Nonlinear Dyn (2013) 73:843–852
DOI 10.1007/s11071-013-0836-5
O R I G I N A L PA P E R
Hyperdimensional generalized M–J sets in hypercomplex
number space
Xingyuan Wang · Tao Jin
Received: 29 November 2012 / Accepted: 14 February 2013 / Published online: 5 March 2013
© Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013
Abstract Doubling and truncation techniques are
used to generate a hypercomplex number system of
any dimension. The precondition that addition and
multiplication have closure in hypercomplex number
system is discussed, and the definition and construct-
ing arithmetic of the hyperdimensional generalized
Mandelbrot–Julia sets (in abbreviated form general-
ized M–J sets) in hypercomplex number system are
listed out. By analyzing 2-D and 3-D cross sections of
the hyperdimensional generalized M–J sets, the frac-
tal feature of 2-D and 3-D cross sections is studied,
and the symmetry of 2-D and 3-D cross sections has
been proved. The analysis of symmetry in this paper
will help to study dynamics of hypercomplex number
more.
Keywords Hypercomplex number system ·
Hyperdimensional generalized M–J sets · Fractal ·
Symmetry
1 Introduction
Based on the theory of dynamics of complex variables
system founded by Fatou and Julia, famous mathe-
X. Wang () · T. Jin
Faculty of Electronic Information and Electrical
Engineering, Dalian University of Technology,
Dalian 116024, China
e-mail: wangxy@dlut.edu.cn
matician Mandelbrot was first to construct and re-
search the M–J sets from complex mapping z ← zα +
c (α = 2) [1]. Twenty years later M–J sets were stud-
ied in more depth and unbelievably complicated frac-
tal structures were found [2, 3]. Based on the charac-
teristics of the appearance structure of the M–J sets for
α ∈ R, Lakhtakia, Gujar and Bhavsar brought forward
a few hypotheses [4–6]. Glynn found the symmetry
evolution of the generalized M set for the phase angle
θ ∈ [−π, π) [7, 8]. Dhurandhar discussed the fractal
feature of the generalized J sets for α < 0 [9, 10]. The
author brought forward the overlapping embedment
topology distribution theorem [11], and discussed dif-
ferent discontinuity evolution laws of the generalized
M–J sets due to the four different choices of the prin-
cipal range of the phase angle θ when α was a decimal
fraction [12]. Sasmor analyzed the discontinuity evo-
lution of generalized M–J sets for rational index num-
ber when the phase angle θ ∈ [−π, π) [13]. Romera
and Pastor have explored overlapping embedment re-
lation of “petal” at Misiurewicz point in the general-
ized M set [14, 15]. Geum has studied structure and
distributing of periodic “petal” and topological law of
periodic orbits of the generalized M sets [16]. But all
the above researches were studied based on complex
plane [3]. So Drakopoulos brought forward parallel vi-
sualization methods on how to construct the 3-D M–J
sets [17]. Norton, Lakner and Cheng founded the arith-
metic of how to construct M–J sets in ternary number
and quaternions [18–21]. This paper extends Norton
and Lakner’s arithmetic, and studies the fractal feature
844
of the hyperdimensional generalized M–J sets in hy-
percomplex number space based on the theory of hy-
percomplex number systems.
2 Hypercomplex number systems
Each n-dimensional generalized M–J set to be con-
