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INTRODUCTION to
to
SCHOOL OF
SCHOOL OF THEOLOGY AT
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BARBARA JANE-DAV®
JANE DAVY
 The Library
Library
of
of
Claremont
School of
School of
Theology

1325 North College

1325 College Avenue
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(909)
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 to
Introduction to
Pagan
Pagan Studies
Studies
 THE
THE PAGAN STUDIES SERIES

SERIES
SERIES EDITORS
EDITORS
Wendy Griffin (California
Wendy (California State
State University, Long
Long Beach)
Beach)
and Chas S.S. Clifton
and Chas (University of
Clifton (University of Southern Colorado)
Southern Colorado)

The label “Pagan

The “Pagan studies” marks the the movement of scholarly in-
of scholarly in-
quiry into
quiry into aa diversity
diversity of religious expressions formerly
of religious formerly con-
sidered new religious
religious movements. TheThe definition of
of paganism
paganism
advocated byby sociologist of
of religion
religion Michael York—“an affir-
mation of and polymorphic sacred relationships by
of interactive and by
individual or community with the the tangible, sentient, and
and nonempirical”—
these spiritual
emphasizes what these spiritual traditions have
have in
in common: aa feeling
feeling for
for
“the
“the sacred” that
that isis non-monotheistic, based on relationship rather than
revelation and
and scripture, andand often
often includes an immanent dimension for for
landforms, plants,
plants, and
and animals.

The
The traditional approach toto the the study
study ofof religions
religions assumes thatthat formal re-
ligious
ligious traditions are normative, and
and so misses religious
religious sects that
that are in-
in-
herently
herently more fluid and
and more ambiguous. The approach
approach taken by Pagan
by Pagan
studies permits
permits examination of of highly
highly dynamic
dynamic and and mutable religious
religious
communities within aa hypermodern society, society, and
and demonstrates the the in-
in-
creasing religious pluralism
creasing religious pluralism of of our times. This shift in
This shift in perspective will be
will be
aa welcome addition to to the
the intellectual endeavor to to understand and and give
give
meaning to
meaning to aa wide variety
variety ofof religious
religious experience.

The Pagan Studies Series is

The Pagan is interdisciplinary inin nature and aims to to include
junior scholars who seek toto turn strong
both junior strong dissertations into publish-
into publish-
able monographs and
able and senior scholars who who are looking
looking for
for the kind of
the kind of at-
at-
tention a small academic press can give give their work. TheThe most exciting
exciting fea-
fea-
ture of
of the
the series isis that
that it
it will take the
will take the lead
lead in
in building
building Pagan
Pagan studies intointo
aa legitimate
legitimate field
field byby focusing
focusing research on thisthis unexplored topic.
topic.

BOOKS IN
IN THE SERIES

Researching Paganisms, edited by

by Jenny Blain, Douglas Ezzy,
Jenny Blain, Ezzy,
and Graham Harvey
and Harvey

Her
Her Hidden Children: The
The Rise of Wicca and
Rise of and Paganism in
in America,
by Chas S.S. Clifton
by

Introduction toto Pagan

Pagan Studies, by
by Barbara Jane
Jane Davy
Davy
v2 oO
HY‘
>

one
D238
Loo ! 3
: Introduction to
to
Pagan Studies
Pagan

Jane Davy
Barbara Jane Davy

Gaa,
AALTPRESS
AMIRA
P, RoE Ss)

AA Division
Division of
of
ROWMAN
ROWMAN && LITTLEFIELD
LITTLEFIELD PUBLISHERS,
PUBLISHERS, INC.INC.
Lanham *¢ New York
York * Toronto «* Plymouth, UK
UK
Figures
Figures 1,1, 11,
11, 13
13 are from Rebirth of of Witchcraft
Witchcraft byby Doreen Valiente, copyright Phoenix
Publishing; figure
figure 88 isis from AA Witches’ Bible by Janet
Bible by Janet and
and Stewart Farrar,
Farrar, copyright Phoenix
Publishing; 14 14 isis from
from What Witches Do Do by
by Stewart Farrar,
Farrar, copyright
copyright Phoenix Publishing;
15
15 is from Eight
is from Eight Sabbats for for Witches, copyright Phoenix Publishing, used with with permission.

ALTAMIRA PRESS

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of the publisher.

British Library Cataloguing

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information
in Publication Available
Information Available

Library of
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Davy,
Davy, Barbara Jane,
Jane, 1972-
Introduction to
to pagan studies // Barbara Jane
Jane Davy.
Davy.
p.
p. cm. — (The
(The pagan studies series)
Includes bibliographical references and
and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-7591-0818-9 (cloth
(cloth :: alk.
alk. paper)
paper)
ISBN-10: 0-7591-0818-8 (cloth
(cloth :: alk.
alk. paper)
paper)
ISBN-13: 978-0-7591-0819-6 (pbk.(pbk. :: alk. paper)
alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-7591-0819-6 (pbk.
(pbk. :: alk. paper)
alk. paper)
1.
1. Neopaganism. I.I. Title.
Title. II.
II. Series.

BP605.N46D38 2006
2006
299'.94—dc22
299' 94—dc22 2006010885

Printed in
in the of America
the United States of
M
ey
@©™ The
The paper
paper used in this publication meets the
in this the minimum requirements of of
American National Standard for
for Information’Sci ences—Permanenc
Information’Sciences—Perma nencee of Paper
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for
for Printed Library
Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992.
Z39.48-1992.
 Contents

List of
List of Figures
Figures Vil
Vii
Introduction

1il Beliefs 13
13
Social Organization 33
33
N

Individual and Family

Family Practices |
bil
WB

Group Practices
Group 69
69
ON FPF

Myths and Historical Origins

Myths and Origins 89
89
oO

Literary Origins and

Literary Origins and Influences 105
105
DBD

Social and
and Charismatic Influences 125
125
Denominations 145
145
PSS) Ethics
io}
SR
ep,
Nh
wok
Noy Ethics and
and Politics 165
165
oo

jo© Current Issues 183

183
oO
=

11
11 Research in
in Pagan
Pagan Studies 203
203
Glossary
Glossary 221
221
Bibliography 227,
227
Index 237
237
the Author
About the 245
245
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 Figures
Figures

Gerald Gardner (from Doreen Valiente’s Rebirth of

of Witchcraft)
Gah)ke

(press photo)
Starhawk (press photo) 15
US)
The Goddess (Goddess altar,
The altar, photo
photo by Kerr)
by Catherine Kerr) 18
18
The Horned God (Horned God altar,
The photo by
altar, photo by Lloyd
Lloyd Keane) 20
20
Ol ME)

Leaving offerings
Leaving (photo by
offerings (photo Jane Davy)
by Barbara Jane Davy) 55
55
Wheel of the
Wheel of Year (Northern
the Year Hemisphere)
(Northern Hemisphere)
Oy

WOW
fF
oO
NH
N
(image created by
(image by Catherine Kerr)
Kerr) og
7
N Home altar
altar (photo by Mandy
(photo by Mandy Furney)
Furney) 60
60
NX

The
The Goddess as mother atat Imbolc, wearing aa Brigid
Brigid
headdress of
of candles (from
(from Farrar and
and Farrar,
Farrar,
AA Witches’ Bible)
Bible) Va
ZZ
Maypole (photo
Maypole (photo by
by M.
M. Macha Nightmare) 73
73
10
10 Handfasting (photo
(photo from Mandy Furney)
Mandy Furney) 82
82
11
11 Maddelena (from Doreen
Maddelena (from Doreen Valiente’s
Valiente’s Rebirth
Rebirth of
of Witchcraft)
Witchcraft) 109
109
12
12 The Ravenhearts
The Ravenhearts (photo
(photo provided by Oberon Zell-Ravenheart)
provided by Zell-Ravenheart) 120
120
13
13 Doreen Valiente (from Doreen Valiente’s Rebirth of Witchcraft)
of Witchcraft) WAS)
129
14
14 Alex
Alex and
and Maxine Sanders (from
(from Stewart Farrar’s
What
What Witches Do)
Do) 130
130

Vil
Vii
viii
viii Figures
Figures

5
15 Janet and
Janet and Stewart Farrar (from
(from Farrar and
and Farrar’s
Eight
Eight Sabbats for
for Witches) 132
132
16
16 Z. Budapest
Z. Budapest (photo
(photo provided by
by Z.
Z. Budapest) 133
133
17
le (photo provided
Isaac Bonewits (photo provided by
by Isaac Bonewits) 138
138
18
18 Contemporary Druid (photo by Wendy
(photo by Wendy Griffin) 17,
157
19
19 Altar with
North Altar with multicultural elements, Samhain
Spiral Dance celebration of
Spiral of the
the Reclaiming community
in San
in (photo by
San Francisco (photo by M.
M. Macha Nightmare) 170
170
20
20 Spontaneous ritual led
led by
by Starhawk atat political
political
demonstration against
against G20
G20 meeting
meeting inin Ottawa,
Canada, 2001 (photo by Barbara Jane
(photo by Jane Davy)
Davy) T77
177
21
21 Fox with
Selena Fox with other members ofof the
the Parliament
of the
of the World’s Religions Assembly of of Religious and
and
Spiritual Leaders (photo
Spiritual (photo from
from Circle
Circle Magazine
Magazine 91)
91) 184
184
22ak&b
22a&b Andy Letcher, before and
Andy and after entering academia
after entering
(photos
(photos provided by Andy
provided by Andy Letcher; latter is by
is by
Chris Holland)
Chris 214
214
 Introduction

middle-aged bookstore owner isis firmly firmly “in the broom closet” and re-
“in the
veals himself as Pagan only to
Pagan only to his his most trusted coreligionists. AA
thirty-something lesbian polyamorist* is is selectively out as gay
out gay and/or
and/or
Pagan to
Pagan to people she trusts in
people she in different contexts. A college professor
A college professor near
retirement seems to be “sitting
to be “sitting on the
the fence,”
fence,” appearing to to be
be Pagan
Pagan toto
Pagans, but
other Pagans, but to
to be
be someone who who studies Pagans
Pagans rather than a a practi-
practi-
tioner when delivering conference papers. AA conservative civil servant isis
openly Pagan
openly Pagan and exchanges working
and exchanges working Christmas Day Day for taking the
for taking the win-
ter solstice as aa religious
ter religious holiday.
holiday. An
An internationally known anarchist po- po-
litical activist self-identifies as aa Pagan,
litical Pagan, a Witch, and aa practitioner of
Witch, and of fem-
fem-
inist spirituality, depending on the
inist the context in in which sheshe finds herself. AnAn
couple of
exhibitionist couple of twenty-year-olds who like
like to
to display
display their
their BDSM
at public
fantasies at public festivals, which they
they see as aa safe
safe place for experimen-
place for
tation, are Pagan.
tation, Pagan. An
An eight-month-old baby, newly welcomed to
baby, newly the Craft
to the
through a Wiccaning ceremony, is
through is being
being raised Pagan.
Pagan.
Pagans are found in
Contemporary Pagans all walks of
in all of life
life and are ofof all
all polit-
polit-
ical
ical persuasions. Many
Many Pagans
Pagans are average people, people, but but some are
markedly countercultural, preferring
preferring lifestyles
lifestyles alternative to to the
the main-
stream. Some practitioners are attracted to to Paganism because of of its per-
its per-
ceived participation in
in the
the countercultural movements that that began
began in in the
the
Being Pagan
1960s. Being Pagan can mean living
living aa modern hippy
hippy lifestyle, smoking up
lifestyle, smoking up
and
and communing with the the faeries,
faeries, and
and participating in in outdoor rituals in in
the
the nude,
nude, but
but it also mean sitting
it can also sitting through
through long boring meetings
long boring meetings in
in

that appear in
*Terms that in bold are explained in
in the
the glossary.

in1
22 Introduction

urban community centers. Most Pagans Pagans have background.!

have a middle-class background.'
Although they
Although higher levels of
tend toto have higher
they tend of education than than the general
the general
population,
population, many
many choose
choose lifestyles
lifestyles that put
put them
them at
at or below a
a middle-
class standard of of living.? early studies of
living.2 Some early of Paganism emphasized its its
appeal to
appeal social misfits because of
to “outsiders” or social the secrecy of
of the of the
the teach-
ings of
ings of some traditions, and and because of its status as aa marginal
of its marginal religion.
religion.
recently, in
More recently, part because of
in part of the
the Internet-based growth growth ofof Paganism,
the
the profile
profile of of an average PaganPagan practitioner has has become more main-
stream, andand younger, and there are more solitaries, which are practition-
ers who are not affiliated with Pagan Pagan groups.’ Pagans are becoming “suc-
groups.’ Pagans
cessful, educated, and
cessful, involved.”* They
and involved.”4 tend to
They tend be liberal middle-class
to be
college-educated Caucasians, some of of whom choose to to live quite com-
live quite
fortably.
fortably. Women outnumber men in the religion
in the religion by by about two to one. Pa-
to Pa-
gans are more politically active than than average Americans, particularly
when itit comes to to environmental issues, and and Pagans support aa number of
Pagans support of
countercultural attitudes and and practices, such such as polyamory, even if they
if they
do not enact such practices in
do daily lives.°
in their daily
The
The term “pagan”
“pagan” comes from from thethe Latin paganus, plural plural paganii,
paganii, which
originally referred to to rural peoples
peoples who did did not accept the the dominance of of
Roman culture, preferring their local government or pagus. The original original
pagans were people people who had had not joined
joined the the Christian movement and and be-be-
come Roman citizens.° For For aa longlong time,
time, “pagan” signified
signified nonbeliever in in
Western culture and was used as a term for for those who who did not embrace
did not
Christianity or any of of the
the other monotheistic faiths. More recently, people people
have adopted
adopted the the term to to describe the the revived religious traditions of of con-
temporary Paganism, sometimes called Neo-Paganism. Practitioners gen-
erally call themselves “Pagan,” capitalizing the
erally call the PP to
to affirm that their reli- reli-
gion
gion isis just
just as legitimate as any any other faith. Some practitioners emphasize
their links to to pre-Christian traditions, calling calling their faith faith “the
“the Old Reli-
gion,”
gion,” while others embrace it it as a revivalist creation of of modern times.
Pagan
Pagan studies is is the
the study
study of of Paganism asaa distinct religious tradition in in
the
the context of of world religions. Some scholars prefer prefer to to discuss “paganism”
(preferring to to use a lowercase p) p) as a global
global and historical world religion
including indigenous religions,” but but this
this text isis restricted to to commentary
on the
the study
study of of contemporary self-identified Pagans Pagans and their traditions.
With a lowercase p, p, “paganism” usually usually refers to all religions that have re-
to all
sisted conversion to to monotheistic traditions, including historical and and con-
temporary peoples,
peoples, while contemporary “Paganism” more often describes
people who were raised in
people in monotheistic traditions but but have rejected them
in favor of
in of revivals and recreations of of pre-Christian traditions. Contempo-
rary Paganism does not have a missionary stance or project project to to convert
everyone to to its
its beliefs, so it it does not strive to to be
be a world religion by by spread-
ing
ing throughout the the world, but Pagans Pagans are found across the the globe.
globe.
 Introduction 33

might suppose that

Some might Paganism isis not
that Paganism not a large enough religion
large enough religion toto
merit study
study as aa world religion.
religion. There are two complications in in determin-
ing
ing who counts as “Pagan.”
“Pagan.” First,
First, Paganism isis not organized into
not organized into groups,
like
like churches thatthat keep
keep membership rolls,rolls, and
and most countries, including
including thethe
United States,
United States, dodo not include “Pagan,”
“Pagan,” or aa comparable alternative, as an
option on their
option forms, so compiling
their census forms, global numbers of
compiling global of self-identified
Pagans isis difficult. In
Pagans In addition, some people
people feel
feel aa need toto hide their iden-
their iden-
tification as Pagan
Pagan from
from governmental authorities, due due to
to fears
fears of religious
of religious
persecution. Second, there is is debate about what isis meant by “Pagan.” With
by “Pagan.”
the
the inclusion of of indigenous
indigenous religions, between 55 and and 66 percent
percent of the
of the
world’s population is small-p pagan, which isisa a statistically significant por-
is small-p por-
tion of the
tion of the world’s population. By By comparison, this this gives paganism more
gives paganism
adherents than
than Judaism, Sikhism, Jainism,
Jainism, and
and Bahai,
Bahai, which together
together con-
stitute less
less than 11 percent
percent of
of the
the world’s population and and yet
yet are routinely
studied as world religions
religions (perhaps
(perhaps with
with the
the exception
exception of Sikhism).§ With-
of Sikhism). With-
out the
the inclusion of
of indigenous religions, the
the global
global numbers of of contempo-
Pagan adherents are far
rary Pagan far fewer, totaling less
fewer, totaling less than one million.
Pagan populations are concentrated in
Pagan in Britain, North America, Aus- Aus-
tralia, and
tralia, and New but they
New Zealand, but they can also
also be
be found in
in smaller numbers
Europe and
throughout Europe and scattered through
through other parts
parts of the world. Pa-
of the Pa-
ganism
ganism became an official religion
religion in
in Iceland in
in 1973 as Asatra.
Asatru. Asatrtar-
Asatriar-
félagidr,
félagidr, the Asatrt Society
the Asatrt Society of
of Iceland, had
had 500 in 2000,
500 members in out of
2000, out of aa
population of of 275,000, which amounts to to about 0.2 percent. The
0.2 percent. The 2001
2001 cen-
sus of
of New Zealand recorded 5,862 people as Pagan,
5,862 people Pagan, out of of aa population
of 3.7 million,
of 3.7 million, which amounts to to 0.158 percent. This
This appears toto be be some-
what above the for Canada and
the percentages for and Australia, which also also publish
publish
census data
data on Pagans.
Pagans. The
The Canadian census of of 2001 found 21,080
21,080 Pagans
Pagans
out of aa population
out of population of to 0.071
of 29,639,030, which amounts to 0.071 percent.’ There
percent.’ There
may actually be
may actually be more Canadians who are Pagan. In aa study
Pagan. In study of Paganism
of Paganism
in Canada,
in when respondents
Canada, when respondents were
were asked
asked how
how they
they would
would record
record their re-
their re-
ligion on the
ligion the census, 2525 percent indicated that
that they
they would choose some-
thing
thing other than Pagan,
Pagan, despite
despite the
the fact
fact that they self-identify as practi-
that they practi-
of a a Pagan
tioners of denomination.'°
Pagan denomination."°
As in Canada,
As in Canada, the
the Australian Bureau of
of Statistics does not include “Pa-
does not “Pa-
ganism’”
ganism” as aa choice on the
the census forms,
forms, but it does
but it does allow people
people to
to write
in a choice, and it tabulates the results rather than simply classing
in a choice, and it tabulates the results rather than simply classing them them
all as “other.” The
all The Australian census of 2001 recorded 24,156
of 2001 24,156 adherents to
to
religion,” a category in
“nature religion,” a category in which they
they include Pagans,
Pagans, Wiccans,
Druids, and
and pantheists (those
(those who regard
regard the
the Earth as aa living
living being
being
and/or who wholly identify the
wholly identify the Earth with divinity)
divinity) as well
well as animists
(those who
(those who believe that
that all things are living
all things living and possibly ensouled be-
and are possibly be-
ings).
ings). According to
to these numbers, 0.13
0.13 percent
percent of
of the popula-
the Australian popula-
tion was Pagan
tion Pagan as of 2001."
of 2001."
44 Introduction

Estimates of the number of

of the Pagans in
of Pagans in the
the United States in
in the last few
the last few
decades have
have varied from
from 50,000
50,000 to
to more than
than 750,000. In
In 1985, there were
1985, there
an estimated 50,000 to
to 100,000
100,000 self-identified Pagans
Pagans in the United States,
in the States,
according to to a practitioner-authored survey.'*survey.!? Within ten ten years, practi-
practi-
tioner estimates had had risen to to 300,000.'°
300,000.'3 Scholars began began producing survey
data in
data in 1999,
1999, estimating between 150,000 150,000 and
and 200,000 practitioners, with
some researchers indicating that that there may be
there may be twice that
that many practition-
practition-
ers.!4
ers.'4 AA practitioner-run Internet poll poll conducted in in 1999-2000 estimated
the American Pagan
the Pagan population to to be
be 768,400. This
This disparity isis not neces-
sarily due
sarily due to the difference between conservative academic estimates and
to the
those ofof enthusiastic practitioners, but also reflects the
but also the explosive
explosive growth
growth
of
of Paganism in the latter half
in the half of
of the
the 1990s,
1990s, fueled by the Internet.'5
by the Internet.!5 IfIf there
are 200,000 Pagans
Pagans inin the
the United States out of of aa population
population of 290 million,
of 290
that
that makes 0.069 percent.
percent. If there are 750,000 Pagans,
If there Pagans, that
that would
would be be 0.259
percent of the American population, which seems aa bit
of the high in
bit high compari-
in compari-
son with
with actual from the
actual statistics from the New Zealand, Australian, and
and Cana-
dian
dian censuses.
Estimates also
also vary on the of Pagans
the number of Pagans in the United Kingdom.
in the
In
In 1996,
1996, 30,000
30,000 to
to 50,000
50,000 was aa common estimate for
for the
the number of
of Pagans
Pagans
inin the Kingdom.'® AA 1997 study
the United Kingdom.!° study indicated that there are approxi-
approxi-
mately 100,000 Pagans
mately Pagans inin the
the United Kingdom.!”
Kingdom.’’ AsAs of
of 1998, esti-
1998, scholars esti-
mated that
that there are between 110,000 and and 120,000 practitioners of of God-
God-
dess spirituality in
dess in the
the United Kingdom,'®
Kingdom,'§ which would include some
people who do
people do not self-identify as practitioners ofof Paganism. A Pagan or-
A Pagan
recently paid
ganization recently paid to
to have Pagan
Pagan statistics tabulated from thethe 2001
census in
in Scotland, and
and they
they report
report that 1,930 people
that 1,930 people identified them-
Pagan in
selves as Pagan in the
the “other” category.!9
Although contemporary Paganism
Although Paganism is statistically as significant as
is not statistically
other world religions,
religions, whether aa tradition or group of of traditions isis con-
con-
sidered as a world religion
religion is
is not purely
purely aa matter of of number of of adherents.
It
It is also a matter of
is also of differentiation regarding things like
regarding things like theology,
theology, cos-
mology, social
mology, social organization,
organization, ritual practices, and
ritual practices, and historical origins—the
historical origins—the
type of
type of categories inin which this
this book discusses Paganism. ItIt is is not impor-
impor-
tant here
here toto prove that
that Paganism is is aa world religion,
religion, but
but rather to to note that
Pagan studies looks
Pagan looks at Paganism as though
at Paganism though it it is.
is. Paganism is currently un-
is currently
dergoing aa process of of routinization, creating
creating institutions and and organiza-
organiza-
tional structures. Some practitioners actively actively work against
against this
this formal in-in-
stitutionalization of
of their religion,
religion, rejecting
rejecting the
the formation of of creedal
statements, the
the adoption ofof codes of of practice, and
and the
the development of of
structures that claim to
to represent all Pagans. However, itit is
all Pagans. possible to
is possible dis-
to dis-
tinguish
tinguish Paganism as aa distinct religious tradition in the twentieth and
in the
twenty-first centuries without distorting
distorting it
it into aa more homogeneous ap- ap-
pearance than isis supported by Pagan texts and sociological and
by Pagan ethno-
and ethno-
 Introduction 55

graphic
graphic data. The fact
data. The fact that Pagans resist formal structures of
that Pagans of organization,
systematization, dogma,
dogma, and and orthodoxy
orthodoxy is, is, in fact, a a marker
in fact, marker ofof aa unique
unique
family
family ofof religious
religious traditions.
Paganism must be be discussed as aa family
family of of religious
religious traditions rather
than as a homogenous religion,
religion, but this isis true of
but this of other world religions.
religions. Pa-
Pa-
ganism
ganism includes Wicca, the the largest
largest denomination within Paganism, as well
as other
other Witchcraft traditions; reconstructionist denominations including
of Greek, Egyptian, Latvian, Druidic,
revivals of Druidic, and
and Heathen traditions; and
and
aa variety
variety of of other contemporary and and eclectic denominations. Eclectic Pa- Pa-
gans draw on aa variety
gans draw variety of of sources in in creating practices, rather
creating their own practices,
than exclusively
exclusively following
following aa preexisting tradition. Pagans Pagans can be be eclectic in
in
their religious
religious practices
practices even within aa denomination. Many Many Wiccans, for for
example,
example, are eclectic in in their
their practices,
practices, being
being inspired
inspired not only by British
only by
folklore and and mythology, but but also
also by
by traditions from other lands.
Largely due
Largely due toto the marketing choices of
the marketing of aa number of of popular
popular book pub-
pub-
lishers, Wicca isis much more readily readily identified as aa religious
religious tradition than
Paganism is. is. However, Wicca isis more properly properly aa denomination within Pa- Pa-
ganism
ganism thanthan aa distinct religion. Referring to
religion. Referring to Wicca in in place
place ofof Paganism isis
like
like taking
taking Protestantism for for Christianity as aa whole. This This usage of of the
the
terms hashas begun
begun to to occur among practitioners in in aa fairly
fairly analogous way
to
to how it it does withwith Protestants who understand their their denomination as
what Christianity is: is: ifif one isis part
part of the mainstream of
of the of a tradition, then
one’s
one’s own denomination isis often
often taken to
to be
be representative of,
of, if not con-
if not
gruent
gruent with,
with, the
the religion
religion as aa whole. Recent media and
and publishing influ-
have lead
ences have lead to larger numbers of
to larger generic Pagans
of generic Pagans referring
referring to
to them-
selves as Wiccan, that is, as practitioners of
that is, of Wicca. Historically, “Wicca”
refers to Pagans who are bitheistic, revering
to Pagans revering divinity
divinity inin the
the forms of
of aa
Goddess and and a God.
God. Pagans generally are polytheistic, acknowl-
Pagans more generally
edging the
edging the existence of goddesses and
of many goddesses and gods.
gods. Individuals often
often have
special relationships with
special with one or more of of these,
these, or aa particular
particular pantheon,
such as the
such the Greek gods
gods andand goddesses of of Olympus, or the the deities of
of Norse
mythology. Wiccan traditions are traceable to to the
the tradition popularized by by
Gerald Gardner beginning
beginning in the 1940s and
in the and 1950s in in Britain,
Britain, while Pagan-
Pagan-
ism more broadly
ism broadly has
has more diverse roots.

erald Gardner was the

( ee the first
first popularizer of
of modern Witchcraft as
CG: a religion. He called this
religion. He this religion
religion Wicca (or(or “Wica”—his spelling
spelling
was inconsistent), and and itit has
has come to be
to be known more specifically as
Gardnerian Wicca. For For more information on Gardner and other
and other im-im-
portant figures
portant figures inin the
the development of of contemporary Paganism, see
chapter 7.7.
chapter
66 Introduction

Figure
Figure 1.1. Gerald Gardner (from Doreen Valiente’s Rebirth of Witchcrafe)

Historically, “pagan” hashas referred to

to the
the peoples
peoples of the land,
of the land, as opposed
opposed
to the
to the peoples
peoples ofof the
the book, meaning the
book, meaning the Bible or thethe Koran. The
The term “pa-
“pa-
gan” has
gan” has referred toto “nonbelievers” in the God
in the God ofof the
the monotheistic tradi-
tions of
of Christianity, Judaism, and
and Islam. Generally,
Generally, contemporary PagansPagans
support the
support the association ofof their religion
religion with ancient traditions that that are
historically referred to to as “pagan.”
“pagan.” Pagans like to
Pagans like to think ofof themselves as
people
people of of the land, since their
the land, their religion has
has aa this-worldly focus,
focus, celebrat-
ing the natural world as sacred and
ing the and as the
the home of of the
the goddesses and and
gods,
gods, or of of the
the Goddess and the God.
and the Pagans feel
God. Additionally, Pagans feel aa sense of of
solidarity with
with people
people who have been persecuted for for holding
holding to to their
their in-
in-
digenous against colonization by
digenous faith against by monotheistic cultures. However,
Pagan religion
Pagan religion is
is different from ancient pagan traditions, in that itit is
in that is con-
temporary, becoming aa publicly publicly practiced
practiced religion
religion in the second half
in the half of
of
the twentieth century. Reconstructionist denominations within Paganism
the
the connections between their
stress the their practices
practices and
and those of of the
the traditions
from which they
from they draw their inspiration, but but they
they are revivals and and reimag-
reimag-
inings of
inings of these traditions rather thanthan continuous outgrowths of of them.
The twentieth-century origins
The origins of
of Paganism are disputed by by some prac-
notably aa minority
titioners, notably minority of
of Wiccans who
who believe that
that Gerald Gardner
into an established group of
was initiated into of witches in
in the
the New Forest area
of Britain that
of that was descended directly
directly from
from witches persecuted in
in the
the me-
dieval witch hunts. Gardner said
said that he had
that he had found aa coven that
that was aa
remnant of of the
the religion of those
religion of those who
who were
were persecuted.
persecuted. However,
However, it
it is gen-
is gen-
erally agreed by
erally agreed by scholars ofof Pagan
Pagan studies that
that the people persecuted dur-
the people
ing the witch
ing the witch hunts were “witches” only only in
in the
the anthropological sense of of
someone accused of of practicing malevolent magic.
magic. These “witches” are are
 Introduction 7I

properly
properly understood as alleged alleged Christian heretics rather than than as members
of
of an organized religion.
religion. Some Pagans
Pagans identify
identify as “Witches” in in solidarity
solidarity
with those who were falsely falsely accused of of malevolent acts and and were killed
killed
during
during thethe witch hunts. These Witches use the the term for for themselves as a
way of of reclaiming the the word. Connecting their contemporary practices practices
with the
the past
past can create aa powerful
powerful sense of of identity
identity forfor modern Witches.
Pagans would like
Some Pagans to distance themselves from any
like to any association
with
with those accused of of practicing “witchcraft,” in in order to to differentiate
themselves from Satanists who parody parody and and subvert the the Christian religion.
religion.
Not even all all Wiccans identify
identify as “Witches.” Some Pagans Pagans identify
identify them-
selves as “Witches” without identifying
identifying with the the label
label “Wiccan,” calling
calling
themselves non-Wiccan Witches. This This isis particularly true of of feminist
Witches in in the
the Reclaiming tradition. AA recent development is is practitioners
preferring to call themselves “Wiccan” and
to call their religion
and their religion “Wicca,” as aa
less
less inflammatory alternative to calling oneself aa “Witch” and
to calling and saying
saying that
that
one practices
practices Witchcraft. Others celebrate their tradition’s occult connec-
tions as aa way
way ofof challenging mainstream opinions. opinions.
Scholars of of Pagan
Pagan studies examine Paganism Paganism in in relation to to nature reli-
reli-
gion,
gion, Goddess spirituality, and the New
and the New Age,Age, each of of which shares some
commonalities with Paganism but but isis aa distinct area of of study.
study. Paganism is, is,
in
in Pagan
Pagan studies scholar Michael York’s respected respected definition, “an “an affirma-
tion of
tion of interactive and
and polymorphic sacred relationship by by the
the individual
or community with with the tangible, sentient, and
the tangible, and nonempirical.”?° This This
that Pagans
means that Pagans recognize and and interact with with the
the sacred in in a variety
variety ofof
forms, as material beings
beings andand personalities with with less
less substantial or quan-
Paganism is
tifiable material forms. Paganism is aa polytheistic this-worldly religion.
As such,
As such, itit overlaps with, but
overlaps with, is not
but is not identical with,
with, nature religion,
religion, God-
God-
dess spirituality, and
dess and New Age religion isis religion
Age traditions. Nature religion religion in
in
which nature isis the
the location of
of the
the sacred, of nature
sacred, where transcendence of
isis not necessary for for divinity
divinity toto appear.
appear.*! Some Pagans affirm aa transcen-
dence of
of nature that
that does not fit
fit this
this description of of nature religion,
religion, be-
be-
lieving in
lieving in a a sort of divinity that
of divinity that is is not of this
of this world. Goddess spirituality
overlaps extensively
extensively with Paganism but but is goddess focused, sometimes in
is goddess in
aa monotheistic manner. New Age Age spirituality
spirituality isis a a broad-based phenome-
that cannot be
non that be restricted to any one religion.
to any religion. Some PaganPagan activities
can bebe understood as part part of
of the
the New Age, Age, but aspects of
but other aspects the New
of the
Age, such
Age, such as aa belief in angels, fit
in angels, fit better into
into aa Christian or or Jewish
Jewish view of of
the world. Pagan
the Pagan studies is is the
the study
study ofof Paganism as aa distinct religion religion
with diverse denominations that
with that can be be discussed in in relation to
to aa variety
variety
of types of
of types religion and
of religion and other religious
religious movements, but but which is is nonethe-
less
less an identifiable world religion.
This book
This book introduces the study of
the study of Paganism as aa world religion
religion and
and ex-
plores
plores how
how Pagan
Pagan studies researches the
the intellectual, religious,
religious, and
and social
social
88 Introduction

spheres of
spheres of Paganism. ItIt examines Paganism in in terms ofof some common cat-
egories
egories in in the
the study
study of religion, including
of religion, including beliefs,
beliefs, practices,
practices, theology,
theology, rit-rit-
ual, history, and the role
ual, history, and the role of of texts and
and scriptures. Chapter
Chapter 1 1 discusses what
what
Pagans believe. Although belief
Pagans belief isis not an important feature of their reli-
of their reli-
gion for
gion for many Pagan
Pagan practitioners, it is
it is aa relevant category for the study
for the study
of
of Pagans
Pagans andand their
their religion.
religion. There are certain commonalities across de- de-
nominational borders in in Pagan
Pagan cosmology concerning what what they
they believe
about thethe structure andand nature of the universe and
of the and the place of
the place of humans
and divinity within it.
and divinity it. This chapter explains
This chapter explains aa number of of relevant con-
cepts
cepts in Pagan theology
in Pagan theology and and thealogy,
thealogy, the the studies of of divinity
divinity inin its
its male
male
(theo) and
(theo) and female (thea) forms. The meanings of of thealogy,
thealogy, cosmology, im- im-
and shamanism are discussed in
manence, polytheism, animism, and in rela-
tion to
tion to Pagan
Pagan beliefs. Other common beliefs of of Pagans
Pagans about magic, the
magic, the
creation of
creation sacred space, and
of sacred healing are
and healing are also examined.
also examined.
Chapter 22 looks at
Chapter at the
the social organization of Paganism is
of Paganism. Paganism is not
institutionalized in in the
the same ways that
that other world religions
religions are. Pagans
Pagans
resist formal structures governing their their religion,
religion, but
but from a sociological
point of
point of view,
view, the
the social organization of Pagans isis visible as aa form of
of Pagans of or-
ganization that
ganization that tends to to deconstruct itself: as structures form,form, they
they are
criticized, and
and they
they begin
begin to lose their legitimacy as soon as people
to lose people feel
feel
constrained by This chapter
by them. This chapter looks at and against
at trends toward and against rou-
tinization, examining the the fluid
fluid nature of of the
the social organization of
of Pagan-
Pagan-
ism inin small groups, as well
well as the
the larger
larger federated organizations thatthat de-
de-
velop as some Pagans
velop Pagans seek
seek toto create more formal structures. Additionally,
this chapter
this chapter looks at at authority
authority and leadership
leadership in in Pagan
Pagan groups and
and com-
pares Pagan
pares Pagan understandings of of clergy
clergy with what has has been referred toto as
“democratized shamanism,” participatory religion religion in in which anyany practi-
practi-
tioner can become an expert and act as shaman or priest/ess. Finally,
expert and this
Finally, this
also comments on the
chapter also the public/private splitsplit of
of Pagan
Pagan groups intointo
and outer “courts,” or closed and
inner and and public
public groups.
Chapters 33 and
Chapters and 44 discuss what Pagans
Pagans do,do, beginning with with individual
and family
and family practices inin chapter
chapter 3, and extending into
3, and into group practices in in
chapter
chapter 4.4. Chapter
Chapter 33 focuses on Pagan
Pagan religious
religious practices
practices and
and rituals in the
in the
home andand with their
their families. It
It explores
explores Pagan lifeways, the
Pagan lifeways, the things Pa-
things Pa-
gans
gans dodo that
that make them identifiable as Pagans,
Pagans, such as keeping
keeping home al- al-
tars and
and shrines, as well
well as the
the sometimes more formal ritual
ritual activities of
of
giving
giving offerings,
offerings, casting spells,
spells, pursuing divination, meditating, and do- do-
ing trance work. The
ing The tools,
tools, accoutrements, and and techniques usedused with these
these
activities are also
also discussed. Chapter 44 discusses the the activities that
that Pagans
Pagans
tend to conduct in
tend to in groups. Many
Many of of the
the activities that
that Pagans
Pagans engage in in in-
in-
dividually also
also come into
into play
play in
in groups, but
but they
they tend toto be
be more struc-
tured. This
This chapter
chapter discusses the the Pagan
Pagan festival cycle
cycle and moon rituals that
that
 Introduction 99

