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Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids: Velocity Profiles, Viscosity Data, and

Laminar Flow Friction Factor Equations for Flow in a Circular Duct

Conference Paper · January 2008

DOI: 10.1115/IMECE2008-67611

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 Proceedings of IMECE2008
2008 ASME International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition
October 31-November 6, 2008, Boston, Massachusetts, USA

IMECE2008-67611

NEWTONIAN AND NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS: VELOCITY PROFILES, VISCOSITY

DATA, AND LAMINAR FLOW FRICTION FACTOR EQUATIONS FOR FLOW IN A
CIRCULAR DUCT

Melissa M. Simpson
William S. Janna
University of Memphis
Memphis, Tennessee USA

• Viscosity data and how it is measured for several

ABSTRACT common non-Newtonian fluids.
Newtonian fluid flow in a duct has been studied • A knowledge of velocity profiles for laminar flow in
extensively, and velocity profiles for both laminar and a circular duct for both Newtonian and non-
turbulent flows can be found in countless references. Non- Newtonian fluids.
Newtonian fluids have also been studied extensively, • A procedure for determining friction factor and
however, but are not given the same attention in the calculating pressure drop for non-Newtonian flow in a
Mechanical Engineering curriculum. Because of a duct.
perceived need for the study of such fluids, data were
collected and analyzed for various common non- NOMENCLATURE
Newtonian fluids in order to make the topic more Symbol Definition Unit
compelling for study. D Pipe Diameter m
The viscosity and apparent viscosity of non- f Friction factor -
Newtonian fluids are both defined in this paper. A g Gravitational acceleration m/s2
comparison is made between these fluids and Newtonian K Consistency Index N·sn/m2
fluids. Velocity profiles for Newtonian and non- L Pipe Length m
Newtonian fluid flow in a circular duct are described and ·m Mass flow rate kg/s
sketched. Included are profiles for dilatant,
n Flow behavior index -
pseudoplastic and Bingham fluids. Only laminar flow is
p Pressure Pa
considered, because the differences for turbulent flow are
ρ Density kg/m3
less distinct.
V Average velocity m/s
Also included is a procedure for determining the
Vz Instantaneous velocity m/s
laminar flow friction factor which allows for calculating
µ Absolute viscosity N·s/m2
pressure drop. The laminar flow friction factor in
classical non-Newtonian fluid studies is the Fanning
friction factor. The equations developed in this study INTRODUCTION
involve the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor which is The majority of fluids commonly encountered in
preferred for Newtonian fluids. industry and daily life are Newtonian, so vast amounts of
Also presented in this paper are viscosity data of research has been conducted to better understand their
Heinz Ketchup, Kroger Honey, Jif Creamy Peanut Butter, behavior. Non-Newtonian fluids have also been studied
and Kraft Mayonnaise. These data were obtained with a extensively, but are not given the attention one would
TA viscometer. expect in the Mechanical Engineering curriculum. Non-
The results of this study will thus provide the Newtonian fluids are encountered quite frequently (e.g.,
student with the following for non-Newtonian fluids: peanut butter, butter, catsup, mustard, paint), and so it is
appropriate to have information about their
characteristics. Such a study will make the topic more
compelling for study in an engineering curriculum.
Figure 1 shows the classical depiction of shear stress
versus strain rate for Newtonian and non-Newtonian
fluids. Shown are several general types of fluids:
pseudoplastic, Newtonian, Bingham, and dilatant. In
this study, we examine the power law fluids
(pseudoplastic and dilatant), and Bingham fluids, and
compare these to Newtonian fluids for laminar flow in a
circular duct.
area of contact A
τ = F/A
strain rate
∆y y
dV/dy
FIGURE 1A. SHEAR STRESS APPLIED TO A FLUID.
Bingham plastic
τ violent mixing that occurs in such flows. So here we limit
pseudoplastic
µ0
solid = •
Newtonian
τ0 µ
dilatant
inviscid µ= 0
dV/dy
FIGURE 1B. SHEAR STRESS STRAIN RATE
RELATIONSHIP FOR VARIOUS FLUIDS
For a Newtonian fluid the ratio of applied shear
stress to strain rate is a constant. For non-Newtonian
fluids, this ratio is not constant, so it has been customary
to use what is referred to as the apparent viscosity. The
apparent viscosity is the ratio of shear stress to strain
rate at a single point, anywhere on the graph.
Non-Newtonian fluids can be classified as time
independent or time dependent. For a constant applied
shear stress, the viscosity of a time dependent fluid will
change. Paint as it dries, for example, will have a
viscosity that changes with time. Grease, on the other
hand, will have a viscosity that does not change
appreciably with time, and is considered a time-
independent fluid. The effect of time on viscosity is not
considered in this study.
Pseudoplastic fluids are shear thinning fluids. As the
applied shear stress is increased, the viscosity is seen to
decrease. Polymer solutions are examples of
pseudoplastic fluids. Dilatant fluids display a shear
thickening behavior. These fluids have viscosities that
increase with increasing shear rate. Cream is a dilatant
fluid. It turns to butter with increased shear. Bingham
plastics are fluids that must have a minimum shear stress
applied before movement is initiated. Because of these
differences, it is important to understand the various
classifications of non-Newtonian fluids, and how we
describe their behavior with equations relating shear
stress to strain rate.
The velocity profile for flow in a circular duct is of
practical importance to the Mechanical Engineer, and is
F considered in detail in this study. The velocity profile for
a non-Newtonian fluid is different from that for a
Newtonian fluid. Furthermore, each type of fluid
(pseudoplastic, dilatant, Bingham, Newtonian) has a
velocity profile that is distinctly different from the
others. In many applications, the flow of a non-
Newtonian fluid is in the laminar flow regime, and here
is where the velocity profiles differ greatly. For
turbulent flows, the distinction is not so marked due to the
our discussion to laminar flows of time independent fluids
through circular ducts.
Equations relating shear stress to strain rate may be
written for the types of fluids discussed in this study.
These are:
dVz
Newtonian τrz = µ (1)
dr
dVz
Bingham plastic τrz = τo + µo (2)
dr
dV z n
Pseudoplastic τrz = K   n<1 (3)
 dr 
dV z n
Dilatant τrz = K   n>1 (4)
 dr 
Because of the form of the last two equations,
pseudoplastic and dilatant fluids are referred to as power
law fluids. Note that when n = 1, the power law
equations are identical to the Newtonian equation. By
definition, the apparent viscosity at a point is given by
τ rz
µapp = (5)
d V z/ d r
This definition would apply to the power law fluids.
Combining with Equation 4 or 5, we have
 This expression may now be integrated over the cross
dV n-1 section (0 to R), with V z = 0 at the wall. We get
µapp = K  z  (6)
 dr 
1 d p 1/n 1/n
Vz =  
 2K d z  ∫
For a Newtonian fluids, n = 1, and µ app = K = µ , the r dr
viscosity of the fluid.

