by deliberate social action on the
part of the government or other
groups in the society.
Source country A country from
which tourists travel to a host
country.
Standard of living The ability to
buy goods and services.
State of emergency A situation
in which a parliament gives the
government special powers to
limit people's freedom in order
to control an unusually difficult
or dangerous situation, for
example the occurrence of an
unusually high level of crime, or
the aftermath of an earthquake or
hurricane.
Status The social position held
by an individual in a particular
situation.
Street children Children who
have been abandoned or have
run away from home and now
live on the streets and fend for
themselves.
Subsidy Money that is paid by
a government to a business to
reduce the cost of producing
goods, in order to make the price
to consumers lower.
Substance abuse The use of
substances, whether legal or
illegal, to the detriment of the self
or others around you, e.g. illegal
drugs, alcohol, prescription drugs.
Suburb A residential community
close to a town or city.
Suicide To end one's own life.
Supply The quantity of a good
which sellers are willing to offer
for sale at a particular price at a
given time.
Sustainable development
Development that meets the
needs of the present without
compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their
own needs, taking environmental
and social impacts into account.
Sustainable production and
consumption ll1e use of goods
and services that provide basic
needs and bring a better quality of
life, while minimizing the use of
non-renewable natural resources
and toxic materials, and reducing
emissions of waste and pollutants,
so as not to jeopardize the needs
of future generations.
Tariff barriers Tariff barriers to
trade include taxes on imports
and exports.
Teenage pregnancy Pregnancy
during a girl's teen years. Usually
the pregnancy is unplanned and
the girl has not completed her
secondary school education, nor
is she financially independent.
Telecommuting Working from
a home or other location and
communicating with colleagues
or customers by email, telephone,
video link, or teleconferencing.
Telecommuting represents an
alternative to the traditional
practice of commuting, which
means travelling each day from
home to workplace.
Teleconferencing A meeting
or conference in which the
participants are not physically
present at the same location, but
communicate by audio or video
link. With a video link, the word
videoconfe rencing may be used.