structure thethe Pagan

Pagan year,
year, as well
well as rites
rites of
of passage, including birth, com-
including birth,
ing of
ing of age,
age, initiations, handfastings and and weddings, croning,
croning, and
and death.
Chapter 55 explores
Chapter explores the the role
role of
of myth
myth in in Paganism
Paganism and and its
its relationship
history. There are aa number of
with history. of myths
myths associated with Paganism, and
Pagans
Pagans use these myths myths variously for for legitimation, inspiration, and and polit-
polit-
ical ends. Those who use them for
ical ends. for a sense of of legitimation tend
tend to to feel
feel
threatened by by questions of of historical accuracy, but but others prefer
prefer toto regard
regard
the myths
the myths primarily as stories that that teach
teach and inspire. This
and inspire. This chapter
chapter looks
looks at at
the various meanings
the meanings of “the Old
of “the Old Religion”
Religion” in in Paganism, thethe theory
theory of of pa-
pa-
gan “survivals” once popular
gan popular in in British folklore studies, interpretations of of
the
the medieval witch witch hunts as the the “Burning Times,” and and feminist reinter-
pretations of of history,
history, including what isis sometimes called the the myth
myth of of the
the
matriarchies. ItIt also
also notes some prominent mythological stories in in Pagan-
Pagan-
ism that have less
ism that less controversial relationships with history, history, such as the the
Wild Hunt, Ceridwen’s cauldron, and
Wild Hunt, and Odin’s hanging
hanging on Yggdrasil,
Ygedrasil, the
the
world tree.
Chapter 66 introduces the
the major
major literary
literary origins
origins and
and influences on the
the
development ofof Paganism. These literary
literary sources include works from an-
thropologists, folklorists, poets,
poets, and
and novelists, as well
well as early
early prefigura-
prefigura-
tions of
of Paganism inin related religious
religious movements such as spiritualism
and ceremonial magic.
and magic. This
This chapter
chapter discusses how diverse figures such
figures such
James Frazer,
James Frazer, Charles Leland,
Leland, Aleister Crowley, Rudyard Kipling,
Crowley, Rudyard Kipling, Ken-
neth
neth Grahame, Dion
Dion Fortune, Margaret
Margaret Murray,
Murray, Robert Graves, Robert
Heinlein, and
and Marion Zimmer Bradley Bradley came to to influence thethe develop-
develop-
ment ofof Paganism.
Chapter 77 continues to
Chapter to introduce figures
figures of
of interest in
in the
the development
of Paganism, but with a focus on social and charismatic
of Paganism, but with a focus on social and charismatic influences influences rather
rather
than literary
than literary sources. Thus, this chapter
Thus, this chapter focuses on contemporary indi-
viduals, social movements, and and cultural trends. Beginning with Gerald
Gardner, the
the first
first popularizer of of a Pagan
Pagan tradition in in Britain, this
this chapter
chapter
introduces influential authors and and charismatic leaders in Pagan revivals,
in Pagan revivals,
including Starhawk, Z.
including Budapest, Doreen Valiente, Raymond Buckland,
Z. Budapest,
and Scott Cunningham. The
and The impact
impact of of social movements such as femi- femi-
nism on Paganism, and and cultural trends suchsuch as the
the romantic fascination
with Celtic
Celtic icons
icons and imagery, are also
and imagery, also discussed in this chapter.
in this chapter.
Chapter
Chapter 88 introduces the the major
major denominations of of Paganism and and gives
gives
aa short description and
and history
history of each. Specific
of each. Specific denominations covered
Greek, Egyptian,
include Greek, Egyptian, Druidic, Heathen, and
and Eastern European
European recon-
structionist traditions, as well
well as other groups involving
involving some degree of
degree of
reconstruction
reconstruction such as Wicca,
such as Wicca, Odinism,
Odinism, and
and Asatru, and groups
Asatru, and groups such
such as
as
Reclaiming and the
Reclaiming and Church of
the Church of All
All Worlds,
Worlds, which
which have other origins.
have other origins. In
In
and solitary
addition, eclectic and of Paganism are differentiated,
solitary traditions of differentiated,
10
10 Introduction

and the overlaps

and the overlaps between Paganism and and the
the New Age and goddess
Age and goddess spir-
spir-
ituality
ituality are explored.
Chapter 99 discusses the
Chapter the roles
roles ofof ethics and politics in
and politics in Paganism. Pagan
Pagan
ethics are most fully fully developed in in relation toto the
the practice of magic but
of magic but
have also
also been articulated in in relation to
to feminism, environmental prob-
prob-
lems, and,
lems, and, toto aa degree,
degree, issues of of cultural appropriation. In In addition, social
norms regarding sexuality,
sexuality, social justice, and pluralism are discussed.
justice, and
While virtually
virtually all political orientations are evident in
all political in the
the Pagan
Pagan spec-
spec-
trum,
trum, certain trends are more pronounced than
than others.
Chapter 10
Chapter 10 speaks
speaks toto aa number of of current issues in in Paganism and Pa-
and Pa-
gan
gan studies. Within Paganism, the the existence of of the
the New New Forest coven and
its possible historical antecedents continues to
its possible to be recently,
be debated. More recently,
the public
the public display
display of of lifestyle
lifestyle choices such as BDSM and and other sexual
choices, as wellwell as thethe use of of illegal drugs, have become topics
illegal drugs, topics of
of debate
Pagan communities, particularly in
within Pagan in relation to the display
to the display of
of these
activities at at public
public festivals. The The growth
growth of of Paganism on the the Internet and
and
the influence of
the of popular
popular media on the the growth
growth of of Paganism are important
contemporary issues for for scholars of of Pagan
Pagan studies, and to
studies, and to a certain extent
for
for practitioners. The The increasing availability of of information on Paganism
and access to
and to Pagan
Pagan discussion groups has has made
made Paganism much more
accessible outside large large cities than previously. Television programs, juve- juve-
nile fiction,
nile fiction, and
and movies featuring Pagan
movies featuring Pagan characters
characters havehave contributed
contributed to to aa
popular fascination with Wicca,
popular Wicca, which some practitioners feel feel commer-
cializes andand trivializes Paganism as aa religion.religion.
Chapter 1111 gives
Chapter gives aa brief
brief history
history of of Pagan
Pagan studies,
studies, discusses current
methods of of study,
study, and
and delves into into future directions of of development for for
the field.
the field. Many
Many scholars of Pagan studies are also
of Pagan also practitioners, and this this
has forced
has forced them to to become somewhat innovative in their methods of
in their of
study. Participant observation, the
study. the favored method of of anthropologists
and ethnographers, has
and been found to
has been to bebe inadequate to to describe thethe
worldviews and religiousreligious experiences of of contemporary Pagans. Pagans. Ethnog-
Ethnog-
raphers in
raphers in particular
particular are pioneering new ways of of accounting for for how Pa-Pa-
gans see the the world, ways that that are fair
fair to Pagans and are true to
to Pagans to their ac-
tual experiences, rather than
tual than dismissing
dismissing them as
as fraudulent, fanciful,
fanciful, or
escapist fantasy.
fantasy.

NOTES

1.
1, Because this
this isis an introductory text,
text, it
it inevitably makes aa number of of generalizations.
generalizations.
Pagan traditions and
Pagan and practitioners are quite
quite diverse, and
and counterexample
counterexampless can undoubtedly
be
be found for
for any
any generalization made about Pagans Pagans or Paganism. This does not negate negate the
the
accuracy of
of the
the general
general comments II make. ItIt should
should be noted, however, that
be noted, that the
the general
general com-
ments II make about Pagans Pagans and Paganism apply
and Paganism apply primarily toto Paganism in in the
the English-
English-
 Introduction 11
11

speaking
speaking world. Paganism has developed somewhat differently inin places
has developed places such
such as Eastern
Europe.
Europe. See, for example, Adrian Ivakhiv,
See, for Ivakhiv, “In
“In Search
Search ofof Deeper Neopaganism and
Deeper Identities: Neopaganism and
‘Native Faith’ in in Contemporary Ukraine,” Nova Religio: Religio: The
The Journal
Journal ofof Alternative and
and Emer-
gent Religions
gent Religions 8,
8, no. 33 (March
(March 2005):
2005): 7-38.
2.2. Helen Berger,
Berger, Evan A. and Leigh
A. Leach, and Leigh S.
S. Shaffer, Voices
Voices from the Pagan
from the Pagan Census: AA Na-
Na-
Survey of
tional Survey of Witches and
and Neo-Pagans inin the States (Columbia: University of
the United States of South
Press, 2003),
Carolina Press, 2003), 31;
31; Sabina Magliocco, Witching
Witching Culture: Folklore and and Neo-Paganism in in
America (Philadelphia: University
University of Press, 2004),
of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), 62.
62.
3.
3. James R. Lewis,
James R. Lewis, “Appendix: Numbering Neo-Pagans,” in in The
The Encyclopedia ofof Modern
Witchcraft and
Witchcraft and Neo-Paganism, ed. ed. Shelly
Shelly Rabinovitch and James Lewis,
and James Lewis, 303-5 (New York:
Citadel, 2002).
2002).
4. Lewis,
4. Lewis, “Appendix,”
“Appendix,” 303.
303.
5.5. See
See Berger,
Berger, Leach,
Leach, and from the
and Shaffer, Voices from Pagan Census.
the Pagan
6.
6. Ronald Hutton, The The Triumph
Triumph of
of the
the Moon: AA History
History of
of Modern Pagan
Pagan Witchcraft
Witchcraft (Oxford:
Oxford University Press,
Press, 1999),
1999), 4.
4.
7. See, for
7. See, for example,
example, Michael York,
York, Pagan Theology: Paganism as aa World Religion
Pagan Theology: (New
Religion (New
York: New
York: New York University Press,
York University 2003).
Press, 2003).
8.8. See
See York, Pagan Theology, 10.
York, Pagan 10.
9. For Iceland statistics, see Michael Strmiska,
9. For Strmiska, “Asatru in
in Iceland: Asatruarfélagid,”
Asatrtarfélagid,” in
in
The of Modern Witchcraft
The Encyclopedia of Witchcraft and
and Neo-Paganism, ed. Shelley Rabinovitch and
ed. Shelley and James
James
Lewis, 16 York: Citadel, 2002).
16 (New York: 2002). For New Zealand,
For New Zealand, see Kathryn
Kathryn Rountree, Embracing
Embracing the
the
Witch and
and the
the Goddess: Feminist Ritual-Makers in
in New
New Zealand (London: Routledge, 2004),
2004), 7-8.
7-8.
For
For Canadian statistics, see Statistics Canada, 2001 Census, Statistics Canada website,
Canada, 2001
http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/highlight/Religion/PR_Menul.
http:/ /www12.statcan.ca/english/census01 /products/highlight/Religion/PR_Menul.
cfm?Lang=E (accessed March 1,1, 2004).
2004).
10. Sian
10. Lee MacDonald Reid,
Sfan Lee Reid, Disorganized Religion:
Religion: An of the
An Exploration of Craft in
the Neopagan Craft in
Canada (Doctoral thesis,
thesis, Carleton University, Ottawa, 2001), 71.
Ottawa, 2001), 71.
11. Hughes
11. Hughes Philip
Philip and
and Sharon Bond,
Bond, “The status and
and increased following of
of Nature Reli-
gions in Australia,” On
gions in On Line
Line Opinion: Australia’s E-Journal ofof Social
Social and
and Political Debate,
Debate, Sep-
Sep-
tember 29,
29, 2003,
2003, www.onlineopinion.com.au/view.asp?article=756 (accessed March 1, 1, 2004),
2004),
edited version of of an article first
first published
published in the Christian Research Association bulletin,
in the
Pointers 13,
13, no. 22 (June
June 2003).
2003). These numbers do not include indigenous
do not indigenous animism, which has
has
aa distinct category
category on thethe census. On On the
the 2001
2001 census form,
form, 10,632 Pagan,
10,632 self-identified as Pagan,
and 8,755
8,755 as Wiccan or Witch. HughesHughes andand Bond did did not provide numbers for for Druids and
and
pantheists. Thanks to to Mandy Furney for
Mandy Furney for referring this
this article to
to me.
12. Margot
12. Margot Adler’s follow-up survey for for the
the revised edition of her Drawing Down the
of her the
Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and and Other Pagans
Pagans inin America Today,
Today, revised and
and
expanded ed. Press, 1986).
ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1986).
13. Aiden Kelly,
13. Kelly, cited inin James
James R.R. Lewis, Magical Religion and
Magical Religion and Modern Witchcraft (Albany:
(Albany:
State
State University of
of New York Press, 1996),
York Press, 1996), 2.
2.
14. Berger, A A Community of
14. Helen Berger, of Witches (Columbia: University of of South Carolina Press,
Press,
1999),
1999), 9;9; Sarah Pike,
Pike, Earthly
Earthly Bodies, Magical Selves:
Bodies, Magical Selves: Contemporary Pagans
Pagans and
and the
the Search for
for Com-
munity (Berkeley:
munity University of
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001);
California Press, 2001); Danny Jorgensen, Lin
Danny Jorgensen, Jorgensen, and
Lin Jorgensen, and
Scott Russell, “American Neopaganism: The The Participants’ Social Identities,” Journal
Journal for the
for the
Scientific Study
Scientific Study of
of Religion 38 (1999): 325-38. The latter researchers indicate that
Religion 38 that there may be be
twice asas many practitioners as the the 200,000 they
they estimate.
15. Lewis,
15. Lewis, “Appendix,” 304.
16.
16. Charlotte Hardman and and Graham Harvey, eds., Paganism Today
Harvey, eds., Today (London: Thorsons
[HarperCollins], 1996), ix.
1996), ix.
17. BBC
17. BBC Online Network,
Network, “UK
“UK Pagans
Pagans Celebrate as Soar,” BBC
as Numbers Soar,” BBC Online Network,
Network, Oc-
Oc-
tober 31,
tober 31, 1999,
1999, 16:06 GMT,
GMT, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/500484.stm (accessed March 1,
12
12 Introduction

2004). Unfortunately the

2004). the news report
report does
does not cite
cite the
the study
study by
by name or author,
author, and
and II have
have
been unable to
to identify
identify it.
it. Thanks to Cat McEarchern for
to Cat for drawing
drawing this to my
this article to my attention.
18. Ronald Hutton, cited in
18. Wendy Griffin, ed.,
in Wendy ed., Daughters ofof the
the Goddess: Studies of of Healing,
Healing,
Identity, and
Identity, and Empowerment (Walnut Creek,
Creek, CA:
CA: AltaMira, 2000), 14.
2000), 14.
19.
19. BBC Online Network, “UK Pagans
Pagans Celebrate.”
20.
20. York,
York, Pagan Theology, 157.
Pagan Theology, 157.
21.
21. Barbara Jane
Jane Davy,
Davy, “Nature Religion,”
Religion,” in
in The
The Encyclopedia of
of Religion
Religion and Nature, ed.
and Nature, ed.
Bron Taylor,
Taylor, 2:1173-75 (London: Continuum International, 2005).
2005).
 ook
ook
Beliefs

co
pas has no standard
has no standard creed or or official
official system
system ofof doctrines,
doctrines, and
and Pa-
Pa-
gans tend to
gans to eschew dogma.
dogma. Consequently, Pagans Pagans believe widely
widely di-
di-
vergent things
vergent things about the In part,
the world. In part, this
this diversity isis caused byby the lack
the lack
of any single
of any single authoritative text or revelation foundingfounding the the religion.
religion. In-
In-
of aa single
stead of single holy book, there
holy book, there are hundreds of of how-to books available
for Pagan
for Pagan practitioners, some makingmaking claims to to legitimacy or authority
authority in in
terms of the author’s Craft lineage,
of the lineage, family
family teaching, experi-
teaching, or revelatory experi-
although Pagan
ence. However, although Pagan beliefs vary
vary from one individual to to an-
other, and
other, and across denominations, there
there are general
general trends in their basic
in their basic
cosmology, or worldview, concerning their
cosmology, their beliefs about the the universe and
and
the place
the place of of humans and
and others within
within it. Probably the
it. Probably the most common fea- fea-
ture of Pagan belief isis its
of Pagan its plurality:
plurality: Pagans
Pagans believe aa varietyvariety of
of things
things
about divinity,
divinity, what forms it it can take,
take, and how humans should relate
and how
with it, it, and they are tolerant of
and they of aa diversity
diversity of of opinion
opinion about these thingsthings
among their coreligionists. Many Many practitioners feel feel that
that what theythey believe
isis not as important as what what they
they do do as Pagans, but itit is
Pagans, but is useful to
to examine
beliefs in in studying Paganism and
studying Paganism and its
its practitioners.
In general,
In general, Pagans
Pagans tend to
to be
be polytheists, meaning
meaning that that they
they believe di-
di-
vinity to take
vinity to take multiple They believe in
multiple forms. They in aa variety of goddesses and
variety of and
gods and other
gods and other divine beings.
beings. They
They also
also tend
tend to think of
to think of divinity
divinity as im-
im-
manent, dwelling
dwelling within rather than
than being
being transcendent of—that is, is, out-
side of
side of or apart
apart from—the natural world. Although Paganism has
Although Paganism has aa ten-
dency toward
dency aa romantic view of Pagan worldviews
of nature, Pagan have aa
number of
of features in
in common with
with late
late modernity, particularly evident
in
in their and sense of
their eclecticism and of play, but also
play, but in their
also in their values of
of democracy,
democracy,

13
13
14
14 Chapter
Chapter 11

feminist empowerment, ethnic diversity, and equality. Most Pagans

and equality. Pagans ex-
hibit aa belief
hibit belief inin reincarnation and
and conceive of
of death as aa necessary aspect
aspect
of the
of the cycles
cycles of
of life.
life. Another common component of of Pagan
Pagan worldviews is is
a belief in in the
the efficacy
efficacy of of magic
magic and spell casting.
and spell casting.
Pagans think of
Pagans divinity not
of divinity not only
only in in terms of of gods
gods and and goddesses, but but
also as appearing in
also in various other forms. Thus Thus Paganism is well defined
is well
as “an“an affirmation of of interactive and polymorphic sacred relationship by by
individual or community with the tangible, sentient, and
the tangible, and nonempirical.”?
nonempirical.”!
The divine is
The is something that that Pagans
Pagans interact with in in aa variety
variety of of ways,
through
through its its various forms. In In Paganism, there are male and and female deities, deities,
and some deities for
and for whom gender gender is not aa useful
is not useful category, being being either
androgynous and having characteristics both
and having both male
male and and female,
female, or not not be-
be-
ing gendered
ing gendered at at all.
all. InIn discussing Paganism, then, then, itit isis not accurate to to
speak
speak of of gods
gods when discussing deities in general. “Deity”
in general. “Deity” isis aa nonspecific
word for for divine beings,
beings, goddesses and and gods,
gods, and and thethe God
God and and the the God-
dess. “Divinity” isis a a more generic
dess. generic word for for the sacred, not necessarily
the sacred,
quantifiable as aa distinct being being or classclass of of beings.
beings. “Thealogy” and and “theol-
ogy” are terms for
ogy” for thethe study
study of of deity.
deity. “Theology” is is the
the more common
term, initially meaning
term, initially meaning writingswritings about about the the gods,
gods, and,and, later,
later, god god in in the
the
monotheistic sense of of the
the one and and only
only God. “Thealogy” isis aa term used used by by
practitioners, and and in religious studies, to
in religious to describe studies of of female divin-
ity.2 “Theoilogy,” or “polytheology,” are possible
ity. possible generic
generic terms for the
for the
study
study of goddesses and
of goddesses gods in
and gods the plural.
in the plural.?
Pagan
Pagan relations with with divinity
divinity are not focused on belief or worship. Prac-
titioners generally
generally feel feel that
that belief in in divinity
divinity is is not a useful way of of look-
ing atat Pagan
ing Pagan religious practice, pointing to
religious practice, to the
the strangeness of of the idea that
the idea that
one must “believe” in in something to to relate to to it. To demonstrate the
it. To the inap-
inap-
propriateness of of the
the question
question of of belief,
belief, Starhawk points points to to thethe idea
idea of of be-
be-
lieving in
lieving in rocks. They They simply
simply are what they they are, regardless of of what hu- hu-
mans
mans think about them. This This attitude toward belief can be be explained,
tongue in in cheek,
cheek, by by quoting the the popular
popular novelist Terry Terry Pratchett: “Most
witches don’t believe in in gods.
gods. TheyThey know that that they
they exist,
exist, of of course. They They
even deal with them occasionally. But But they
they don’t believe in in them. They They
know them too well. It It would be be like
like believing
believing in the postman.”4
in the postman.” While
some Pagans
Pagans suggest that respectful relations, rather than “worship,”
that respectful “worship,” are
appropriate, others do do worship their their god/desses. Some Asatruar and
Druids referrefer to to them as “the “the high
high ones” or “the “the bright
bright ones,” feeling feeling thatthat
it
it isis appropriate to to honor the god/desses,
the god /desses, to praise them, in
to praise them, in order to to win
win
their friendship and support.> Many Many Pagans
Pagans leave offeringsofferings such as fruit, fruit,
grains,
grains, and and flowers,
flowers, whichwhich might might be interpreted as
be interpreted worship, or
as worship, or simply
simply as as
leaving
leaving gifts.
gifts.
Theism, meaning
meaning belief in in God (or (or god /desses), thus may not be
god /desses), be aa very
very
useful way of of looking
looking at at Pagan
Pagan relations with divinity. divinity. Belief in in divinity
divinity is
 Beliefs
Beliefs 15
15

Figure 2.
Figure 2. (press photo)
Starhawk (press photo)

not necessary for being Pagan,

for being Pagan, butbut practitioners usually
usually feel
feel that
that itit is
is pos-
sible for
sible for anyone to
to meet a deity
a deity or to
to encounter the
the divine. Such
Such encoun-
ters need notnot bebe mediated by by clergy
clergy or by by dogmatic
dogmatic ideas about what di- di-
vinity
vinity should be like. Pagans
be like. Pagans trust their own experiences above all
all else. In
else. In
general, Pagans
general, Pagans believe that divinity
that divinity occurs in
in many forms,
forms, which may all
may all
be
be expressions of of a single reality, or which may
single reality, may each be unique beings,
be unique beings, not
all of
all of them deities. Pagans
Pagans do do not necessarily conceive of of divinities as be- be-
ing supernatural or above humans. Divinities can be
ing be “more than than human”
in the
in the way
way that
that a cat is is a a more-than-human being. Not all
being. Not all other-than-hu-
beings are gods
man beings gods or goddesses. Pagans Pagans understand some of these be-
of these be-
ings
ings inin other terms, such such as landwights, boggarts, boggarts, faeries, or “the good
“the good
people.” Landwights are local
people.” local nature spirits,
spirits, and
and boggarts
boggarts are house-
dwelling spirits,
dwelling spirits, while faeries might might be be of
of either type.
type. These beingsbeings are

tarhawk isis aa prominent American Witch andand author of

of The
The Spiral
Spiral
Dance, one of of the
the most popular
popular how-to books inin Paganism.
Paganism. For
For
more information on Starhawk and other prominent Pagans,
and other Pagans, see
chapter
chapter 7.7.
16
16 Chapter
Chapter 11

often understood to to be
be corporeal, but
but not in the same manner as humans.
in the
They might be
They might be described as other-than-human persons.
The anthropologist A.
The A. Irving
Irving Hallowell developed the phrase “other-
the phrase
than-human persons” to to describe the
the understanding of of persons byby the
the
Ojibwa people
Ojibwa people hehe studied. He
He suggested that, for the Ojibwa
that, for the Ojibwa he he studied,
not everything isis always
always aa person, butbut many more things
things could bebe aa per-
per-
son for
for them than for
for most Westerners. He He once asked a man ifif allall stones
are alive.
are alive. After
After some thought, the
some thought, the man
man replied,
replied, “No!
“No! But
But some
some are.” Hal-
are.” Hal-
thus formed the
lowell thus the hypothesis that
that the
the people he was studying
people he studying be-
be-
lieved that things have the
that many more things the potential to be animate beings
to be beings than
than
just
just humans.° Contemporary Pagans
Pagans often
often see the
the world as animate in in aa
similar fashion. This sort of
of perception of of the
the world isis sometimes called
“animism,” indicating aa belief that all things
that all things are living
living beings
beings or may pos-
pos-
sibly be
sibly be “ensouled.” However, Pagans
Pagans dodo not conceive of of “souls” as ani-
mating material bodies in
mating any consistent manner. In
in any fact,
In fact, the idea
the idea that
that
matter needs aa soul
soul isis repugnant to Pagans, since this
to some Pagans, this implies
implies a de-
de-
of the
valuation of the material world,
world, as though
though itit needs toto be
be animated byby
something transcendent of of it.
it.
Some Pagans
Pagans perceive
perceive nature spirits,
spirits, or local
local land
land spirits,
spirits, called “land-
wights,” or landvettir in
in Norse traditions, as other-than-human people.
people.
Nature spirits
spirits are beings
beings who share aa human territory, helping or hinder-
territory, helping
ing depending on the
ing the respect
respect given
given to to them
them byby humans, and and on whim. In In
the study
the study of religion, these
of religion, these beings
beings are sometimes referred to by the
to by the Latin
genii loci,
term genii loci, meaning spirits
spirits of
of place.
place. Pagans
Pagans also
also refer
refer to
to such
such beings
beings as
faeries, “little people,”
faeries, people,” or “the
“the good
good folk.”
folk.” These terms, as well well as the
the
names “brownies” and and “boggarts” are drawn from English English folklore.’
Brownies and and boggarts tend to to be
be associated with houses, while the the oth-
oth-
ers are more likely to be
likely to be found outside or are associated with features of
of
the land,
the land, such as hills
hills or barrows. Some
Some Pagans
Pagans use the
the Native American
meaning “little mysteries,” to
term manitous, meaning to refer to
to some nature spirits.
spirits.
In general,
In general, nature spirits
spirits are associated with particular trees, rocks, or
trees, rocks,
bodies ofof water. Some practitioners call call water spirits
spirits “nixies,” earth
earth spir-
spir-
its
its “gnomes,” and rock spirits
and rock Believing in
spirits “trolls.” Believing spirits makes
in nature spirits
the
the world aa more meaningful place place for Pagans, aa world filled with mys-
for Pagans, mys-
tery
tery rather than
than just
just real
real estate and
and suburbs. For For some Pagans,
Pagans, especially
Asatruar andand some Druids, nature spirits may be
spirits may be just
just as important
important in in rit-
rit-
ual,
ual, or more so, than the
so, than the god/desses. Practitioners may
may find
find it
it more nec-
essary, for example, to
for example, to invite local
local nature spirits
spirits and to to obtain the
the permis-
permis-
sion of
of landwights toto hold aa ritual than itit isis to
to address thethe god
god /desses.8
/desses.®
How Pagans
Pagans think about nature spirits
spirits isis often influenced by by novels
more than by by formal theology.
theology. Terri Windling’s novel The The Wood WifeWife and
and
Charles de de Lint’s short-story collection TheThe Ivory and the
Ivory and the Horn,
Horn, for
for exam-
ple,
ple, describe relations with other-than-human
other-than-human beings that have influenced
beings that influenced
 Beliefs
Beliefs 17
17

my own thoughts
my about and
thoughts about and perceptions of of such entities. In
In Windling’s
novel, the
novel, the protagonist, Maggie,
Maggie, learns that
that the
the extraordinary beings
beings she
she
meets are
are not created
created in her interaction with
in her with them,
them, but the form
but the form they
they take
take
depends
depends on whowho isis interacting with
with them. Reading
Reading this
this novel encourages
Pagans
Pagans toto think about how nature spirits spirits come into into being
being in part through
in part through
one’s belief in them, while their existence isis not wholly
in them, wholly dependent on hu- hu-
mans. Pagans
Pagans mightmight believe in in them in in part
part simply
simply because they they like
like the
the
idea, but this
idea, but this does not necessarily mean that that nature spirits
spirits are simply
simply pro-pro-
jections of
jections of the
the psyche,
psyche, even though
though one’s thoughts about them contribute
to
to how one experiences them. Windling Windling conveys aa useful analogy analogy in in the
the
protagonist’s conversation with with aa character called Fox, Fox, between the the way
way
poetry describes aa landscape and
poetry and the way one perceives other-than-hu-
the way
man persons, emphasizing the way significance takes
the way takes form through
through in- in-
teraction.’
teraction.? The The perception of of nature spirits
spirits isis somewhat dependent on
one’s belief in in them,
them, but this is
but this is in fact part
in fact part of
of everyday perception of other
of other
humans and and thethe world inin general.
general. One One cannot interact with another if if one
does not regard
does not regard them as real. real.
In de
In de Lint’s stories set set in
in the
the fictional city
city ofof Newford, the the characters
learn
learn to
to see people
people whowho are sometimes animals, and and other “little
“little myster-
myster-
ies.” In the
ies.” In the story “Bird Bones
story “Bird Bones and and Wood Ash,” one
Wood Ash,” one character
character asks
asks another
another
if she has
if she has to
to believe in
in the
the fairies
fairies to
to see them, and the
them, and the other
other character
replies,
replies, “Land’s sakes no. ..... . TheyThey have to to believe inin you.”
you.” She
She explains,
explains,
“It’s like
“It’s like this
this .. . You
You don’t think of of them as prissy little creatures with
prissy little with
wings. That’s plain
wings. plain wrong. They’re earth spirits—and
They’re earth spirits—and theythey don’t
don’t really
really
shapes of
have shapes of their own; they just show up
they just up looking
looking the
the way we expect
expect
them to to look.”!° AsAs in
in Windling’s novel, the existence of
novel, the of these entities isis
not wholly
not wholly dependent on human belief—they do do not exist only projec-
only as projec-
tions of the mind, but
of the but one’s beliefs about them do do influence how
how one per-per-
ceives them, fails to
them, or fails to perceive
perceive them.
Other Pagans
Pagans feel
feel differently
differently about the the independent existence of of nature
spirits and
spirits and other forms of of divinity.
divinity. There is is a certain amount of of ambiguity
in Pagan
in thought about whether or not deities have
Pagan thought have an existence external
to what
to what humans
humans think
think about
about them.
them. The
The divinities
divinities are
are understood,
understood, even
even by
by
Pagans, as both
individual Pagans, both within humans andand as independent forces.
Some accept
accept aa psychological explanation and regard
regard god/desses and and na-
spirits as mental projections.
ture spirits projections. Some find
find it to act
it appropriate to act as
though the deities are real
though the real because they
they might
might be,
be, while others are certain
that the god/desses have
that the have external existences as individual personalities.
Pagans may practice
Pagans practice a suspension of
of disbelief during ritual, since partici-
during ritual, partici-
pants are not
pants required to
not required faith or belief in
to express faith in divinities, and
and they of-
they of-
ten
ten are skeptical."
skeptical.!! For
For some practitioners, itit isis always
always appropriate to
to act
act
though the
as though the divinities are real,
real, and belief isis largely
and belief largely irrelevant. This is
This is
sometimes regarded
regarded as “deep
“deep play,” in which one pretends
play,” in pretends or acts as
as
18
18 Chapter
Chapter 11

Figure 3.
Figure 3. The Goddess (Goddess altar,
The altar, photo by Catherine Kerr)
photo by Kerr)

though the
though the divinities are real.!2
real.!? For
For many Pagans,
Pagans, particularly women fo-
fo-
cused on the
cused Goddess, the
the Goddess, deities are also
the deities also understood as role
role models or as
as
of strength
representations of strength within oneself.
The
The Goddess isis the aspect or embodiment of
the female aspect the divine. She
of the She is
is
often envisioned in
often in the
the triple
triple form of maiden,
form of maiden, mother,
mother, and
and crone, corre-
sponding
sponding to to the
the three phases
phases ofof women’s lives. This This way
way of of imagining thethe
Goddess isis significant forfor female practitioners, as itit symbolically values
including their experiences of
women’s bodies, including of menstruation and and
menopause, and and of birth and lactation if
of birth if they
they choose to to have
have children.
Goddess images
images also
also value mother-daughter relations and and other
other connec-
tions between women. Female images images of of divinity
divinity sanction women’s
power. AsAs feminist thealogian Carol Christ has has argued,
argued, the the Goddess sym-
“the acknowledgment of
bolizes “the the legitimacy
of the legitimacy of of female power as aa
beneficent and and independent power.”!power.”!> The The Goddess represents the the
strength within women, but
strength but she
she can also be an external source of
also be of comfort
and support. Starhawk explains,
and explains, “When II feel feel weak,
weak, She She isis someone who
help and
can help and protect me. When IIfeel feel strong,
strong, She
She is
is the
the symbol
symbol of of my
my own
power. AtAt other times II feel
feel Her the natural energy in
Her as the in my
my body and the
body and the
world.”'4 She
world.”"4 She can function thisthis way
way for
for men as well,
well, but
but she also rep-
she can also rep-
 Beliefs
Beliefs 19
19

resent the in more sexual terms, and

the female in and more deeply
deeply as mystery: “the
“the
eternally desired Other,
eternally Other, the
the Muse,
Muse, all that he
all that he isis not.’
not.”15
While there isis generally no creator godgod in
in Paganism, sometimes thethe
Goddess is
is understood to to function in
in this
this capacity. More often,
often, the
the God-
dess is
dess is understood as the
the body
body of
of the
the cosmos or the
the Earth. Otter G’Zell
and Morning
and Morning Glory, of the
Glory, of the organization called the
the Church of of All Worlds,
All Worlds,
speak
speak of Earth, and
of Mother Earth, and Gaea,
Gaea, as the
the “All-Mother,” in
in what they
they call
call
“the Gaea thesis,”
“the thesis,” an explicitly
explicitly pantheist understanding of of the
the Earth as aa
living being
living akin to
being akin to James
James Lovelock and and Lynn
Lynn Margulis’ more widely widely
known Gaia hypothesis.'° Lovelock and
Gaia hypothesis.!® and Margulis’
Margulis’ Gaia hypothesis, aa the-the-
ory that
ory that the
the planet
planet is
is aa self-regulating system and
and in
in effect aa living being,
living being,
was first published
was first published in in 1975,
1975, butbut G’Zell
G’Zell indicates that he
indicates that he had
had aa vision
vision ofof
“the unity
“the unity ofof the
the Earth’s planetary biosphere
biosphere as aa single
single organism
organism on the the
evening of
evening of September 6,6, 1970.1”
1970.”17
The
The Goddess isis widely
widely identified with nature in in Paganism.'®
Paganism.'* The The com-
mon liturgy
liturgy ofof the
the Charge
Charge of of the
the Goddess speaks
speaks of of the
the Goddess as “the
soul of nature that
soul of that gives life to
gives life the universe.” Use
to the Use ofof the phrase “the
the phrase “the earth
our mother” is is commonplace among Pagans, Pagans, particularly in in environmen-
tally active groups like
tally like Britain’s Dragon
Dragon Environmental Group,'? Group,!? but but itit
also occurs at
also at mainstream Pagan Pagan gatherings like the Avalon East
like the East festival.
Canadian Maritime Pagans Pagans who who participated in the festival addressed na-
in the
ture not only
only as “Mother Earth” but also as “MARI, Mother Sea.””°
but also In ad-
Sea.”?° In ad-
dition, the
dition, the Goddess isis identified not only only with
with the
the life-giving aspects of of
nature in
nature in regeneration,
regeneration, but but also with “the
also with “the power
power of death.”?! She
of death.”*! “is at
She “is at
once the
once unploughed field,
the unploughed field, the
the full
full harvest and the
harvest and the dormant,
dormant, frost-cov-
frost-cov-
ered Earth.”22 In
ered In the
the Wiccan denomination, nature is is conceived asas “en-
“en-
souled, alive,
souled, alive, ‘divine,’”*>
‘divine,’”*3 but
but not
not only
only as mother or even Goddess. Figures
Figures
such as the
such the Horned God,God, the
the Corn
Corn God,
God, the Man, and
the Green Man, and the
the Sun God
Sun God
are also important. In
also important. In Wicca, nature tends to to be perceived in
be perceived in terms ofof in-
in-
teractions between male and The cycle
and female divinities. The of the
cycle of the seasons isis
linked to
to the
the Goddess’s relations with the through alternately being
the God through being
impregnated by him at
by him at the spring equinox, raising
the spring raising him
him as her
her child
child in
in the
the
summer, andand mourning his his death atat harvest time.
These relations ofof the God with
the God with the
the Goddess in in Wicca are distinguished
sometimes by by splitting
splitting the
the God
God into the
the Holly King and
Holly King Oak King,
and Oak King, as as-
pects of the
pects of the Horned God.
God. TheThe Horned God
God is the lord of the forest, some-
is the lord of the forest,
times portrayed
portrayed as aa stag,
stag, similar to the horned deity
to the deity portrayed
portrayed in in the
the film
film
Princess Mononoke.24 TheThe Horned GodGod isis also
also associated with
with wildness,
virility, and
virility, and the hunt. Unfortunately,
the hunt. Unfortunately, the Horned God
the Horned God has
has been
been associated
associated
with the
the Christian Devil. Early
Early Wiccans associated their image
image of the God
of the
with Margaret
with Margaret Murray’s accounts of of witchcraft in The Witch Cult
in The Cult and The
The
God of the
God of the Witches,
Witches, originally
originally published
published inin the and 1930s. These
the 1920s and
works were immediately criticized by by academics, but they had
but they had a strong
strong
20
20 Chapter
Chapter 11

ibs:

Figure
Figure 4.4. The Horned God
The God (Horned God altar, photo
God altar, photo by
by Lloyd
Lloyd Keane)

emotional appeal
appeal for
for their portrayal
portrayal of the God as aa sexual being.
of the being. Murray
Murray
argued
argued that
that there was a Witch cult, cult, aa surviving pre-Christian religion
religion inin
the
the British Isles. She
She presented thisthis cult
cult inin somewhat negative terms in in the
the
first
first book,
book, but
but celebrated itit in
in the
the second. MurrayMurray came to to believe that
that
witches worshipped aa deity,deity, the
the Horned God, God, who was demonized into
the
the Devil byby Christianity, while really
really their religion was aa joyous,
their religion joyous, life-af-
firming faith. The
firming faith. The Horned God God was initially
initially associated withwith the
the Greek
god Pan
god in England
Pan in England but
but was eclipsed
eclipsed by by the
the Celtic god
god Cernunnos.*
Cernunnos isis the
the Gallic or Celtic godgod of of the
the forest,
forest, associated with
with deer.
deer.
Murray took
Murray took selective evidence of of any
any god
god with horns across EuropeEurope andand