structed requires a complex number system of n di-
mensions. These systems are referred to as hypercom-
plex number systems if their dimension n > 2, i.e. if
they have more than one imaginary component. Any
hypercomplex number system used to construct n-
dimensional generalized M–J set must be closed under
addition and multiplication. This is due to the iterative
function z ← zα + c (α ∈ R), which contains only ad-
dition and multiplication.
A hypercomplex number is of the form
z = a 0 + a 1 i1 + a 2 i2 + · · · + a n in ,
where a0 , a1 , . . . , an are real numbers and i1 , i2 , . . . , in
are imaginary units [22, 23]. A hypercomplex number
system is the set consisting of all hypercomplex num-
bers of Eq. (1). Hypercomplex number z has one real
and n imaginary components, and each of them corre-
sponds to an unattached coordinate, so the dimension
of z is n + 1. Addition and multiplication are defined
in all hypercomplex number systems of Eq. (1) for
a given n. Addition has closure in all hypercomplex
number systems, but multiplication has closure only if
the dimension of the number system is a power of two
(i.e. n + 1 = 2p ; p = 1, 2, 3, . . . ).
The technique used to generate hypercomplex num-
ber system is referred to as doubling. If doubling ex-
pression is applied to a real number, we will gain a
complex number
a + bec ,
where a and b are real numbers and ec is an imagi-
nary unit. If doubling expression is applied to complex
number, we will gain a quaternion
a + beq ,
where a and b are complex numbers and eq is a new
imaginary unit. Expanding Eq. (3) by substituting a
and b with complex number expressions, we get
(a1 + a2 ec1 ) + (b1 + b2 ec2 )eq ,
X. Wang, T. Jin
where a1 , a2 , b1 and b2 are real numbers, ec1 and ec2
are complex imaginary units, and eq is a quaternion
imaginary unit. From Eq. (4), we obtain
a1 + a2 ec1 + b1 eq + b2 (ec2 eq ). (5)
Equation (5) is actually a quaternion of the form
a + bi + cj + dk, (6)
where ec1 = i, eq = j and ec2 eq = k. It is obvious
that the quaternion number system can be obtained by
applying the doubling method. So the hypercomplex
number of Eq. (1) can be converted from Eq. (2) by
the doubling process.
The general process of doubling takes any hyper-
complex number system H and applies the doubling
expression
a0 + a1 e, (7)
(1)
where a0 , a1 ∈ H and e is a new imaginary unit.
A general recursive definition for addition and mul-
tiplication is given in terms of the doubling expression.
Given the two hypercomplex numbers a0 + a1 e and
b0 + b1 e, addition is defined as
(a0 + a1 e) + (b0 + b1 e) = (a0 + b0 ) + (a1 + b1 )e; (8)
multiplication is defined as
(a0 + a1 e)(b0 + b1 e)
= (a0 b0 − a1 b̄1 ) + (a0 b1 + a1 b̄0 )e, (9)
where b̄ is the conjugate of b.
The conjugate of a hypercomplex number of Eq. (1)
is
z̄ = a0 − a1 i1 − a2 i2 − · · · − an in . (10)
(2)
The conjugate of a hypercomplex number of Eq. (3)
which is a quaternion is
Ū = a − beq . (11)
(3) Addition and squaring of hypercomplex numbers
are defined respectively as
(a0 + a1 i1 + · · · + an in ) + (b0 + b1 i1 + · · · + bn in )
= (a0 + b0 ) + (a1 + b1 )i1 + · · · + (an + bn )in
(4) (12)
Hyperdimensional generalized M–J sets in hypercomplex number space
and
(a0 + a1 i1 + a2 i2 + · · · + an in )2
 