Caribbean Community
( Caricom) This is an
association of sovereign
Caribbean countries with a
common desire to work together
to overcome the challenges
which face the region and
promote their mutual wellbeing.
Caricom Single Market This
is an arrangement by which
Caricom countries have agreed
to convert their separate national
markets into one large single
market, through the removal of
all barriers to the free movement
of regional goods, services,
capital, and labour.
Economy, the All those activities
that result in the production and
distribution of goods and services
and the creation of income in
a country.
Thrift The wise and careful use of
money and other resources in
order to avoid wastage.
Timeshare Part-ownership of
tourist accommodation, with the
right to use it for one or more
weeks every year.
Tourism products Services and
attractions which bring tourists to
a destination.
Tourist A person spending one or
more nights away from home for
business or pleasure.
Tourist market This word has two
meanings:
a country, region, or group of
people who may travel as tourists.
2 a retail location within a host
country where vendors sell goods
to tourists.
Trade bloc A group of countries
trading among themselves.
Trade liberalization The removal
of or the reduction of trade
practices that restrict the free flow
of goods from one country to
another.
Trafficking in people The
recruitment and transportation of
people by means of threats, the use
of force, coercion, or deception,
for the purpose of exploitation; the
control and movement of human
beings for purposes of profit and
exploitation.
Transmission The process used to
communicate a message from the
sender to the receiver.
Transparency The action of
making public all the details
about the decisions and actions
taken by persons in public office.
Under-employed Doing part-
time work when a full-time job is
required. Doing a job which does
not make full use of abilities and
qualifications.
"Underpopulation" A term used
if it is thought that an area has too
few people.
"Unemployable" A term
sometimes used to describe
people who have difficulty in
finding a job, or in keeping one.
Unemployed Actively seeking
work, but unable to find a job.
Unemployment rate The
percentage of the labour force
which cannot find work.
Urban Connected with towns
and cities.
Urbanization An increase in the
proportion of the population
living in towns and cities. May
result from large-scale migration
from rural areas to cities.
Glossary
Variables "Attributes which are
fixed for each person, but which
are observed to be at different
levels, amounts, or strengths
across samples."
Verbal communication Using
spoken or written words.
Vocational education and
training Education with an
emphasis on work-related
practical skills, for example in
information technology, tourism,
printing, or construction trades.
Voicemail A voice message left for
someone by cellular or landline
telephone or other means.
Voluntary membership
Members who are free to choose
whether or not to be part of a
group, as when students choose
which club or group to join.
Voter padding The illegal practice
of encouraging supporters of
a political party to register as
voters in constituencies where
their party does not have
enough support.
Website A set of related web pages
produced by an organization or
individual with content such as
text, images, video, and audio
clips. A website is hosted on a
web server. Most websites can
be accessed through the Internet,
using a unique address known as a
uniform resource locator or uri.
Withholding tax Tax levied
on income from interest and
dividends.
World Trade Organization
(WTO) The WTO deals with
global rules of trade between
countries. Its aim is to ensure that
trade flows as freely as possible.
 Index
absolute monarchy 119 Eastern Caribbean Central Bank 236
abuse 20, 22, 48 World Bank 283-4
child abuse 45, 48, 49-50 bar charts 374
elder abuse 52, 57 Barbados Fertility Centre 12-13
substance abuse 45, 48-9 Barriteau, Eudine 42
accountability 128, 129 Barrow, Errol 206, 207
acts of parliament 115 bauxite 191, 192
Adams, Grantley 213 BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation) 318
adoption 14, 15 beach access 278
adult education 171, 172 Belize
adult suffrage 107 marine conservation in Belize 198
Afro-Caribbeans 61, 138 Radio Universal, Belize 313
age groups 137 Berkeley, Governor 312
aged people bicameral legislature 110, LIS
aged dependency ratio 153 bigamy 23
care of 45, 52-3 bilateral agreements 212
Agency for International Development (USA) 285 bilineal descent 2
agriculture 189, 192, 277-8 bills in parliament 115, 117, 118
AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) 18, 44, Bird, Vere, Sr. 206, 207
46-7,51,56 birth rate 146, 148
tackling 57-8 Bolt, Usain 173, 280
air pollution 200 books 312,321
airports 20 l, 263-4, 270, 289, 291 brain drain 163, 164
alphabets 301 breadwinners 6-7
alternative lifestyles 51 bribes 107, 283
aluminium 191 British West Indies Sugar Association 206
Amerindians 61, 138, 195 broadcasting licences 330
annulment 8, 9 Brown, Janet Gender and family in the Caribbean 35
arbitration 310 Burnham, Forbes 207
aristocracy 92 businesses 249-50, 253
art forms 298, 299 business tourism 261
Arthur, Owen 224, 242, 245 small businesses 189
asbestos 201 starting a business 181 -2,273
Assembly of Caribbean Community Parliamentarians
(ACCP) 256 cable television 313
Association of Caribbean States (ACS) 23 7 Calabash International Literary Festival 326
auditor general 132 calypso 325
authority 83 capital 180, 185, 249
charismatic authority 83 carbon dioxide (C02) 200, 202
rational-legal authority 83 reducing emissions 203-4
traditional authority 83 careers 175-6
careers in tourism 271-3
Bahamas Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development
BahaMar 283 Institute (CARD!) 255
Great Guana Cay 275 Caribbean Community (CARICOM) Secretariat 218,219,
bananas 192, 209 233
banks 87 Caribbean Community 218, 242
Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) 209, 217, 256, Caribbean Community and Common Market see

•
285 Caricom
 Index

unequal distribution of resources tourism 264 sporting organizations 89-90

246,247 sewage 200 sports tourism 260
resumes 177 sex 41, 137 St Lucia
retirement 37 sexual abuse 50 results of 2011 elections 95
retirement age 184, 185, 188 sexually transmitted infections (STis) standard of living 37, 195, 239
retraining 170, 171 18,44,45-7,51,167 state of emergency 55, 125, 127
rights 36 symptoms 46 statistics 381
employment rights and Shakespeare, William 82 status 29
responsibilities 179 shares 252 statutory rape 50, 51
fundamental rights under sibling families 3 "staycations" 293
constitution 125-6 siblings 2 steel pan drumming 64
right of establishment 161, 250 signals 298 street children 45, 50, 51
suspension of rights and freedoms signs 298 structural unemployment 185
127 single-parent families 6, 8 substance abuse 45, 48-9
Rihanna 173 slander 329 suicide 45, 51
roads 142, 201 slavery 61, 64, 65, 126 surrogacy 15
roles 29 social groups 72 surveys 367
role conflict 39 behaviour 73 sustainable development 195-7
"Rum and Coca Cola" copyright 333 common needs 73 Syrian-Lebanese Caribbeans 139
Rupununi Savanna, Guyana 155 common symbols 73
goals 72 tables 374
Sandals and SuperClubs 259, 268 meetings 72 tariff barriers 215
Sandals Resorts 291, 315, 317 membership 72 technology 185
Sandiford, Erskine 120, 240 rules and regulations 73 teenage pregnancy 45,51-2
sanitation 149 structure 72 telecommuting 303, 305
satellite television 313 see also groups teleconferencing 303, 305
satisfaction of economic needs 11 social issues 44 telegraph 303-4
satisfaction of emotional needs 12, 22 social media 312, 314 telephone 304
saving clubs 88 social problems 44- 45 telephone surveys 367
SBA 364 abuse 48-50 television 313, 321
analysing data 375-6 care of the aged and disabled telex 304
choosing area of research 366 52-3 terrorism 289-90
collecting data 3 70-3 cooperating for practical remedies tertiary industries 191, 193
findings and recommendations 58-9 Thompson, David 242
377 education 56 timeshares 258, 259
planning investigation 367-9 effects 54 tourism 134, 135, 209,258
preparing an SBA 364-5 effects on society 55 access to beaches 278
presenting data 374-5 effects on the family 54-5 access to hotels 279
research entrepreneurs 181 effects on the individual 54 accessibility 263-4, 289
writing and presentation 378-9 human trafficking 45, 51, 53 agriculture 277- 8
School for the Deaf, Trinidad and individual and community efforts all-inclusive resorts 259
Tobago 300 56-7 business tourism 261
School-Based Assessment see SBA money 57 careers in tourism 271-3
schools 88-9 passing laws and rules 57 Caricom 291
Seaga, Edward 227, 248 strategies for dealing with 56-9 communications technology
seasonal unemployment 186 teenage pregnancy 45, 51-2 293-4
secondary groups 76-7 social services 55 competing destinations 287
secondary health care 167 socialization 11 cost and quality of services 264
secondary industries 191, 193 socialization skills 21 cruise ships 258, 262, 270, 287-8
security 123 soil 191 cultural and heritage tourism 261,
self-rule 212 song and story 324 281-2
senders 296 special needs, care of 45 donor agencies and international
services 193, 249 sports 173-4 bodies 285-6