Mex Murray
Mere! Murray was aa British academic, specifically an Egyptolo-Egyptolo-
gist
gist and
and folklorist. Her
Her studies ofof Egyptian
Egyptian culture were well well re-
spected, but
spected, but her
her work on folklore in in Britain was less
less academically
credible. Nonetheless, her writings on folklore were very
her writings very popular
popular and
and
influenced the
the early
early revival ofof Witchcraft inin Britain in the 1940s. For
in the For
more information on Murray
Murray and other literary
and other literary influences on Pagan-
Pagan-
ism, see chapter
ism, chapter 6.
6.
 Beliefs
Beliefs 21
21

the Near East

the East and said they
and said they were all aspects of
all aspects of the
the Horned God,
God, whether
they had stag
they had stag antlers or ram horns. She She assimilated the the invented witch-
craft of the
craft of the witch hunts withwith British folk
folk traditions, linking
linking Robin Hood
and church carvings
carvings with paganism. Murray
Murray interpreted female figures figures in
in
medieval churches as pagan goddesses of of fertility,
fertility, which inspired Lady
inspired Lady
Raglan, a fellow member of
Raglan, of the Society, to
the Folklore Society, to interpret the
the foliate
heads ofof fourteenth- and
and fifteenth-century churches as the god
the vegetation god
described by James Frazer,
by James Frazer, calling
calling such images
images “the
“the Green Man.”26
Man.’”26
Even ifif the
the Green Man and other images
images ofof the
the God are largely
largely modern
creations, they
they are meaningful to Pagans. For
to Pagans. For both male and and female prac-
titioners, the
the Horned GodGod provides an alternative to to patriarchal symbols
symbols
of masculinity. The
of masculinity. The Horned God reenvisions male
male strength,
strength, virility, and
virility, and
power with
with gentleness
gentleness and respect for
and respect for female power. He
He is
is neither macho
nor effeminate. In words, “He
In Starhawk’s words, “He is
is gentle,
gentle, tender,
tender, and
and comfort-
ing, but He
ing, but He is also the
is also the Hunter. He He isis the Dying God—but his
the Dying his death is al-
is al-
ways in in service ofof the life force.
the life force. HeHe isis untamed sexuality—but sexuality
sexuality
as
as aa deep,
deep, holy,
holy, connecting power. He He isis the
the power of feeling, and
of feeling, the im-
and the im-
age
age ofof what men could be be ifif they
they were liberated from
from the
the constraints of of
patriarchal culture.”?’
culture.”?7
Images
Images of
of the
the Green Man,
Man, and
and those of Pan,
those of Pan, have
have influenced contem-
of the
porary understandings of God, but
the Horned God, but Pagans
Pagans stress that
that the
the
Horned God
God should not be be associated with
with the
the Christian Devil. Pan
Pan is
is the
the
Greek god
god of
of nature, aa figure with the
figure with the legs of aa goat,
legs of goat, the body of
the upper body of aa
man, and
and ram’s
ram’s horns. Pan
Pan isis imaged
imaged as wild,
wild, exciting,
exciting, and
and disturbing. He
disturbing. He
isis associated with
with “pandemonium” and and “panic,”
“panic,” words derived from from the
the
feelings
feelings he he incites. He
He was relatively unimportant in
in modern times until
he was celebrated in
he in the
the poetry
poetry of of English Romantics such as
Wordsworth, Keats, Keats, and
and Shelley.
Shelley. In
In their work, he
their work, he was presented as the the
personification and and guardian
guardian of the English
of the English countryside as imagined by by
urbanites on holiday:
holiday: aa pleasant
pleasant land
land where it is always
it is always summer and
and
where agricultural work is is invisible.?* HeHe appears in in this
this form
form inin Kenneth
Grahame’s children’s book The The Wind inin the
the Willows. Through
Through the the popular-
popular-
ity of
ity of such
such images
images in in the early 1900s in
the early in England, pantheism became Pan-
theism, thethe belief inin the
the god Pan as lord
god Pan lord of nature.” In
of nature.’ In the
the 1900s,
1900s, Pan was
imaged as aa horned god
imaged god ofof nature, sometimes with with goat goat legs and horns,
legs and horns,
sometimes as part stag. Goats,
part stag. Goats, in culture, have
in Western culture, have long
long been associ-
been associ-
ated with lust,
ated lust, and
and Pan thus
thus served as aa challenge to to Victorian prudery,
prudery,
providing an alternative vision of of male divinity
divinity to
to the
the nonsexual Christ-
ian God.
ian God. Aleister Crowley's
Crowley’s “Hymn
“Hymn to to Pan,” for example,
Pan,” for example, presents
presents Pan inin
terms ofof ravenous sexuality.”
sexuality.°°
Pagans associate not only
Pagans Pan with forests and nature, but
only Pan but also
also the
the
goddess
goddess Diana, following
following aa related evolution of of the
the deity
deity through
through En-
En-
glish
glish Romanticism. Diana was a symbol symbol of of chastity
chastity and hunting in in
22
22 Chapter 11
Chapter

Roman culture, as well in Greek culture,

as in
well as culture, in she was known as
in which she as
she came to
Britain, she
In Britain,
Artemis. In be associated with
to be the moon, wild
with the ani-
wild ani-
mals, and
mals, and the greenwood (the
the greenwood (the British of natural areas
sense of
British sense enchanted
as enchanted
areas as
leafy glades
leafy glades inhabited by elves or faeries). By
by elves By about 1810, 1810, she
she had
had
evolved into
into aa mother-earth figure in the
figure in the works of
of the
the English
English Roman-
tics,
tics, most often approached at night through
at night the moon, in
through the in the
the woods.*!
woods.?!
Pagans
Pagans sometimes understand Diana as a name of the
of the Goddess and as-
and
sociate her
her with
with Aradia, the goddess
the goddess named in
in Charles G.
G. Leland’s
Aradia: or the
the Gospel
Gospel of
of the
the Witches. Aradia, seriously as folk-
Aradia, never taken seriously
lore in
lore in Italy or the
Italy or States, isis aa collection of
the United States, of spells,
spells, charms,
charms, and
and
liturgy, gathered
liturgy, gathered in 1886, Leland said,
in 1886, said, through
through the help of
the help of aa hereditary
witch, Maddelena,
witch, who
who had lore from
had collected lore the strega,
from the strega, or Italian
witches. ItIt includes aa creation story
story of fooling Lucifer into father-
of Diana fooling
ing
ing Aradia,
Aradia, who becomes the the savior ofof the
the witches. Eventually,
Eventually, this
this
work provided inspiration for the Charge
for the Charge of the Goddess, which was
of the
in verse form
written in form byby Doreen Valiente. Starhawk adapted
adapted this
this com-
prose version of
mon prose of the
the Charge:
Charge:

Listen to the words

to the words of
of the
the Great
Great Mother, of old
Mother, who of old was called
called Artemis, As-
As-
tarte, Dione,
tarte, Dione, Melusine, Aphrodite, Ceridwen, Diana,
Diana, Arionrhod, Brigid,
Brigid, and
and
by many other names:
by many
“Whenever you have need of
you have of anything, once in in the
the month, and and better itit
be when the
be the moon isis full,full, you shall assemble in
you shall in some secret place place and
and adore
the spirit
the spirit of of Me
Me who who is is Queen of of all the Wise. You
all the You shall be be free
free from slav-
ery, and
ery, and as aa sign sign that you you bebe free
free you
you shall be be naked in your rites.
in your rites. Sing,
Sing,
feast, dance,
feast, dance, makemake music music and love, all
and love, all inin My
My presence,
presence, for for Mine
Mine is is the ec-
the ec-
stasy of
stasy the spirit
of the spirit and Mine also also isis joy
joy on earth. For For My My lawlaw isis the
the cup
cup ofof
wine of life that
of life that isis the
the Cauldron of of Ceridwen that that isis the
the holy
holy grail
grail of im-
of im-
mortality. II give
mortality. give thethe knowledge of of the spirit eternal and
the spirit beyond death II give
and beyond give
peace and and freedom and and reunion with those that that have gone before. Nor do do I|
demand aught aught of of sacrifice, for for behold, II am the the mother of of all
all things
things and and MyMy
love isis poured
poured upon the the earth.”
Hear the the words of the Star
of the Star Goddess, the the dust
dust ofof whose feet feet are thethe hosts of of
heaven, whose body body encircles the the universe:
“I
“I who am the the beauty
beauty of the green earth and
of the and thethe white moon among the the
stars and and thethe mysteries of the waters, II call
of the call upon your soul soul toto arise and come
arise and
unto me. For For II am the the soul
soul ofof nature that gives life to
gives life to the
the universe. From Me Me
all things proceed
all things proceed and and unto Me Me they
they must return. Let Let MyMy worship be be in
in the
the
heart that that rejoices, for for behold—all acts of love and pleasure are My
of love My rituals.
Let
Let there
there be be beauty
beauty and and strength,
strength, power and compassion, honor and and humil-
ity, mirth and
ity, and reverence within you. you. And
And you you who
who seekseek toto know Me, Me, know
that your
that seeking and
your seeking and yearning
yearning will will avail you you not,
not, unless you you know the Mys-
the Mys-
tery:
tery: for for ifif that
that which
which you you seek,
seek, you find not within yourself, you will
you find will never
find
find it it without. For behold, II have
For behold, have been
been withwith you
you from the the beginning, and and II
am thatthat which isis attained at the end
at the end of desire.”
of desire.”22
 Beliefs
Beliefs 23
23

Whatever its its origin,

origin, the
the Charge
Charge isis an inspiring
inspiring piece
piece of liturgy for
of liturgy for many
Pagans
Pagans and and can lead
lead toto powerful
powerful experiences in in ritual. Margot
Margot Adler re-
lates that
lates that when she first heard this
she first this liturgy,
liturgy, “A “A feeling of power and
feeling of and emo-
tion came over me. me.... . . . The
The contents of of the
the tape
tape had simply given
had simply given me per-per-
mission toto accept
accept a part
part of of my
my own psyche
psyche thatthat II had
had denied forfor years—and
then
then extend it.”
For Asatruar, the
For the deities have more distinct personas and less likely
and are less likely
than inin other
other Pagan
Pagan denominations to be seen as aspects of
to be the God
of the God or
Goddess. Odin, for
Odin, for example,
example, isis envisioned as the
the All-father, but other
but other
gods in the
gods in the Norse pantheon are not usually
usually thought of as aspects
thought of aspects of
of him.
Rather they
they are friends,
friends, lovers,
lovers, comrades, or
or enemies. The gythia,
The gythia, or
Asatru priestess, Diana Paxson describes Odin as one of
of the
the three
three most
prominent godsgods in the northern European pantheon (the
in the (the others being
being
Thor and Freyr).
Freyr). Odin is is the god of
the All-father, a multifaced god of poetry and
and ec-
stasy, and the
stasy, and the giver
giver of
of the
the runes.*4 However, Freya
Freya Aswynn, an Asatruar
dedicated toto Odin,
Odin, suggests that has different aspects.
that Odin has aspects. She
She prefers to
prefers to
call
call him “Wodan,” and and she
she regards
regards the spellings as referring
the different spellings referring to
to
different aspects ofof the god. Aswynn
the god. Aswynn suggests thatthat “Odin” isis “Wodan” “in“in
aa bad mood,” aa god
bad mood,” god of battle. She
of battle. She describes Odin in three
Odin in three forms: Odin,
Odin,
Villi, and
Villi, and Ve,
Ve, corresponding respectively toto his his roles as warrior, shaman,
and wanderer.
wanderer.** However, she she does
does not interpret
interpret other Norse deities as
aspects
aspects of of Odin. Odin isis best best known for for hanging
hanging on the the world tree,tree,
Yggdrasil,
Ygegdrasil, for for nine days;
days; sacrificing one of of his
his eyes;
eyes; and
and thus gaining
thus gaining
knowledge of of the
the runes (a(a magical
magical alphabet) and charms (things (things toto say to
say to
achieve goals
goals magically).
magically).
Yggdrasil, as the the world tree,
tree, serves as aa model of the cosmos in
of the in Norse
mythology. Some Pagans, Pagans, having
having been influenced by by writings
writings in in com-
parative religion, principally those of
parative of Joseph
Joseph Campbell and and Mircea Eli- Eli-
ade, envision the
ade, organized into
the cosmos as organized into three realms linked by by aa ver-
tical axis,
tical often symbolized by
axis, often by aa tree. Eliade describes the the worldview of of
shamanism in in this
this manner as aa three-tiered universe having having aa dark un-
derworld at at the
the bottom, the regular mundane human world in
the regular in the
the mid-
dle, and
dle, and aa light-filled heavenly world above. Pagans Pagans might
might be be more
likely to
likely of these as the
to conceive of the underworld, middle earth,
earth, and the as-
and the
tral plane,
tral plane, with
with fewer associations of of dark and
and light for the
light for the underworld
and the
and the astral. Some envision these
these as the
the three principle realms of
principle of
Norse mythology described in in relation to the
to the world tree Yggdrasil,
rooted inin earth,
earth, standing
standing inin the
the here
here and
and now, and with with branches reach-
ing into the sky. In
ing into the sky. In thisthis cosmology, earth is the
is the underworld, where the
the
dead go, at least
go, at least those who have not died in
in battle. (Norse mythology
actually
actually has
has aa cosmology composed
composed of
of nine realms, three in each of
in each of
these basic divisions.) Many
Many Pagans have an integrated
Pagans have integrated sense of the cos-
of the
mos, without making
making aa sharp
sharp separation between the the realm
realm ofof the
the
24
24 Chapter
Chapter 11

god/desses and the realm of

and the of humans. Even
Even in
in the
the Norse cosmology, the
the
god/desses interact with people in all
people in all the
the realms.
Perhaps the
Perhaps the greatest unifying
unifying feature of of Pagan
Pagan beliefs about the the struc-
ture of
of the
the universe is is immanence, the the belief that
that divinity
divinity isis embodied in in
the
the world. Pagans
Pagans believe that the
that the sacred is
is inherent in the
in the natural world,
world,
meaning that
meaning that divinity
divinity dwells within the the physical
physical universe. This This isis in
in con-
trast toto aa cosmology of of transcendence, in in which divinity
divinity isis thought
thought to to re-
side outside or beyond
side beyond the the physical
physical universe, so that God isis a supernat-
that God
ural entity.
ural entity. The
The sacred isis not understood as the the opposite of the profane
of the profane in in
Paganism. To To aa large
large degree
degree in Pagan worldviews, nothing
in Pagan nothing is profane,
is profane,
and everything
and everything is is sacred. “Ordinary” and and “extraordinary” are better
terms for for speaking
speaking of of the way Pagans
the way Pagans understand sacrality and and the
the man-
ifestation of of divinity
divinity than “profane” and
than “profane” and “supernatural.” When Pagans Pagans
create sacred space, they they mark itit as set set apart
apart from the the ordinary, but but with-
out devaluing the the ordinary
ordinary or hypervaluing the the sacred space. For For exam-
ple, Wiccans create sacred space in
ple, in ritual by by casting
casting aa circle,
circle, envisioned
as aa sphere
sphere formed with with a circle traced on the the ground
ground or floorfloor as its
its hor-
hor-
izontal circumference. This This sphere
sphere holds energy raised in in ritual
ritual until
until itit isis
ready to
ready be released, and
to be and itit represents the the intention of the participants to
of the to
let
let go of their
go of their everyday concerns and and focus instead on the
the ritual at
at hand.
When the the ritual
ritual isis finished, the space again
the space again becomes ordinary.
ordinary. Some Pa- Pa-
gans also describe the
gans also that has
the sacred as something that has intrinsic value, that
value, that
is, apart from or beyond
is, value apart beyond any
any usefulness ascribed toto it by humans.
it by
Starhawk, for
for example,
example, describes the
the five sacred things,
five sacred things, earth, air, fire,
earth, air, fire,
water, and spirit, in
and spirit, this manner.*°
in this
Pagans believe that
Pagans that the
the immanence of divinity applies
of divinity to the
applies to the Earth as
well as to
well to human bodies. Many
Many Pagans
Pagans refer
refer to
to the
the Earth as the
the body
body of
of
the
the Goddess, sometimes called Gaia (or Gaea).
Gaia (or Gaea). Pagans
Pagans see all
all bodies as di-
di-
vine,
vine, whether the body of
the body of the
the Goddess as Earth
Earth or the
the cosmos, or human
bodies. The divinity of of human bodies isis sometimes expressed in in the
the ritual
greeting
greeting “thou art art god”
god” or “thou art art goddess.”
goddess.” TheThe celebration of of the
the body
body
is
is intended to to revalue embodiment and and the
the natural functioning of of bodies,
including sex, which Pagans Pagans feel have been denigrated by
feel have the monotheis-
by the
tic traditions. The
tic The belief in in immanence similarly revalues the rest of
the rest of the
the
natural world.
natural world. IfIf divinity is inherent in
is inherent in the
the natural world,
world, ifif the
the Earth isis
the
the body
body of the Goddess, itit isis unacceptable to
of the to damage
damage ecosystems, to pol-
to pol-
lute natural systems, or to
lute to exploit
exploit natural resources.
While Pagans
Pagans largely
largely agree that
that the
the Earth isis sacred and
and commonly say say
that
that they
they revere nature, what they they mean by by “nature” and their
their practices in in
relation with it differ. Practitioners more often understand “nature” as aa
it differ.
symbol
symbol than as a a place
place or as “the
“the environment.” PagansPagans expect
expect “nature”
to be
to be an idea around which they
they can bond,
bond, but they often come into con-
but they
flict over their
flict their diverse understandin gs of
understandings of what is
is natural and how Pagans
Pagans
 Beliefs
Beliefs 25
25

should relate with the the natural world. Pagans

Pagans came into disagreement, for for
example,
example, at at the
the Avalon East Pagan
Pagan gathering of of 1995 when some partici-
partici-
pants
pants roasted aa pig, pig, and
and when Asatruar lit lit aa gasoline-doused raft
raft and set
set
itit adrift in
in the
the ocean as part
part of
of aa ritual. Some participants in in the
the festival
felt that
felt that an attitude of of reverence for
for nature requires
requires vegetarianism, while
some felt that itit is
felt that is sufficient that
that nonhuman others,
others, such
such as the pig, be
the pig, be
shown respect.*”
respect.*” While Pagans Pagans agree in saying that
in saying that the
the Earth is is sacred and and
that nature
that nature should should be revered, they
be revered, they exhibit diversediverse behavior in their rela-
in their rela-
tions with
with nature.°6
nature.**
Some of
Some the differences in
of the in Pagan
Pagan relations with nature arise from from differ-
ences in in their
their understandings of divinity. While Pagans
of divinity. Pagans agree that that divinity
divinity
is
is immanent in in nature, they they differ in in how
how they they think of of divinity
divinity andand inin what
what
they feel are appropriate relations with
they feel with deities. Some Pagans’ Pagans’ understand-
ing of
ing the relation between divinity
of the divinity and and the the natural world might might be be de-
de-
scribed as pantheism, the that all
the belief that all isis divine (understood in in monothe-
istic religions
istic religions as all all is
is God,
God, or God is is in all things).
in all things). This
This isis particularly true
of
of those
those who talk talk about the the Earth
Earth as Gaia
Gaia or Gaea. Some find find that
that since the the
sacred is is immanent in in humans as well well as in in the
the Earth and and isis not restricted
to
to deities, then “worship” and “reverence” may may not be be appropriate ways
of relating with other-than-human persons. Many
of relating Pagans feel
Many Pagans feel that
that deities
and
and other-than-human people people do do not want praise, praise, but
but respect.°?
respect.
Pagans sometimes speak
Pagans speak of of an “otherworld” as though though itit isis a distinct
place
place from
from the natural world,
the natural world, in in aa way
way that
that makes
makes itit seem like the
seem like the natural
natural
world is
world is transcended to to access something supernatural that that isis not imma-
nent in in nature. This This otherworld or “otherland” isis understood as aa place place
where peoplepeople go go when they they meditate or dream, dream, and and sometimes as the the
land
land of of thethe dead. Pagan Pagan meditations are often guided guided meditations, struc-
tured through
through imagery to to direct participants to to aa particular sort of of experi-
experi-
ence. Sometimes this this isis seen as aa method of of “deep
“deep play,”
play,” oror active imagi-
imagi-
nation in in the
the sense intended by by Jungian
Jungian psychology, so that that the
the experience
is
is perceived as imaginal imaginal but but real. TheThe otherworld that that isis accessed is is not aa
corporeal place place in the same way
in the way thatthat New York or London are “real”
places,
places, but but it it nonetheless isis a place place where things things really
really happen, with with real
real
repercussions. Some Pagans Pagans think of of perception of the
of the otherworld in
in
terms of of a a state of
of wonder and being open
and being open to to possibility. Some explain
explain ex-
periences of
periences the otherworld in
of the in terms of
of altered states of
of consciousness,
saying that
saying that one’s perception of reality is
of reality is altered when one goesgoes into
into aa
trance state. Eliade describes suchsuch experiences as ecstasy,
ecstasy, which he pres-
he pres-
in terms of
ents in of the
the soul
soul standing
standing out of of one’s body
body or out ofof the
the world.
Pagans are just
Pagans just as likely
likely to
to understand suchsuch experiences as standing
standing out
of oneself
of oneself in the sense
in the of out
sense of of one’s
out of one’s cultural
cultural preconceptions,
preconceptions, rather than
rather than
out of
out of the world. In
the world. In ecstasy,
ecstasy, one stands out
out of the ordinary,
of the ordinary, but
but not
not neces-
sarily out
sarily out of
of the
the natural.
natural.
26
26 Chapter 11
Chapter

Many
Many Pagans
Pagans holdhold whatwhat mightmight be be termed aa monist view of of the
the uni-
uni-
verse based on scientific understandings of the world. Monism isis often
of the often
understood in
understood in contrast
contrast to to dualism,
dualism, an an understanding
understanding of of the
the universe
universe as as
fundamentally divided between two types types ofof things,
things, such as the the natural
and the
and the supernatural, or the the material and and the spiritual. Monism isis some-
the spiritual.
times described as an understanding of of the
the universe as restricted to to the
the
material, but but Pagans
Pagans tend tend to to think
think of of the
the natural world as not not restricted
to the quantifiable. If
to the If divinity
divinity isis present
present inin nature, nature does not need need
to be transcended for
to be for divinity
divinity to to appear. TheThe category of “the supernat-
of “the
ural” is is then irrelevant, since spirits spirits are beings
beings in in and
and of
of thethe natural
Pagans who
world. Pagans who subscribe to to aa monist view of of the
the universe accept
accept the
the
idea that the planet
that the planet Earth and and the the physical
physical universe started with with thethe big
big
bang and
bang according to
and proceeds according to physical
physical laws,
laws, but they tend to
but they to think of of
the
the physical
physical world as less less limited than aa strict empiricist view of of the
the
world would indicate. Such Pagans Pagans note the the ambiguities of of quantum
physics, indicating
physics, indicating thatthat we do do not fully
fully understand the the complexity of of the
the
physical workings of
physical the universe. Thus,
of the they conclude that
Thus, they that itit would not not
be appropriate to
be to say
say thatthat the
the god/desses or magic magic do do not
not exist
exist simply
simply
because their existence has not been proven. Scott
has not Scott Cunningham, for for ex-
ample, says,
ample, says, “Magic
“Magic is the practice
is the practice of of moving
moving natural (though(though little-
energies to
understood) energies to effect needed change.”40
change.”*°
Pagan cosmologies might
Pagan might be be more accurately
accurately termed “holistic” than than
“monist” toto describe the
the Pagan
Pagan sense that
that humans are not separate from
nature but part of
but part of it, in the
it, in the sense that the personal or the
that the the individual isis
embedded in the cosmic or universal.4!
in the universal.*! However, it
it should be
be noted that
that
some Pagans
Pagans do do espouse aa dualist understanding of of the
the universe. Gard-
nerian priest Gus diZerega,
priest Gus diZerega, for example, holds a panentheistic under-
for example,
standing of
standing of the
the universe, which means that that he
he believes that that divinity
divinity isis
immanent in in the
the Earth,
Earth, but also transcendent of
but also it.42 Some practitioners
of it.42
of
of Gardnerian Witchcraft believe that that all the goddesses are ultimately
all the
one Goddess,
one Goddess, that all the
that all the gods
gods are
are ultimately
ultimately one God, and
one God, that finally
and that finally
even thethe Goddess and God emanate from aa single single absolute reality
reality or
source of of divinity.
divinity.
Some Pagans
Pagans see thisthis emanation as a process that that occurs through time,
through time,
so that
that the
the universe proceeds from one point and will conclude toward a
point and
final goal
goal or end. This is
is sometimes called a teleological view. Some Hea-

Ss
Sc Cunningha
Cunninghamm was an American practitioner of
of Wicca. He
He was
aa prolific
prolific writer, best
best known for
for his
his book Wicca: AA Guide for
book for the
the
Solitary
Solitary Practitioner.
 Beliefs
Beliefs pg
27

thens accept
thens accept the idea of
the Norse idea of Raganok,
Raganok, aa final
final destruction of of the
the uni-
verse, but Pagans understand time to
but most Pagans to be cyclical rather than teleo-
be cyclical
logical. A
logical. A cyclical
cyclical view of
of time
time is
is focused on the
the cycling
cycling of
of the and
the seasons and
has no sense that
has history isis proceeding toward aafinal
that history final end in
in destruction,
final judgment, or redemption. Worldviews with aa cyclical
final cyclical conception ofof
time often do
do not have any
any sense that
that there was aa beginning ofof the
the uni-
uni-
verse, and
and hence they
they do
do not have creation stories.
of Pagan
Another common feature of Pagan worldviews isis aa tendency
tendency toward
Pagans tend to
romanticism. Pagans to idealize the past, envisioned as a time
the past,
when people lived in
people lived in harmony with one another and the rest of
and with the of the
the
natural world and and were more in in touch with thethe divine. This time of of
greater harmony with nature is is envisioned alternately as occurring in in
the rural
the past, such
rural past, such as in the
as in the folk culture of
folk culture of “Merrie Olde England”;
“Merrie Olde England”; thethe
Neolithic, such
such as the
the matrifocal (mother-focused) cultures of
of Old Eu-
Old Eu-
rope
rope described by by the
the archaeologist Marija Marija Gimbutas; or the the Paleolithic,
the
the cultures of of prehistory, before the the advent of of agriculture and and living
living in in
settled communities. The
settled metaphor of
The metaphor of coming
coming “home” isis often con-
nected to to these images
images of of the
the past, and practitioners speak
past, and speak of of reclaiming
their past
their past heritage.
heritage. In this context, Paganism isis understood by
In this by some
practitioners as aa revival of of “the
“the Old Old Religion,” whether that that isis under-
stood as the the folk religion of
folk religion of pre-Christian Britain, Britain, as the the more ancient re-
ligions
ligions of of Greece and and Egypt,
Egypt, or as the primal religious
the primal religious practices
practices of of
shamanism (understood as the original or primal
the original primal religion
religion of of humanity,
universally practiced
practiced by by humans in in prehistoric times).
The
The romanticism of of Pagan
Pagan worldviews isis not not often
often aa conscious aspect aspect of of
practitioners’ cosmologies; it it isis more often
often an implicit
implicit belief
belief that is is more
visible toto scholars involved in in Pagan
Pagan studies than than itit isis toto practitioners.
Similarly, scholars identify
identify PaganPagan worldviews as “late “late modern” in in terms
not commonly expressed
not expressed consciously by by practitioners. Paganism can be be
categorized as aa religion of
religion of late late modernity because it
it embraces relativism,
globalism, and and skepticism. Pagans Pagans espouse relativism in in the
the sense of of an
acceptance of of ambiguity and and aa lack lack of
of certainty about truth. They tend
They tend to to
accept
accept a a recognition that
that everyone perceives reality
reality differently. Pagans
Pagans en-
gage
gage inin globalism
globalism in in the
the sense that that eclectic practitioners take take symbols,
deities, and
deities, and ritual practices
practices from other cultures and and use them without the the
context of their original
of their original time and place. Pagan
and place. Pagan sources of of inspiration are
global and
global and are not confined to to aa single
single culture. This globalism isis part part ofof the
the
general cultural milieu of
general late modernism. While Pagans
of late Pagans exhibit aa post- post-
modern sense of of play,
play, create aa pastiche
pastiche of of cultural borrowings in in their rit-
rit-
uals, and
uals, and tend
tend toto question rationality, they they are also skeptical in
also skeptical in the
the sense
of applying doubt
of applying to Enlightenment
doubt to rationalism, and
Enlightenment rationalism, and thus they are
thus they are better
better
described inin terms of late modernity rather than postmodernism. How-
of late
ever, Pagans
Pagans also
also criticize rationalism for its incorporation of
for its patriarchy
of patriarchy
28
28 Chapter 11
Chapter

and its domination of

and its of nature.“ Pagans embrace the
nature.*? Most Pagans the modern Western
ideals ofof democracy, equality, and and respect
respect for
for diversity. In
In addition, they
they
gender equality,
support gender equality, sexual diversity, and the
diversity, and the feminist value of of em-
powerment more than than average Americans do. do.
In to their implicit
In contrast to implicit beliefs about romanticism and and the late mod-
the late
ern character of
of their
their worldviews, Pagans their be-
Pagans consciously articulate their be-
liefs about pain,
liefs pain, suffering, and
and death, and they
death, and they have
have written aa fair
fair amount
of theology/thealogy about how
of how these feature in their worldviews. In
in their In an
early essay discussing ethics,
early ethics, Starhawk provides
provides aa theodicy (or, (or, more ac-
curately, a theadicy),
curately, theadicy), explaining
explaining thethe role
role of
of suffering
suffering and and pain
pain in her
in her
worldview and how this
and how to her
this relates to her understanding of of the
the Goddess. She She
explains that
explains that suffering and and pain
pain are a consequence of of actions against
against laws
laws
of nature. Pain
of Pain and
and suffering
suffering are not punishments for for aa violation of of God’s
law but
law but are natural consequences inherent to the structure of
to the of the
the universe.
She gives
She the following
gives the example: “if
following example: “if II ‘break’ the
the law
law ofof gravity
gravity byby jump-
jump-
ing out
ing out of
of aa third-story window, II may may break my my neck in in consequence, not
because the the Goddess is is punishing
punishing me for my effrontery, but
for my but because that that
isis the
the way the the law
law of
of gravity
gravity works. So, So, if
if we continue to to spray our forests
with mutagenic chemicals that
with that leach into
into local water supplies, we will will
continue toto see increases in
in miscarriages and
and birth
birth defects.”“*
defects.”*4 The
The conse-
quences of of ecological
ecological damage
damage are not necessarily felt felt by
by those directly
directly re-
sponsible for for the
the harm done to to the
the environment, but but Starhawk argues that that
this
this does not
not indicate a lack of
of care for
for individuals on the part of
the part of thethe God-
dess. Rather, itit teaches us that we are collectively responsible for for creating
creating
justice in
justice in thethe world. This
This belief is in keeping with
is in keeping with her her cosmology, in which
in
the Goddess is immanent in the natural world,
the Goddess is immanent in the natural world, including humans: “We including humans: “We
must create justice
justice and ecological
and ecological and and social balance; this is the prime
this is the prime con-
cern, the
the bottom line,line, the
the nitty gritty of
nitty gritty of ethics in
in aa worldview that that sees de-de-
ity
ity as immanent in
in human life
life and the
the world we live
live in.”45 Scott Cun-
ningham presents a similar understanding of of suffering
suffering and and pain
pain as part
part of
of
life and part
life and part ofof divinity,
divinity, suggesting that that humans need to to work with with di-
di-
vinity
vinity toto try
try to
to make the the world aa better place. place. He
He also indicates that for
that for
Wiccans, divinity
divinity isis not
not split into aa wholly
split into wholly good
good god god andand aa wholly
wholly evilevil
devil but isis mixed in
devil but in all
all deities, as in
in humans. He that the
He indicates that the
god /desses have
god/desses have their shadow sides
sides as well.
well.*6
Death does not require
does not require so much explanation as suffering in in Pagan
Pagan
worldviews, since Pagans
Pagans see death as aa natural and part of
and necessary part the
of the
of life
process of life in
in the
the natural world. The cycle of
The cycle of life
life requires death to to
make a complete and self-sustainin
self-sustainingg cycle.
cycle. Starhawk describes life
life with-
out death as cancerous, and
and death without life life as war and
and genocide.*”
genocide.*”
Death is
is honored in Pagan
in Pagan worldviews, rather than being being envisioned as aa
negative or destructive force,
force, so old
old age
age is
is celebrated because itit is
is not so
strongly associated with the fear of
the fear of death. In
In Pagan myth, death is
Pagan myth, fea-
is fea-
 Beliefs
Beliefs 29
29

tured in in stories of of aa dying

dying godgod associated with with thethe harvesting of of grain.
grain.
Each being
being has has its its own time, time, and in in turn passes on to to sustain others.
Death isis not just just an end end but
but also
also aa beginning, aa point point in in aa continuing cy- cy-
cle. Pagans commonly
cle. Pagans commonly believe in in reincarnation. The cyclical aspect
The cyclical aspect of of rein-
rein-
carnation harmonizes with Pagan Pagan worldviews, but but it also expresses aa
it also
seemingly dualist belief belief inin aa spirit that
spirit that is is distinct from material bodies,
which isis hardhard to to reconcile with beliefs about immanence and with
and with Pagans’
holistic cosmologies.
The Pagan
The Pagan belief in in magic
magic easily
easily fitsfits into Pagan beliefs about the
into Pagan the ho-ho-
listic
listic nature of
of thethe cosmos, and Pagans
and Pagans explicitly articulate these beliefs.
Pagans tend
Pagans tend to to believe
believe in in the interconnectedness of
the interconnectedness of all
all things,
things, and and theythey
often use the the metaphor of of a webweb to to describe this aspect of their cos-
this aspect of their
mologies. Everything isis connected to to everything else, else, regardless of of our
limited ability to
ability to fully fully understand all the
all the connections, so changing one
changing
part of
part of the the web has
has effects that may
that may seem unrelated but
but that
that are con-
nected through
through the web
the web of of relations. Pagan
Pagan belief in
in magic isis rooted in,
magic in,
or isis dependent upon, this this belief
belief in the interconnectedness of
in the of all
all things
things
in the universe. People
in the People who who practice
practice magicmagic use the the unseen or poorly poorly un-
derstood connections of of the
the web
web of of the
the universe to to bring
bring about their their de-de-
sired results. This This isis not understood as manipulating natural forces, forces, or
as bending
bending natural forces against against their will, will, but
but as shaping a desired re-
sult
sult byby encouraging the the result through
through petitioning the the help
help of of others and and
by focusing
by focusing one’s desire.
Belief in magic isis also
in magic also based on the the idea that the
idea that the future isis constituted
by probabilities, not predetermined outcomes: natural laws
by laws are not not so
much lawslaws as probabilities. These probabilities are consistent on the the large
large
scale, but less
scale, but less so on smaller scales, scales, such as in in quantum physics. physics. Pagans
Pagans
suggest that that magic
magic works on similar principles, but but where even the the prob-
prob-
abilities are not well understood. Starhawk, for for example,
example, describes the the
nature of of reality
reality by saying that
by saying that “all things are swirls of
“all things of energy, vortexes
of
of moving forces.” Despite Despite the the appearance of of separateness and and fixity
fixity of of
physical objects,
physical objects, they they are “field[s] of of energies that congeal, temporarily,
that congeal,
into forms.” Things Things appear separate separate and and fixed because of of our (regular or
ordinary) human perception of of things
things in in linear time. She She notes the the con-
nection with with modern physics, arguing that
physics, arguing that we can perceiveperceive the the world
differently, in
differently, in “extraordinary consciousness,” aa way way of of perceiving the the
world holistically, as undifferentiated, and and seeing
seeing patterns and and connec-
tions instead of of distinct objects.**
objects.
Cunningham remarks that that anyone can do do magic.
magic. Like Like science, he he ar-
gues, itit isis a a matter of of knowing what to to do and how to
do and to dodo it. Pagans be-
it. Pagans be-
lieve that
that some of of the
the connections available to to use in magic are based on
in magic
correspondences
correspondences between between things things like like certain
certain colors,
colors, herbs,herbs, images,
sounds,
sounds, phasesphases of
of the
the moon, and
and other astrological phenomenon. Based
Based
30
30 Chapter
Chapter 11

such correspondences, some Pagans

on such Pagans believe in
in the
the efficacy of sympa-
efficacy of
thetic magic,
magic, so that
that action on aa part
part can influence aa larger
larger whole. ThisThis isis
sometimes explained in in terms of
of the
the microcosm being being able
able to the
to affect the
macrocosm,
macrocosm, symbolically
symbolically rendered like this:
rendered like “as above,
this: “as above, so below.” Cun-
so below.” Cun-
ningham describes a ritual to
ningham help pay
to help pay aa hundred-dollar phone phone bill
bill one
cannot afford. He
He suggests using
using green candles, patchouli
patchouli oil
oil and
and aa selec-
tion of
tion of money-drawing herbs suchsuch as cinnamon and sage, parchment pa- pa-
per, and
per, ink. After
and green ink. After lighting
lighting the and burning
the candles and burning the
the herbs and
and
spices, the
spices, the practitioner creates an image
image of
of the
the phone
phone bill. Drawing aa
bill. Drawing
square around the
the resulting image, the practitioner establishes contro]
image, the control
it. S/he
over it. then draws aa large
S/he then large XX across itit to negate its
to negate its existence, visual-
izing the
izing the bill
bill as being paid.*”
being paid.”
Starhawk describes how ritual can create a mood that helps one address
that helps
deeper or “Younger” self
one’s deeper self through
through symbolic associations of of scents,
colors, images,
colors, and sounds, which are represented by
images, and by the
the tangible
tangible things
things
used in
in the
the ritual. (In her tradition of
(In her of Witchcraft, the
the conscious mind isis re-
to as
ferred to as the “Talking Self,”
the “Talking Self,” and
and the
the unconscious mind accessed in in
trance and magic isis referred to
and magic to as the “Younger Self.)
the “Younger Self.”) Some Pagans’ be-
Pagans’ be-
liefs about magic
liefs magic support
support the the use of
of alternative medicine, so Pagans
Pagans are
likely than others to
more likely to practice
practice and
and utilize the
the skills
skills of
of things
things like
like
and Reiki.
herbalism, naturopathy, and Reiki.