= a02 − a12 − · · · − an2 + (2a0 a1 )i1
+ (2a0 a2 )i2 + · · · + (2a0 an )in . (13)
The doubling process produces hypercomplex num-
ber systems whose dimensions are d = 2p (p =
1, 2, 3, . . .). However, if a set is desired with a di-
mension d = 2p , the doubling process is performed
until the dimension of the hypercomplex number z
is 2p (where d < 2p ), then truncated, beginning at
a2p i2p , by setting the last 2p − d associated coeffi-
cients of hypercomplex number z to 0, i.e., am = 0
(m = 2p − d + 1, . . . , 2p ). This is done until the
hypercomplex number reaches the desired dimen-
sion.
Through deep research, Chatelin and Meskauskas
have found that it does not surely have closure when
multiplication occurs between any two hypercomplex
numbers which have the same dimension. For the hy-
percomplex number z of Eq. (1), we compute zα .
Based on Eq. (13), we know that zα surely has clo-
sure when α = ±2, ±4, ±6, . . . . So based on the hy-
percomplex number systems, the author has studied
generalized M–J sets with α = ±2, ±4, ±6, . . . .
3 The hyperdimensional generalized M–J sets
If the generalized Mandelbrot sets are constructed
from the hypercomplex number map f : z ← zα + c
(α = ±2, ±4, ±6, . . . ; z, c ∈ H ), the iteration should
begin with the critical point of f . When α > 1, the
critical point of f is 0, so we let z0 = 0, then z1 =
c, z2 = cα + c, . . . . When α < 0, the critical point of f
is ∞, so we let z0 = ∞, then z1 = c, z2 = cα + c, . . . .
So in order to avoid overflowing, the initial iterating
point is chosen as z0 = c. But what should be noticed
is that if c is chosen as the initial point when α ∈ [0, 1],
the images obtained are not the real Mandelbrot sets.
The reason is that f does not have any critical point
when α = 1, so there is no sense in discussing the
trajectory of the critical point; when 0 ≤ α < 1, the
critical point is ∞, the parameter c is not on the tra-
jectory of ∞, therefore the resulting image of the it-
eration from c as the initial point is actually not the
generalized M set [24].
845
Definition 1 Suppose f : z ← zα + c (α = ±2, ±4,
±6, . . . ; z, c ∈ H ) is a hypercomplex number map in
hypercomplex number space H ; Mf is the set of hy-
percomplex numbers c in H whose trajectory is lim-
ited, i.e.
  ∞ 
Mf = c ∈ H : f k (c) k=1 has boundary
  α
= c ∈ H : c, cα + c, cα + c