---------------------------------------~~
 eco-tourism 258, 261
employment 269, 288-9
environmental issues 274-6, 284
foreign exchange earnings 269
government revenue 269-70
health tourism 258, 260-1
host country 263-6
mfrastructure 263, 265, 270, 283
land ownership 277
national tourism organizations
284-5
promotion and marketing 268,
284,291
regional organizations 285, 291
regional tourism 292-3
safety, security and stability 265-6
social-environment 280-2
source country 267-8
sports 260
sun, sand and sea 259
terrorism and crime 289-90
tourism and resources 258-9
vacation homes and timeshares
259
water supply 289
yachting 260
trade 239
benefits of regional integration
249-50,252,253
extra-regional markets 245
trade blocs 241
trade liberation 222-3
trade unions 179
trafficking in people 45, 51, 53
training 170, 189
careers in tourism 272-3, 285
transmissions 296
transparency 128, 129
travel249
Treaty of Basseterre 234, 236
Treaty of Chaguaramas 218, 219
Revised Treaty 225, 230-2, 242,
248,253,255
Trips Agreement 332
UK115,119,212
UN Development Programme 258
UNAIDS 315
under-employed workers 183, 184
underpopulation 154
unemployment 31, 183, 184, 209
age, sex and qualifications 187
causes of unemployment 185-6
personal difficulties 187-8
reducing unemployment 189-90
vicious circle 186
unicameral legislature 110, 115
UNICEF 57, 58, 311
Children in Focus 50
Family law reform in the
Caribbean 25
United Nations Children's Fund see
UNICEF
United Nations Convention on the
Rights of the Child 27
United Nations Office on Drugs and
Crime (UNODC) 53
unity 210
University College of the West Indies
(UCWI) 206, 207, 213
University of the West Indies (UWI)
38,213,249,256
Urban Heartbeat 328
urbanization 159, 160
vacation homes 259
vegetation 191
verbal abuse 50
verbal communication 296, 297
videoconferencing 303
visiting relationships 9-10
vocational education and training
170
Voice Over Internet Protocol (VOIP)
305
voicemail 303
volcanic eruption in Montserrat 156
voluntary membership 72
voting 94-5
voter padding 104
voter participation 107-8
voter turnout 1OS
Walcott, Derek 69-70, 173, 324
warmth 22
waste disposal 20 I
water pollution 200
water-borne diseases 167
water supply 142, 289
websites 312,314
welfare 123, 142
West Indies Associated States
Council of Ministers (WISA) 234
West Indies Federation 212, 215, 218
collapse 214
federal government 213
objectives 212-13
West Indies Shipping Service 212
white Caribbeans 61, 138-9
Williams, Eric 207,214
wind power 191
Women's Centre of Jamaica
Foundation (WCJF) 56
women's rights 36
work opportunities 145
working age 183, 184
World Bank 283-4
World Health Organization (WHO)
57, 167
World Intellectual Property
Organization (WIPO) 332
World Trade Organization (WTO)
222,223
writing SBA 378
appendices 379
bibliography 379
reviewing and revising 379
table of contents 378-9
yachting 260
Yorke, Dwight 173