FURTHER READING

Cunningham, Scott. Wicca: AA Guide for

for the
the Solitary
Solitary Practitioner. St. Paul, MN:
St. Paul, MN: Llewellyn
Llewellyn Pub-
lications, 1988.
D’Apremont, Anne-Laure Ferlat, et al. “The
et al. “The Nature of the Divine:
of the Divine: Transcendence and
and Im-
Im-
in Contemporary Pagan
manence in Pagan Theology.” The
The Pomegranate: The
The Journal of Pagan Studies
of Pagan
16 (2001):
16 (2001): 4-16.
Harvey, Graham. Contemporary Paganism:
Harvey, Paganism: Listening
Listening People,
People, Speaking Earth. New
Speaking Earth. New York:
York: New
New
York University Press, 1997.
University Press, 1997.
Starhawk. The
The Spiral
Spiral Dance: AA Rebirth of
of the
the Ancient Religion ofof the
the Great Goddess. 10th
10th an-
niversary ed.
niversary ed. 1979. New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1989.

NOTES

1. Michael York,
1. York, “Defining Paganism,” The
The Pomegranate: AA New Journal of
of Neopagan
Thought 1111 (2000): 9.
Thought 9.
2.2. Naomi Goldenberg
Goldenberg introduced the the term to to religious
religious studies in in Changing of the Gods
of the
(Boston: Beacon Press,
Press, 1979),
1979), 96.
96. The term also
also appears in in the
the 1979
1979 edition of of Isaac Bonewits’
Real Magic
Magic (Berkeley,
(Berkeley, CA: Creative Arts Book Company, 1971). He used other forms of of the
the
term, such as “thealogian,” as early early as 1974,
1974, in
in aa privately
privately published document, “The Druid
Chronicles (Evolved).” The The term is is an obvious coinage,
coinage, and
and itit seems toto have
have developed
spontaneously in in various groups. See See Shan Jayran,
Jayran, “Thealogy,” Wikipedia: The The Free
Free Encyclo-
Encyclo-
pedia,
pedia, http: //en.wikipedia.
http://en.wikip org / wiki/Thealogy
edia.org/wiki/T healogy (accessed November 15, 15, 2004).
2004).
 Beliefs
Beliefs 31
Bl

3.
3. Graham Harvey
Harvey suggests the the term “theoilogy” in in Contemporary Paganism: Listening Listening
People, Speaking
People, Speaking Earth (New
(New York: New York University Press,
York: New Press, 1997), 66.66. Isaac Bonewits used
the term “theoilogy” in
the in the
the 1979 edition of Magic. Bonewits more frequently uses
Real Magic.
of Real uses the
the
term “polytheology” to to describe studies of of divinity
divinity in the context of
in the of polytheism. SeeSee Jayran,
Jayran,
“Thealogy.”
4. Quoted in
4. Quoted in Harvey,
Harvey, Contemporary Paganism, 160. 160. For
For Starhawk’s comment about about rocks,
rocks,
see Harvey,
Harvey, Contemporary Paganism,
Paganism, 176.
176.
5. See, for
5. See, example, Diana
for example, Diana Paxson,
Paxson, “Worshipping
“Worshipping the the Gods,”
Gods,” Hrafnar website,
Hrafnar website,
www.hrafnar.org/norse/worship.html
www.hrafnar.org/norse/worship.html (accessed April April 22,22, 2004),
2004), originally published in in
Idunna 20 20 (1993).
6. A. Irving
6. A. Irving Hallowell, “Ojibwa
“Ojibwa Ontology
Ontology Behaviour and World View,” View,” inin Primitive Views
of the
of the World,
World, ed.
ed. Stanley
Stanley Diamond (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969), 55.
Press, 1969), 55.
7.
7. Graham Harvey
Harvey suggests that that belief
belief in spirits survives in
in nature spirits in English
English folklore as
Brownies and and boggarts.
boggarts. See
See Harvey,
Harvey, Contemporary Paganism, 56. 56.
8.
8. Jenny
Jenny Blain,
Blain, “Contested Meanings:
Meanings: Earth Religion
Religion Practitioners and the the Everyday,”
Everyday,”
The
The Pomegranate: A A New Journal
Journal of
of Neopagan
Neopagan Thought
Thought 1212 (2000): 19.19.
9.
9. Terri Windling,
Windling, The
The Wood Wife
Wife (New
(New York:
York: Tor
Tor [Tom
[Tom Doherty Associates], 1996),
1996), 99.
99.
10. Charles
10. Charles de Lint, The
de Lint, The Ivory and the
Ivory and the Horn
Horn (New York: Tor
(New York: Tor [Tom Doherty Associates],
[Tom Doherty Associates],
1995),
ISIS) 171-72.
WA72e
11.
11. Helen Berger,
Berger, A A Community ofof Witches (Columbia: University of
of South Carolina Press,
Press,
1999),
1999), 33-34.
12.
12. Tanya M.
Tanya M. Luhrmann, Persuasions of the Witch’s
of the Witch's Craft
Craft (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Uni-
versity Press,
versity 1989), 331-32.
Press, 1989),
13. Carol Christ, “Why
13. “Why Women Need the the Goddess: Phenomenological, Psychological, and
and
Political Reflections,” inin The
The Politics of
of Women's Spirituality: Essays
Essays on the Rise
the Rise of
of Spiritual
Spiritual
Power within
Power within the
the Feminist
Feminist Movement,
Movement, ed.ed. Charlene Spretnak (Garden
Charlene Spretnak City,
(Garden City, NY: Anchor Books,
NY: Anchor Books,
1982), 75.
1982), 75.
14. Starhawk,
14. quoted inin Christ,
Starhawk, quoted Christ, “Why
“Why Women
Women Need the Goddess,”
Need the Goddess,” 76.
76.
15. Starhawk, The
15. Spiral Dance: AA Rebirth of
The Spiral of the
the Ancient Religion
Religion of
of the Great Goddess, 10th
the Great 10th
anniversary ed.
anniversary ed. (1979;
(1979; New
New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1989),
York: HarperSanFrancisco, 99.
1989), 99.
16.
16. Otter G’Zell and
and Morning Glory,
Glory, “Who on Earth IsIs the
the Goddess?” in in Magical Religion
Religion
and Modern Witchcraft, ed.
and James R.
ed. James R. Lewis (Albany: State University
(Albany: State University of
of New York Press,
Press,
1996), 28.
1996), 28.
17. Quoted in
17. Quoted in Joanne
Joanne Pearson,
Pearson, Richard H. and Geoffrey
H. Roberts, and Samuel, Nature Religion
Geoffrey Samuel, Religion
Today: Paganism
Today: Paganism inin the
the Modern World
World (Edinburgh: Edinburgh UniversityUniversity Press,
Press, 1998),
1998), 134.
134.
G’Zell’s vision isis discussed in in Gordon J. J. Melton’s An An Iona
Jona Anthology
Anthology (Isle
(Isle ofof Iona,
Iona, Argyll:
Argyll:
New IonaIona Press,
Press, 1990), 183. G’Zell,
1990), 183. G’Zell, originally Tim Zell,
originally Tim has more recently
Zell, has changed his
recently changed his name
to Oberon Zell-Ravenheart. For
to For the Gaia hypothesis,
the Gaia hypothesis, see J.J. E.
E. Lovelock’s Gaia:
Gaia: A A New Look atat
New Look
Life on Earth
Life Earth (Oxford: Oxford University Press, Press, 1982).
1982).
18. II have discussed divinity
18. divinity inin relation toto Pagan
Pagan ideas
ideas of
of nature more fullyfully elsewhere,
and II draw on that
and that work here.
here. See
See Barbara Jane
Jane Davy,
Davy, “Nature,” in in The
The Encyclopedia of of Mod-
Mod-
Witchcraft and
ern Witchcraft and Neo-Paganism, ed. ed. Shelly
Shelly Rabinovitch and James Lewis (New York:
and James York: Citadel,
Citadel,
2002), 165-66.
2002),
19. Cited in
19. Andy Letcher,
in Andy Letcher, “’Virtual
“Virtual Paganism’
Paganism’ or Direct Action? The
The Implications of Road
of Road
Protesting
Protesting for Modern
for Paganism,” Diskus
Modern Paganism,” Diskus 66 (2000), Web edition,
(2000), Web edition, http://web.uni-
http://web.uni-
marburg.de/religionswissenschaft
marburg.de/religion swissenschaft /journal/diskus
/journal/diskus (accessed May 16, 2001).
May 16, 2001).
20.
20. Marion Bowman, “Nature, thethe Natural, and Pagan
Natural, and Pagan Identity,” Diskus
Diskus 66 (2000), Web edi-
(2000), Web edi-
tion, http://web.uni-marburg.de/
tion, http:/ /web.uni-marburg.de/ religionswissenschaft/journal/diskus
religionswissenschaft/journal/diskus (accessed
(accessed May
May 16,
16,
2001).
2001).
21.
21. Starhawk, Spiral
Spiral Dance,
Dance, 92.
92.
22. Scott Cunningham, Wicca: A
22. Guide for
A Guide for the
the Solitary
Solitary Practitioner (St.
(St. Paul,
Paul, MN: Llewellyn
Llewellyn
Publications, 2003),
2003), 11.
11.
32
32 Chapter 11

23. Pearson, Roberts, and

23. and Samuel, Nature Religion
Religion Today,
Today, 170.
170.
24.
24. Hayao Miyazaki, Princess
Hayao Miyazaki, Mononoke (Miramax
Princess Mononoke (Miramax Films,
Films, 2000).
2000).
25.
25. Ronald Hutton, The
The Triumph
Triumph of
of the
the Moon: AA History
History of
of Modern Pagan
Pagan Witchcraft
Witchcraft (Oxford:
University Press,
Oxford University Press, 1999), 196.
1999), 196.
26.
26. Hutton, Triumph of
of the
the Moon, 198.
198.
27. Spiral Dance, 108.
27. Starhawk, Spiral 108.
28. Hutton, Triumph
28. Triumph of
of the
the Moon, 44.
Moon, 44.
29. Hutton, Triumph
29. of the
Triumph of the Moon, 45.
45.
30. Aleister Crowley, “Hymn
30. to Pan,”
“Hymn to Pan,” in
in Liber Aba, 2nd
Liber Aba, 2nd rev. ed.,
ed., 4:121-22 (York
(York Beach,
Beach, ME:
ME:
1997).
Samuel Weiser, 1997).
31. Hutton,
31. Triumph of
Hutton, Triumph of the
the Moon,
Moon, 33.
33.
32.
32. Starhawk, Spiral
Spiral Dance,
Dance, 90-91.
33. Margot Adler,
33. Margot Drawing Down
Adler, Drawing Down the
the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess- Worshippers, and
and Other
Other
Pagans inin America Today,
Pagans Today, revised and expanded ed.
and expanded ed. (Boston: Beacon Press,
Press, 1986),
1986), 20.
20.
34. Diana
34. Paxson, “The Religion of
of the
the North,” Hrafnar website,
website, 1996,
1996,
www.hrafnar.org/norse/tract.html (accessed April
www.hrafnar.org/norse/tract.html (accessed April 22,
22, 2004).
2004).
35. Freya
35. Aswynn, Northern Mysteries
Freya Aswynn, Mysteries && Magick:
Magick: Runes & & Feminine Powers (St.
(St. Paul,
Paul, MN:
Llewellyn
Llewellyn Publications, 1998),
1998), 177, 184.
177, 184.
36. Jone
36. Jone Salomonsen, Enchanted Feminism: The
The Reclaiming Witches of
of San
San Francisco (London:
Routledge, 2002),
Routledge, 2002), 2.
2.
37. Bowman, “Nature, the
37. the Natural, and
and Pagan Identity.”
Pagan Identity.”
38. See
38. See Adler,
Adler, Drawing Down the
Drawing Down the Moon, 399, 400.
Moon, 399, 400.
39.
39. Harvey,
Harvey, Contemporary Paganism, 174.
174.
40.
40. Cunningham, Wicca: A
A Guide for the Solitary
for the Solitary Practitioner, 6.6.
41.
41. “Holistic” is the term Helen Berger
is the Berger uses, Community of Witches, 124.
of Witches,
42.
42. Gus diZerega,
diZerega, Pagans
Pagans && Christians: The
The Personal Spiritual
Spiritual Experience
Experience (St.
(St. Paul,
Paul, MN:
Llewellyn
Llewellyn Publications, 2001).
2001).
43. This
43. This analysis
analysis ofof Paganism in in terms of of late
late modernity
modernity is from Berger.
is taken from Berger. See
See espe-
cially Berger,
cially Berger, Community
Community of of Witches, 7,7, 123,
123, 125.
125.
44. Starhawk, “Ethics and
44. and Justice
Justice in
in Goddess Religion,” in in The of Women’s Spiritual-
The Politics of Spiritual-
ity: Essays
ity: the Rise
Essays on the Rise ofof Spiritual
Spiritual Power within the the Feminist Movement, ed. ed. Charlene Spretnak
(Garden City,City, NY:
NY: Anchor Press [Doubleday], 1982), 1982), 417.
417.
45.
45. Starhawk, “Ethics and
and Justice,” 421.
Justice,” 421.
46.
46. Cunningham, Wicca: AA Guide for the Solitary
for the Solitary Practitioner, 18.
18.
47. Starhawk, Spiral
47. Dance, 41.
Spiral Dance, 41.
48. Spiral Dance,
48. Starhawk, Spiral Dance, 32-33.
50.
50. Cunningham, Wicca: AA Guide for the Solitary
for the Solitary Practitioner, 23.
23.
 22
ook
oot
Social Organization

|SBe eee most Pagans

Pagans are reluctant toto cede religious authority
cede religious to any
authority to any
centralized structure, institutions develop differently in
develop differently in Paganism
than in
than religions. The
in other world religions. unit of
The basic unit of organization inin Paganism
is
is small, usually
usually lessless than a dozen people.
people. Membership in in these small
groups isis fluid,
fluid, and
and groups tend tend toto form andand disband relatively fre-
relatively fre-
quently. Any
quently. Any Pagan
Pagan can act as his his or her
her own clergyperson or become aa
priest /ess,
priest /ess, so Pagans
Pagans dodo not belong to
not necessarily belong to aa religious
religious organization
or group of of any
any kind. Consequently, Paganism has has more in in common with
religious activity
religious activity that
that has been described as “daily”
has been “daily” or “democratized”
shamanism than with the the institutional forms of of monotheistic traditions.
The relative lack
The of formal religious
lack of religious institutions within Paganism
Paganism has has led
led
some ethnographers and and sociologists to to label it
it “disorganized” religion,
religion,
or even “pseudoreligion,” and and toto comment on its its seeming
seeming tendency to to
dismantle itself,
itself, often dissolving structures and and institutions as soon as
they
they start to form.
to form.
Paganism is currently undergoing aa process of
is currently of routinization, develop-
develop-
ing religious institutions and
ing religious and standardized practices as itit grows from a
new religious
religious movement into
into aa world religion, but there
religion, but there are active
active coun-
tertrends against
against the
the normalization of Pagan religious
of Pagan religious practice.
practice. Forms of of
social organization beyond beyond small groups do do develop,
develop, butbut some Pagans
Pagans
feel
feel constrained as soon as they they become aware of of these
these structures, andand be-
be-
come intensely critical of of them—hence Paganism seems to
to deconstruct it-
it-
self.
self. However, some Pagans
Pagans welcome the
the increasing organization because
they feel
they feel it will increase the
it will the legitimacy of the religion
of the in the
religion in the eyes of the
eyes of the
public and
public and will
will lead
lead to
to further legal
legal rights and protections for
rights and for Pagans.
Pagans.

33
Be
34
34 Chapter 22
Chapter

“Institutions” in
in religion
religion can bebe things with physical
things with physical components, such
like synagogues or mosques, as well
as buildings like well as social structures like
like
clergy (religious officials) and
clergy and laity (general participants who are not cler-
laity (general cler-
gypersons). The
The institutions of of Paganism have several structural differ-
ences from
from the
the monotheistic religions. Paganism rarely
religions. rarely forms sects in
in the
the
way
way ofof the
the monotheistic traditions, which usually usually develop
develop as splinter
splinter
groups on thethe basis of
of differences in belief,
in belief, so the
the overall structure of Pa-
of Pa-
ganism is
ganism is different as a
a world religion. Paganism is
religion. Paganism is an umbrella term,
term,
which includes multiple
multiple denominations and and types
types ofof Paganisms. Wicca,
Wicca,
Asatru, and
Asatru, and Druidry,
Druidry, forfor example,
example, are denominations within
are denominations Paganism.
within Paganism.
Eclectics, solitaries, and
and practitioners of religion are types
of Goddess religion types of
of Pa-
Pa-
gans. The various types
gans. The types and
and denominations have aa family family resemblance to to
one another but do not have
but do have aa single
single genesis.
genesis. There isis no originating
prophet
prophet who revealed the the central story
story or foundation of the religion.
of the religion.
(While Gerald Gardner isis an important
(While important historical figure figure in
in Gardnerian
Wicca, his Book of
Wicca, his of Shadows, aa book of
of spells
spells and rituals, does
and rituals, does not have
have
unique authority
unique authority in Paganism. Even within Wicca, each Gardnerian coven
in Paganism.
creates its
its own book,
book, and
and each
each individual Wiccan adds to her/his own
adds to
book.) Paganism has multiple points
has multiple points of origin instead of
of origin of simply
simply diffusing
diffusing
from
from a single
single source. Disparate groups appeared here here and
and there through-
through-
out North American and Europe,
Europe, initially
initially inspired
inspired largely
largely by
by books,
books, first
first
by the
by the German and English Romantics, other poets
and English poets and and an-
and novelists, and
thropologists such as James James Frazer and and Margaret Murray, Murray, andand later
later by
by
writings specifically on Paganism as aa newly
writings specifically newly revived religion.
religion.
Pagan groups do
Some Pagan do form as sects, or splinter
splinter groups, founded be- be-
cause ofof an internal disagreement in in aa group. However, sects in in monothe-
istic traditions are generally formed due due to to divisions in in beliefs about the the
fundaments of of the
the faith:
faith: a dispute
dispute about doctrine or orthodox tradition.
Sects often regard
regard each
each other as heretics. This isis not the the case between the the
different types
types and
and denominations of Paganism, because there isis no or-
of Paganism,
thodox tradition, and and adherence to to the religion is
the religion is not conceived in in terms
of doctrine or beliefs. I I use the
of the term “denomination” for for different groups
within Paganism because itit seems less less connected to to the idea of
the idea of divisions
based on disagreements about doctrine. “Denomination” simply simply conveys
that the groups have
that the have different names for for themselves. Despite “witch
wars,” which are emotionally charged local disputes disputes among Pagans,Pagans, thethe
denominations are not in in competition with one another the the way that
that sects
often are. Furthermore, unlike the the Protestant sects within Christianity,!
Christianity,!
Pagan
Pagan denominations do do not tend
tend to
to poach
poach members from one another.
Participation in in one Pagan
Pagan group does not preclude preclude participation in in oth-
oth-
ers, and
and having
having multiple memberships in in various organizations isis com-
mon. Pagans
Pagans do
do not tend
tend to think that
to think that Paganism in general, let
in general, let alone aa
specific
specific denomination, is any more true than any
is any any other religious
religious tradition.
tradition.
 Social Organization 35
35

Practitioners indicate that

that Paganism
Paganism provides aa symbolic
symbolic language
language for
for re-
lating with divinity,
lating divinity, and languages may
and various languages be more suitable for
may be for dif-
dif-
ferent people.”
people.* Paganism isis preferred
preferred by by practitioners for for other reasons,
such as forfor the
the wealth of of female imagery
imagery for for divinity,
divinity, for
for the
the resources it it
provides for
provides for ritual andand for having religious
for having religious experiences, for for its positive
its positive
valuation of of women and and nature, and and forfor the
the celebration of of diversity
diversity and and
religious tolerance within it.
religious it.
Paganism has has no sacred text or scripture
scripture on which to to base claims for for au-
thority. For
thority. For most Pagans,
Pagans, there isis no book that that serves the the same purpose as
the Christian Bible: most Pagans
the Pagans do do not regard
regard any any book as uniquely au-
revelatory.* Each
thoritative, inspirational, or revelatory.° Pagan can experience the
Each Pagan the di-
di-
directly, so no single
vine directly, single book can speak speak for for all.
all. Additionally, personal
personal
experiences have more authorityauthority than what one reads in
than what in aa book. However,
there isis something
something of of aa literary
literary canon developing. Many Many groups have have sim-
sim-
ilar recommended reading
ilar reading lists. lists often begin
lists. These lists begin with the the works of of
Starhawk and and Margot
Margot Adler. In In particular,
particular, The The Spiral
Spiral Dance and and Drawing
Drawing
Down the Moon, both
the Moon, published in
both originally published in 1979,
1979, were frequently the the
first introduction to
first to the
the religion for people who became Pagan
for people Pagan in in the
the
1980s andand early
early 1990s. This isis perhaps
perhaps less less true of of more recent converts
subsequent to the growth
to the growth of of the
the Internet in in the
the mid-
mid- toto late
late 1990s.
That
That authority
authority is is vested in in the
the individual isis a teaching reiterated in in vir-
vir-
tually all
tually all how-to texts produced
produced by by Pagans.
Pagans. Pagans
Pagans are protective
protective of of the
the
autonomy and and self-determination of of the
the groups in in which they they participate.
They often resist governance by
They by larger
larger federations. Some create official
but others resist
“churches,” but resist the
the formation of
of official
official institutions that
that
might try
might try to
to dictate what the the smaller groups can do. do. Many Pagans fear
Many Pagans fear
that
that centralized organization of the religion
of the religion would lead to to power imbal-
ances.
ances. They
They feel that all
feel that all Pagans
Pagans should
should bebe equal,
equal, that
that Paganism
Paganism is is aa
“priesthood of of all
all believers,” with no clergy clergy standing
standing above the the laity.
laity. In
In
the
the words of of aa Wiccan practitioner, “The power is in the
is in the hands of of every
practitioner, not specialized priestspriests or priestesses who perform perform these
these feats
feats
for the masses. This is
for the is what makes Wicca aa truly truly satisfying way way of
of life.
life. We
We
have direct links with
have with the
the Deities.”4 Some Pagans Pagans fearfear that
that a centralized
organization would lead lead toto the
the dominance of of some Pagans
Pagans over others,
with aa consequent loss
with loss of
of freedom of of practice and belief.
practice and
Asa religion characterized by
As a religion by a “priesthood of of all
all believers,” Paganism
bears some similarity to
to religious
religious practices by shamanism, and
practices described by and
Pagans identify
indeed some Pagans their religious
identify their practices with
religious practices with shamanism.
is generally
The term “shamanism” is generally
The applied
applied to
to certain practices
practices in indige-
in indige-
nous cultures, particularly those cultures wherein people live inin small
people live
by foraging.
and subsist by
groups and It is usually
foraging. It is usually associated with
with practices of
practices of
and relating
healing and
healing relating with world.
the more-than-human world.°
with the It
It is
is a
a scholarly
scholarly
applied to
construct, aa term applied to cultures byby outsiders. Paganism isis mostmost
36
36 Chapter 22
Chapter

similar to
to shamanism in
in what some anthropologists refer
refer to
to as “daily
“daily
shamanism,” the the everyday
everyday magical
magical activities of people that
of people that occur outside
of the
of the more spectacular shamanic rituals noted by
by early anthropologists.°
early anthropologists.®
People practicing these
People these everyday
everyday shamanic activities may be be recognized
having specific
as having specific powers inin indigenous cultures, without formal status as
In tribal societies, social roles are not as highly
shamans. In highly specialized asas in
in
modern culture, so it
it is
is unsurprising that
that most adults in
in these societies en-
gage in
gage that might
in activities that might be for example,
be described as shamanic, for example, div-
div-
magic, and
ination, magic, and the of dreams. In
the interpretation of In the
the cultures in
in which
religion is
shamanism appears, religion is not generally
generally identifiable as something
distinct from culture by by the people who
the people who live
live within it. it. The
The participants do do
not perceive
not perceive itit as something distinct from the the daily
daily activities of of hunting,
hunting,
fishing, and
fishing, and entertainment. Among Among the the Nabesna of of British Columbia,
religion exhibits characteristics of
whose religion of daily
daily shamanism, all all adults are
expected
expected to to pay
pay attention to to their
their dreams and communicate with with thethe
more-than-human world through through them,them, gaining
gaining experience as they they get
get
older, until each becomes aa “sleep
older, until “sleep doctor,” aa gyenin,
gyenin, thethe Nabesna name for for
aa shaman (essentially, one who talks talks with thethe spirits).”
spirits).”
Perhaps some Pagans
Perhaps Pagans would prefer prefer to
to develop
develop religious
religious structures as in in
indigenous cultures, such as the the traditional religious
religious practices of of the
the
Nabesna, where there there are religious
religious specialists but but not priests. Spiritual
priests. Spiritual
power isis not not vested in in aa single
single authority
authority in in shamanism, but but inin people with
people with
particularly well-developed religious religious practices recognized as strong strong in in the
the
ways of
ways of the
the spirits.
spirits. These people
people are recognized as elders or shamans
rather thanthan as ordained priests.priests. Some PaganPagan traditions have priests priests and
and
priestesses, but but these are generally
generally initiated rather than than ordained. Pagans Pagans
also
also recognize elders as sources of religious authority
of religious authority because of their ex-
of their
perience.
perience. Most Pagans Pagans believe that that all
all practitioners have have similar poten-
tials to
tials to develop
develop spiritually. PagansPagans do do not generally feel feel that
that priest
priest /esses
and
and elders have have a special
special relationship with with divinity
divinity or greater
greater access to to
the divine,
the divine, andand Pagan
Pagan priest/esses do do not serve as intermediaries between
practitioners and the divine.’ Each Pagan
and the Pagan can have direct encounters with
divinity, although
divinity, although individuals may may develop
develop specific
specific spiritual
spiritual skills to to a
greater or lesser degree
greater degree than other individuals. As As in the shamanism of
in the of
the Nabesna, Pagan
the Pagan practitioners may specialize in in certain religious ac-
tivities, such
such as divination, ritual ritual leadership, singing,
singing, writing
writing liturgies,
liturgies,
administration, counseling, and and so on, without developing any any greater
general authority among their
general their coreligionists.
Gardnerian Wiccan initiatory initiatory traditions are somewhat different from
other Pagan
Pagan denomination
denominationss in in this
this respect, since initiatory Wiccans have
aa greater sense of of separation between clergy clergy and laity, laity, emphasized
through
through the the secrecy of of their priesthood.. Not all
their priesthood..Not all secrets are revealed until until
the third degree
the degree of of initiation. Some other denomination
denominationss have specific specific
 Social
Social Organization 37
By,

clergy training programs and

clergy training and offer
offer services typical typical of of aa clergy serving a
clergy serving
laity.
laity. One such group isis the the Fellowship of of Isis.
Isis. InIn this
this multifaith organiza-
organiza-
tion that
tion that includes Pagans, Pagans, clergy clergy are trained at at Lyceums, or schools, that that
are chartered through through the the main collegecollege of of Isis
Isis inin Ireland, where the the Fel- Fel-
lowship began.
lowship began. Members of the Fellowship can found aa local
of the local group,
called an Iseum, and and offeroffer religious
religious services such such as initiation and and other
other
celebratory rituals. Each Iseum isis dedicated to deity chosen by
to a deity by the the
founder, and and this
this deity
deity isis thought
thought to to shape
shape the the development of of the
the Iseum.?
Similar to to practices of daily shamanism in
of daily in indigenous cultures, it it isis not
not
only
only the high festivals and
the high showy rituals that
and showy that are religiously significant in in
Paganism. Pagans Pagans keep keep home altars and and shrines and and engage in personal
in personal
spell
spell work outside of of the
the celebration of of the
the seasonal festivals. In In addition,
the
the choices made in in daily
daily life religious significance for
life have religious for Pagans. For For
them,
them, the spiritual is
the spiritual is political,
political, just just as the the personal
personal is political.!° ItIt isis par-
is political.!° par-
ticipation in in everyday
everyday life life as aa Pagan
Pagan that that makes one aa Pagan, Pagan, as much as
doing
doing formal ritual ritual in in aa group or having having experiences mediated through through
others at at public
public events. The way way one prepares one’s food, food, composts, recy- recy-
cles, and shows respect
cles, and respect for for thethe more-than-human world on a daily daily basis
is important as organized ritual.
is as important
At least
At least half
half of all Pagan
of all Pagan practitioners do do not belong
belong to to aa group and and in- in-
stead practice
stead practice as solo practitioners, or solitaries." Solitaries, however, often
as solo often
do
do participate in the larger
in the larger Pagan
Pagan community. The The “community”
“community” can serve
in the
in the place
place of of the
the church or congregation in in Christian traditions for for Pa- Pa-
gans. “Community,” in in this
this context, isis understood in in aa parallel
parallel sense to to the
the
“gay
“gay community,” as sharing
sharing a a sense of
of alternative lifestyle, life world,
lifestyle, life world, and and
politics.
politics. ItIt refers not to to aa physical
physical community such such as aa town or a neigh- neigh-
borhood, but to
but to a a shared life
life world or worldview, including a
a perception
of reality that
of reality that accepts the the efficacy
efficacy of of magic.!*
magic.!? The The Pagan
Pagan community can
also be
also be described as aa “community of of memory,” wherein aa sense of of com-
munity
munity is is fostered by by identification with with those killed in in the
the witch hunts.'?
hunts.!°
While Pagans
Pagans in in aa particular town or city city may
may develop
develop a sense of of com-
munity, they
munity, rarely have public
they rarely public meeting
meeting spaces. Pagans Pagans usually
usually meet in in
practitioners’ homes or in parks for
in parks for rituals,
rituals, or at local coffee shops
at local shops or pubs pubs
for social events. To
for To an extent, the the lack
lack of of aa public
public building
building owned by by aa
group functions to to make Pagan Pagan groups more transient. Owning Owning aa build-
ing gives
ing gives aa group
group aa focus focus and and requires
requires setting
setting up up aa certain amount of
certain amount of bu-
bu-
reaucratic overhead to to allow the the group to to maintain the the building
building despite
despite
fluctuations in in membership. Without aa dedicated public public building,
building, groups
more easily
easily disintegrate as individuals lose
lose interest, move away, or leave
in anger.'* AA few
in anger.'4 few larger such as Circle Sanctuary, own land. Pa-
larger groups, such Pa-
gans are generally
gans generally more interested inin purchasing wild
wild or naturalized land
land
than in opening
than in opening public
public ritual space within towns and and cities. Perhaps
Perhaps over
time,
time, wealthy
wealthy Pagans
Pagans will
will build temples to their
temples to their patron
patron deities, or perhaps
perhaps
38
38 Chapter 22
Chapter

not. Some Pagans

Pagans express aa desire for
for such public
public spaces, but
but many pre-
pre-
fer to meet
fer to meet their
their god/desses
god/desses at home or
at home or in
in parks and conservation
parks and conservation areas.
areas.
Some groups try to collect money to
try to to hold Pagan
Pagan festivals, so as to
to gain
gain
than isis possible
more freedom than in renting
possible in renting campgrounds or camps for for these
events.!5 More commonly, though,
though, money isis collected at
at public
public events forfor
the specific
the specific event attended in
in order to
to cover the
the costs of
of candles, incense,
snacks, and beverages.
The basic structure of of Pagan
Pagan groups is is the circle, which isis called aa coven
the circle,
in
in Wicca and and in in other traditions of of Witchcraft. In In Druidry,
Druidry, itit is
is called aa
grove, andand in in Asatru, itit isis sometimes called aa troth, although “troth” may
troth, although may
also refer
also refer to to aa federation of of smaller groups and and solitary
solitary practitioners. Pa- Pa-
gan circles tend to
gan to be
be small and and intimate, usually
usually consisting of less than
of less than aa
people. Starhawk’s definition of
dozen people. of aa coven—“a Witches’ support
group, consciousness-raising group, psychic psychic study
study center, clergy-training
program, College
College of of Mysteries, surrogate clan, clan, andand religious
religious congregation
all rolled into
all into one”
one” '*—is
!*—is descriptive not not only
only of of covens but of Pagan
but of Pagan cir- cir-
cles more generally.
cles generally. She She uses the the term “circle” for for looser-knit ritual groups
that may
that may form into covens,'’covens,!” but but it also functions as aa generic
it also generic term for for Pa-
Pa-
gan groups. Some circles are affiliated with
gan with larger
larger organizations, such as
those described atat the the end
end of of this
this chapter.
chapter. Many
Many circles, however, are lo- lo-
cal
cal groups not affiliated with any any larger
larger federation.
The circle represents the
The the equality
equality of of the
the participants: none stands above
the others, and
the and there is is no “front” of of the
the circle. The The initiatory traditions of of
Gardnerian and and Alexandrian Wicca appear to to have
have aa more hierarchical
structure than than feminist-oriented groups. In In Gardnerian and and Alexandrian
covens, the the group isis lead by by aa high
high priestess
priestess andand priest, who ideally
priest, who ideally actact as
a voice for for the
the group’s desires rather than dominating the the other coveners.
The high
The high priestess
priestess in in such
such groups has the highest
has the highest authority, followed by by
the high
the high priest.
priest. They
They are usually
usually both initiates of the third degree.
of the degree. In In fem-
fem-
inist-oriented groups, the the ideal
ideal isis often
often to to run thethe group on consensus, but but
the
the emergence of of leaders is usually inevitable. This
is usually This sometimes leads to to
anger and and accusations of of covert control.
In
In both feminist groups and and initiatory traditions, there isis often aa hierar-
chy
chy of of status, if nothing
if nothing else.'® This
This hierarchy sometimes extends beyond beyond
the
the coven but
but operates primarily
primarily in in terms of lineage
of lineage rather than control
over what “offspring” covens do. The
do. The organization of
of related groups in aa
in
tradition isis generally aa branching structure of of filiation, not a
a power struc-
ture or an administrative structure. Paganism is is decentralized, so that that
larger
larger organizations or federations exercise little control over what indi- indi-
vidual groups do. do.
Some circles are part part ofof traditions that that are structured as mystery reli- reli-
gions.
gions. In In initiatory Wicca,Wicca, forfor example, there there is is no laity
laity as such: all par-
all par-
ticipants are either clergy
ticipants clergy or potential clergypersons as initiates or neo- neo-
 Social Organization 39
39

phytes training
phytes training for
for initiation into
into the
the mysteries. AA neophyte
neophyte is is a beginner,
beginner,
an apprentice, or aa student. The
The mysteries are protected
protected by
by secrecy. Gard-
Gard-
nerian training, for example,
training, for example, is open at
is open at the
the first
first level to all interested per-
to all per-
sons over the
the age of eighteen,
age of eighteen, but
but further training
training isis restricted toto those
who have
who have been initiated into the first
into the degree. Some researchers have
first degree. have been
been
allowed to to attend further training, but but not with with unlimited access.!9 Sec- Sec-
ond-degree training
training prepares for for initiation into into thethe third
third degree.
degree. Most of of
the
the information revealed in in this
this training has has been made public, public, except
except
perhaps
perhaps some details given given toto third-degree initiates as oral oral instruction.
The rationale for
The for the
the secrecy surrounding the the training
training andand initiation is to
is to
shield the
the identity
identity ofof coven members against
against persecution, but also to
but also to pro- pro-
tect people
people fromfrom the
the mysteries. Secret knowledge can be be harmful if if re-
vealed to to those whowho are not not prepared
prepared for for itit or who might
who might misuse it. Se-
it. Se-
crecy can also
also help
help create a
a sense of
of trust in
in covens. Some sociologists note
that secrecy fosters group cohesion, creating
that creating an in-group and and an out-
group.°
group.”° More generally, secrecy functions as a form of
a form of institutionalization
in
in Wicca, structuring it into levels of
it into of status.
Pagan circles often have aa structure of
Pagan of concentric circles,circles, ofof an inner
court and
and an outer court,
court, so that
that there are closed or private
private groups related
to public
to public groups. A Pagan
A Pagan women’s group, for
for example, might have
might have pub- pub-
lic monthly
lic monthly meetings, based on the phases
the phases of the of the moon, at a local
at local book-
store or magical
magical supply
supply shop,
shop, which isis open
open toto all
all women. Some of of the
the
women who lead rituals in the public
in the public group might
might also
also hold
hold private
private cele-
brations of
of the
the festivals in
in closed covens to to which they belong. Many
they belong. Many of of
these women might
these might also
also celebrate the in public
the festivals in public ceremonies open
to men and
to perhaps atat larger
and women, perhaps larger regional
regional gatherings.
Participants in
in closed Pagan
Pagan circles often
often think of of the
the circle in
in terms ofof
the closeness of
the of family, than friends.”! As
family, more intimate than As in
in families,
families, simi-
lar sorts of
lar of conflict develop
develop between members. TheThe intensity of
of the
the rela-
rela-
in covens, for
tions in example, can ultimately lead
for example, to the
lead to the disintegration of
of
the coven. But
the But recombinations are frequent;
frequent; membership is
is fluid
fluid in closed
in closed
groups as well
well as in
in public
public groups, but
but relationships continue with thethe de-
de-
velopment of
of new covens. Some covens continue toto exist
exist long
long after
after all
all the
the
original
original members have
have left.
left. Despite the sometimes acrimonious partings
Despite the
of the
of the ways between coven members, divided groups can re-form into
new covens over time, time, and
and relationships developed in in covens remain im- im-
portant
portant in the larger
in the larger community regardless
regardless ofof whether individuals con-
tinue to
to circle
circle together.””
together.”
The transience of
The of Pagan
Pagan circles should not be mistaken for
not be for superficial
bonds. In
bonds. In Wiccan covens, the the ideal
ideal isis to
to come together
together in perfect love
in perfect love and
and
perfect
perfect trust, creating
creating intense personal relationships. The The instability
instability of
of
Pagan
Pagan groups hashas led
led some sociologists toto regard
regard Paganism as aa quasi-
quasi-
religion, but others suggest
religion, but that covens should be
suggest that at in
be looked at in the
the context
context
40
40 Chapter 22
Chapter