+ c, . . . → ∞, k → ∞ .
Then Mf is called the hyperdimensional generalized
M set corresponding to f .
For f : z ← zα + c (α = ±2, ±4, ±6, . . . ; z,
c ∈ H ), if ω satisfies f (ω) = ω, then ω is called a
fixed point of f . If there is the minimum positive
integer p and p satisfies f p (ω) = ω, we say that
ω is the p-periodic point of f . If complex differen-
tial quotient (f p ) (ω) = λ and |λ| > 1, then we call
the point ω repelling. From the famous Montel theo-
rem [25], we know that Jf , which is a generalized J
set of f , is the closure consisting of exclusive periodic
k
points. If c = 0, then f (z) = zα and f k (z) = zα , and
the points which satisfy f p (ω) = ω are {exp( α2πqi p −1 ) :
0 ≤ q < |α p − 1| − 1}. For |α| > 1, these points sat-
isfy |(f p ) (z)| = |α p | > 1, namely these points are
repelling and Jf is the unit pellet |z| = 1 in hyper-
complex number space H . It is obvious that when
k → ∞, if |z| < 1, then f k (z) → 0 or ∞; if |z| > 1,
then f k (z) → ∞ or 0. But if |z| = 1, f k (z) is always
on Jf . When iterated, Jf is the boundary of the point
sets which converge to 0 and ∞ separately. It is cer-
tain that Jf is not fractal in such a special case. If c is
a small hypercomplex number, then f (z) = zα + c.
It is easy to make out that if z is also small, then
f k (z) → ω or ∞, where ω is a fixed point of f near
the origin. But if z is a large number, then f k (z) → ∞
or ω. Now it appears that Jf is the fractal curve sur-
face, though Jf is the boundary of two different kinds
of sets.
Definition 2 Suppose f : z ← zα + c (α = ±2, ±4,
±6, . . . ; z, c ∈ H ) is a hypercomplex number map in
hypercomplex number space H ; Ff is the set of hyper-
complex numbers z in H whose trajectory is limited,
i.e.
  ∞ 
Ff = z ∈ H : f k (z) k=1 has boundary .
846
Then the set is called the filled generalized J set cor-
responding to the complex mapping f . The boundary
of Ff is called the generalized J set of the complex
mapping f , which is denoted by Jf , i.e.
Jf = ∂Ff .
Definitions 1 and 2 comprise the theoretical foun-
dation to construct Mf and Ff using escaping-time al-
gorithm [3]. The method of constructing hyperdimen-
sional generalized M–J sets is given bellow:
(1) W ⊂ Hc or W ⊂ Hz , Hc denotes parameter hy-
percomplex number space and Hz denotes dynamics
hypercomplex number space.
(2) Define the escaping-time function
⎧ escaping region; when α < 0, the white is the stable
⎪
⎪ k, |f k (x)| ≥ R and |f i (x)| < R
⎨
T (x) = i = 1, 2, . . . , k − 1, k ≤ N
⎪
⎪ 4.1 2-D cross sections of generalized M–J sets
⎩ 0, |f i (x)| < R, i = 1, 2, . . . , N.
(3) ∃c0 ∈ W and W ⊂ Hc , let z0 = c and calcu-
late T (zk ); ∃z0 ∈ W and W ⊂ Hz , calculate T (zk ) for
given a parameter c.
(4) If T (zk ) = 0, then zk ∈ Mf or Ff . If T (zk ) = 0,
then zk ∈ M̄f or F̄f .
(5) Repeating processes (3) and (4) until all of the
points in the view window W are exhausted, we can
get the hyperdimensional generalized M–J set.
4 Experiment and results
Choose values for some coordinates of hypercomplex
parameter c or hypercomplex variable z, and remain-
ing two or three coordinates of c or z variable. Then we
Fig. 1 Cross section (0, 11) of the 16-D generalized M set (offset from the origin 0.2 along axis 1, −0.55 along axis 9)
X. Wang, T. Jin
can construct 2-D or 3-D cross sections of the hyper-
dimensional generalized M–J set using escaping-time
algorithm. Constructing 2-D and 3-D cross sections
helps to expose the inner configuration of the hyper-
dimensional generalized M–J sets. Cross section (i, j )
refers to the 2-D cross section of a set with the ith axis
mapped to the Cartesian x-coordinate and the j th axis
mapped to the Cartesian y-coordinate. Axis zero is the
real axis.
Choose the escaping-radius R = 10 and the es-
caping-time limit N = 200. The authors have con-
structed 2-D and 3-D cross sections of the hyper-
dimensional generalized M–J sets for α = ±2, ±4,
±6, . . . (see Figs. 1–7). When α > 0, the black rep-
resents the stable region and the white represents the
region, and the black is the escaping region.
Figures 1 to 7 show the 2-D cross sections of gener-
alized M–J sets when α belongs to positive and neg-
ative events. The 2-D cross sections of generalized J
sets depend on the parameter c. When a is a positive
event, the 2-D cross section of generalized M–J sets
resembles a flower consisting of several main petals,
and the stable region is embedded in the unstable re-
gion. When a is a negative event, the 2-D cross section
of generalized M–J sets resembles an asterism struc-
tures with a central planet surrounded by several satel-
lites, and the unstable region is embedded in the stable
region. Observing Figs. 1 to 7 which contain the 2-D
cross sections of generalized M–J sets with a belong-
ing to positive events, we can see that there are small
petals growing on main petals and there are smaller
petals growing on small petals, etc., such overlapping
Hyperdimensional generalized M–J sets in hypercomplex number space 847