  n  R 1+1/n  1 -  r 
1 d p 1/n 
(n+1/n)
Vz = 
POWER LAW FLUIDS
Figure 2 shows the flow of a fluid in a pipeline of  2K d z   n + 1  R 
diameter D, with pressure p measured at two locations a
fixed distance dz apart. The forces that act on a fluid The volume flow rate is obtained when this expression is
element are due to pressure and to friction. We write integrated over the cross section, with the result:

πD 2
[p – (p + dp)] = τw (πD dz)
4 Q = 2π ∫ V z r dr =    πn  R 3n+1
1 d p 1/n
 2K d z   3n + 1
Simplifying, the pressure drop over a distance dz is
Dividing flow rate by cross sectional area gives the
d p 4τw average velocity as:
= (7)
dz D
Q 1 d p 1/n
This pressure drop-shear stress relationship applies to V= =   n  R 1+1/n
A  2K d z   3n + 1
any fluid flowing in a circular duct.
The maximum velocity occurs at r = 0, and is found to be
r
1 d p 1/n
Vz =    n  R 1+1/n
z pA (p + dp)A
 2K d z   n + 1
θ Vz(r)
The relationship between instantaneous velocity V z and
control volume τwPdz average velocity V for laminar flow in a circular duct
FIGURE 2. LAMINAR FLOW IN A CIRCULAR DUCT. then is:

Equation 7 was written for an element that extended 3n + 1  r (n+1/n)

to the wall. If the element has a radius r , the Vz = 1-  V (7)
n+1  R 
relationship between shear stress and pressure drop
becomes The strain rate may be determined by experimental
means and is given by [1]:
d p 2τ
=
dz r dV z 1 + 3n 8V
= (8)
dr 4n D
Setting this expression equal to Equation 4 or 5 for power
law fluids, we get where 8V/D is defined as the Poiseuille Flow Index.
Combining Equation 8 with the power law expression
dV z n r d p
τ=K  = (Equation 4 or 5), we get
 dr  2 d z
dV z n n

Rearranging and solving for the instantaneous velocity, τrz = K   = K  1 + 3n 8V  (9)

 dr   4n D 

 1 d p r1/n dr
1/n
dV z = As is done traditionally, we define a new parameter K n
 2K d z  and modify the preceding equation accordingly:
 8V n This equation is the Metzner-Reed expression for
τrz = Kn   (10) Reynolds number of a power law fluid. We see that for a
D 
Newtonian fluid, n = 1, and the preceding equation
reduces to
The laminar flow friction factor is known to be a function
of Reynolds number and independent of wall roughness.
ρVD
The definition of the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor is Re =
Kn
4τ
f=1 w (11) We conclude that
2 ρV
2

1 + 3n n
The Fanning friction factor is more conveniently used for Kn = K   =µ (14)
 4n 
describing flow in an open channel, and is defined as

τw
fr = 1 For a Newtonian fluid, n = 1, and the equation for
2 ρV
2
velocity (Equation 7) reduces (as expected) to

In the classical study of Newtonian fluids, we can derive

Vz = 2  1 - r   V
2
an expression to relate the laminar flow friction factor to (15)
   
R
the Reynolds number:
The critical Reynolds number may be determined with
64
f= (12) the Ryan-Johnson equation, which relates the critical
Re
value of the friction factor fc to n:
Combining Equation 11 with Equation 12, we obtain an 2+n
1  (1 + 3n)2
expression for the Reynolds number
fc =    1   1+n (16)
404   n   2 + n 
4τ 64
f=1 w =
Re
2 ρV
2 For a Newtonian fluid where n = 1,

or 64
fc = 0.032 =
32ρV2 Rec
Re =
4τw
and Rec = 2 099. If the 404 is replaced with 384 in Equation
Substituting Equation 10 for the shear stress, and setting 16, the critical Reynolds number is 2 000. Combining the
τrz = τw, modified Equation 16 with Equation 12, we get for the
critical Reynolds number
32ρV2
Re = n
2+n
8V
4 Kn  
1+n
6 158n(2 + n)
D  Rec =
(1 + 3n)2

Simplifying, BINGHAM FLUIDS

Bingham or Bingham-like fluids require a minimum
8ρV2Dn yield stress τo to be exceeded to initiate movement of the
Re =
K n8nV n fluid. Until τ o is reached, the shear rate is zero, and the
fluid behaves like a solid. Figure 1 shows how shear
which becomes, stress and strain rate are related for a Bingham plastic.
Yield pseudoplastics are not shown in Figure 1, but
ρV2-nDn they behave similarly to Bingham fluids in that a
Re = (13)
K n8n-1 minimum shear stress must be reached. Beyond that
minimum, the yield pseudoplastic follows a power law
relationship.
 The equation for a Bingham fluid is Equation 2: flat surface onto which a fluid sample is placed, and a
flat disc shaped head that rotates while in contact with
dVz the fluid. The rotating head applies a shear stress to the
Bingham plastic τrz = τo + µo (2)
dr fluid and measures the resistance the fluid has to the
applied shear. Real-time viscosity data are thus
The central portion of the flow cross section is a plug that
collected. Different types of heads (conical and flat
behaves as a solid, and in this region, the yield stress has
plate) are used for different fluids as noted in Table 1.
not been reached. Surrounding the plug flow region is an
annular flow region that has zero velocity a the wall and TABLE 1. SUMMARY OF HEADS USED DURING
plug velocity at the interface. The plug diameter D p is a TESTING (PER MANUFACTURER’S
function of the imposed pressure difference dp/dz which RECOMMENDATIONS).
is directly related to the shear stress, according to Fluid Head
Heinz Ketchup 60 mm 1/2° angle conical
d p 2τ Kraft Mayonnaise 60 mm 1/2° angle conical
= Kroger Local Honey 60 mm 1/2° angle conical
dz r Jif Creamy Peanut Butter 40 mm flat plate
Viscosity Standard 60 mm 1/2° angle conical
Setting this expression and Equation 2 equal to one
another, we have