of extended networks and

of and related associations.” Wicca does show trends
does show
of growing
of growing into sug-
religion, which some sociologists sug-
into an institutionalized religion,
gest isis necessary for
gest the survival of
for the the religion.
of the Some scholars theorize
religion. Some
religious movements tend
that new religious
that tend toto disintegrate without formal insti- insti-
tutions. However, even ifif some groups do do not continue due due to lack of
toaa lack of or-
ganizational structure, itit appears as
ganizational though, at
as though, at the least, the
very least,
the very inclusive
the inclusive
groups ofof Wicca will survive. Wicca isis currently
will survive.” currently undergoing a process of of
routinization as children are being being raised in the traditions developed
in the developed by by
and in
their parents, and in some cases, grandparents.”
However, there
However, there isis aa strong
strong current
current in in Paganism
Paganism that that resists routinization
resists routinization
and the
the development in in the religion of
the religion of codified traditions. Some would
rather see Paganism as a spontaneous way of of being religious that
being religious that does not
not
rely on a
rely a received tradition of of ritual forms or on the the teachings of of a bu-
bu-
reaucratized clergy.
clergy. Pagan
Pagan studies scholar and and practitioner Michael York, York,
for example,
for example, would seem to prefer that
to prefer that what he calls “paganism” be
he calls be aa
spontaneous way of being religious,
of being religious, that
that itit serve as thethe always
always new up- up-
welling of
welling religious experience. For
of religious For York,
York, this
this isis aa human universal, visi-visi-
ble in
ble in folk
folk customs worldwide, including things things likelike tossing
tossing coins inin aa
fountain, making
making wishes, andand leaving
leaving offerings.”
offerings.”°
In this sense, “paganism” isis largely
In this largely congruent with with Catherine Al- Al-
banese’s understanding of of nature religion
religion as aa form of of religiosity that
that isis
largely institutionalized. Albanese, in
implicit rather than institutionalized.
largely implicit in Reconsidering
Nature Religion, says that
Religion, says that she finds she finds nature religion
religion to to dissolve almost as
soon as it is
it is identified.2” Nature religion
religion deconstructs itself because itit isis
implicit, something that people
implicit, something that people do largely do largely unconsciously or on an ad
ad hochoc
basis,
basis, rather than a
a formally institutionalized d
institutionalize religion religion with meeting
meeting
houses and and identifiable congregations. Nature religion religion thus
thus appears in rit-
in rit-
uals that develop
uals that develop spontaneously at
at environmental protests, and
and in in some of
of
the folk
the folk practices of Pagans.
of Pagans. Most of
of Albanese’s discussion of
of nature reli-
reli-
gion is
gion is about phenomena such as the the intense communion with nature de- de-
scribed by by John
John Muir,
Muir, the religious experience of
the religious of an individual alone alone in
in na-
ture, apart
ture, apart from community. She She explains
explains that that inin such phenomena, people people
feel aa sense of
feel of kinship
kinship of of spirit
spirit rather than than connections based on aa com-
mon ethnic background or working working on common tasks, tasks, so thatthat organized
religion isis less
religion likely to
less likely develop as aa result.*8
to develop result.?8 However, in in Paganism, more
specifically than in in the
the broader religious
religious expressions of of nature religion,
religion,
community isis formed around things things other than than individual revelatory ex-
periences in
periences in nature. Shared experiences in the circle are important, but
in the but for for
some Pagans,
Pagans, ethnicity
ethnicity isis paramount to to their sense of of community. This This is is
particularly true in in the
the revival of of Pagan
Pagan traditions in in Eastern Europe.”
Europe.”
In her
In her discussion of of nature religion,
religion, Albanese notes the the formation of of
Wicca and and other contemporary Pagan Pagan groups, but but she
she suggests that that these
phenomena have have thethe status of of aa “movement” rather than than aa religion.
religion. She She
 Social Organization 41
41

notes that changes frequently, that

that membership changes that groups are subject to frag-
subject to frag-
mentation, andand furthermore that
that the
the development of of such groups is is atyp-
atyp-
ical in Western culture. She
ical in She argues thatthat “without strongly
strongly institutional-
ized community, without clearlyclearly demarcated history,
history, itit exists as an
inherently unstable construct, and
inherently and itit easily into something
easily deconstructs into
The something else,
else.” The else, she
she says,
says, is
is politics,
politics, or metaphysical sublima-
tion through
tion through things like New Age
things like Age healing.
healing. Nature religion
religion does not lead
lead
toto the
the development of of a “church of
of nature.”*°
nature.”%°
Nature religion,
religion, and the Pagan
and the Pagan groups expressive of
of it,
it, may
may not
not lead to
lead to
the development of
the of institutions like the Catholic Church, but
like the this does not
but this
mean thatthat other forms of of religion
religion will
will not develop
develop out of of nature religion.
religion.
Paganism follows aa different pattern pattern of of routinization, developing with a
different sense of of community and and aa different sense religiousreligious custom
through daily practice.
through daily practice. Implicit
Implicit religion
religion isis just
just as common worldwide as
institutionalized religion,
religion, but
but it is
it is much less
less identifiable. In In indigenous
traditions, for example,
for example, there are rarely
rarely words that
that translate into “reli-
into “reli-
gion”
gion” or “church,” yet
yet traditions develop
develop and evolve without these ex-
these
plicitly
plicitly recognized institutions. Religion
Religion does not require
require central author-
ity as aa form
ity form of organization.
of Oral
Oral traditions, tribal
tribal religions,
religions, and
and
shamanism, forfor example,
example, perpetuate themselves without central author-
ity. Religion
ity. Religion can be
be perpetuated as aa nondistinguished aspect
aspect of
of cultural
Some of
tradition. Some of the
the institutions of
of Paganism
Paganism are identifiable, however,
such as the
such the resistance to hierarchy and
to hierarchy and bureaucratization. This This is,
is, para-
para-
doxically, an identifiable structure of
doxically, of Pagan religion.
Pagan religion.
Pagans are often willfully
Pagans willfully disorganized in in their
their resistance to
to bureau-
cracy and
and hierarchy, which leads some researchers to to describe Paganism
as “a“a decentralized religious
religious movement” and and aa “disorganized reli- reli-
gion.”3! Such tendencies are especially evident in
gion.”3! Such in feminist Paganism, in in
overlap
overlap with feminist spirituality in in groups such as Reclaiming, which
is
is run on consensus, and and attempts to reject centralized authority.
to reject The re-
authority. The
ligious
ligious experiences of Pagans, of
of Pagans, of direct connection with divinity, counter
the
the processes of of routinization as the the religion
religion isis constantly renewed
through
through new encounters with divinity. divinity. TheThe belief that
that anyone can have
such experiences makes it it impossible forfor any single person or organiza-
any single
tion to
to claim toto speak
speak with authority about what experiences are legiti- legiti-
mate or about what are proper Pagan Pagan experiences. This This belief that
that all
all Pa-
Pa-
gans can encounter the the divine directly
directly isis part
part of
of how
how Pagan
Pagan religion
religion
itself: authority resides in
legitimizes itself: in the
the individual, not in in approval of of
external clergy
clergy or elders.
Some Pagans
Pagans reject
reject the
the label ofof “religion,”
“religion,” preferring “spirituality,” in in
common with general trends in
with more general in religiosity.°* Pagans
Pagans often reject
often reject
“religion”
“religion” or “organized religion,” by by which they
they usually
usually mean Chris-
tianity and
tianity Judaism. First-generation Pagans
and Judaism. Pagans tend to to be out of
be converts out of
42
42 Chapter 22
Chapter

Christianity or Judaism and are critical of those traditions. Their practice

of those practice
of Paganism is
of “religion” in
is “religion” in the
the sense that they are now participating in
that they in
Paganism instead of
Paganism of in
in the organized religion
the organized religion to
to which they used to
they used to be-
be-
long. Canadian legislation
long. religion with
legislation conflates religion with “a
“a formal boundary-
maintaining structure through
through which that religion is
that religion is administered.”°°
Pagan religion
Pagan religion is
is not like
like this,
this, so identification of of Pagans
Pagans isis largely
largely de-de-
pendent on their their identifying themselves as Pagan. Pagan. ThisThis creates a prob-
a prob-
lem of
lem of how to to restrict who is Pagan among practitioners, as well
is Pagan well as how
to identify
to identify practitioners for for scholars studying
studying Pagans.
Pagans. There is is no creed
to identify Pagans, and
to identify and individuals bear only only aa family
family resemblance to to
one another.
The
The desire for for Paganism
Paganism to to continue as “disorganized religion,” or to to
develop formal religious
religious institutions, divides Pagans. Within Paganism,
there isis “tension between a desire to to appropriate the religious language
the religious language
and
and the
the legitimacy itit confers, while repudiating the the cultural and and institu-
baggage that
tional baggage that [practitioners] perceive perceive as attached to to ‘religion’
generally.”*4 Some Pagans
more generally.”34 Pagans fear that for
fear that Paganism to
for Paganism gain recogni-
to gain recogni-
tion as aa legitimate religion,
tion religion, itit will
will have to to change
change to to resemble the the or-
ganized religions that
ganized religions people left
that people left inin coming
coming to to Paganism. They They want to to
retain the
the countercultural tendencies of of Paganism and and for
for itit to
to challenge
social norms and and act as the the social conscience of the surrounding culture
of the
in
in terms of of the
the environment and and acceptance of of ethnic and and lifestyle
lifestyle
diversity, for
diversity, for example.
example. Others want Paganism to to become unremarkable,
just another
just another of of the world religions,
the world religions, withwith the
the same legal rights
same legal rights and free-
and free-
doms as other religions.*
Contemporary Paganism has always been
has always been somewhat critical of of its
its sur-
rounding
rounding culture. Wicca has “always posed
has “always posed an implicit
implicit powerful
powerful chal-
lenge to
lenge to social and
and religious
religious norms.”%° Wicca was inspired inspired in part by
in part by the
the
Romantic movement against against thethe Victorian repression of sexuality. How-
of sexuality.
ever, rather than being
being countercultural in in the
the sense of of the
the American move-
ment of the 1960s,
of the 1960s, this
this Paganism rejectedrejected modernity. “Pagan “Pagan witchcraft
travelled from Britain to to the
the United States as aa branch of of radical conser-
vatism; itit returned as
vatism; as aa branch of
of radical socialism” after being influenced
after being
by Starhawk and
by and other feminist witches.?”
witches.°” The
The tension between conserva-
tives whowho regard
regard Paganism as aa private
private matter andand those whowho want itit toto
change
change the the world continues.
Pagan parents are somewhat more likely
Pagan than other practitioners to
likely than to
want Paganism to to be
be accepted
accepted by by the
the surrounding culture as legitimate.
ItIt is
is primarily
primarily in
in the
the context ofof raising
raising children that
that researchers talk
talk about
the process of
the of routinization inin Wicca, and
and Paganism more generally. Some
suggest that the birth of
that the of the
the second generation of of Pagans
Pagans isis causing
causing the
the re-
ligious movement to
ligious to mature.»
mature. Based on the the supposition that
that there
there are ap-
ap-
proximately 200,000 adult Pagans Pagans in in the
the United States, probably more more
 Social Organization 43
43

than 82,600
82,600 children are currently being
being raised as Pagans.”
Pagans.” Raising
Raising chil-
dren in
dren in the
the religion
religion requires
requires teaching and creating
teaching them and creating new traditions,
and, “because children enjoy
and, enjoy repetition, the
the rituals are likely
likely to
to become
systematized.”*! This
systematized.”4! This routinization process causes some tension with the the
mystery religion
religion aspect
aspect of of Wicca. As As aa mystery
mystery religion,
religion, Wicca isis some-
what oriented toward gaining gaining new members through through the training and
the training and ini-
tiation of
of neophytes, rather than than maintaining the the faith through
through the the devel-
opment of of family
family traditions.”
Another motivation for for institutionalization in in Paganism
Paganism is is the desire of
the desire of
some practitioners for for greater
greater legal rights and
legal rights and protections, as well well as serv-
ices.4* Some Pagans
ices. Pagans express concerns about freedom of of religion,
religion, fearing
fearing
persecution through
through things
things like having burning
like having burning crosses erected on their
lawns andand discrimination in in child custody cases. Pagans Pagans havehave also
also had
had
problems with being being allowed to to take religious
religious holidays for for Pagan festi-
Pagan festi-
vals. Students have
vals. have been refused permission to to write exams before
Samhain when when the the tests are scheduled for for November 1.44 1.“ In
In Wicca,
Wicca, No-No-
vember 11 is
vember is much likelike New Year’s
Year’s Day
Day in the secular calendar, aa day
in the day toto re-
re-
after the
cover after the festivities of of the
the night
night before.
Some Pagans
Pagans want the the same services that that are available to to members of of
religious groups, such
other religious such as formal seminary training training of of clergy
clergy and
and le-le-
gal recognition of
gal chaplains for
of chaplains military and
for military and correctional institutions (jails (jails
and penitentiaries). Some also
and also want to to be
be able to perform
able to legal marriages
perform legal
(sometimes called handfastings in in Paganism). Other Pagans Pagans fear fear that
that le-
le-
gal regulations of
gal of services might
might follow recognition of of legal
legal status.*
status.** TheThe
legal recognition of
legal of groups presents a problem problem for for administration on the the
government side,
side, as well as for
for practitioners, most of
of whom do not belong
do not belong
to large
to large federated organizations. There is
is also
also a problem
problem in deciding who
in deciding
be awarded legal
should be rights to
legal rights to perform
perform marriages. Many Many Pagans
Pagans
would rather that
that no groups have
have legal
legal status, ifif itit would mean that
that oth-
oth-
ers would be
be denied it,
it, since this
this would create aa certain hegemonic au-
thority in
thority in legally
legally recognized groups, which isis contrary to to the
the spirit
spirit ofof in-
in-
dividual authority
authority in in Paganism.**
Paganism.”
Perhaps more than
Perhaps than any any other Pagan
Pagan organization in in Canada, the the Wic-
can Church of of Canada has has developed structures common to to other reli-
reli-
gious
gious organizations. The The Wiccan Church of of Canada of of southern Ontario isis
run with
with a a central authority
authority rather thanthan through
through aa regular
regular coven structure.
The training of clergy
The training of clergy is is structured through
through a a formal curriculum, and and can-
didates are judged
judged by by a a committee of
of priesthood.” This
This structure allows
the
the development of
of aa laity—people who
who want to
to participate in the reli-
in the reli-
gious
gious tradition but
but without becoming initiated into it.
into it. YetYet even with these
concessions to religion, the
to mainstream religion, the Wiccan Church of of Canada contin-
ues toto be
be denied tax-exempt status.** status.4* AA number of Pagan groups in
of Pagan in the
the
United States have
have achieved tax-exempt status.
status.
44
44 Chapter 22
Chapter

In other branches of
In of Wicca, and in
in Paganism more generally,
generally, the
the
process ofof routinization does not follow the
the familiar models of of the
the
Berger compares the
monotheistic traditions. Berger the routinization ofof Wicca as aa
religious movement with
religious with Max
Max Weber’s writings on the the routinization ofof
charisma. In
In Weber’s understanding of the teachings of
of routinization, the of aa
prophet or religious
charismatic prophet religious leader are standardized and by
and codified by
her/his disciples. In
In Paganism, however, itit isis competent administrators
who contribute most to
who to the
the standardization of
of religious
religious practice,
practice, through
things like producing newsletters and
things like and organizing festivals.*?
festivals.4? Paganism
does such as Starhawk and
does have celebrities, such and Fiona
Fiona Horne,
Horne, but
but while
while they
they
are charismatic leaders, Pagans
Pagans dodo not follow them the the way
way Weber de- de-
scribes charismatics. The modern media, by by exposing all all the
the foibles of
of
public
public personages, mitigates the
the influence of
of charismatic leaders, and the
and the
context of
of late
late modernity contributes to to aa general
general attitude of of skepticism
skepticism inin
regard to
regard to leaders, and to the rejection of hierarchy.
to the rejection of hierarchy.°°
Pagan practices converge in
Pagan practices in at
at least three ways in in processes of of rou-
tinization and
and standardization: coercive, mimetic, and
and normative iso-
iso-
morphism.°! Isomorphism refers to to aa convergence of of diverse types
types into
into
aa more homogenous type. type. Coercive isomorphism, a response to to outside
pressures to to conform to to certain standards, isis the the least
least active process of of
homogenization in in Paganism. There are some legal legal requirements for ob-
for ob-
taining tax-exempt status and
taining and the right to
the right to conduct marriages, but but these
pressures dodo not formform aa significant impetus impetus to to conformity of of religious
religious
practice in
practice Wicca.*?
in Wicca.?
Mimetic isomorphism,
isomorphism, much much moremore common in in Paganism,
Paganism, is is the result
the result
of
of diverse groups learning
learning from one another and copying or mimicking
and copying
the practices of
the of other groups and and individuals. Homogenization in in Pagan-
Pagan-
ism develops with the
develops with the spread
spread of of chants and liturgies through individual
liturgies through
contact atat festivals.°?
festivals. Festivals contribute to to mimetic isomorphism by by
bringing
bringing together
together large
large groups of of Pagans,
Pagans, who who participate in in workshops,
each other songs and chants,
teach each chants, and perform
perform rituals. Almost half half of
of fes-
fes-
tival participants in in one study
study attended large large festivals.54
festivals.4 Another sort of of
mimetic isomorphism occurs through through printprint media. The The influence of of
Starhawk’s books is is enormous, but but periodicals are also also popular.
popular. There are
more than
than aa hundred PaganPagan journals
journals in in the
the United States.55 However, the the
explosive growth
growth of of Paganism in in the
the 1990s coincided with with advances in in
desktop
desktop publishing and the popular growth of
and the of the
the Internet, and
and this
this has
has
become aa significant medium for for many PagansPagans to to share their ideas and
communicate with one another.
Normative isomorphism occurs through through the the growth
growth of of professional
professionalism,ism,
including the
the creation of of experts and and standards for for experts. The
The growth
growth of of
seminaries andand training
training programs for for clergy,
clergy, such as Cherry Hill Semi-
Cherry Hill
nary
nary in
in Vermont, is part of
is part of this
this process of of normative isomorphism in in Pa-
Pa-
 Social Organization 45
45

ganism. The
ganism. rapid growth
The rapid growth of
of Paganism contributes to
to routinization, be-
be-
cause with increased numbers of
of new practitioners, the
the demand for for-
for for-
malized training
training and
and access to
to services increases. In
In the
the process, individ-
uals have
uals have less
less control over the
the development of
of the
the religion. This
religion. This
to divisions between those who
contributes to who want Paganism to
to be
be coun-
tercultural and those who
who seek
seek legitimacy for
for it,
it, as well as between those
who have been
who in Paganism for
been involved in for decades andand those who
who are new
to the
to the religion.
religion.
AA number of of large have developed in
large organizations have in Paganism in the
in the
form of
of federations. These federations are generally
generally networking organiza-
tions, sometimes created to
tions, to conduct antidefamation work,
work, to provide ac-
to provide
curate information on Paganism to to media people
people and governmental and and
policing authorities, and
policing to protect
and to protect the religious rights
the religious rights of Pagans. Mem-
of Pagans.
bership usually
bership requires payment of
usually requires of small annual fees,
fees, which often often cover
the cost of
the of producing a newsletter or publishing aa magazine or journal. journal.
The
The Pagan
Pagan Federation in the United Kingdom,
in the Kingdom, founded in in 1971,
1971, isis one
of the
of the oldest still-existing federations. ItIt produces aa journal
journal called The The Pa-
Pa-
gan
gan Dawn,
Dawn, formerly
formerly called The
The Wiccan, and
and holds an annual conference, as
well as more frequent
well frequent regional
regional gatherings. Membership isis open to all
to all
adults over thethe age
age of eighteen who accept
of eighteen accept the
the principles
principles of love and
of love and kin-
kin-
ship with nature; who follow the
ship the ethical principle of “if
principle of “if itit harms none, do do
what youyou will”;
will”; and who acknowledge both
and who both female and male aspects aspects of of
the divine. They
the They began
began as an antidefamation organization and developed
and developed
into aa networking organization. They
into They now also provide
provide some chaplaincy
The Pagan
support. The Pagan Federation is
is run by
by an elected board of
of directors
called “the Council.”° The Pagan
Council.”°* The Pagan Federation International serves as an in-
in-
ternational liaison between the
the Pagan
Pagan Federation in
in the
the United Kingdom
and related groups around the
and the world, such as thethe Pagan
Pagan Federation/
Fédération Paienne Canada (PFPC)
(PFPC) inin Canada.*’
Canada.” In In Australia, aa group
the Pagan
called the Pagan Alliance functions in
in much the
the same way as thethe Pagan
Pagan
Federation, and
and membership isis based on acceptance of
of the principles out-
the principles
lined by the
lined by the Pagan
Pagan Federation. The Pagan Alliance, founded in
The Pagan in 1991,
1991, has
has
become aa nationally incorporated networking organization in
in order to
to
produce the
the magazine Pagan
Pagan Times.
Times.*
in 1974
Circle Sanctuary, founded in 1974 by Selena Fox
by Selena Fox and
and Jim
Jim Alan,
Alan, isis the
the
largest
largest Pagan
Pagan organization in in the
the United States. Circle isis based in in Wis-
consin and owns landland there. ItIt has
has legal
legal status as aa church, and
and itit spon-
paid clergy.
sors paid clergy. Circle produces Circle Network News,
News, aa magazine with with aa
circulation
circulation of 15,000, and
of 15,000, and hosts
hosts the annual Pagan
the annual Pagan Spirit Gathering festi-
Spirit Gathering festi-
val.5? The
val.5° The Covenant of the
of the Goddess (CoG) is
(CoG) is another American organiza-
It was founded in
tion. It in 1975 and
and isis based in
in California. ItIt aims to
to protect
protect
the legal rights
the legal rights of of various Pagans in
Pagans in a a nondenominational manner. As a
As
federation, CoG does not
CoG does not train
train clergy
clergy or conduct initiations. However, it
46
46 Chapter
Chapter 22

can give legal status to

give individuals legal to conduct marriages in
in some states.
CoG has
has individual members and
and coven members that
that conduct training
training
and initiation.
and initiation.”
For
For some Pagans, the Covenant of
Pagans, the of Unitarian Universalist Pagans
Pagans (CU-
UPs)
UPs) serves as aa larger
larger organization. CUUPs formed within the the Unitarian
Church inin 1987. As
As part of the
part of the Unitarian Universalists, they
they can provide
provide
the security
the security of
of aa well-established church infrastructure, including
including semi-
nary training,
nary training, church buildings,
buildings, two publishing houses, and and aa money
base. However, not all
base. all congregations within the the Unitarian Universalist
happy with the
Church are happy the development of of CUUPs within it.°! it.*
There are also
also a number of explicitly Craft organizations that
of explicitly that serve as
One of
federations. One the best
of the best known of of these isis Reclaiming. Reclaiming
formed inin the
the late
late 1970s inin San
San Francisco as aa collective that that grew out of of
classes taught
taught by by Starhawk and
and Diane Baker. It is
It is an explicitly feminist
Witchcraft organization and and isis open to men as well
open to well as women. Reclaim-
ing has
ing has continued to offer courses, organize
to offer public rituals,
organize public rituals, and
and produce
produce
aa quarterly newsletter, as well
well as run weeklong
weeklong Witch camps, which are
training retreats. The
training The Reclaiming
Reclaiming Collective, as itit first
first existed,
existed, was run
on consensus and and pursued
pursued projects through largely
projects through largely autonomous cells.
Membership in in these cells was based on participation and and on getting to
getting to
know people
people inin the
the group. This created tension as the the group grew and and
it
it became harder to to get
get to
to know people
people in in what became an inner circle.
In 1997,
In 1997, the
the Collective reformed itself, itself, creating an explicit
explicit leadership
and
and administration center for
administration center the San
for the San Francisco
Francisco area,
area, and
and maintaining
maintaining
tax-exempt status. Reclaiming groups in in other areas operate completely
independently but but subscribe to to the
the principles of of unity
unity developed collec-
tively in
tively in 1997.6
1997.
The
The Wiccan Church of
of Canada (WCC)
(WCC) isis based in
in Toronto,
Toronto, and
and its
its mem-
bership
bership is
is largely to southern Ontario. Like
largely restricted to Like the Aquarian Taber-
the Aquarian
nacle Church (ATC) in the
(ATC) in the United States,
States, the
the WCC isis not
not an umbrella or-
ganization, unlike most larger
larger organizations in in Paganism. The ATC was
founded in in Washington in in 1979
1979 and
and has spread into British Columbia,
has spread
with an affiliate organization founded there in in 1994,
1994.6
EarthSpirit Community, another Wiccan organization, was founded in
EarthSpirit in
the
the Boston area byby Andras Corban Arthen in the early
in the early 1980s as aa network
of covens originating in
of the Athanor Fellowship, which has
in the has now dis-
dis-
solved, although
although related groups continue. EarthSpirit had had aa structure of
of
an inner made up
inner circle made up of the coven members of
of the of Athanor Fellowship,
who ran a magazine they used to
they used to produce
produce and
and diddid most of
of the
the organiza-
tion
tion work for public rituals; aa middle circle
for public circle of
of volunteers; and
and an outer cir-
cir-
cle of
cle of people
people with a limited sense of of commitment to to the
the organization.
EarthSpirit attempted toto gather
gather financial support for paying administra-
for paying
tive staff and
tive and for buying land
for buying land to
to host
host the Rites of
the Rites of Spring
Spring festival, but the
but the
 Social Organization 47
47

plan failed,
plan primarily due
failed, primarily due to
to fears
fears that people who paid
that people paid money would not not
have control over how it it was spent,
spent, as well
well as because of of the
the fear
fear that
that aa
class of
of paid clergy would develop.
paid clergy develop. Dissatisfaction with aa similar process
in Circle Sanctuary may
in may have contributed to the failure of
to the of EarthSpirit toto
attain aa similar sort of
of structural organization.“
There are also
also Druid and Heathen organizations. Ar Ar nDrafocht
nDraiocht Féin
(pronounced “arn ree-ocht fane”)
(pronounced “arn fane”) isis Gaelic for “Our Own
for “Our Own Druidism,” but
but
itit isis often referred to to as “A “A Druid Fellowship,” or by by the the acronym ADF.
ADF is is an international organization of
of Druids founded by Isaac
by
Bonewits.© Members of of ADF practice Druidry
practice Druidry or Druidism as a revived
religion
religion based on up-to-date scholarly research on the Celts and other
the Celts and
Indo-European groups. ADF runs aa comprehensive training training program for for
clergy
clergy throughthrough distance education. They
They also also run guilds for
guilds for teaching
teaching var-
ious performing arts,
ious performing arts, such as storytelling and and music, fine fine arts and crafts,
and crafts,
and magical
and magical arts. Until recently,
recently, ADF published the journal
the journal Oak Leaves.
They have rules
They rules for for grove membership in in the larger federation, including
the larger
the
the payment of fees,
of fees, maintenance of
of a a membership list,
list, and the the require-
require-
ment to hold open rituals,
to hold open rituals, due to legal due to legal requirements for
for maintaining tax-
exempt status in the
in the United States.©
States.°
The
The Troth is is an international Asatru organization based in in Texas,
Texas, where
they are incorporated as “The
they “The Ring
Ring of of Troth” and and have
have tax-exempt status.
Their bylawsbylaws refer refer to to them as aa “church” for for legal
legal reasons: they they clarify
clarify that
that
“church” means “nonprofit religious religious organization.” The The Troth is is run by by
an elected board of of directors called “the “the High
High Rede.” “Troth” means loy- loy-
alty to
alty to thethe gods,
gods, specifically the the deities of of thethe Norse pantheon. Due Due to to
racist activities in in other
other Norse-inspired groups, the the Troth isis explicitly an-
tiracist. The The Troth runs aa training training program, certifies elders, elders, and hosts an
annual gathering called Trothmoot. They They publish
publish the journal Idunna and
the journal and
the newsletter Mimir’s Well,
the Well, as wellwell as a a comprehensive website.”
The Church of
The of All
All Worlds (CAW) isis another large large organization, whose
members are mostly mostly Pagan.Pagan. ItIt began
began in in 1962,
1962, inspired
inspired by by Robert Hein-
lein’s novel Stranger Stranger inin aa Strange
Strange Land.
Land. In In the
the novel,
novel, a a human who was
raised in in an alien culture comes back to to Earth and and studies human culture
as an alien alien anthropologist. He He creates the the Church of of All
All Worlds to to teach
teach
humans about how how he he was raised with with the the values of of ecological integrity,
ecological integrity,
recognizing divinity divinity in in one another, and and ensuring that that thethe necessities of of
life
life are available to to all. After reading
all. After this novel,
reading this novel, Tim Tim ZellZell (later
(later known as
Otter G’Zell
Otter G’Zell and, and, moremore recently, Oberon Zell-Ravenheart)
recently, Oberon Zell-Ravenheart) and and Richard
Richard
Lance Christie decided to to create thethe church in reality. CAW became aa fed-
in reality. fed-
erally recognized church in
erally in the
the United States in
in 1970
1970 and
and for
for many years
produced the
produced popular Pagan
the popular Pagan magazine Green Egg. Egg. Some members are not
Pagan, but
Pagan, but their
their magazine and
and their
their ritual practices
practices related to
to steward-
ship of
ship the Earth
of the Earth have
have been quite
quite influential in
in American Paganism.
Paganism.
48
48 Chapter
Chapter 22

FURTHER READING

Berger, Helen. AA Community of

Berger, of Witches. Columbia: University ofof South Carolina Press,
Press, 1999.
1999.
Reid, Sian
Reid, Sian Lee
Lee MacDonald. Disorganized Religion: An Exploration of
Religion: An of the
the Neopagan
Neopagan Craft
Craft in
in
Canada. Doctoral thesis, University, Ottawa,
thesis, Carleton University, Ottawa, 2001.
2001.
Salomonsen, Jone.
Jone. Enchanted Feminism: The
The Reclaiming Witches of
of San
San Francisco. London: Rout-
ledge, 2002.
ledge, 2002.

NOTES

1.1. See
See Reginald Bibby,
Bibby, Unknown Gods: The
The Ongoing Story of
Ongoing Story of Religion
Religion inin Canada (Toronto:
(Yoronto:
Stoddart, 1993), 44.
1993), 44.
2.2. Sian Lee Reid, “Disorganized Religion:
Lee MacDonald Reid, Religion: An
An Exploration of the Neopagan
of the
Craft in
Craft in Canada” (Doctoral thesis,
thesis, Carleton University, Ottawa, 2001),
2001), 178.
178.
3.3. Some Pagans
Pagans in
in Eastern Europe
Europe regard
regard written sources such as the the Book of Veles and
of Veles and
the Maha Vira
the Vira as scripture. See
See Adrian Ivakhiv, “In
“In Search of Deeper Identities: Neopa-
of Deeper Neopa-
ganism and
ganism and ‘Native Faith’ in
in Contemporary Ukraine,” Nova Religio
Religio 8,8, no. 33 (March 2005):
2005):
7-38.
4.4. Scott Cunnigham, Wicca: AA Guide for
for the Solitary Practitioner (St.
the Solitary (St. Paul,
Paul, MN: Llewellyn
Llewellyn
Publications, 1988),
1988), 13.
13.
5.
5. The “more-than-human world” isis aa phrase phrase introduced by
by David Abram in
in The
The Spell
Spell of
of
the
the Sensuous: Perception
Perception andand Language inin aa More-Than-Human World (New York: Vintage
Vintage [Ran- [Ran-
dom House], 1996);
1996); itit refers to
to the
the world beyond superficial human perception of
beyond superficial of itit as “na-
“na-
ture” or “the
“the environment,” to filled with other
to an animate world filled other intelligences.
6.6. See,
See, for
for example,
example, Marie-Francoise Guédon, LeLe Réve
Réve et
et lala Forét: Histoires de
de Chamanes
chez les Nabesnas et
chez les et Leurs
Leurs Voisins (Québéc:
(Québéc: Presses de
de l’Université
I’Université Laval,
Laval, 2004).
2004).
7. Guédon, Le
7. Le Réve etet la
la Forét.
8. Reid, “Disorganized
8. Reid, “Disorganized Religion,”
Religion,” 200.
200.
9. Wendy Griffin, “Goddess Spirituality and
9. Wendy and Wicca,” in
in Her Voice, Her
Her Faith:
Faith: Women Speak
Speak
on World Religions,
Religions, ed.
ed. Arvind Sharma and
and Katherine K. Young, 243-81 (Boulder, CO:
K. Young, West-
CO: West-
view Press,
Press, 2004).
10. Helen Berger,
10. Berger, A A Community of
of Witches (Columbia: University of
of South Carolina Press,
Press,
1999), 8.8.
1999),
11. Berger,
11. Berger, Community of of Witches, 50.
Witches, 50.
12. Berger, Community of
12. Berger, of Witches, 66,
66, 69.
69.
13.
13. Berger,
Berger, Community of of Witches, 70-71.
14. Berger, Community of
14. Berger, of Witches, 55.
55.
15. Berger discusses the
15. Berger failed plans
the failed plans of
of EarthSpirit Community to land, in
to purchase land, in Com-
munity of
munity Witches, 104-10.
of Witches,
16. Starhawk, The
16. The Spiral
Spiral Dance: AA Rebirth of the Ancient Religion
of the Religion of
of the
the Great Goddess, 10th
10th
anniversary ed.ed. (New
(New York:
York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1989), 1989), 49.
49.
17. Starhawk, Spiral
17, Spiral Dance,
Dance, 220.
220.
18. See
18. Jone Salomonsen, Enchanted Feminism: The
See Jone The Reclaiming Witches ofof San
San Francisco
(London: Routledge,
Routledge, 2002), 42. 42. Initiation isis an aspect of some feminist groups, such
aspect of such as Re-
Re-
claiming, but
claiming, but itit is
is not required
required for
for participation andand is
is not structured the
the same way
Way as in
in
Gardnerian and Alexandrian groups.
19. See
19. Berger, Community of
See Berger, of Witches, 56.
56.
20. Berger, Community of
20. Berger, of Witches, 62.
62.
21. Berger, Community
21. Berger, Community of
of Witches, 50.
50.
 Social Organization 49
49