Fig. 2 2-D cross section of the 17-D generalized M set (offset from the origin −0.35 along axis 4)

Fig. 3 Cross section (1, 7) of the 8-D generalized M set (offset from the origin −0.5 along axis 5 in (a) and (b); offset from the origin
0.4 along axis 3 and 0.3 along 4 in (c) and (d))

Fig. 4 Cross section (0, 2) of generalized M set (offset from the origin 0.1 along axis 1, 0.3 along axis 3, and −0.2 along axis 4 in (a)
and (b); offset from the origin 0.1 along axis 1, 0.3 along axis 3, and −0.2 along axis 4 in (c) and (d))

Fig. 5 Cross section (0, 2) of the 5-D generalized J set for c = (0.3, 0.3, 0, 0.3, 0.44) (Offset from the origin 0.2 along axis 1, 0.3
along axis 3)
848
Fig. 6 The 6-D generalized J set (c = (0.3, 0.25, 0.3, 0.25,
0.25, 0.25), offset from the origin 0.5 along axis 3 in (a) and
(b); c = (0.3, 0.2, 0.2, 0.28, 0.28, 0.32) in (c) and (d), offset
Fig. 7 Cross section (0, 1) of the generalized J sets (c = (−0.5,
0.25, 0.28, 0.25, 0.25, 0.2, 0.3, 0.28) in (a), c = (−0.5, 0.25,
0.28, 0.25, 0.25, 0.2, 0.3, 0.28, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0) in (b),
embedment structure appears on different levels. The
whole and the parts of the 2-D cross sections of the
generalized M–J sets behave like most, which man-
ifests obvious self-similarity property. Observing the
2-D cross sections of the generalized M–J sets with a
belonging to negative events, we can see that the ma-
jor satellite is encircled by small satellites which are in
turn encircled by smaller satellites, etc. This overlap-
ping embedment structure appears on different levels,
which manifests obvious self-similarity property, too.
4.2 3-D cross sections of generalized M–J sets
There are many methods to plot 3-D maps, such as
boundary-tracking [19, 26–28], ray-tracing [29], in-
verse iteration [30] and so on. Boundary-tracking is an
arithmetic method based on object space. It must save
every point’s useful information during the plotting
process, so it requires a large amount of storage space.
Ray-tracing method, based on image space, studies di-
rectly the variety when the ray crosses the data field.
X. Wang, T. Jin
from the origin 0.5 along axis 3 in (c), and offset from the origin
0.3 along axis 1 and −0.4 along axis 4 in (d))
c = (0.3, 0.3, 0.2, 0.2, 0.25, 0.2, 0.2, 0.25) in (c), c = (0.3,
−0.3, 0.2, 0.2, 0.25, 0.2, 0.2, 0.25) in (d))
It needs less memory, and displays diffusion, reflec-
tion and refraction. So it can provide more subtle 3-D
maps than boundary-tracking, but this method takes
longer time. Though inverse iteration is easy, quick
and needs less memory, the quality of the maps gen-
erated using this method is not as good as the other
two methods. So it is not used usually. Considering the
reasons above, the author decided using ray-tracing to
plot the 3-D cross section of the generalized M–J sets
of high quality (shown as Figs. 8 and 9). Since the sur-
face of the hyperdimensional fractal sets is not differ-
entiable, we cannot define the normal vector of fractal
sets’ surface. Based on the distance function [2] de-
fined beforehand, the author used each discrete point’s
grad values instead of normal vector, and used stan-
dard projection arithmetic [31] to generate shadow for
these discrete points.
Since the visualization technique of hyperdimen-
sional space is difficult, we can only consider the 3-D
cross section of the generalized M–J sets, but cannot
Hyperdimensional generalized M–J sets in hypercomplex number space 849

Fig. 8 3-D cross section of the 8-D generalized M set

Fig. 9 3-D cross section of the 16-D generalized J set for c = (0.2, 0.2, 0.3, 0.2, 0, 0.1, 0.1, 0, 0, 0.2, 0, 0.1, 0.3, 0, 0.2, 0.2)

perceive the whole structure of the hyperdimensional Proof If the generalized Julia sets are constructed
generalized M–J sets. In addition, in order to plot 3-D by complex mapping f : z ← zα + c (α = ±2, ±4,
cross section, we must give out some coordinates of ±6, . . .), let α = 2, and then according to ci = 0,
parameter c or variable z. If the values given to these Eq. (1) and Eq. (13), we get
coordinates are different, the 3-D cross sections will
have considerable differences. In Fig. 8 we can see that f 1 (z) = z2 + c
all the 3-D cross sections have the same rotator struc-  
= a02 − a12 − · · · − an2 + c0
ture and their surfaces have fractal feature. 3-D cross
section and M–J sets in complex plane have scarcely + (2a0 a1 + c1 )i1 + · · ·
corresponding relationship, so we cannot grasp the de- + (2a0 ai )ii + · · · + (2a0 an + cn )in .
tails of 3-D cross section through the generalized M–J
sets in complex plane. According to Eqs. (10) and (13), we get

4.3 Symmetries of 2-D and 3-D cross sections of f 1 (z̄) = z̄2 + c

hyperdimensional generalized M–J sets  
= a02 − a12 − · · · − an2 + c0

The observed symmetries are as follows: − (2a0 a1 − c1 )i1 − · · ·

− (2a0 ai )ii − · · · − (2a0 an − cn )in .
Property 1 If ci = 0, then the cross sections (0, i) of
the hyperdimensional generalized M–J set are bilat- So on cross section (0, i), we get
erally symmetric over the real axis regardless of the
distance from the origin (shown as Figs. 1 and 5). f 1 (z) = f 1 (z̄). (14)
850
For the same reason, if α = −2, ±4, ±6, . . . , then we
deduce that Eq. (14) also holds. Suppose f k−1 (z) =
f k−1 (z̄) is tenable, then we can deduce
f k (z) = f k−1 f 1 (z)
= f k−1 f 1 (z) = f k−1 f 1 (z̄) = f k (z̄).
The expression above indicates that cross sections
(0, i) of the hyperdimensional generalized M–J set are
bilaterally symmetric over the real axis. With the same
reasoning, we can prove the same for the generalized
M sets. 
Property 2 If ci = cj , then the offset of cross sec-
tion (0, i) of the hyperdimensional generalized M–J set
from the origin a distance r along an imaginary axis
is identical to the offset of cross section (0, j ) from
the origin a distance r along the same imaginary axis
(shown as Figs. 2, 6(a) and 6(b)).
Proof We only prove the situation of the generalized
Mandelbrot set. Let α = 2, then we get
f 1 (c) = c2 + c
 