r dp dV EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
= τo + µo z After testing each fluid at least four times, the data
2dz dr
collected by the rheometer were analyzed using a power
function curve fit. The following graphs provide the
The location in the cross section where plug flow exists
“best” results, based on R2 value, for each fluid.
may be found by setting the strain rate equal to zero in the
The power law equation was applied to the data, and
preceding equation. The plug radius and diameter then
the equations that resulted are provided in Table 2.
are found as
Viscosity as a function of shear rate was graphed to
4τo determine a mathematical approximation of how
2rp = Dp = (17) viscosity varied with shear stress at a constant
dp/dz
temperature of 25°C. The equation obtained from each
Following a procedure analogous to that for power law curve represents the apparent viscosity as defined by
fluids, we determine the velocity of the plug flow region Equation 2. The results are provided in the graphs that
to be: follow, and summarized in Table 3.
Velocity profiles for the power law fluids are
τ o2  D – 1
2 provided in Figures 13, 14, and 15. Shown also on each of
V p= (18)
µ o d p / d z Dp  these graphs is the Newtonian fluid results. The graphs
are dimensionless plots of Equation 7, with the ratio of
The region outside the plug has an instantaneous velocity instantaneous to average velocity on the horizontal axis,
given by and r/R on the vertical axis.

r 2 dp/dz
 1 – rp2  – r τo  1 – rp
2
Vz = Heinz K etchup y = 124.09x 0.0632
Shear stress (Pa)

4µ o  r  µo  r 2
R = 0.8387
250
The average velocity is obtained by integrating the 200
preceding equation over the cross section, with the result: 150
100
D2 d p
 1 – 4τo  4/D  + τ o  4/D 
4 4
V=  50
8µo d z  3  d p / d z 3  d p / d z  0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Data on the viscosity of a Bingham fluid were not Shear rate (1/s)
obtained in this study. FIGURE 3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS FOR HEINZ
KETCHUP.
VISCOSITY DATA
A TA Instrument AR 550 rheometer was used to collect
data for these calculations. The apparatus consists of a
 Kraft Mayon naise y = 106.13x
0.1932 TABLE 2. SUMMARY OF CALCULATED LABORATORY
2
R = 0.9971 RESULTS.
450 Fluid Density in Descriptive Equation
400
kg/m3
Shear stress (Pa)

350
300 Heinz Ketchup 1 400 τ = 124.09(dV/dy)0.0632
250
200 Kraft Mayonnaise 1 000 τ = 106.13(dV/dy)0.1932
150
100 Kroger Local Honey 1 464 τ = 10.583(dV/dy)0.9942
50
0 Jif Creamy Peanut 1 120 τ = 359.94(dV/dy)0.12
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 Butter
Sh ear r ate (1/s) Viscosity Standard 970.1 τ = 0.3548(dV/dy)0.9937
F
IGURE 4. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS FOR KRAFT
MAYONNAISE.

H ein z K etchup
y = 10.583x 0.9942
Shear stress (Pa)

roger Local Honey

2
R =1
1000 16
800 14

Viscosity (Pa*s)
600 12
400 10
200 8
0
6
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
4
hear rat e(1/s)
2
FIGURE 5. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS FOR KROGER 0
LOCAL HONEY. 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Shear Rate (1/s)
JIF Creamy Peanut Butter y = 359.94x 0.1 163

R 2 = 0.9491 FIGURE 8. VISCOSITY VERSES SHEAR RATE FOR

700
HEINZ KETCHUP AT 25°C.
600
Shear Stress (Pa)

500

400
300
Kraft Mayonnaise
200

100
16

0
14
Viscosity (Pa*s)

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 12

Shear Rate (1/s) 10
8
FIGURE 6. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS FOR JIF
6
CREAMY PEANUT BUTTER.
4
2
Viscosity Standard y = 0.3548x 0. 99 37 0
R2 = 1 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
450 Shear Rate (1/s)
400
Shear Stress (Pa)