22. Berger,
22. Berger, Community ofof Witches, 62-64.62-64.
23. See,
23. See, for
for example, Berger
Berger Community of of Witches.
24. See
24. See Berger,
Berger, Community of of Witches, 13-14. She
She suggests that women’s only
only groups are
less likely toto survive.
less likely
25. Berger,
25. Berger, Community of of Witches, 14.
14.
26.
26. Michael York, York, Pagan
Pagan Theology:
Theology: Paganism as as aa World Religion
Religion (New
(New York: New York
York Uni-
versity
versity Press,
Press, 2003).
2003).
27. Catherine L.L. Albanese, Reconsidering Nature Religion
27. Religion (Harrisburg, PA:
PA: Trinity
Trinity Press In-
In-
ternational, 2002),
2002), x.
x.
28.
28. Albanese, Reconsidering Nature Religion,
Religion, 32.
32.
29. See
29. See Michael Strmiska, “The
“The Music of the Past
of the Past in
in Modern Baltic Paganism,” Nova Reli-
Baltic Paganism,” Reli-
gio: The
gio: The Journal of Alternative and
Journal of Emergent Religions
and Emergent Religions 88 (2005).
(2005).
30. Albanese, Reconsidering Nature Religion,
30. Religion, 31-33.
31. Reid,
31. Reid, “Disorganized Religion.”
32.
32. See Reid,
See Reid, “Disorganized Religion,”
Religion,” 161;
161; William Closson James,
James, Locations of the Sacred:
of the
Essays
Essays on Religion,
on Religion, Literature, and
and Canadian Culture (Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier Press,
Press, 1998), 4.
1998), 4.
33.
33. Reid, “Disorganized Religion,”
Reid, 169.
Religion,” 169.
34.
34. Reid, “Disorganized
Reid, “Disorganized Religion,” 177.
Religion,” 177.
35.
35. Reid, “Disorganized Religion,” 193.
Reid, 193.
36.
36. Ronald Hutton, The Triumph of
The Triumph of the
the Moon: AA History
History of Pagan Witchcraft
of Modern Pagan Witchcraft (Oxford:
Oxford University Press,
Press, 1999),
1999), 360.
360.
37. Hutton, Triumph
37. of the
Triumph of the Moon,
Moon, 361.
361.
38. Berger,
38. Berger, Community of
of Witches, 99.
99.
39. Berger,
39. Berger, Community of Witches,
Community of 86.
Witches, 86.
40. Berger,
40. Berger, Community of
of Witches, 133,
133, 83.
83.
41. Berger,
41. Berger, Community of of Witches, 86.
Witches, 86.
42. Berger,
42. Berger, Community of of Witches, 15.
15.
43. See
43. See chapter
chapter 10
10 for of these issues.
for further discussion of
44. See,
44. See, for example, Reid,
for example, Reid, “Disorganized Religion,”
Religion,” 174.
174.
45.
45. Reid, Religion,” 193.
Reid, “Disorganized Religion,” 193.
46. Reid,
46. Reid, “Disorganized Religion,” 194-95.
“Disorganized Religion,” 194-95.
47.
47. Reid, 197.
Reid, “Disorganized Religion,” 197.
48. Reid,
48. Reid, “Disorganized
“Disorganized Religion,”
Religion,” 172.
172.
49.
49. Berger, Community of
Berger, Community of Witches, xiv.
xiv.
50.
50. Berger, Community of
Berger, of Witches, 101.
101.
51.
51. This analysis
This analysis is
is drawn directly from Berger,
directly from Berger, Community of Witches, 102-3.
of Witches,
52.
52. Berger, Community of
Berger, of Witches, 103.
103.
53.
53. Berger, Community of
Berger, of Witches, 103.
103.
54.
54. See Berger,
See Berger, Community of of Witches, 72-75.
55.
55. Berger, Community of
Berger, of Witches, 76.
76.
56.
56. See Pagan Federation, The
See Pagan Pagan Federation, 2003-2004, www.paganfed.org (accessed
The Pagan
May 14,
May 14, 2004).
2004).
57. See
57. PFPC, Pagan
See PFPC, Pagan Federation/Fédération Paienne Canada, 2004,
2004, www.pfpc.ca (accessed
May 14,
May 14, 2004).
58. See
58. See Pagan
Pagan Alliance, PaganPagan Alliance, Inc., 2001,
Inc., 2001, http://paganalliance.lasielle
.net/index.html
.net/index.html (accessed May 14,
(accessed May 2004).
14, 2004).
59.
59. Berger,
Berger, Community of of Witches, 110.
110.
60. Reid,
60. Reid, “Disorganized Religion,” 216.
“Disorganized Religion,” 216.
61.
61. Berger, Community of
Berger, Community of Witches, 114-19.
Witches, 114-19.
62. Vibra Willow,
62. Vibra Willow, “A
“A Brief
Brief History of Reclaiming,” Reclaiming
History of Reclaiming website,
website, 2000,
2000, www.re-
May 14,
claiming.org (accessed May 14, 2004).
2004). Earlier version published inin Reclaiming Quarterly 76
Quarterly 76
50
50 Chapter
Chapter 22

(Fall 1999).
(Fall 1999). See also Jone
See also Jone Salomonsen, Enchanted Feminism: The
The Reclaiming Witches ofof San
San Fran-
cisco (London:
cisco (London: Routledge,
Routledge, 2002).
2002).
63.
63. Reid,
Reid, “Disorganized Religion,” 217. 217.
64.
64. Berger,
Berger, Community Witches, 104-10.
65.
65. Bonewits’ influence on the the development of of contemporary Paganism isis further dis-
cussed in in chapter 7.7.
66. ADF, Ar
66. ADF, Ar nDratocht
nDraiocht Féin/A Druid Fellowship, 2004,
2004, www.adf.org/core (accessed May
May 14,
14,
2004).
2004).
67. Troth, The
67. Troth, The Ring of Troth
Ring of Troth Official
Official Home Page,
Page, 1995-2004, www.thetroth.org (accessed May
May
14, 2004).
14, 2004).
 33
ook
ook
and
Individual and
Family Practices
Family

Ithough Pagans
Ithough Pagans are in
in many ways indistinguishable from
from the general
the general
population, there are certain practices
population, practices and ritual activities that
and ritual that they
they
engage inin that set them apart
that set and make them identifiable as Pagans.
apart and This
Pagans. This
chapter
chapter explores
explores some of of the
the more common religious practices that
religious practices that Pa-
Pa-
gans
gans engage in in individually, in in their
their homes, andand with
with their families, and and
describes related tools and and accoutrements. For For some solitary
solitary practitioners,
these practices
these practices may be be the
the sum of of their religious
religious activities, but
but others maymay
also practice
practice individual forms of of the
the group activities discussed in in the
the
chapter
chapter 4.4. Solitaries, for
for example,
example, maymay initiate themselves rather than than bebe
initiated into
into aa group. The
The most obvious practice
practice of Pagans that
of Pagans that sets them
apart from the
apart the general
general population isis their
their use of
of magic
magic and spell casting.
and spell casting.
However, Pagan lifeways also
Pagan lifeways also include celebrating the changing of
the changing of the
the sea-
sons through
through the the seasonal festival cycle, keeping
cycle, keeping home altars and shrines,
and shrines,
giving offerings, scrying
giving scrying and
and other divination, as well
well as other meditation
and
and trance work.
Pagans
Pagans understand magic magic differently from how itit has
how has been defined inin
the history
the history of religion. Western scholars, for
of religion. for the most part
the part Christian or
post-Christian secularists, have interpreted
interpreted magic
magic as a “primitive” form
form of
of
religion.
religion. Early and anthropology texts define magic
Early sociology and magic in of
in terms of
“manipulating” deities and
and the
the spiritual world to
to achieve desired goals.
goals.
Religion, in contrast, is
Religion, in is presented
presented as worship,
worship, involving
involving requests
requests rather
than
than demands, in
in the work of
the work of influential scholars such as Emile
such as Emile Durkeim
and
and Bronislaw Malinowski. However, for for Pagans, magic is
Pagans, magic integral to
is integral to the
the
practice of
practice of their religion.! For Pagans, magic
For Pagans, magic isis aa means of
of personal growth
personal growth
and
and self-expression, not aa degeneration of religion into
of religion into “superstition.”*

oH!
51
522. Chapter 33
Chapter

The practices of
The of magic
magic in
in Paganism are expressive of
of the
the worldview of
of
Paganism, an understanding that
Paganism, that everything is is connected and and that
that there
isis more to
to the
the world than humans understand. Magic Magic isis not something
separate from thethe regular
regular activities
activities of
of Pagans.? Pagans see everyday
Pagans.? Pagans life as
everyday life
magical, “significant, imbued with value,
magical, value, sacred or paradoxically suf- suf-
fused with transcendence.”* The The occurrence of of this
this sort of magic isis partly
of magic partly
a matter ofof interpretation. A A Pagan
Pagan might
might think,
think, for
for example,
example, thatthat ifif aa
calls just
friend calls just when s/he
s/he isis thinking of the
thinking of the friend, this
this is
is aa result ofof
magic.> Pagans
magic.> prefer to
Pagans prefer to live
live inin aa meaningful world and and toto believe that
that
there are no meaningless coincidences.
Pagans’ practices
Pagans’ practices of
of magic
magic are most often directed at
at healing,
healing, whether
oneself, friends and family,
family, or the
the environment.® Pagan
Pagan rituals do
do not al-
al-
doing magic,
ways involve doing magic, but
but they
they often do.
do. Their rituals are generally
directed toward creating
creating aa specific
specific sort of
of experience in
in the
the participants,
as opposed toto what they
they perceive as “empty”
“empty” rituals of
of repeated
repeated formu-
las
las and going
going through the motions in
through the in other religious
religious traditions. Magic
Magic
can be done as aa formal event in
be done in ritual,
ritual, but
but also
also as spontaneous, un-
scripted, and
scripted, and unrehearsed acts. Pagan
Pagan ritual isis often
often conducted as aa per- per-
formance in in public
public venues byby groups, but but in
in the
the home itit isis less
less perfor-
perfor-
than aa spontaneous expression and
mative than and practice of of aa Pagan
Pagan
worldview integrated into into daily life. Magic
daily life. Magic can be be as simple
simple as stirring
stirring
a pot
pot widdershins (counterclockwise), symbolically the the direction of of de-
de-
crease, to
to rid
rid it of lumps,
it of lumps, or planting seeds during the waxing of the
during the waxing of the
moon, symbolically aa time of of increase.
Pagan practices
Pagan practices of of magic
magic are not like like the fairy godmothers of
the fairy of animated
Disney
Disney filmsfilms or the
the special-effects magic of
magic of the the witches in the television
in the
shows Charmed and Buffy the Vampire
and Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Slayer, or the film The
the film The Craft.Craft. Pagans
Pagans
do
do not just
just wave a
a wand to
to make things
things appear or transform. Their prac-
tice of magic
tice of magic isis based
based on the the belief that
that all
all things
things in in the
the universe are con-
nected, thatthat changing one thing thing can potentially change others,
change others, even at at aa
distance. AA thought,
thought, for for example,
example, can have have a physical
physical outcome, not in the
not in the
sense of creating
of creating something out of nothing but
of nothing but of of transforming aa situation
by working
by working with possibilities. Pagans Pagans believe that that magic
magic works through through
hidden connections, correspondences, and sympathy. sympathy. In In their rituals,
rituals, they
they
use correspondences, symbolic symbolic connections between sometimes seem-
ingly disparate things,
ingly disparate things, to to work with the the hidden connections, as in in the
the
spell to pay a phone
spell to pay a phone bill bill described in chapter
in chapter 1. 1.
Pagans also
Pagans also use ritual to to create metaphors for for accomplishing goals goals with
something tangibletangible to to remind them of their commitment to
of their to aa particular
objective and to
objective to encourage them to to take
take pragmatic action in in pursuit of of it.
it.
At the spring
At the spring equinox, for for example, aa group of of feminist Witches planted planted
seeds in in conjunction with with aa guided
guided meditation in in which each of of the
the
 Individual and
and Family
Family Practices 53
53

women focused on what she she wanted to to grow in in her

her life,
life, such as a new job job
or aa quality
quality in herself, like
in herself, like assertiveness or patience.
patience. AfterAfter the
the initial rit-
rit-
ual,
ual, each woman took her her potted seed home to
potted seed to tend
tend it. As the
it. As the women rit- rit-
ually
ually watered their plants, they
their plants, they were reminded and and encouraged to to take
take
practical steps
practical steps toward accomplishing the the goals they had
goals they had identified atat thethe
spring equinox, which symbolically and
spring and literally
literally isis aa time ofof renewal and and
growth. As
growth. As their
their plants
plants grew, they they visualized and and worked toward their their
goals becoming manifest. If
goals the plant
If the plant did not flourish, or if
did not the planned
if the
goal did
goal did not come to to fruition, the
the woman considered why, why, thinking
thinking about
how the timing of
the timing the desired outcome might
of the might be be inappropriate, or how how
her commitment, or lack
her of it,
lack of it, had
had contributed.”
Magic is
Magic is so integrated
integrated into
into the
the regular
regular activities of Pagans that
of Pagans of
that many of
them describe their religion as aa “way
their religion “way of
of life.”*
life.”® As
As in religions,
in indigenous religions,
Pagan religious
Pagan religious practices
practices are as much lifeways
lifeways as they
they are overtly
overtly religious.
Pagans do
Pagans do not
not see daily life as mundane or profane
daily life profane as opposed
opposed some more
spiritual concern. For
spiritual Pagans, spirit
For Pagans, spirit and
and matter are one in in Earth. As
As one
practitioner remarks, “Nearly
“Nearly everything we do do atat home can bebe done with
Wicca inin mind. From rearranging aa room to brushing hair.”? Spirituality is
to brushing is
integrated into
integrated into their
their daily
daily life
life in
in work andand leisure. ForFor many Pagans,
Pagans, an im-im-
portant aspect of this
aspect of this is their relationship with the
is their the natural world. Pauline
Campanelli’s The The Wheel of the Year: Living
of the Living the
the Magical
Magical Life
Life describes the
the prac-
prac-
tices she
she and her
her husband have developed as solitaries, following the the sea-
She gives
sons. She gives instructions for for craft
craft projects, recipes, and
projects, recipes, and spells,
spells, as well
well as
for
for growing,
growing, harvesting, and and eating
eating food with spiritual
food with spiritual awareness.
For some Pagans,
For Pagans, growing
growing and and harvesting some of of their own foodfood isis an
important
important partpart of
of their religious
religious observances. For For many, this this primarily
primarily in-in-
volves gardening,
volves gardening, but but some
some Pagans
Pagans alsoalso raise
raise livestock,
livestock, and and some
some find
find
gathering wildwild foods,
foods, as well
well as hunting,
hunting, important. All All aspects of of gar-
gar-
dening
dening can be be imbued with religiousreligious significance in Pagan practice,
in Pagan practice, from
planning the garden to
the garden to preparing the the beds,
beds, planting,
planting, tending,
tending, and
and har-
har-
vesting.
vesting. Campanelli gives
gives a charm toto make an herb garden
garden grow. After the
the
soil
soil has been prepared, she
has been she suggests walking
walking sunwise (clockwise in in the
the
Northern Hemisphere) around the the garden
garden while asperging
asperging (sprinkling)
the edge with
the edge with a afir
fir branch dipped
dipped in fresh water. She
in fresh suggests visualizing
She suggests
lush
lush growth and chanting,
growth and chanting,

Herbs that
that charm
charm
Herbs that
Herbs that heal
heal
Grow now
Grow
Spring till
Spring till Fall.1°
Fall.!°

In general,
In general, Pagans
Pagans tend
tend to
to talk to their plants,
talk to plants, encouraging them
them to
to grow.
grow.
54
54 Chapter
Chapter 33

For harvesting potatoes,

For carving aa potato
potatoes, Campanelli describes carving into the
potato into the
shape of
shape the Earth Mother, envisaged
of the fertility statues, and
in ancient fertility
envisaged as in and
burying itit in
burying in aa mound, saying,
saying,
OO Great
Great Earth
Earth Mother
Mother
From whom we receive all all nourishment
And the
And flesh of
the flesh of our bodies,
bodies,
We your
your loving
loving children
Make this offering in
this offering in your
your honor
In
In love and
and in
in gratefulness
gratefulness
Blessed be!"
be!!!

She also
also gives
gives aa charm to to say
say when gathering
gathering seeds for the next year’s
for the year’s
planting: “From this
this Life
Life // Life
Life to
to come.”
Food preparation hashas particularly strong religious significance for
strong religious for some
Pagans, linking
Pagans, linking them to to their
their ancestors and toto their
their patron deities. Diana
Paxson, aa prominent Heathen practitioner, describes how how cooking
cooking and
and
one’s kitchen can connect Heathen women to the
to the disir,
disir, female ancestral
spirits. She
spirits. She relates that
that she spirit who was willing
she met an ancestor spirit willing to
to work
her on the
with her the condition that
that she up her
she clean up her kitchen:

II encountered aa sturdy
sturdy blonde woman who called herself Helga,
Helga, said she
she was
aa Frisian, and
and agreed
agreed to be one of
to be of my
my disir and
and help
help me learn about Germanic
women’s mysteries—but only only if
if II did
did something about my
my kitchen! InIn true
Germanic tradition, she
she refused to my threshold so long
to cross my long as the
the heart of
of
the house was aa grubby
the grubby room with pocked pocked walls and woodwork and and
linoleum so ancient that
that when II tried
tried to
to clean the
the floor,
floor, itit would dissolve.!$
dissolve.}8

Other Pagans
Pagans mightmight develop
develop relationships with with the
the matronae, aa similar
group of of deities in in Roman religion,
religion, or connections to to Heartha, the the Roman
goddess
goddess of the hearth. Some Pagans
of the Pagans talktalk to
to their food
food as they
they are prepar-
ing
ing it,
it, for example urging
for example urging thethe yeast
yeast toto grow in in making
making bread. Campanelli
gives
gives aa recipe
recipe for
for making
making ritual bread with with freshly sprouted wheat to
freshly sprouted rep-
to rep-
resent the the regeneration of the dying
of the dying godgod associated with with the
the grain
grain ground
ground
for the
for the bread. She She includes instructions for for blessing
blessing the
the loaf
loaf byby incising
incising a
pentagram on itit with with aa ritual knife,
knife, saying,
saying, “I“I invoke theethee beloved SpiritSpirit
of the
of the Grain // Be Be present in in this
this Sacred Loaf.”4
Loaf.’”"4
Pagans
Pagans also also use food
food inin ritual as a means of of grounding oneself, return-
ing to
ing to ordinary
ordinary consciousness after after ritual activity.
activity. Some Pagans
Pagans say say aa
blessing
blessing on food at at regular
regular meals,
meals, butbut more commonly on food food eaten in in
ritual. They
They alsoalso use food
food for
for offerings
offerings to to deities and
and nature spirits.
spirits. Offer-
ings to
ings to landwights and and household deities, whether in the city
in the city or inin rural
areas, serve as aa reminder of
of human dependence on the Earth for
the Earth food, air,
for food, air,
and
and water. Usually
Usually before or after
after eating
eating during
during ritual, aa portion
portion is given
is given
 Individual and Family Practices
and Family 55
5B

echnically, aa libation is
echnically, is aa liquid
liquid poured
poured as an offering,
offering, although
although
Pagans
Pagans often
often put solid food
put solid food inin libation bowls as well.
well.

‘ eae ~
Figure
Figure 5.
5. Leaving offerings
Leaving (photo by
offerings (photo by Barbara Jane
Jane Davy)
Davy)

as an offering. For indoor rituals, the

offering. For the offering
offering might be left
might be the altar
left on the altar in
in
aa libation bowl
bow] (and later disposed
(and later disposed of). Pagans often pour the
of). Pagans the first bit of
first bit of
wine,
wine, mead (wine
(wine made fromfrom honey),
honey), milk,
milk, water, or whatever beverage
beverage
is used
is used in a ritual,
in a ritual, on the
the ground
ground for the divinities, or collect itit in
for the in aa liba-
liba-
tion
tion bowl to be poured
to be poured on the
the ground later. Pagans
ground later. Pagans often leave offerings
outside,
outside, with the understanding that
with the that squirrels, birds, or raccoons will
squirrels, birds, eat
will eat
the offerings. Sometimes Pagans
the offerings. bury food
Pagans bury food offerings. Food
Food isis probably the
probably the
most common offering, but sometimes cut
offering, but cut flowers or branches serve as an
offering. Pagans
offering. Pagans associate specific
specific offerings with certain deities, such as
offerings with
barley for
barley for Demeter, red
red wine for
for Dionysus, or roses for
for Aphrodite. Some
Pagans also give
Pagans also give votive offerings,
offerings, offerings given to consecrate a vow or
offerings given to
oath, or in
oath, in fulfillment of
of an oath.
oath.
Pagans
Pagans are somewhat more likely likely than
than others inin the
the modern secular
population to
population to embrace alternative lifestyles.
lifestyles. Pagans
Pagans tend
tend to
to pay greater
attention toto spiritual
spiritual aspects
aspects of
of life. They have aa greater
life. They greater willingness toto be-
be-
lieve in
lieve in paranormal
paranormal events, to
to see significance
significance in
in dreams, and to pursue
and to pursue
56
56 Chapter 33
Chapter

healing. Some Pagan

alternative healing. Pagan parents make dream pillows
pillows for
for their
children’s use on nights
nights of the full
of the full moon as aa way
way of
of teaching them toto pay
pay
attention to
to dreams. Many
Many Pagans
Pagans use herbal teas in to over-
in preference to
the-counter drugs and are more likely
drugs and likely to
to use other aspects
aspects of
of naturopathic
medicine, including, for example, therapeutic massage. Pagan
for example, Pagan mothers
tend toto prefer
prefer natural childbirth and
and the
the services of
of midwives, where
available.
For some Pagans,
For Pagans, being
being Pagan
Pagan means being politically active. Many
being politically Many Pa-
Pa-
gans live their politics
live their politics on aa daily
daily basis inin keeping
keeping with what some schol-
ars call
call “life politics,” which are political
“life politics,” political orientations and actions thatthat are
played out in
played in daily
daily life
life because ofof one’s awareness of of the
the connections be-be-
tween oneself and larger or global
and larger global political
political issues. Life politics are the
Life politics pol-
the pol-
of choice and
itics of and the
the decisions of daily life.!°
of daily This sort of
life.5 This of life politics has
life politics has
become integrated into Wicca and isis present to to some degree
degree throughout
Paganism, since integrityintegrity isis aa central Pagan Pagan value. Many Many Pagans
Pagans feel feel that
that
if
if ethics and politics
politics are not lived,
lived, then hypocrisy
hypocrisy results.
Pagan life
Pagan politics are particularly evident in
life politics in terms of of feminism and and en-
vironmentalism. Many Many Witches,
Witches, as well other Pagans, feel that rever-
well as other Pagans, feel that
ence for the
for the Goddess and
and nature requires living
requires living “a “a life
life that is is consistent
with thethe needs of the
of the environment and to
and to be be aware of
of women’s issues.”
issues.”!¢!°
Some practitioners suggest suggest that that Pagans
Pagans should live live such that that anyone com-
ing into
ing into their
their homes will will know immediately that they they practice
practice an earth re-
ligion,
ligion, thatthat their
their homes should reflect reflect thethe environmental sensitivity sensitivity of of
their religion.!”?
their religion.” Such practitioners feel feel that
that a a Pagan
Pagan worldview requires requires
active participation in ethics and
in ethics and politics.
politics. Living
Living in in harmony
harmony with with nature
means more than celebrating the changing of
the changing of the
the seasons, but but alsoalso trying
trying
to implement environmental ideals on aa daily
to implement daily basis. For For some practition-
ers, this
this harmony can be be expressed through through growing
growing grain grain for for Lammas,
or herbs in in pots, and “killing
pots, and “killing and dressing dressing our own meat—at least least occa-
sionally.”'® However, for Pagans, living
for some Pagans, living environmental ideals on aa
day-to-day basis requires vegetarianism.'°
vegetarianism.'? As As discussed further in in chapter
chapter
9,
9, while Pagans
Pagans generally support aa degree degree of of feminism and and environmen-
talism, how how they
they put
put their
their politics
politics into into practice
practice varies.
One of of the
the more obvious markers of of who
who isis PaganPagan is their observation
is their
of aa seasonal festival cycle.
of cycle. Many
Many PagansPagans celebrate eight eight seasonal festivals,
sometimes called sabbats, which are linked to to the
the changing
changing seasons, one
every six six weeks over the the year,
year, butbut not all all Pagans
Pagans celebrate the the same festi-
val cycle.
val cycle. Heathen practices in in particular do do notnot follow the the same pattern
as other PaganPagan groups, but the Wiccan wheel of
but the of the
the year
year isis dominant in in
Paganism. The The wheel of of the
the year
year is is called a wheel because the the festivals are
represented throughthrough the image of
the image of an eight-spoked wheel, metaphorically
emphasizing aa circular sense of time. Four of
of time. of the
the festivals are held at the
at the
solstices and and equinoxes and and are referred to to as the the solar holidays. The The ex-
ex-
 and Family
Individual and Family Practices oF
57

SAMHAIN
SAMHAIN
(HALLOWEEN)
Mazon
Mason YULE
YULE
(HaRVESst
(HARVESt Home)
Home) (CHRISTMAS)
(CHRISHNIA8)
(FALL EQUINOX)
(FALL EQUINOX)

LUGNAS8ACH
LUGNA8A0H IMBOLC
INBOLC
(FIRSt HARVESt) )
(First HaARVES8t (CANOLEMAS8)
(CATOLENIAS)

LitHa
LitHa OEStARA
OEStARA
(Ilio8UMMER)
(TMidSUNIMER) (SPRING EQUINOX)
(SPRING Equinox)
BELTANE
BELTANE
(Tay Day)
(May Day)
Figure 6.6.
Figure Wheel of
of the (image created by
the Year (Northern Hemisphere) (image by Catherine Kerr)
Kerr)

act dates of
act of the
the festivals vary
vary from yearyear to
to year because of of discrepancies
between the the calendar andand the varying relationship between the
the varying and
the sun and
the
the Earth. The The other holidays, sometimes referred to to as the
the “cross-quarter”
holidays, are more fixed,
holidays, fixed, although regional
regional and
and tradition-based differ-
ences exist.
exist. This
This festival cycle
cycle is of Celtic origin.
is of origin. The
The celebration of of the
the sol-
sol-
stices hashas aa long history in
long history in Celtic
Celtic cultures, butbut recognition of of the equinoxes
the equinoxes
isis aa modern addition.”°
addition.” In the Southern Hemisphere, where summer ar-
In the
rives in in December, Pagans usually invert the
Pagans usually the Celtic seasonal festival cycle
cycle
to
to coincide with with the local seasons.
the local
Pagans celebrate these festivals privately
Some Pagans privately with
with their
their families, and
and
some celebrate them individually apart
apart from their
their families. Some soli-
soli-
truly solitary,
taries are truly solitary, in
in the
the sense that
that their
their religious practice is
religious practice in-
is in-
tensely private,
tensely private, not shared with family,
family, friends, or coreligionists. Other
Pagans
Pagans who belong
belong toto circles may also
may also celebrate the
the sabbats with
with their
their
groups, or celebrate them only only through
through group practice.
practice. Within families
and groups, often
and often aa few
few festivals will take precedence, involving more
will take
elaborate festivities, and will be
and others will simply.*! In
be recognized more simply.”! In
Canada, for
for example,
example, the fall equinox
the fall often receives little
equinox often little attention, prob-
prob-
ably of the
ably because of the importance of
of Thanksgiving as aa harvest festival in
in
58
58 Chapter
Chapter 33

mainstream culture. (In (In Canada, unlike in in the States, Thanksgiv-

the United States,
ing
ing is
is not associated with Pilgrims
Pilgrims and the founding of
and the of the but isis
the nation but
essentially a celebration of of the
the fall
fall harvest.)
The wheel of
The of the year begins
the year begins with Samhain, an Irish Irish Gaelic word pro-
pro-
nounced “sow-ain” or “sow-een.” In the Northern Hemisphere, Samhain
In the
is
is held on the
the evening of of October 31, 31, coinciding with Hallowe'en. Tradi-
with Hallowe’en.
tionally, Samhain is
tionally, is the
the Wiccan New Year’s celebration. ItIt isis the the beginning
of in Celtic traditions, wherein the
of winter in into two sea-
year isis divided into
the year
sons, winter and
and summer. Pagans
Pagans see it
it as aa time “the veil
time when “the veil between
the
the worlds is thin,”
is thin,” aa time
time when
when communication with
with the
the dead,
dead, the
the
faeries, and/or spirits
spirits is
is easier. Some Pagans set up
Pagans set up aa special
special altar to
to
honor the
the recently
recently dead and/or their ancestors. Samhain marks the end
the end
of
of the
the harvest and
and a time to begin to
to begin to turn inward, spending
spending more time in in
one’s house andand contemplating one’s mental inner space.
Yule is
is held in
in December, between the the twentieth andand the
the twenty-third,
at the time of
at the of the
the winter solstice, the
the longest
longest night
night of the year
of the year in
in the
the
Northern Hemisphere. Some Pagans celebrate Yule with with their
their families
through
through thethe common Western activities associated with with Christmas, noting
noting
that practices
that practices such
such as bringing
bringing greenery into the the home and and decorating
trees were originally pre-Christian pagan practices. For For contemporary Pa- Pa-
gans, Yule marks the
gans, the dreaming time of of the
the year. The Earth sleeps, sleeps, and
and no
new vegetative life life appears outside. ItIt isis a time of of meditation and and intro-
spection. The The daysdays immediately begin begin to to get longer even as the
get longer the Earth set-
tles
tles into winter. By By association, Pagans
Pagans suggest that the body sleeps,
the body but
sleeps, but
the mind isis active.
the
Imbolc (also(also spelled
spelled “Oimelg”) is is Irish Gaelic for for “lactation,” in in refer-
ence to
to the
the birth of of lambs. This festival is is also sometimes called Candle-
mas,
mas, oror the
the Feast
Feast of of Brigid,
Brigid, and
and is held about
is held about February
February 11 in in the
the Northern
Hemisphere. For Pagans who observe the the festival as Candlemas, it it is
is a
festival of lights, and they
of lights, place candles in
they place the windows of
in the of their homes.
These represent the the returning strength of of the
the sun and the the wakening of of the
the
Earth. InIn Britain, ImbolecImbole marks the the beginning of spring. In
of spring. In Canada and
the
the northern United States, States, spring
spring isis not yet
yet visible, but
but there are stirrings.
For Pagans, it it is
is a time of of purification, often marked by by early
early spring-
spring-
cleaning.
cleaning. It It is
is the
the end of of the contemplative time of of the
the year and the be-
the be-
ginning
ginning of of the
the time of of action.
Oestre or Oestara marks the the vernal (spring) equinox, which occurs
around March 20 20 toto 23
23 in
in the
the Northern Hemisphere. As As aa time of of equal
equal
day and equal
day equal night, it represents balance. It
night, it It isis the
the beginning of
of the
the change
change
of
of season, but
but balanced now between winter and summer. For
For Pagans, it
it
is
is a time of
of planning, when people
people are eager for
for action but
but itit is
is not quite
quite
time to
to plant
plant the
the garden or start other new projects. Oestre is
is related toto the
Christian celebration ofof Easter, and Pagans celebrate the the pre-Christian
pre-Christian
 Individual and Family Practices
and Family 59
59

practices
practices and and associations ofof Easter,
Easter, such as decorating eggs eggs and
and making
making
or eating
eating chocolate rabbits. Both Both eggs
eggs and
and rabbits are symbolic
symbolic of of fecun-
dity, which Pagans
dity, Pagans celebrate atat this
this festival.
Beltain (also spelled “Beltane” and
(also spelled and “Beltaine”) isis Gaelic for for “bright
“bright
fire.” ItIt is held on April
is held April 30 May 11 in
30 or May in the
the Northern Hemisphere. In In na-
ture, it
ture, it is
is a time ofof bursting
bursting potential,
potential, as the the buds swell with the running
with the
sap and
sap and allall the
the birds and
and other wildlife seem to to be having sex. For
be having Pagans,
For Pagans,
it
it is
is aa time
time toto celebrate human sexuality.
sexuality.
The summer
The solstice, sometimes
solstice, referred to as Midsummer,
to is the
is the
longest day
longest day of the year, occurring
of the occurring around June June 2020 toto 23
23 in the Northern
in the
Hemisphere. Some Pagans Pagans celebrate itit as Litha. In In Celtic traditions, it it is
is
the beginning
the beginning of of summer. The The SunSun is
is at
at its
its zenith but but is
is about to to lessen in in
strength. For
strength. For agriculturalists and and gardeners, the rush of
the rush of activity
activity ofof plant-
plant-
ing will
ing will bebe followed by by aa time of of tending.
tending. ItIt isis aa time
time ofof much physical
physical
work,
work, butbut this
this day
day isis taken toto celebrate. Pagans
Pagans sometimes associate this this
time of
time the year
of the year with
with the
the Goddess as pregnant, aa time of of fullness not yet yet
come to to fruition.
Lammas or Lughnasadh isis often held July 31
held on July 31 inin the
the Northern Hemi-
sphere, although
sphere, although historically the date has
the date has varied depending on the the time of of
the first harvesting of
the first grain. The
of grain. The name “Lammas” comes from from thethe Old
Old
English half-maesse, meaning “loaf
English half-maesse, “loaf mass,”
mass,” in in reference to to aa special
special bread
made fromfrom the
the first
first fruits of the harvest. Pagans
of the Pagans see this this time of of year
year as aa
time ofof coming
coming to to fruition, and
and hence the the ending
ending of of potentiality. Lammas
celebrates the
the first
first fruits of
of the
the harvest, and
and the
the festival
festival often
often includes aa
symbolic representation of the sacrifice of
of the the vegetative life
of the life that
that supports
human life.
life. Some
Some Pagans
Pagans use the folk character of
the British folk of John
John Barleycorn
for
for this
this purpose. Other PagansPagans focusfocus on the
the god Lugh at
god Lugh this time
at this time and call
and call
the festival “Lughnasadh,”
the festival “Lughnasadh,” in in reference
reference toto “the mourning of
“the mourning of the
the many-
many-
talented GodGod Lugh.””
Lugh.””
The autumnal equinox, sometimes called Mabon, falls
The falls around Sep-Sep-
tember 20 20 to
to 23 in the
23 in the Northern Hemisphere. As the vernal equinox,
As the equinox, itit isis
aa time balance, of of equal
equal day
day and and night. The seasonal change
night. The change from sum-
mer to to winter begins.
begins. ItIt isis aa time of
of harvest and and thankfulness for for the
the
plants and
plants and animals sacrificed to to sustain human life. Many North Amer-
life. Many
ican Pagans
ican Pagans celebrate aa harvest festival with their their families at at Thanks-
giving,
giving, in
in October in
in Canada, and
and in
in November inin the
the United States,
States, in-
in-
stead of at the equinox.
of at the equinox.
Another recognizable feature of
of Paganism is
is that
that most Pagans
Pagans keep
keep al-
al-
tars in
in their homes.”3 An
An altar isis a place
place to
to keep
keep ritual tools,
tools, and
and a surface
to
to use in casting spells and
in casting spells and conducting rituals. It
It often includes religious
religious
symbols, such
such as an object
object representing each of the
each of the fourfour elements or di-
di-
rections. AA rock
rock or bit
bit of earth in
of earth in a pot
pot might
might represent north and
and the
the ele-
ele-
ment ofof earth, for example.
earth, for example. Incense often
often represents air and the
air and the east,
east, and
and
60
60 Chapter 33
Chapter

Figure 7.7.
Figure Home altar
altar (photo
(photo by Mandy Furney)
by Mandy Furney)

aa candle often represents the

the south and
and fire.
fire. Seashells sometimes represent
water and the
the west on Pagan
Pagan altars. While practitioners often
often use the
the
terms “shrine” and
and “altar” interchangeably and
and the
the two often are not dis-dis-
tinguished in
in contemporary Pagan
Pagan practice,
practice, technically aa shrine isis dedi-
dedi-
cated toto aa particular
particular deity and often includes images
deity and images ofof the
the deity
deity or deities.
Practitioners usually
usually start with one altar, altar, but they may
but they may proliferate to to
one inin each room of of the
the house or apartment. AA Pagan Pagan altar
altar might
might consist
of a single
of single shelf or dresser top that holds ritual and
top that and symbolic
symbolic items. To- To-
kens, significant found objects
kens, or significant objects such
such as feathers, stones, and and pinecones,
kept on altars. Pagans
are kept often have aa personal
Pagans often altar in
personal altar the bedroom for
in the for
individual use,
individual and aa house
use, and house altar in the
altar in the kitchen
kitchen for family use.
for family use. Some
Some in-
in-
and families have
dividuals and have aa ritual
ritual room, temple,
temple, or meditation room set
set
aside
aside for for magical
magical rites.
The
The form of magic practiced
of magic practiced most by Pagans at
by Pagans at home isis probably sim- sim-
ple spell
ple spell casting.
casting. These are magical designed to
magical acts designed to improve one’s life, life, or
the
the lives
lives of of friends or family family members. Pagans Pagans may, may, for example, cast
for example,
spells
spells for for money, for for aa new job,
job, or to
to find
find aa new lover. However, as previ- previ-
ously
ously mentioned, spells spells are most often directed toward healing. Pagans
healing. Pagans
often alsoalso use rituals to to aid
aid them in making life
in making life transitions, and and not justjust
the
the rites of of passage discussed in in chapter
chapter 4,4, but also the
but also the smaller transitions
of life,
of life, such
such as moving
moving into into aa new house or apartment. AA new residence
can be be purified
purified before moving moving in in by
by ritually sweeping it
ritually sweeping in conjunction
it in
with cleaning
cleaning it. it. One how-to guide guide suggests creating a
creating a broom specifically
specifically
for this
for this purpose, taking
taking a a branch from aa tree before dawn and
and leaving
leaving an
offering of
offering of coin a coin or a
a semiprecious stone. To
stone. To the the branch, the
the practitioner
ties aa bunch of
ties of flowers to to fashion aa broom. The practitioner then sweeps
then sweeps
 Individual and Family Practices
and Family 61
61

each room of of the

the new residence, visualizing the the flowers absorbing nega-
tive
tive influences out of the
of the house or apartment, and
and then disposes
disposes of the rit-
of the rit-
ual
ual broom at a
at a crossroads before the
the sun comes up.”4
up.”4
One method of
One of spell
spell casting
casting used by by Pagans
Pagans involves making talis-
making talis-
mans. A A talisman isis an object
object made to to protect
protect an individual from aa par-par-
ticular sort of
of harm,
harm, or to to draw aa particular sort of of energy to
to aa person. ItIt
can include crystals
crystals or other
other stones, feathers, bodily
bodily fluids,
fluids, and
and herbs,
herbs, and
and
may involve inscribing an object
may object with runes, aa bind
bind rune, or aa sigil.
sigil. Sigils
Sigils
and bind runes combine letters or characters to
and to form
form aa pattern
pattern that
that repre-
sents aa desired
sents outcome. Dragon
desired outcome. Dragon Environmental
Environmental Group,
Group, for example, uses
for example, uses
aa bind
bind rune for
for its
its logo,
logo, incorporating the
the runes Laguz,
Laguz, Fehu,
Fehu, Tiwaz, Kau-
Kau-
naz, Algiz,
naz, Algiz, and Isa, representing health,
and Isa, healing, love,
health, healing, love, protection, growth,
growth,
and harmonious relationships between humanity and
and and thethe rest ofof nature.
Talismans take take effect through
through meditating on the the talisman during
during itsits cre-
ation, and,
ation, and, for
for personal talismans,
talismans, wearing itit or or keeping
keeping itit close to to where
one sleeps.
sleeps. For
For talismans aimed at they may
at others, they may bebe left
left where theythey will
will
be
be seen by others, or burned.”
by others,
Pagans often
Pagans often seek
seek inspiration
inspiration for spells and
for spells and rituals
rituals in how-to books,
in how-to books, butbut
they
they tend tend to be creative in
to be in designing them. AA basic ritual involves creat-
basic ritual
ing
ing sacred space, invoking invoking divinities, raising raising and directing
directing energy,
grounding, thanking thanking and and dismissing
dismissing divinities, and and returning
returning the space
the space
and
and participants to to ordinary life.
life. First,
First, the
the practitioner prepares for the rit-
for the rit-
ual,
ual, sometimes with a a ritual bath bath and
and byby putting clothing. Often
putting on ritual clothing.
the
the practitioner proceeds proceeds with grounding and centering (a(a short medita-
tion
tion to to focus
focus onon the ritual, leaving
the ritual, leaving the other concerns
the other concerns of one’s life
of one’s life aside for
aside for
the
the time being).being). Some Druids leave an offering offering outside the the ritual area for for
those beingsbeings they
they do do not want to to attend thethe rite.
rite. Wiccan practitioners cre-
ate sacred space space by casting aacircle,
by casting circle, tracing
tracing aa circle around the space used
the space
for
for the the ritual with aa ritual knife, knife, wand, finger, or by
wand, or finger, by simply
simply walking
walking
around
around the the space.
space. The circle isis visualized
The circle visualized in in three
three dimensions,
dimensions, to to make
make aa
sphere
sphere around the the ritual space. The circle holds in in the
the energy raised until until
itit isis ready
ready toto bebe released, and and itit keeps
keeps outout distractions.
Next,
Next, the the directions, usually
the practitioner invokes the usually the
the four
four cardinal
each associated with
directions, each with an element: often,
often, but
but not always, north
not always, north
with earth,
with earth, east
east with
with air, south with
air, south with fire,
fire, and
and west with The invo-
with water. The invo-
cation of
cation of the
the directions
directions inin Wiccan circles tends
Wiccan circles tends toto be
be verbal, repeating aa
verbal, repeating
liturgy or speaking some extemporized words. In
liturgy In some ecologically fo-
fo-
cused groups such
such as Dragon
Dragon Environmental Group,
Group, the
the directions are in-
in-
voked through
through more performative actions, such
such as actions to
to mimic the
the
of fire,
sound of fire, and
and waving
waving motions toto mimic the
the dance of
of flames.” Some
vary this
groups vary this to suit local
to suit local geography, and
and some follow other associa-
tions of
of directions and
and elements and
and may include invocations of the addi-
of the
tional directions above, below, and
above, below, and center, or within.
center, or within.
62
62 Chapter
Chapter 33