= c02 − c12 − · · · − cn2 + c0 + (2c0 c1 + c1 )i1
+ · · · + (2c0 ci + ci )ii + · · ·
+ (2c0 cj + cj )ij + · · · + (2a0 an + cn )in .
(15)
As ci = cj , cross section (0, i) on S1 and cross sec-
tion (0, j ) on S2 both offset from the origin a distance
r along an imaginary axis, so we get
f 1 (c)|S1 = f 1 (c)|S2 . (16)
For the same reason, if α = −2, ±4, ±6, . . . , we de-
duce that Eq. (16) also holds. Suppose f k−1 (c)|S1 =
f k−1 (c)|S2 is tenable, then we deduce that
 
f k (c)S = f k−1 f 1 (c) S
1 1
 
k−1  
=f c S1
   
= f k−1 c S = f k−1 f 1 (c) S = f k (c)S .
2 2
The expression above indicates that cross section (0, i)
and cross section (0, j ) are identical. With the same
reasoning, we can prove the same for the generalized
Julia sets.  and 7(b)).
X. Wang, T. Jin
Property 3 For a given c, all cross sections (i, j ) of
the hyperdimensional generalized M–J set which do
not include the real axis and are not offset from the ori-
gin along the real axis are identical to each other when
they are equidistant from the origin down from any
imaginary axis. These cross sections are symmetric
about the Cartesian mappings of the cross-sectional
region (x and y), and the lines y = x and y = −x
(shown as Figs. 3, 6(c) and 6(d)).
Proof We only prove the situation of the generalized
M set. Let α = 2, and we know that c0 = 0, c12 + c22 +
· · · + cr2 + · · · + cn2 = constant (r = i, j ; 1 ≤ r ≤ n), so
according to Eq. (15), we have
 
f 1 (c) = − c12 + c22 + · · · + cr2 + · · · + cn2 + c1 i1
+ · · · + c i ii + · · · + c n in .
On any cross section (i, j ) of the generalized M set
(where i = j ; 0 < i, j ≤ n), if (ci , cj ) ∈ Mf , then ci2 +
cj2 is bounded. So we deduce that
c12 + c22 + · · · + ct2 + · · · + cn2
have boundary (t = 1, 2, . . . , n). (17)
If (ci , cj ) ∈ Mf on cross section (i, j ), then we can
change i, j to i  , j  (0 < i  , j  ≤ n) so that Eq. (17)
also holds. So we know that points on cross section
(i  , j  ) satisfy (ci  , cj  ) ∈ Mf , i.e. for any cross section
(i, j ) they are identical.
If we exchange the values of i, j , then Eq. (17)
also holds. This indicates that if (ci , cj ) ∈ Mf , then
(cj , ci ) ∈ Mf and (−cj , −ci ) ∈ Mf . So the cross sec-
tion (i, j ) is symmetric about the lines y = x and
y = −x. The same proof goes for the generalized J
sets. 
Property 4 All cross sections of the generalized M–J
set of dimension d1 are identical to all corresponding
cross sections of the generalized M–J set of dimension
d2 (d2 > d1 ) when:
(1) The hyperdimensional generalized M set: all
cases (shown as Fig. 4);
(2) If the generalized Julia set of dimension d2
2
is generated with c0 through cd1 −1 set equal to c0
through cd1 −1 of the generalized Julia set of dimen-
sion d1 and all other c components are set to zero,
i.e. cd1 = cd1 +1 = · · · = cd2 = 0 (shown as Figs. 7(a)
Hyperdimensional generalized M–J sets in hypercomplex number space 851

Proof We only prove the situation of the generalized If rotating 180◦ about axis i, then we can rewrite z
M set. Let α = 2; for the generalized M set of dimen- by z̃ = a0 + a1 i1 + · · · − ai ii + · · · + an in . If changing
sion d1 we get the sign of ci , then c can be expressed by c̃. We get

f 1 (c)|d1 = c2 + c f 1 (z̃, c̃) = z̃2 + c̃

   
= c02 − c12 − · · · − cd21 −1 + c0 = a02 − a12 − · · · − an2 + c0
+ (2c0 c1 + c1 )i1 + (2c0 c2 + c2 )i2 + · · · + (2a0 a1 + c1 )i1 + · · ·
+ (2c0 cd1 −1 + cd1 −1 )id1 −1 . − (2a0 ai + ci )ii + · · · + (2a0 an + cn )in .