350
300
FIGURE 9. VISCOSITY VERSES SHEAR RATE FOR
250
KRAFT MAYONNAISE AT 25°C.
200
150
100
50
0 The velocity profile for laminar flow of a Bingham
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
fluid in a circular duct is shown in Figure 16. Note the
Shea r Rate (1/s)
appearance of a plug flow region. This region remains
FIGURE 7. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS FOR TESTED constant in diameter for the entire length of the duct.
VISCOSITY STANDARD.
 TABLE 3. SUMMARY OF FLUIDS AND APPARENT
Kroger Local H oney VISCOSITY.
Fluid Apparent Viscosity
20
18 Heinz Ketchup µ app = 124.08 (dV/dy)-0.9368
16 Kraft Mayonnaise µ app = 106.1 (dV/dy)-0.8068
Viscosity (Pa*s)

14
12 Kroger Local Honey µ app = 10.578 (dV/dy)-0.0057
10 Jif Creamy Peanut Butter µ app = 359.96 (dV/dy)-0.8838
8
6
Viscosity Standard µ app = 0.3547 (dV/dy)-0.0062
4
2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
1
Sh ear Rate (1/s)
0.9
FIGURE 10. VISCOSITY VERSES SHEAR RATE FOR 0.8
KROGER LOCAL HONEY AT 25°C.
0.7

0.6
JIF Creamy Peanut Butter

r/R
0.5

10000 0.4

0.3 n=2
Viscosity (Pa*s)

1000
0.2
100 n = 0.25
0.1
n=1
10 0
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50
1 Vz/V
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
She ar Rate (1/s) FIGURE 13. VELOCITY PROFILES FOR
PSEUDOPLASTIC, NEWTONIAN AND DILATANT
FIGURE 11. VISCOSITY VERSES SHEAR RATE FOR FLUIDS.
JIF CREAMY PEANUT BUTTER AT 25°C.

1
Viscosity Standard
0.9
0.4
0.8
0.38
Viscosity (Pa*s)

0.7
0.36
0.6
0.34
r/R

0.5
0.32 0.4 n=1

0.3 0.3
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
0.2
Shear Ra te (1/s) n =0.5
0.1
FIGURE 12. VISCOSITY VERSES SHEAR RATE FOR n = 0.75
TESTED VISCOSITY STANDARD AT 25°C. 0
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00
Vz/V

FIGURE 14. VELOCITY PROFILES FOR

PSEUDOPLASTIC FLUIDS FOR VARIOUS VALUES
OF THE FLOW BEHAVIOR INDEX.
 Also included was a determination of the laminar
flow friction Darcy Weisbach factor for power law
1 fluids.
0.9 Viscosity data of Heinz Ketchup, Kroger Honey, Jif
Creamy Peanut Butter, and Kraft Mayonnaise were all
0.8
provided, and these data were obtained with a TA
0.7 viscometer.
0.6
Non-Newtonian fluids are abundant, but it seems
they are not given the attention one would expect in the
0.5 Mechanical Engineering curriculum, based on fluid
r/R

0.4 mechanics textbooks currently on the market.

It is hoped that the results of this paper will make
0.3 n =10 the topic more compelling for study in the Mechanical
0.2 Engineering curriculum.
n=1
0.1
n=2
0 REFERENCES
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Vz/V Mechanics, 2nd Edition, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New
York
2. Darby, R., and Melson, J.D., 1982, “Direct
FIGURE 15. VELOCITY PROFILES FOR DILATANT Determination of Optimum Economic Pipe
FLUIDS FOR VARIOUS VALUES OF THE FLOW Diameter for Non-Newtonian Fluids,” Journal of
BEHAVIOR INDEX.
Pipelines, 2, pp11-21
3. Dervisoglu, M., and Kokini, J.L., 1986, “Steady
Shear Rheology and Fluid Mechanics of Four Semi-
Solid Foods,” Journal of Food Science, 51, (3), pp541-
546
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69
5. Heldman, D. R., and Singh, R.P., 2001, Introduction
FIGURE 16. LAMINAR FLOW OF A BINGHAM FLUID to Food Engineering, 3rd Edition, Academic Press,
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