The practitioner invokes whatever deities are desired in

The practitioner rite, ifif any,
the rite,
in the any,
and
and sometimes the
the ancestors, particularly in Druid circles,
in Druid circles, Heathen ritu-
ritu-
als, and
als, and the
the Reclaiming tradition. Next, Next, the
the practitioner proceeds with the
proceeds with the
work of
work of the ritual, whether
the ritual, whether it it isis aa healing
healing spell,
spell, a spell
spell to gain or
to gain or rid
rid one-
self of
self of something, a spellspell to
to create a talisman, or a spell to celebrate an
spell to
event or season. Energy
Energy isis generally raised in in the
the work of of the This
the ritual. This
be accomplished through
can be through things like dancing, drumming, singing,
things like singing, or
meditation. Energy
Energy is is directed into into the
the work,
work, and
and then thethe practitioner
grounds her/himself again,
again, often by eating and
by eating and drinking. This part
part of
of the
the
ritual isis sometimes referred toto as “cakes and
and wine” but any
but can include any
food and
and drink. AA small offering
offering isis usually
usually given
given toto the divinity invoked.
the divinity
Grounding, that that is,
is, returning any any remaining excess energy to to the
the Earth,
helps return the
helps the participant to to ordinary
ordinary consciousness. Dismissing those
divinities invoked ends the the rite.
rite.
Pagans
Pagans use aa variety
variety of
of tools in in casting spells and
casting spells and in in conducting more
formal rituals. Some Pagans Pagans express the the curious idea that “when buying buying
magical tools,
magical tools, [one
[one should] never haggle haggle over thethe price.”?’
price.””7 ItIt is often sug-
is often
gested that
gested that it to make one’s own tools
is better to
it is possible, or that
tools whenever possible, that
“found” tools are better than bought bought tools. Unfortunately, this this has led
has led
people to
some people to steal tools, particularly Tarot cards,
steal ritual tools, due to
cards, due to the
the belief
that if
that you buy
if you buy them they they will
will not work as well. While itit is is an often-
repeated
repeated folk
folk tradition that bought
bought tools do do not work as well as others, the the
solution is
is not
not to
to steal
steal them,
them, but
but to
to make them
them or to
to receive them as gifts.
gifts.
Some covens give give ritual tools as gifts
gifts to initiates.7* An
to initiates.78 An exception to the
to the
practice
practice ofof giving
giving tools is
is sometimes made for for knives, due to to the
the folk be-
folk be-
lief
lief that giving
giving aa knife cuts the
the friendship. Thus,
Thus, the
the recipient
recipient of
of a ritual
knife symbolically gives
gives the giver aa coin
the giver coin to
to pay
pay for it.?? This practice is
for it.2° in-
is in-
verted inin other areas and
and traditions so that the the giver
giver includes a coin coin with
the
the blade so as not to to cut off
off the
the relationship.
Ritual tools are often
often consecrated, blessed, and
and dedicated to
to ritual ac-
tivity.
tivity. ToTo consecrate ritual tools, tools, some PagansPagans first first bury
bury them in in the
the Earth
for a
for time,time, or they place
they place them in a box of
in box of salt, tosalt, to regenerate the
the tool,
tool, to
to re-
move influences of of any previous owner, or to purify
to purify manufactured tools.
Consecration consists in in then blessing
blessing the the tool
tool using
using the
the elements earth, earth,
air, fire, and
air, fire, and water, and
and sometimes a
a pentacle, particularly in
in Wiccan prac-
tice,
tice, and perhaps invoking the blessing
perhaps invoking the blessing of deity of a deity or deities. Some Pagans
Pagans
keep
keep ritual tools separate from regular regular household tools. Others use the the
same tools for for multiple purposes, feeling that
feeling that it it consecrates daily
daily life to
life to
use the the same tools in in the
the kitchen and at the
at the altar. Pagans
Pagans suggest that
that
while
while none of of the
the tools are necessary for for doing magic, they
doing magic, they can help help cre-
ate an appropriate mood inin ritual.
AA few of
of the
the common tools Pagans use in
in their religious practice are of-
of-
ten kept
kept near, but
but not on their altars. These include the
the drum,
drum, the
the broom,
broom,
and the
the cauldron. For
For some Pagans, drums are important tools for
for trance
trance
 Individual and Family Practices
and Family 63
63

work,
work, as
as discussed below. The
The broom is used for
is used ritual cleaning
for ritual cleaning to
to sweep
out “bad” energy, sometimes with with the help of
the help of salt. For Wiccans, the
salt. For the broom
represents the the union and and balance of of male and and female energies through through the the
sexual symbolism of of shaft
shaft in in thatch. Many Many PagansPagans favor favor aa typetype of of broom
called aa “besom,”
called “besom,” an old English
an old English wordword for for broom.
broom. TheseThese broomsbrooms are are gen-
gen-
erally round, with
erally with the the bristles gathered all the way around the
all the the shaft
shaft in-in-
stead of of extending in inaa line
line parallel
parallel to to it.
it. In
In addition to to ritual cleaning
cleaning or
the
the symbolic clearing of of space for for ritual,
ritual, Wiccans use brooms in in handfast-
ing
ing ceremonies. To To jump
jump the the broom with one’s partner partner isis to to become hand-
fasted,
fasted, making
making aa commitment
commitment for for a year,
year, or or asas long
long as as the
the love
love shall
shall last.
last.
AA cauldron is heavy round pot.
is a heavy pot. Pagan
Pagan ritual cauldrons are often black, black,
are made of of cast iron, iron, andand are supported on three legs. legs. The The typical
typical round
shape with
shape with a narrowed neck isis symbolic symbolic of of the
the womb of of the
the Goddess.
Celtic-influenced practitioners associate the the cauldron with the goddess
the goddess
Ceridwen’s cauldron of of wisdom, and and withwith the the cauldron of of regeneration
from stories in
from in Welsh and and Irish mythology. Pagans Pagans often use cauldrons to to
contain
contain fires fires used in in ritual rather than than for brewing potions
for brewing potions with fire fire be-
be-
neath. The The cauldron
cauldron isis often too heavy to
too heavy to store
store on on anan altar,
altar, but
but aa similar
similar
symbolic
symbolic significance
significance isis attached attached to to the chalice, aa ritual
the chalice, ritual cup,cup, which
which isis usu-usu-
ally kept on the
ally kept the altar.
altar. It It is
is generally goblet shaped, like
goblet shaped, like a wineglass.
wineglass. The The
chalice is is often filled with water during during ritual,
ritual, to to represent that that element.
In
In Wiccan ritual, salt
Wiccan ritual, salt is added to
is added to the
the water
water in in the
the chalice
chalice to to represent
represent the the
sea and
and thethe waters of of life. Salt isis also
life. Salt also used
used for for purification, and and sometimes
in casting the
in casting the circle. Salt kept in
Salt kept in aa bowl
bowl on the the altar
altar represents the the element
of earth.
of earth.
Pagans
Pagans oftenoften placeplace incense and and candles on the the altar
altar to to represent the the el-
el-
ements of of air
air and
and fire.
fire. Incense purifiespurifies and and scents the the air, and itit can facil-
air, and facil-
itate
itate trance work. Pagans Pagans use candles of of various colors for for symbolic asso-
ciations in in spell
spell casting—for example, example, red red forfor passion,
passion, pink pink forfor love,
love, white
for
for cleansing and healing, and
and healing, and green for for fertility
fertility and and money. However,
prefer to
some prefer to use only only natural beeswax candles. Pagans Pagans sometimes in- in-
scribe candles with
scribe candles with runesrunes or or other symbolic figures,
other symbolic anoint them
figures, anoint them withwith oils,
oils,
and bless them for
and spell work.
for spell
Some Wiccan Pagans keep keep an athame, aa double-edged ritual knife, knife, on
their
their altars. It It is
is often
often black
black handled, and and the the blade is is usually
usually magnetized
to bring
to bring itit into
into harmony with with thethe Earth. Wiccans use the the athame to to cast thethe
circle and
circle and to to draw pentagrams in in the
the air
air inin invocation of each of
of each of the
the four
four
directions and and in closing the
in closing the ritual. Some Pagans Pagans use a sword to their
to cast their
circles. TheThe blades of of such
such athames and and swords are generally generally dull, dull, andand
they
they are used only
used only for for ritual purposes, not for cutting.
not for cutting. However, Pagans
Pagans
who do do not keepkeep ritual tools tools distinct from regular regular working
working tools might might use
the same knife for
the for casting
casting the the circle
circle as for for cutting
cutting materials inin their their spell
spell
work,
work, and and for for chopping
chopping vegetables in the kitchen. Some Pagans,
in the Pagans, particu-
particu-
larly Wiccans, have
larly have aa separate knife knife for cutting in
for cutting in ritual activities, called a
64
64 Chapter 33
Chapter

bolline. This
This knife isis often white handled and
and is
is used for inscribing
used for inscribing and
and
sometimes forfor cutting
cutting herbs. Some Pagans prefer
prefer to
to use aa copper sickle,
sickle,
which has
has aa curved blade
blade in
in the shape of
the shape of aa crescent moon, or aa regular
regular
jackknife to
jackknife to cut
cut herbs. A A wand
wand sometimes replaces
replaces the athame, to
the athame, to be
be used
in ritual as aa pointing
in pointing tool and
and to
to focus intent, but
but wands are often not
used byby Pagans
Pagans who findfind them too stereotypical or too reminiscent of of
magical use in
magical in popular
popular culture.
Despite this distaste for
Despite this for stereotype, Pagans
Pagans often wear robes for
for rituals.
Ritual robes frequently have long long flowing sleeves, are sometimes hooded,
and
and are often medieval in
in inspiration. Some Pagan
Pagan robes are simple
simple gar-gar-
ments sewn from bedsheets, but but others are well
well tailored and
and elaborately
decorated. Many Many Wiccans have adopted the
have adopted pentacle, aa five-pointed star
the pentacle,
enclosed in in aa circle,
circle, as aa symbol
symbol of of their religious
religious affiliation, andand they
they
wear silver pendants in this shape
in this shape as Christians wear crosses and as Jews
and Jews
wear the the Star
Star ofof David. As As well
well as being
being a symbol
symbol of Wicca, the
of Wicca, the pentacle
represents earth and and protection. Medieval magical magical practitioners thought
thought it it
was protective because it it can bebe drawn with with one continuous line, line, pre-
pre-
venting
venting any evil influences from entering aa place
any evil place protected
protected with it. it. Wic-
cans find
find it it significant thatthat an apple
apple cut crosswise reveals aa natural pen-
tacle. Both
tacle. Both thethe apple
apple andand the pentacle are symbols
the pentacle symbols of of the
the Goddess.
Pagans may also
Pagans keep tools
also keep tools for
for divination on or near their their altars. Pa-Pa-
gans use aa number of of different oracular devices and and systems to to prophesy,
prophesy,
that is,
that to predict
is, to predict thethe future,
future, interpret the the present, and and understand the the
past.
past. One of of the
the more common divination systems systems in in Paganism isis the the
Tarot. The The Tarot isis aa set of of seventy-eight cards, cards, similar to playing cards
to playing cards in in
having four
having four suits
suits that
that are numbered ace, two to ten, king,
to ten, king, and
and queen, but
but
with pages added, and
with and with knights
knights in
in place
place of
of jacks. The suits are cups
jacks. The cups
(hearts), wands (clubs),
(clubs), swords (spades),
(spades), and
and pentacles
pentacles (diamonds).
cards, called the
These cards, the minor arcana, make up
up the
the majority of
of the
the deck.
The other twenty-two
The other twenty-two cards,
cards, called the major
called the arcana, are
major arcana, are said to be
said to be de-
de-
rived from
rived from the
the work of
of Hermes
Hermes Trismegistus,
Trismegistus, and
and they
they correspond
correspond toto the
the
letters of the Hebrew alphabet.
of the The major
alphabet. The major arcana are numbered zero to to
twenty-one, and each has
and each has aa name, which, to an extent, describes the
which, to the spir-
spir-
itual growth
itual growth of
of an adept
adept in the mystical
in the mystical arts. The images on the
The images the cards are
Neo-Platonic in following the
in inspiration, following the traditions of
of Western al-al-
chemists who were influenced by and Jewish
by Egyptian mythology and Jewish mysti-
mysti-
The images
cism. The images contain highly
highly overdetermined symbols. There are
symbols. There
many elements to to consider in
in each picture, and
each picture, and many possible
possible meanings,
so the
the cards provide a structure through
through which to apply one’s intuition for
to apply for
understanding the past, interpreting the
the past, the present, and
and predicting and di-di-
recting the
recting the future.
Another type
type ofof oracular system
system that Pagans
Pagans use is is the
the runes, either
Germanic (Norse) or Celtic. Germanic runes are based on the the Norse al-
al-
 Individual and
and Family
Family Practices 65
65

phabet,
phabet, and
and Celtic on Ogham, sometimes called the the tree alphabet.
alphabet. The
The
Norse runes originally consisted of
originally of twenty-four letters,
letters, generally
generally incised
or carved on pieces of
pieces of wood or clay,
clay, but
but sometimes on stone or metal. Us-Us-
ing the runes
ing the requires a greater
requires greater knowledge of of symbolic than
symbolic associations than
the Tarot does,
the does, because the simple letters are not
the simple not as evocative as the
the pic-
pic-
tures on the
the cards. Runes may not historically have been used
may not used for
for divina-
tion
tion so much as for
for other magical purposes, such as for objects
for enchanting objects
by putting
by spells on them to
putting spells to increase their
their usefulness, for example, on aa
for example,
weapon to to make itit strike true,
true, or on aa cup
cup to to increase the
the drinker’s health.
Druids often
often use Ogham runes for for divination during
during their rituals.
Many Pagans practice
Many Pagans practice some form of of scrying
scrying for
for divination purposes.
Scrying
Scrying involves looking
looking into
into aa crystal
crystal ball,
ball, or more often into a pool of
pool of
water, aa cauldron, or flames,
water, flames, to focus one’s
to focus one’s intuition. Practitioners scry to
scry to
see events atat aa distance, to
to interpret
interpret the
the situation at
at hand, to see the
hand, to the fu-
fu-
ture,
ture, and toto reveal what isis hidden. This
This form
form of
of divination possibly
possibly re-
quires
quires more facility than do
facility with trance than do other divination techniques, since
there
there isis less
less to
to inspire
inspire the
the imagination in scrying than
in scrying in reading
than in reading Tarot
Tarot
cards or runes.
Pagans use aa variety
Pagans variety of of means to to alter their consciousness to
alter their to go
go into
into
trance. Two of of these are meditation and and drumming. Pagans use guided guided
meditation, called “pathworking” in in Britain, more often often than they use
than they
Buddhist-style meditation. For For Pagans,
Pagans, the
the aim
aim isis often toto guide the mind
guide the
to aa particular
to particular sort of of experience or state rather than to to empty
empty the
the mind.
Stilling the
Stilling the mind is is still
still aa goal,
goal, though,
though, in
in order toto gain
gain the
the discipline
discipline nec-
essary toto follow guided
guided meditations or to to direct oneself to to particular goals
goals
rather than just sitting and
just sitting and daydreaming. One might might pursue aa guided guided
meditation in journeys down aa path
in which one journeys path and into into aa cave in
in order to to
become aware of of things
things one’s conscious mind isis hiding hiding from one’s aware-
ness. Meditation facilitates problem solving
solving in
in aa different manner from
thought, through
conscious thought, through accessing what Pagans
Pagans sometimes call call the
the
“Deep Self.” In
“Deep Self.” In learning meditation techniques, Pagans usually begin
Pagans usually begin
with visualization. A A commonly used
with used exercise is
is to try to
to try to visualize an ap-
ap-
ple
ple with
with one’s eyes
eyes shut,
shut, starting
starting with the
the shape, the texture, and
shape, the and the
the
color,
color, and then adding
and then adding the
the scent,
scent, the
the sound
sound of
of cutting
cutting it, and the
it, and revela-
the revela-
tion
tion of
of the
the pentacle
pentacle within. The
The practitioner next tries to the ap-
to visualize the ap-
ple
ple with hishis or her eyes open.
her eyes
In a a guided
In guided meditation inin a feminist Witchcraft group, the
the women were
asked
asked to imagine themselves
to imagine themselves “in
“in aa beautiful
beautiful garden, to discover
garden, to discover aa path
path
and to follow it,
and to it, to
to enter aa warm enveloping mist, and then
mist, and then to
to emerge on
the
the other side
side of the mist
of the mist where [they]
[they] met the
the Goddess,” who
who gave
gave them
each
each aa gift.
gift. The
The women described gifts gifts such
such as meeting the Goddess and
meeting the and
recognizing that she
she was “me.” Another said, said, “In
“In my
my trance the
the Goddess
gave me
gave mea a book.
book. ItIt was the
the story
story of my life
of my life and
and it
it was only
only half
half written. It
66
66 Chapter 33
Chapter

Agen dedicant isis one who hashas expressed an interest in learning about aa
in learning
and has
tradition and oath dedicating
has made an oath dedicating her/himself to growing
to growing
inin that particular tradition. :
that particular

was for
for me to
to write the
the rest.” Such experiences in guided meditation give
in guided give
participants a strong sense of the sacred, as well as emotional experiences
of the
that feed
that feed their
their work in in ritual.*°
Ar nDraiocht Féin,
Ar Féin, a Druid organization, suggests using using a guided
guided med-
for practitioners to
itation for to identify
identify their patron
patron deities,
deities, and
and they
they include aa
text to
text to use in in their
their Dedicant Program
Program handbook, the given to
the manual given to
those who are learning
learning toto become Druids. AA coreligionist can guide guide aa new
practitioner, or the the practitioner can also also make an audio recording of of the
the
text of
text of the guided meditation.
the guided meditation. To To conduct the the ritual using
using the meditation,
the meditation,
the practitioner first
the first makes an offering,
offering, asking
asking to to be
be shown thethe way
way to
to the
the
Next, the
patrons. Next, the practitioner assumes her her or hishis meditation posture, aa
position in
position in which the the practitioner isis comfortable and and relaxed. TheThe medi-
begins with aa metaphor of
tation begins of descending through
through mist,
mist, and
and proceeds,
narrated in in the
the second person: “At “At last
last you
you drift
drift down toward aa great great
rolling
rolling meadow.”*! The The narration guidesguides the the dedicant into into aa forest,
forest, and
and
then into a temple, which contains
temple, which contains all all the world’s deities. The
the world’s The dedicant
chooses her her or hishis patrons from those in the temple
in the temple andand places
places their
their im-
ages
ages inin aa place
place of of honor at at the
the front
front of the temple.
of the temple.
Guided meditations such as this this use metaphor
metaphor to to transform the the practi-
practi-
tioner’s consciousness into into trance and and then back into regular
back into regular conscious-
ness. Pagans
Pagans often enhance this this process through
through drumming. Starhawk
suggests thatthat thethe drum is frequently the
is frequently the most important ritual tool tool inin
groups, since itit provides an effective way way to alter
to alter consciousness through
through
rhythm
rhythm and and easily keeps the
easily keeps the group together.*?
together.** Some practitioners, follow-
ing
ing the
the work ofof Michael Harner, refer refer toto the
the drum as the the vehicle that
that trans-
ports
ports shamanic practitioners into the
the “Shamanic State of Consciousness.””3
of Consciousness.”3
This
This can alsoalso bebe accomplished through singing. Like
through singing. Like drumming, singing singing
facilitates group cohesion and and formation of of the
the “group
“group mind,”
mind,” andand it keeps
it keeps
everyone together
together on the the same “wavelength.” Dance isis also also used
used forfor this
this
purpose, particularly at at summer festivals, as discussed in chapter 4.4.
in chapter

FURTHER READING

Buckland, Raymond. Buckland’s Complete of Witchcraft.

Complete Book of St. Paul,
Witchcraft. St. MN: Llewellyn
Paul, MN: Llewellyn Publi-
cations,
cations, 1986. :
 Individual and
Individual Family Practices
and Family Practices 67
67

Cunningham, Scott. Wicca: AA Guide for

for the
the Solitary
Solitary Practitioner. St.
St. Paul,
Paul, MN:
MN: Llewellyn Pub-
lications, 2003.
2003.
Starhawk. The
The Spiral
Spiral Dance: AA Rebirth of
of the
the Ancient Religion
Religion of the Great Goddess. 10th an-
of the
ed. San
niversary ed. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1989.

NOTES

1. Helen Berger,
1. Helen Evan A.
Berger, Evan A. Leach,
Leach, and
and Leigh
Leigh S.S. Shaffer,
Shaffer, Voices
Voices from
from the Pagan Census:
the Pagan Census: AA Na-
Na-
tional Survey
Survey ofof Witches and
and Neo-Pagans in
in the
the United States (Columbia: University of
of South
Carolina Press,
Press, 2003), 39.
2003), 39.
2.2. Graham Harvey, Contemporary Paganism: Listening People, Speaking Earth (New York:
People, Speaking
University Press,
New York University Press, 1997),
1997), 89.
89.
3.3. Harvey,
Harvey, Contemporary Paganism,
Paganism, 101.
101.
4.4. Harvey,
Harvey, Contemporary Paganism, 87.
87.
5. See
5. See Berger, Leach, and
Berger, Leach, and Shaffer,
Shaffer, Voices
Voices from
from the
the Pagan
Pagan Census,
Census, 38.
38.
6.6. Berger,
Berger, Leach,
Leach, and
and Shaffer, Voices from the Pagan
from the 37.
Pagan Census, 37.
7.7. Kathryn Rountree, Embracing the the Witch and
and the
the Goddess: Feminist Ritual-Makers
Ritual-Makers inin New
Zealand (London: Routledge, 2004),2004), 175.
175.
~ 8.8. Margot
Margot Adler,
Adler, Drawing
Drawing Down thethe Moon: Witches,
Witches, Druids, Goddess- Worshippers, and
Goddess-Worshippers, and Other
Pagans in
Pagans in America Today,
Today, revised and
and expanded
expanded ed.
ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1986), 372.
Press, 1986), 372.
9.9. Quoted in
in Helen Berger,
Berger, A A Community of
of Witches (Columbia: University of
of South Car-
Car-
olina Press,
olina 1999), 96-97.
Press, 1999),
10. Pauline Campanelli, Wheel of
10. the Year:
of the Living the
Year: Living the Magical Life (St.
Magical Life (St. Paul,
Paul, MN: Llewellyn
Publications, 1989),
Publications, 1989), 62.
62.
11. Campanelli,
11. Campanelli, Wheel of the
Wheel of the Year, 108.
Year, 108.
12. Campanelli, Wheel of
12. of the
the Year,
Year, 127.
127.
13. Diana
13. Paxson, “The Matrone,” Hrafnar website, www.hrafnar.org/goddesses/
April 22,
matronae.html (accessed April 2004), originally published in
22, 2004), Sage Woman, Fall
in Sage Fall 1999.
14. Campanelli, Wheel of
14. Campanelli, of the
the Year,
Year, 114-15.
15. Berger applies
15. Helen Berger applies Anthony
Anthony Giddens’ concept
concept of
of “life
“life politics” to Wicca in
politics” to in Commu-
nity of
nity of Witches, 78-79.
16. Berger, Community of
16. Berger, Witches, 79.
of Witches, 79.
17. See,
17. See, for
for example,
example, Chas
Chas S. Clifton, “Witches
S. Clifton, “Witches and
and the Earth,” in
the Earth,” in Witchcraft Today, Book
Witchcraft Today, Book
One: The
One: The Modern Craft
Craft Movement, ed.
ed. Chas S. (St. Paul,
S. Clifton (St. Paul, MN:
MN: Llewellyn Publications,
126.
1992), 126.
18. Clifton, “Witches and
18. Clifton, and the
the Earth,”
Earth,” 129-30.
19. See Marion Bowman, “Nature, the
19. See and Pagan
the Natural, and Pagan Identity,” Diskus
Diskus 6,
6, Web edi-
Web edi-
tion, 2000, http://web.uni-marburg.de/religionswissenschaft/journal/diskus
tion, 2000, (accessed
May 16, 2001).
May 16, 2001).
20. See
20. See Ronald Hutton, Stations of
of the
the Sun: AA History of the
History of Year in
the Ritual Year in Britain (Oxford:
Oxford University Press,
Press, 1996).
1996).
21. Starhawk, Diane Baker,
21. Baker, and
and Anne Hill,
Hill, Circle
Circle Round: Raising Children in
Round: Raising in Goddess Tradi-
Tradi-
tions (New York:
tions (New York: Bantam, 1998),
1998), 19.
19.
22.
22. Harvey, Contemporary Paganism,
Paganism, 12.
12.
23. Berger,
23. Berger, Community ofof Witches, 32.
32.
24. Scott
24. Scott Cunningham andand David Harrington, The
The Magical
Magical Household: Spells
Spells && Rituals for
for
the Home (St.
the (St. Paul,
Paul, MN: Llewellyn Publications, 2003),
2003), 125, 127.
125, 127.
25.
25. Harvey,
Harvey, Contemporary Paganism, 101.
101.
26.
26. Harvey,
Harvey, Contemporary Paganism, 103.
103.
68
68 Chapter 33
Chapter

27.
27. Starhawk, The Spiral Dance: AA Rebirth of
The Spiral of the
the Ancient Religion of the
Religion of Great Goddess, 10th
the Great 10th
anniversary ed. (New York:
ed. (New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1989), 76; Zsuzsanna Budapest,
1989), 76; The Holy
Budapest, The Holy
Book of
Book Women’s
of Women’s Mysteries (Oakland,
Mysteries (Oakland, CA: Wingbow Press,
CA: Wingbow Press, 1989), 12.
1989), 12.
28.
28. Starhawk, Spiral Dance,
Spiral Dance, 76.
76.
29.
29. Starhawk, Spiral Dance,
Spiral 227. °
Dance, 227.
30. Rountree,
30. Embracing the
Embracing the Witch and
and the
the Goddess, 153.
Goddess, 153.
31. Ian Corrigan et
31. Ian et al.,
al., ADF Dedicant Program, document produced by
by Ar
Ar nDrajocht
nDraiocht
Féin:
Féin: A Druid Fellowship,
A Druid 1997, 40.
Fellowship, 1997, 40.
32. Spiral Dance,
32. Starhawk, Spiral Dance, 227.
33.
33. Michael Harner, The Way of
The Way of the
the Shaman (New York:
York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1990),
1990), 51.
51.
 44
ook
ook
Group Practices
Group

he individual and family

he family practices discussed in in chapter
chapter 33 carry over
into the
into practices of
the group practices of Pagans,
Pagans, but they may
but they may be
be more structured
to
to facilitate group activities. For
For example, group celebrations of
example, group of the sab-
the sab-
bats, the
bats, the seasonal festivals, are more likely
likely to
to have
have aa script to keep
script to keep every-
one together. Pagan
Pagan groups may conduct rituals in in closed or public
public for-
for-
mats for of the
for each of eight seasonal festivals, and
the eight and at
at the full or dark phases
the full phases
of the
of the moon, depending on the Pagans also
the group. Some Pagans also attend large
large re-
gional festivals in
gional in the
the summer months. InIn addition, Pagans
Pagans recognize rites
rites
of passage in
of in their birth, puberty, other coming-of-age
their groups, including birth,
rites, initiations, handfastings, cronings,
rites, cronings, and
and death.
Some Pagans
Pagans celebrate thethe sabbats with their circles,
with their circles, or inin open
open public
public
rituals, as well
rituals, well as in
in their homes. Others celebrate the the sabbats only
only atat
privately, or,
home or privately, only through
or, conversely, only through attending public public rituals,
sometimes participating only only as loosely
loosely affiliated laity.
laity. Some solitaries at-at-
tend large
tend large public
public rituals to
to gain
gain aa sense of
of belonging to to the
the community,
but
but not all Pagans celebrate all
all Pagans the sabbats. Heathens in
all the in particular
particular are
more likely
likely toto celebrate festivals more closely
closely related to to their traditions
than
than those based on the the British festival cycle.
cycle.
Group rituals tend to
Group to follow aa similar pattern to the
pattern to the basic ritual designs
designs
discussed in in chapter
chapter 3,3, but
but group sabbat celebrations tend tend to be more per-
to be per-
formative and and theatrical than private
private sabbat observances and and may
may involve
props, costumes, and and masks. The The ritual
ritual may
may be
be planned
planned communally in in
small groups, or by by aa committee for larger events. Sometimes ritual
for larger
scripts
scripts are written by by one member of of the
the group, whowho isis then
then responsible
for organizing and
for and leading
leading the
the ritual. AA single
single organizer might plan the
might plan the

69
69
70
70 Chapter 44
Chapter

and ask
script, and
ritual, circulate aa script,
ritual, people to
ask people parts. Alternatively, a
to choose parts.
group might
might prefer
prefer toto work from an outline around which they they impro-
impro-
vise. Inspiration for the ritual structure and
for the and ideas for
for the
the event might
might
of Shadows or from
from aa group’s Book of
come from any of
from any of the of
the multitude of
how-to books on Paganism. As As inin individual and and family
family practices,
practices, creat-
ing a
ing a ritual can be intensely creative process. Scripts
be an intensely Scripts in in how-to books
usually suggest using
usually using the script as a jumping-off point,
the script point, an ideaidea of
of where
to start, rather than as something to
to be applied
to be applied by by rote.
In
In Ottawa, Samhain isis publicly publicly celebrated in large open ritual called
in aa large
the “Witches’ Gathering,” usually
the usually held held on the the Saturday closest to to
Samhain. ItIt isis open to to the
the community, including including the the public,
public, as well
well as to to
those whowho identify
identify as partpart ofof the Pagan community. This festival is
the Pagan is held
held
at Barrymore’s Music Hall,
at Hall, an atmospheric old old theatre that that has
has been con-
verted into a bar. bar. The
The barbar has
has a Gothic ambience of of gilt
gilt mirrors, ornate
plaster
plaster moldings, and and chandeliers. Hundreds of of people
people come out for the
for the
celebration dressed in in extravagantly elaborate costumes. The organizers,
eclectic Pagans, describe itit as the the largest
largest Pagan Pagan event in in Canada. Like
many other public public Pagan
Pagan events, the the number of of participants is is deter-
mined by by the
the venue. The The organizers indicate that that thethe capacity
capacity ofof Barry-
Barry-
more’s isis 500, but the
500, but the booking agent agent for for the
the bar says 375.! The ritual itself
isis largely
largely performative and isis conducted onstage with little audience par- par-
ticipation. In In this
this respect, Samhain is is atypical
atypical of of other festivals, largely
largely
due to to the
the openness of of Samhain events to to the
the general public. Conse-
general public.
quently,
quently, organizers cannot expect expect all the attendees to
all the to know how to to par-
par-
ticipate.
ticipate. This isis similarly true of of the
the large
large Spiral
Spiral Dance rituals held each each
Samhain in in San
San Francisco organized by the Reclaiming community. For
by the For
Ottawa’s
Ottawa’s Witches’
Witches’ Gathering,
Gathering, therethere is is aa cover
cover charge
charge for for attendance,
attendance, withwith
the
the proceeds donated to to charities such as the the Ottawa Food Bank, Brighter Brighter
Futures for for Children of of Young
Young Single
Single Parents, or the the Wild Bird Care Cen-
ter,
ter, as have been chosen in in recent years. Because of of the
the secular association
of
of witches with Hallowe’en, PagansPagans often use Samhain as an opportunity
for
for public
public education. Media representatives seek seek out Witches to to interview,
and some Pagans
Pagans oblige
oblige them with the
the intention of
of dispelling stereotypes
and misconceptions about Paganism.
Some groups mark Yule by by observing all-night vigils,
vigils, staying
staying up
up
through
through thethe longest
longest night.
night. Some groups, such as a closed women’s circle
in
in Ottawa, celebrate the the winter solstice by
by discarding items they they do
do not
want to to keep,
keep, sometimes as an exchange in in which others who want any
of the
of the items may take them, with leftovers donated to
take them, to charity.
charity. Everyone in in
the group brings
the brings an object
object that she
she is
is finished with or would like to to dis-
dis-
card
card to
to the
the circle,
circle, and
and each can choose
each can choose to
to take
whatever
whatever others
take others leave.
leave. In
In
other
other groups, winter-solstice exchangesbe may
be more metaphorical. In In
New Zealand, a group of
of feminist Witches went to
to a cave for
for their winter-
winter-
 Group Practices
Group 71
71

ritual to
solstice ritual to sacrifice unwanted, “outmoded, negative
negative or unconstruc-
tive thoughts,
tive thoughts, attitudes, or behaviour patterns.” Some of the women later
of the later
wrote poems about their experiences:

Senses totally
totally stimulated—the power of the sea calling
of the calling me inside myself.
myself. The
The
safety of the
safety of and the
the cave and the sense of
of love and belonging
love and belonging drawing
drawing me close
close to
to
the other women. Feeling
the other my baby
Feeling my stirring within my
baby stirring my womb, and
and knowing
knowing II
have come home.
have

The journey beginning with

The journey with oneself
Among the
Among the dunes of
of Bethell’s
Being
Being inin one’s inner darkness
Letting go
Letting go unwanted thoughts, feelings
thoughts, feelings
Being there....
Being there ....
At home in
At in the bosom of
the bosom of the
the Great Mother.
Mother.”