For the same reason, for the generalized M set of di- So for axis i, we have
mension d2 we get
  f 1 (z, c) = f
1 (z̃, c̃). (19)
f 1 (c)|d2 = c02 − · · · − cd21 −1 · · · − cd22 −1 + c0
+ (2c0 c1 + c1 )i1 + · · · For the same reason, if α = −2, ±4, ±6, . . . , we
deduce that Eq. (19) also holds. Let f k−1 (z, c) =
+ (2c0 cd1 −1 + cd1 −1 )id1 −1 + · · · 
f k−1 (z̃, c̃), then
+ (2c0 cd2 −1 + cd2 −1 )id2 −1 .
f k (z, c) = f k−1 f 1 (z, c) = f k−1 f
1 (z̃, c̃)
As d2 > d1 , based on the doubling and truncation
techniques used to generate a hypercomplex number = f k−1
f 1 (z̃, c̃) = f
k (z̃, c̃).
system, for cross section (i, j ) we have
The expression above indicates that the cross sections
f 1 (c)|d1 = f 1 (c)|d2 . (18) (0, i) of the hyperdimensional generalized J set are
symmetric over the real axis. The same proof goes for
For the same reason, if α = −2, ±4, ±6, . . . , we the generalized M sets. 
deduce that Eq. (18) also holds. Let f k−1 (c)|d1 =
f k−1 (c)|d2 , then Property 6 All 3-D cross sections of the hyperdi-
    mensional generalized M–J set are rotation-symmetric
f k (c)d = f k−1 f (c) d = f k−1 c d
1 1 1 about a given axis (shown as Fig. 8).
 
k−1  
 
=f c =f k−1
d2
f (c)  = f k (c) .
d2 d2
Pickover [32] has proved that 3-D cross sec-
All cross sections of the generalized M set of dimen- tion of Julia set generated by quaternion is rotation-
sion d1 are identical to all corresponding cross sections symmetric about a given axis. We can imitate his proof
of the generalized M set of dimension d2 . The same to prove this property.
proof goes for the generalized J sets. 

Property 5 Changing the sign of ci causes the gen- 5 Conclusion

eralized J set to rotate 180◦ about axis i (shown as
Figs. 7(c) and 7(d)). In this paper, doubling and truncation techniques are
used to generate a hypercomplex number system of
Proof Let α = 2, and according to Eq. (1) and Eq. (13), any dimension. The precondition that addition and
we get multiplication have closure in hypercomplex number
system is discussed, and the definition and construct-
f 1 (z, c) = z2 + c
  ing arithmetic of the hyperdimensional generalized
= a02 − a12 − · · · − an2 + c0 Mandelbrot–Julia sets in hypercomplex number sys-
tem are listed out. By analyzing 2-D and 3-D cross sec-
+ (2a0 a1 + c1 )i1 + · · ·
tions of the hyperdimensional generalized M–J sets,
+ (2a0 ai + ci )ii + · · · + (2a0 an + cn )in . the fractal feature of 2-D and 3-D cross sections is
852
studied, and the symmetry of 2-D and 3-D cross sec-
tions has been proved. The analysis of symmetry in
this paper will help to study dynamics of hypercom-
plex number more. The method of constructing hyper-
dimensional generalized M–J sets can also be used to
study other fractal sets, and we believe it will prove
effective.
Acknowledgements This research is supported by the Na-
tional Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 61173183,
60973152 and 60573172), the Superior University Doctoral
Subject Special Scientific Research Foundation of China
(No. 20070141014), the Excellent Talents Program in Liaon-
ing University (No. LR2012003), the National Natural Sci-
ence Foundation of Liaoning Province (No. 20082165) and
the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities
(No. DUT12JB06).
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