Imbolc isis the

the time at
at which some groups make or anoint all all their
their can-
dles for the year
dles for the year as part of
part of celebrating the
the festival. Anglicans in
in Britain cel-
cel-
ebrate the
the Christian festival of
of Candlemas at
at this
this time, and some Gardne-
time, and
rians celebrate the the festival similarly
similarly as aa festival of of lights.
lights. In In Gardnerian
ritual,
ritual, a a woman representing the
the Goddess as mother wears aa headdress
with candles in the
in the ritual celebration of
of Imbolc. The
The ritual involves sweep-
ing
ing away “all that is old and
“all that is old and outworn.” At the
At the conclusion of the ritual, the
of the ritual, the
priest
priest symbolically burns two evergreen twigs and
twigs and says asays a ritual chant to
to
banish winter.
Some groups reenact the the myth
myth of of Demeter and and Kore (or (or Persephone) in in
celebrating Oestre. In In this story,
this story, Kore disappears to
to the underworld, and
the and
her mother Demeter is
her is so upset that she
upset that she causes the the Earth to to become cold cold
and
and barren, creating winter. Eventually an agreement is
is made that
that Kore
will
will return to to visit her mother for
visit her half the
for half the year eacheach year, and and as Kore re-
turns
turns each year, Demeter
each year, releases the
Demeter releases the Earth
Earth fromfrom winter, bringing spring.
winter, bringing spring.
Some groups celebrate aa Pagan Pagan version of of the Jewish holiday
the Jewish holiday of of Passover,
or they
they celebrate Passover with with their extended families each spring. ItIt is
each spring. is
often still
still too cold
cold toto celebrate Oestre outdoors in in Canada and and the the north-
ern states, but but sometimes groups do do hold their outside, particu-
their sabbats outside, particu-
larly when trying
larly trying to to connect with the the local features of the land.
of the land. ForFor ex-
ample, Red Maple
ample, Grove, aa Druid group affiliated with
Maple Grove, with Ar Ar nDraiocht
Féin,
Féin, held
held an outdoor spring spring equinox
equinox ritual in in Ottawa in 2003 to
in 2003 to connect
with the
with the watershed and and itsits history.
history. The ritual began
The ritual began with offerings
offerings to the
to the
Rideau River and and included aa pledge pledge to to petition
petition the the local
local and regional
regional gov-gov-
ernments against
against the
the use ofof pesticides and
and chemical fertilizers, and
and toto help
help
clean up garbage in
up garbage in the
the park
park where thethe ritual was held.
held. The
The group re-
quested that
quested that the
the river let the melting
let the melting snow and ice gently
and ice pass through
gently pass through the the
city
city to
to avoid flooding,
flooding, which had had been aa problem in in the
the area in
in the past.
the past.
 Chapter 44
Chapter

ieee:

Figure 8.
Figure 8. The Goddess as mother at
The Imbolc, wearing
at Imbolc, wearing aa Brigid of candles
Brigid headdress of
(from
(from Farrar and
and Farrar, A A Witches’ Bible)
Bible)

Beltain celebrations sometimes include aa Maypole festival, which in- in-

volves erecting
erecting aa pole
pole planted
planted in
in the and weaving
the Earth and weaving ribbons around
it.
it. Often the
the group ofof celebrants is
is divided so that
that men go
go in
in one direction
and women the
and the other, weaving the
other, weaving the ribbons into
into aa complex
complex pattern around
 Group
Group Practices Te
73

the pole.
the pole. Some participants joke
joke about going
going “a-maying” after the
the ritual,
ritual,
spending the
spending night out in
the night in the
the woods withwith one’s partner
partner or aa partner of
of the
the
night. However, although
night. although most are aware of of Marion Zimmer Bradley’s
description ofof such aa Beltain celebration in in her popular novel The
her popular Mists of
The Mists of
Avalon, not many
Avalon, many celebrate
celebrate itit in that fashion.
in that fashion. Sometimes
Sometimes celebrations
celebrations ofof
May Day
Beltain on May Day are connected to to the political demonstrations held
the political held on
the same date
the date called “M’aidez,” aa play
play on the
the French imperative phrase
phrase
meaning “help
meaning “help me.”

Figure
Figure 9.9. Maypole
Maypole (photo by M.
(photo by M. Macha Nightmare)
Nightmare)
7474 Chapter 44
Chapter

In
In Britain, Stonehenge is the place
is the place to be for
to be for the
the summer solstice, al- al-
though Pagans’
though Pagans’ use of
of the
the site
site has
has been much contested with with heritage
heritage au-
thorities. Stonehenge is protected as a a heritage
is protected heritage site,
site, but
but people
people demand
access, not just Druids and
not just other Pagans,
and other Pagans, but
but hundreds of
of other “travel-
ers,” the
ers,” the name given
given to people who live
to people in caravans or trailers and
live in and move
from place
from place to
to place.
place. Some travelers are Pagan
Pagan and
and see thethe annual journey
journey
as a sort of
of pilgrimage. The celebration of of the
the solstice at
at Stonehenge con-
sists of
sists of an all-night
all-night party
party concluding with watching
watching the
the sun come up. up. The
The
People’s Free Festival was held
People’s Free held there
there beginning
beginning in in the
the early
early 1970s but
but was
banned in in the mid-1980s.* Access has
the mid-1980s.4 has since been allowed again. again.
Group
Group observances of of Lammas, or Lughnasadh, often often involve some
form of of a sacrificial death of of aa god
god figure.
figure. For For Gardnerians, Lughnasadh
is the
is the time of the
of the rebirth of the Holly
of the Holly King and King and his
his mating
mating withwith the
the God-
God-
dess,
dess, symbolically enacted in
in ritual by the high priest
by the high priest and and priestess. Gard-
nerians see the the Holly King as the
Holly King the dark
dark half half ofof the
the Horned God, God, thethe god
god ofof
the waning
the waning year.> year.° Lughnasadh is the only
is the only time in
in Gardnerian groups that
that
the high
the high priestess invokes the the Goddess in in herself instead of of the
the high
high priest
priest
invoking
invoking the the Goddess in her.®
in her.®
Many
Many Pagans
Pagans celebrate aa fall fall festival around the time of
the time of the
the autumnal
equinox through
equinox through family family gatherings of
of thankfulness for the harvest, par-
for the
ticularly
ticularly in in North America, but
but some also
also conduct group celebrations. Pa-Pa-
gan women in
gan in New Zealand braid braid wool
wool girdles,
girdles, incorporating symbols symbols of of
personal harvest or what they they want to to carry forward into into the season.’
the next season.”
The fall
The fall equinox
equinox isis aa time
time toto celebrate the the Goddess in in her
her Crone aspect
aspect and
and
to recognize the
to the value ofof older
older women. It It is also aa time to
is also “do what isis nec-
to “do
essary to to achieve balance in in one’s life.”®
life.’”®
In
In addition toto local
local circle-based or city-based celebrations of of the eight
the eight
festivals, some Pagan
seasonal festivals, Pagan groups host large outdoor festivals in
host large in the
the
summer which often
months, which often do
do not fall
fall on the
the sabbats. Wic-Can Fest,
Fest,
usually held
usually held thethe week before thethe summer solstice, isis Canada’s oldest and
longest-running Pagan Pagan festival. ItIt isis aa family-oriented festival held in in
southern Ontario, near Toronto, at at aa private
private campground. Attendance at at
the festival isis restricted by
the by the
the capacity
capacity of the campground to
of the to about three
people. Scheduled activities at
hundred people. at Wic-Can Fest
Fest include workshops,
lectures, demonstrations, and
lectures, and concerts and rituals, as well
and rituals, well as aa market
area and
and an impressive musical lineup. lineup.
The
The Rites ofof Spring
Spring isis similarly aa large
large festival,
festival, hosted by
by the
the EarthSpirit
Community each May May at at aa camp near Boston, Massachusetts. Some par- par-
ticipants stay
ticipants stay inin the
the cabins of of the
the camp, and
and additional participants staystay
in
in tents. Activities at the festival include rituals,
at the rituals, workshops,
workshops, andand socializ-
ing.’
ing.’ The
The festival develops
develops a strong
strong village
village atmosphere, partly
partly through
communal food
communal food preparation and and aa common dining
dining area.
area.1°
 Group Practices
Group 79
75)

ELFest, aa festival sponsored by

by the
the Elf Lore Family
Elf Lore Family (ELF)
(ELF) at
at a place they
place they
call has been described in
call Lothlorien, has in detail by
by researcher Sarah Pike:
Pike:

Clusters of of colorful tents were set set up

up under the the canopy of of trees. Small
campers and and vans lined the the circular gravel
gravel driveway. Festival goers were
roaming informally
roaming informally around campsites, gathering at at tables covered with
books on witchcraft and and long,
long, hooded robes for for sale
sale or talking
talking with and
greeting friends. A A woman who smelled of of incense and and whose
and rose and
naked body
body was more than than half
half covered with tattoos of of flowers and dragons,
dragons,
broadly at
smiled broadly at me. Two men wearing black leather boots and and dark
dark cloaks
walked by, deep in
by, deep in conversation. Farther along
along the
the road,
road, aa young man with
bronzed skin juggled balls
skin juggled balls as he
he talked to
to another man wrapped
wrapped at at the
the waist
in aa tie-dye
in tie-dye cloth and carrying aa rainbow-colored parasol.
and carrying The festival was
parasol. The
alive with
alive with music, quiet conversation,
music, quiet conversation, naked
naked skin, and bodies
skin, and adorned with
bodies adorned with
costumes and and elaborate jewelry."

Pagan festivals in
Most Pagan in the
the United States follow a common pattern pattern ofof ac-
tivities, including an opening opening ceremony, workshops during during thethe days, rit-
days, rit-
uals and
uals and performances in the
in the evenings, and
and drumming and dancing at
and dancing at
night, as well
night, well as a a community feast and closing
feast and ritual.
closing ritual.!2
Regional festivals are usually
Regional usually open to to all
all who
who pay the registration fees.
pay the
At
At some festivals, registrants are expected
expected to to contribute some volunteer
time with the the festival, either with directing
directing parking, looking after
looking chil-
after chil-
dren,
dren, or cooking.
cooking. Festivals last
last anywhere from a weekend to week, and
to a week, and
vary in size, with the
vary in size, with the bigger bigger festivals drawing
drawing a fewa few hundred attendees.!%
attendees.'%
Alternative dress isis common at at festivals, and
and nudity
nudity isis frequent,
frequent, although
although
officially
officially restricted to
to certain areas of the
of the festival grounds, such as the
grounds, the
beach and fire pit.
and fire pit. Many people, including
Many people, including men, wear sarongs. Cloaks are
more common if
if the
the weather is
is cooler. Robes are often
often worn in
in ritual,
ritual, re-
gardless
gardless ofof the
the temperature.
Almost half
half of
of all Pagans attend large
all Pagans regional festivals, whether they
large regional they
usually engage in
usually in solitary
solitary practice
practice or are affiliated with circles.'4 Solitaries
are somewhat less likely to
less likely to attend festivals: 43.1 percent of
43.1 percent of attendees atat
festivals belong
belong to to groups, andand 35.8
35.8 percent
percent are solitaries. The largest seg-
The largest seg-
ment ofof attendees are in in their thirties (33.9
(33.9 percent), followed by by those inin
their forties (26.7
their (26.7 percent)
percent) andand those in in their
their twenties (24.1
(24.1 percent).
percent). There
are more women than than men at at festivals,
festivals, but
but the
the proportion of of men attend-
ing
ing festivals isis higher
higher than
than inin the
the general Pagan population.’
general Pagan population."
Although festival participants tend
Although tend to
to be
be more politically active than
other Pagans,
Pagans, festivals are not popular popular forums for for political activity. Peo-
political activity.
ple might mention pride
ple might pride parades
parades and and environmental concerns, but such
but such
issues are not
not central atat festivals. Spiritual
Spiritual and
and magical
magical concerns are more
although political
important, although political views are often implicit
implicit in
in rituals.’¢
rituals.'° Festivals
Festivals
76
76 Chapter
Chapter 44

Pagans, to
for re-creating themselves as Pagans,
provide participants with aa forum for
provide to
forge new identities.!7
forge Pagans who are deeply
identities.!” Some Pagans deeply in the “broom closet,”
in the
that is, hiding
that is, hiding their Pagan
Pagan identity in their
in their day-to-day lives,
lives, are openly
openly Pa-Pa-
gan only
gan only while attending festivals. At
At festivals, Pagans
Pagans are not marginal
not marginal
but are atat the
but the center ofof the
the community. The The consensus reality
reality of
of aa festival
community supports Pagan
Pagan understandings of the world. At
of the At festivals,
the rules
“where the of everyday interaction are suspended, they
rules of imagine
they imagine
finding an ideal
finding ideal community and and an ideal self.”
Some Pagans
Pagans regard
regard festivals as liminal spaces, in in anthropologist Victor
Turner’s sense of of being
being outside of of time.
time. Summer festivals are aa “vacation”
from participants’ usual
from usual lives,
lives, and
and some expect
expect that the judgment of
that the of oth-
oth-
will be
ers will be suspended around things things like
like nudity, activity, gender
nudity, sexual activity, gender
boundaries, andand sometimes drugs.!?
drugs.'? However, festivals do do not
not escape cul-cul-
tural
tural conditioning to to the degree that
the degree that some participants hope hope and
and expect:
expect:
“festival goers expect
expect festivals to to reflect their
their vision of of a more egalitarian,
less
less sexist society.
society. Construction of of men’s and and women’s identities within
this ritual space isis coded in
this in varieties ofof bodily
bodily expression. The The languages
languages
of movement and
of body decoration reveal that
and body that while
while ritual
ritual work within
Neo-Pagan festivals involves gender play and
gender play and gender
gender reversal,
reversal, its
its trans-
formative effects are more limited than participants anticipate.”*° anticipate.”?? InIn addi-
addi-
tion, the perceived
tion, the perceived freedom
freedom and and license
license ofof the
the festival
festival atmosphere
atmosphere has has been
been
marred by by occurrences of sexual harassment atat some festivals, including
of sexual including
incidents of of rude
rude flirting
flirting and
and grabbing.
grabbing. Women have have appealed
appealed to to festival
organizers to to prevent such activities. Some Some participants
participants also
also have
have concerns
drinking around fire
about excessive drinking fire pits,
pits, preferring
preferring toto preserve them as as
ritual spaces. However, while some participants express desires that
ritual that festi-
festi-
vals
vals bebe aa “safe
“safe space,”
space,” others prefer
prefer an “anything
“anything goes”goes” atmosphere.”!
In addition to
In regional and
to regional and seasonal festivals,
festivals, some Pagans
Pagans meet in in
groups at phases of
at particular phases the moon. These meetings
of the meetings are sometimes
called esbats,
called esbats, particularly by by Wiccans. Esbats are the the “work” meetings
meetings of of
Pagan circles,
Pagan circles, as opposed to the more celebratory sabbats. Esbats are the
to the the
regular ritual meetings
regular meetings ofof aa coven in in Wicca. IfIf aa member wants to to conduct
aa healing
healing ritual,
ritual, for
for instance, itit would
would more likely
likely be at one of
be at of these
these meet-
ings than
ings than during
during aa sabbat celebration (or
(or they
they might
might do
doaaritual
ritual specifi-
specifi-
cally for
cally for aa healing).
healing). Such
Such meetings
meetings are closed toto the
the public; that is,
public; that is, they
they are
restricted toto group members. In In the
the Reclaiming
Reclaiming community, esbats
esbats tend
tend to
to
be gender-segregate
be gender-segregatedd closed
closed events, while
while the
the sabbats are public.”
public.”
usually meet
Wiccans usually meet once aa month,
month, when
when the
the moon isis full,
full, as
as specified
specified
in the
in the liturgy
liturgy of
of the Charge of
the Charge of the
the Goddess. Some Pagan Pagan groups regularly
regularly
perform the
perform the ritual
ritual of
of drawing
drawing downdown thethe moon
moon at at the
the full
full moon, and
and itit is
is
often conducted
often conducted at regional festivals.
at regional festivals. In
In this ritual, a a woman
this ritual, woman invites
invites the
the
Goddess to to speak
speak through her. In
through her. Wicca, aa man either
In Wicca, either invokes thethe God-
God-
dess in
dess the priestess,
in the priestess, or the
the woman evokes the the Goddess from from within.23
within.23
 Group Practices
Group 77
77

Some Pagans
Pagans understand this this in in terms of of possession, and others in in terms
of the
of the woman becoming
becoming an incarnation of of the
the Goddess. Some practition-
prefer to
ers prefer to say
say that they do
that they do not “invoke” or “become” the the Goddess, but but
that they
that they manifest the part of
the part of the
the Goddess that that is already in
is already in them.”
them.”4 Dur-
ing the
ing the ritual,
ritual, the priestess goes
the priestess goes into trance and and maymay prophesy after the the
Goddess isis invoked, or she she may may speak
speak the the words of the liturgy
of the liturgy ofof the
the
Charge of
Charge of the
the Goddess. Some say say that
that the
the words spoken spoken vary vary somewhat
in practice, as appropriate to
in the occasion. In
to the In some traditions, such such as Re-
Re-
claiming, the the Goddess may be
be drawn down into
into men as well as women.”°
women.
The ritual
The ritual ofof drawing
drawing down the the moon, and the liturgy
and the liturgy of of the
the Charge,
Charge,
spread
spread from Gardnerian Wicca and
and was derived from Aradia. Doreen Va-
Va-
liente wrote the the original verse version used in
in Gardnerian Wicca, and
Wicca, and
Starhawk wrote the the prose version that that isis in
in common circulation. Wiccans
suggest that
suggest that some form of
form of thethe ritual of
of drawing down the
drawing the moon was prac-
ticed inin ancient Greece.
Many Pagans associate the
Many Pagans phases of
the phases of thethe moon with with women’s men-
strual cycles,
cycles, which are of
of approximately the
the same length, and
length, and with the
with the
three aspects
aspects of of the
the Goddess. The waxing
The waxing or new moon is
is associated with
with
the
the maiden, the
the full
full moon with the mother, and
with the and the
the waning
waning moon with
with
the
the crone. There is aa
is fourth phase of the
phase of the moon, the dark
the dark moon, which isis
which
not visible. ThisThis isis sometimes also also associated with with the the crone. Some
women’s-only groups prefer prefer to to meet atat the
the dark of of the
the moon, or the the new
moon. Sometimes women who who are menstruating during during suchsuch meetings
meetings
wear bracelets of of red
red wool to to indicate theirtheir special
special state so that that itit can be
be
recognized and and honored by the others present. Menstruation isis thought
by the thought to to
occasion a “psychic
“psychic opening” and and to
to increase women’s intuitive powers.”° powers.”6
Pagans also
Pagans also conduct group ceremonies acknowledging rites rites ofof passage
for individuals in
for in their
their communities. Rites Rites ofof passage recognize
recognize changes
changes
in social roles,
in roles, status, or identity.
identity. In general, such rituals require
In general, require commu-
nity recognition through
nity through aa group event of of some sort. As As Paganism has has ma-
tured from aa movement into into aa world religion,
religion, Pagans
Pagans have
have developed
developed rit- rit-
uals for
uals rites of
for rites of passage in in all
all stages
stages ofof life, from birth to
life, from to death. Most of of
these involve some community component, but but some rites of passage are
rites of

Byrd oreen Valiente, author of of a a number ofof popular

popular books on Witch-
Dit craft, was aa member ofof Gerald Gardner’s coven beginning inin the the
1940s. She extensively rewrote Gardner's
She extensively Gardner’s Book ofof Shadows, parts
parts of
of
which have
have diffused into
into contemporary Paganism without recognition
of her
of her authorship. More information on Valiente can be be found inin
chapter
chapter 7.7.
78
78 Chapter
Chapter 44

more family
family oriented, such
such as recognition of
of the
the change
change from baby to
baby to
child.2” Some puberty
puberty rites are also
also more oriented toward family
family than
group recognition.
Many Pagans
Many Pagans conduct formal rituals to to welcome babies intointo their
their com-
munities, but they also speak
but they also speak of of more spontaneous rituals to
to introduce in-
in-
fants to the
to the world. Charlene Spretnak recounts a story of taking her
a story of taking her
daughter outside for
daughter the first
for the first time,
time, into
into a garden
garden outside the
the hospital,
hospital, and
and
her to
introducing her to the
the pine
pine trees, the
the flowers, the
the moon, and the stars,
and the stars, and
and
them toto her.
her. She felt aa need to
She felt to welcome her
her child
child to
to the
the cosmos in
inaa ritual
fashion.”® Pagans
fashion.”8 Pagans tell of the
tell similar stories of the spontaneous impulse
impulse toto intro-
duce their
their children or god/dess children to to the
the natural world.
Welcoming rituals for for introducing new babies into Pagan Pagan groups are
variously called “Wiccaning,” “saining,” or “Paganing.” These rituals in-
variously in-
troduce the
troduce the child
child to
to the
the community and the
community and the deities, to ask
deities, to ask for
for their bless-
their bless-
ings on the
ings the child and
and to the child to
to introduce the to ritual. No
No promises
promises are
made toto commit the
the child to the religion,
to the religion, although god/dess
god/dess parents
parents maymay
be appointed.” For
be For example, atat aa Wiccaning, aa Wiccan welcoming ritual,
ritual, aa
group met inin a suburban state park,
park, where theythey often
often held
held rituals, to
to Wic-
Wic-
can aa month-old child. Dressed in in the
the family’s baptism gown, the
family’s baptism the child
child
was introduced to to the
the four directions and
and the
the elements. The
The afterbirth andand
birth blood,
birth blood, frozen to
to preserve itit and
and thawed for
for the ritual, were used.
the ritual, used. The
The
afterbirth was buried, and
and the
the blood was used
used to the child,
to anoint the child, as well
well
as aa white cord.
cord. TheThe cord
cord symbolically linked the the child to to the
the Earth,
Earth, just
just as
his
his umbilical cord cord had
had linked him him toto his
his mother in the womb. As
in the As part
part ofof
the
the ceremony, each each of
of the
the group members made aa wish for for thethe child,
child, rep-
rep-
resented by by aa colored ribbon tied tied to
to aa branch. After the the ritual,
ritual, the the group
shared a picnic
picnic lunch,
lunch, and gifts were given
and gifts given forfor the
the baby.*°
baby.*°
Pagans have
Pagans have developed coming-of-age rituals for for two stages
stages of of transi-
tion into adulthood: puberty
tion into puberty andand leaving
leaving home. Puberty Puberty rituals tend to to be
be
limited to to members of of the
the youth’s
youth’s sex for for atat least
least one stage
stage of of the
the ritual,
ritual,
but may subsequently involve welcoming by
but by both
both men and and women into into
the community. Some male puberty
the puberty ritesrites involve an ordeal as a symbolic symbolic
confrontation with mortality.*! The The influence of readings in
of readings in anthropology
isis evident in in the
the development of of such Pagan
Pagan puberty
puberty rituals for for males.
Rituals recognizing menarche, the the onset of of menstruation, often often include aa
component designeddesigned to to counter popular
popular images
images expressive of of the
the beauty
beauty
myth.
myth. Circle Round,Round, a family
family guide
guide prepared by by members of the Reclaim-
of the
ing
ing community, includes aa number of of exercises to to use inin preparation for for
puberty
puberty rituals. ItIt includes, for for example,
example, meditations on what to to leave be-be-
hind and
hind and what to to carry forward, meditations on accepting that that one will will
not be be good
good at at certain activities, and and meditations on refusing refusing to to accept
accept
prejudgments of of others about one’s capacities. The The authors suggest, for for
example, perhaps deciding to
perhaps deciding to quit
quit taking piano lessons if
taking piano if one is is not will-
will-
 Group
Group Practices i)
79

ing to
ing to take
take the
the time to to practice, or deciding
deciding to to take
take up singing again,
up singing again, de-
de-
spite the
spite the inappropriate ridicule of of aa teacher who criticized one’s voice.
Circle Round also also includes blessing
blessing liturgies
liturgies for
for male and
and female puberty
puberty
rites. These liturgies
liturgies are symmetrical in in structure andand include wishes that that
the
the adolescent always find
always find her/his body “a temple of love
body “a temple of love and and pleasure,”
use her/his reproductive powers responsibly, and and recognize her/his
unique
unique value.*°
value.
Rituals for leaving home tend
for leaving tend toto be
be family
family oriented and and can be be as much
about thethe parents letting go
letting go as about the
the youth coming of age. These ritu-
youth coming of age. ritu-
als
als recognize the
the separation of
of a youth from her/his parents, and
a youth the
and the
youth’s
youth’s passage into full
into full responsibility for
for her/his own life. In
life. In Circle
Round, Calla Unsworth describes a coming-of-age ritual
Round, ritual for
for her
her son Tor.
Tor.
The family shared stories and
The family and wishes for for Tor’s future and
and ritually
ritually tied
tied aa
cord
cord between him
him and and each of his
of his parents to symbolize their bonds,
to symbolize their bonds, al- al-
lowing him
lowing him to to cut the
the ropes when he
he was ready.*
ready. A A similar practice
practice can
be
be used as part
part of of aa ritual toto recognize menarche, the the onset of
of menstrua-
tion
tion and
and of
of aa girl
girl becoming aa woman. In In the
the Reclaiming community, aa
young woman named Sonia who who was celebrating
celebrating menarche was anointed
with waters gathered
gathered from from around the world, marking her
the world, her forehead,
breasts, belly,
breasts, belly, and genitals, as Starhawk said,
and genitals, said, “Remember, nobody can
nobody
give you
give you power. You
You already
already have
have the
the power within.” AA cord cord was tied
tied
and her
around Sonia’s and her mother’s wrists. Sonia’s grandmother likened this this
cord
cord to
to Sonia’s umbilical cord,
cord, saying that, like
saying that, like it,
it, the
the cord
cord needed to be
to be
cut
cut so
so that the daughter
that the daughter could
could live her own, but
live on her but that their “bond of
that their the
of the
heart” would endure. Sonia andand her
her mother were asked to
to run for
for as long
long
as they
they could while tied together. Her mother eventually could not
tied together. not keep
keep
up with Sonia’s youthful
up with youthful speed.
speed. Her grandmother cut the cord with
cut the with aa rit-
rit-
ual knife,
ual knife, which was then presented to
then presented to Sonia as aa gift.
gift.°°
Pagans also
Pagans also sometimes conduct rites of passage to
rites of to confer new or magi-
magi-
cal
cal names. These are rituals of of self-transformation. Adopting
Adopting a magical
magical
name, or changing
changing it,
it, can help
help one grow emotionally or spiritually, pro-pro-
viding
viding aa focus
focus for working to
for working to change
change oneself.°°
oneself.*° Recognizing the
the name
change
change inin community can helphelp reinforce one’s commitment to to change.
change. IfIf
does itit alone,
one does there is
alone, there is no one to notice ifif one does
to notice not sustain the
does not the
change. Some Pagans
change. Pagans adopt magical or Craft
adopt magical Craft names in in place of their
place of legal
their legal
names. Starhawk, born Miriam Simos, Simos, isis aa prominent example. Pagans
prominent example. Pagans
fun of
make fun of their tendency
tendency to
to adopt
adopt fanciful magical names,*” but
magical names,” but magical
magical
names can signify personal growth.
signify personal growth. To
To change
change one’s name isis to to change
change
oneself, toto recognize
recognize aa change,
change, to
to preserve it, to encourage it.
it, or to For exam-
it. For
ple,
ple, through
through an initiation ceremony, aa man changed his magical name from
his magical from
“White Water” to to “Three Blade Jaguar,” to recognize his
Jaguar,” to his change
change from be- be-
ing full
ing full of like white water, early
of undirected energy, like early in
in his
his religious
religious prac-
tice, to
tice, to perceiving himself as growing
growing in in the role of
the role of protector of his wife
of his wife
80
80 Chapter
Chapter 44

and
and child.38 Such uses of of magical
magical names can foster a positive positive image
image ofof the
the
gendered self,
self, in
in this
this case a a romantic but positive image of masculinity.”
but positive image of masculinity.
Some Pagans
Pagans participate in in initiatory denominations of of Paganism,
which are traditions that require
that require initiation into the
the group or tradition for
for
full
full participation ofof its
its members. Even those who who do do not belong
belong to to an ini-
ini-
tiatory
tiatory denomination sometimes speak speak ofof being
being initiated by the Goddess
by the
by their
or by their patron
patron deities. Initiation ceremonies often often involve aa symbolic
symbolic
death andand rebirth, and
and theythey usually
usually require the the initiate to make a com-
to make
to the
mitment to the Goddess, to his/her patrons, or to
to his/her to the
the tradition. Gardner-
ian and
ian and Alexandrian Wicca require
require initiation into “the
“the mysteries.” Only
Only
adults can be into Wicca, and
be initiated into generally one must be
and generally be over eight-
eight-
to receive instruction leading
een to leading up
up to
to initiation. Pagans
Pagans speak
speak of
of train-
ing for
ing for “a
“a year
year and
and aa day,”
day,” but this is
but this is aa traditional phrase
phrase that
that indicates
that initiation requires
that requires aa sustained period
period ofof training.
training. Interest in training
in training
does not automatically lead
does lead to
to initiation.
Gardnerian andand Alexandrian Wiccans have three degrees degrees of of initiation.
The first-degree ceremony involves being
The being nude,
nude, including
including thethe removal of of
all jewelry,
all jewelry, as well as being
being blindfolded and and bound. The ritual
ritual isis partly in-
partly in-
spired
spired by by the
the Sumerian myth myth ofof Inanna’s descent into into the
the underworld,
where sheshe sheds all her clothing
all her and jewelry
clothing and jewelry as symbols of of her
her social sta-
tus, in recognition of
tus, in of the
the equalizing power of
of death. In
In Gardnerian tradi-
tion, men can only
tion, be initiated by
only be by women, and
and vice versa.
More generally
generally inin Craft traditions, initiation ritualizes acceptance into into
aa coven, and
and ideally,
ideally, ifif timed properly, personal growth.”
properly, personal growth.*° The Faery tra-
The Faery
dition has
has two levels of of initiation, and the Reclaiming tradition adapts
and the adapts
this to
this to one level,
level, which isis optional
optional for
for practitioners inin the
the tradition. In
In
the Reclaiming tradition,
the tradition, one must ask ask for
for initiation; itit is
is not sponta-
sponta-
neously offered.4!
neously polarity is
offered.*! Gender polarity not necessary in
is not in Reclaiming initia-
tions, SO women
tions, sO can initiate women, and men
and can initiate men. The
The
essence of of the
the Reclaiming initiation isis the the surrender of of one’s will
will to the
to the
Goddess, represented in in the
the authority
authority ofof one’s initiators. In In undertaking
initiation, thethe apprentice invites the the initiator toto challenge her/him, that that
is, to
is, to help
help her/him confront her/his “shadow,” in in the
the Jungian
Jungian sense of of
the parts
the parts ofof oneself that that one would like like to hide, ignore,
to hide, ignore, or repress and and
deny.” The
deny.” aim of
The aim the process is
of the to help
is to help the
the apprentice grow
grow so that that the
the
initiation will
will be
be a personal
personal transformation, recognizing a maturation of of
the self
the self in the tradition.
in the
The teaching
The teaching or apprenticeship phase phase ofof initiation into the Reclaiming
into the
tradition can last last more than two years, and and the
the ritual itself
itself can be very
be very
long—nine hours in the case of
in the of aa woman called Catherine. Catherine
asked fivefive women to to be
be her
her initiators. TheThe challenges theythey specified
specified forfor
her included participation in
her in other Wiccan rituals: to be sky
to be sky clad (nude) as
clad (nude)
much as possible, to to forgo
forgo wearing
wearing contact lenses or aa watch for for aa year and
and
 Group Practices
Group 81
81

aa day,
day, to
to develop
develop ritual materials for for children, and and toto explore
explore her
her shadow
through
through rituals based on each each of
of the
the four
four elements. Preparation for for the
the rit-
rit-
ual
ual involved writing
writing her magical will
her magical will and obtaining magical tools for
obtaining magical for her
her
initiators to to give
give to her upon initiation. (She
to her had not
(She had not previously
previously used rit-
used rit-
ual
ual tools.)
tools.) TheThe ritual itself began
began with her her going
going alone toto aa park
park in in the
the
evening and
evening meditating there by
and meditating by herself for for aa few
few hours. Her initiators
then
then came and
and blindfolded her and took her to the
her and took her to the ocean. There they ad-
they ad-
ministered tests of of each of the
each of four elements. Next,
the four they took
Next, they took her
her back
back toto
one of
of the
the initiator’s houses, where a
a bathroom was prepared
prepared as a temple.
temple.
There she
There she took
took aa ritual
ritual bath, still blindfolded. Her
bath, still Her initiators left
left her
her alone
for
for a while toto find
find aa new name, and and then
then they led her
they led her toto the
the circle to to be
be
welcomed as aa full
full initiate and
and allowed to
to know all the
all the secrets. She
She made
promises
promises andand experienced an emotional dedication to to the
the Goddess. The The
ritual concluded with an exchange of gifts
of gifts between the
the initiate and
and the ini-
the ini-
tiators. After the initiation, Catherine felt that her relationship
tiators. After the initiation, Catherine felt that her relationship with with herher
lover
lover was transformed, and
and that
that her
her relations with
with others who
who were initi-
initi-
ated had changed, but
ated had but that
that her
her relations with
with others who
who had
had not been ini-
ini-
tiated
tiated were unaffected. She
She relates,
relates, “The only
only secret isis that
that itit isis so intimate;
that’s what cannot be be shared. ItIt is just that
is just that itit isis so personal’”*
personal”
Pagans recognize the
Pagans recognize the rite
rite of
of passage into into committed loving loving relation-
ships through
ships through marriages or handfastings. Handfastings are ritual ritual recog-
nitions of of love relationships that that involve a dedication of of the
the partners to to aa
commitment for for aa year
year andand day,
day, or for for as long
long as the the love lasts.
lasts. However,
most handfastings are understood as marriage marriage in in terms of of making
making aa per-per-
manent commitment. In In some places
places where Pagans Pagans have have thethe right
right toto be-
be-
come licensed clerics, handfastings can be be legal
legal marriages. Rituals for for
handfasting generally include aa ritual binding binding of the hands of
of the of the part-
the part-
ners, representing the the symbolic unity unity or lasting
lasting bonds of of the
the couple.
couple. The The
ritual may
ritual may involve questions
questions to to the couple from other attendants. In
the couple In aa
Druid handfasting, for for example, questions were posed posed fromfrom eacheach ofof the
the
four directions or elements. The
four The partners were questioned regarding fac- fac-
ing “the
ing “the difficulties
difficulties of of ‘the clear light
‘the clear light of day,’ ‘the
of day,’ ‘the harsh
harsh fires
fires ofof change,’
change,’
‘the ebb
‘the ebb andand flow of of feeling’
feeling’ andand ‘the‘the times of of stillness and and restriction.”
Following the the commitment of the couple,
of the couple, each element blessed the the
union.“ Some handfastings, particularly in in Wiccan traditions, include aa
ritual ofof “jumping the the broom” as aa symbol symbol of of sexual union. The The cleric may may
ask
ask the
the groom to to look at the bride and
at the and recognize
recognize the goddess in
the goddess in her,
her, and
and
ask
ask the
the bride
bride toto look
look at the groom and
at the and recognize the the god
god in in him.* In In
Britain, Beltain isis a a popular
popular time for for handfastings.*° However, some other
Pagans
Pagans say say that
that itit is unlucky to
is unlucky to get
get married in in May,
May, because the the Goddess
marries the the God
God atat Beltain in in aa marriage
marriage of of Earth and and Sun.
Sun. To get married
To get
at the same time as the
at the Goddess, they
the Goddess, they say,
say, would be be presumptuous and and
would bringbring bad
bad luck.
luck.
82
82 Chapter
Chapter 44

Figure 10.
Figure 10. Handfasting (photo from Mandy
(photo from Mandy Furney)

Handfasting can involve blessing

blessing aa variety
variety of of types
types of love relation-
of love
ships, including not
ships, including only heterosexual pairings
not only pairings butbut also
also homosexual and and
polyamorous committed relationships (group (group marriages). Although few few
Pagans practice group marriage, most support
Pagans practice support its its legalization.” In In some
countries, such
such as Canada, homosexuals can be be legally
legally married. Statistics
on homosexual handfastings are not available, but but 4.8 percent of
4.8 percent of Pagans
Pagans
surveyed are married ritually,
surveyed 33.3 percent
ritually, 33.3 percent are legally
legally married, 13.813.8 per-
per-
cent cohabitate, andand 0.4
0.4 percent
percent are part
part of
of aa group marriage.*®
Largely due
Largely due to its overlap
to its overlap with feminist-influenced women’s spiritual-
ity, Paganism has
ity, has developed aa riterite of
of passage to to recognize the the elderhood
of women, often
of often at
at menopause, the
the ending
ending of
of menstruation. These
These rituals,
rituals,
the strength,
called “croning,” recognize the strength, wisdom, and
and power of
of older
the patriarchal
women, challenging the image of
patriarchal image of the old woman as aa with-
the old
ered useless hag.
ered hag. Some Pagans
Pagans associate croning
croning with aa particular age
age be-
be-
cause some women continue to
to menstruate into
into their sixties, and
their sixties, and some
stop menstruating for
stop for a variety
variety of
of reasons in
in their
their thirties or sooner. Z. Bu-
Z. Bu-
dapest gives aa ritual for
dapest gives for the end of
the end of menstruation, but also aa separate cron-
but also
ing
ing ritual.” Budapest
Budapest suggests that that a croning
croning ritual should be be done
done at age
at age
56,
56, astrologically reasoning that that the
the ritual should be done when “Saturn
be done
has
has returned twice to [the woman’s] natal point,”
to [the point,” which “happens
“happens to to
everybody at at age
age 56.”
56.”
 Group
Group Practices 83
83

A}Abies die Budapest,

Budapest, commonly known as “Z.” Budapest, is
“Z.” Budapest, is a a Hun-
garian immigrant toto the
garian the United States who has
has greatly
greatly influenced
the development of
the Paganism and
of contemporary Paganism and feminist spirituality.
For more information on Z.
For Budapest, see chapter
Z. Budapest, chapter 7.
7.

Croning rituals for

Croning for groups of
of women are sometimes held atat summer
At one of
festivals. At of these,
these, although both men and
although both and women the
attended the
festival, only women participated in
festival, only in the
the croning ritual. The The ritual fo- fo-
cused on the the strength of
of women and and their
their connections with with other
other
women, discussing the the problems inherent in living in
in living in aa culture that does
that does
not value women or their independence. Some croning croning rituals are at- at-
tended by by both men and women.°? AA Goddess-oriented group in
and women.*? in Cali-
Cali-
fornia conducted aa ritual for
for aa group of
of women to to “claim” their
their Crone-
hood after a six-month series of of workshops on the the Goddess as Crone.
The held in
The ritual was held in late
late October, inside aa rented church. About
About aa hun-
hun-
dred people,
dred mostly dressed in
people, mostly in black, the event,
black, attended the event, including
men, women, and The crones were welcomed in,
and children. The in, dressed en-
tirely in
tirely in black, with their
black, with their faces
faces partially
partially covered by
by black veils. The
The pro-
pro-
cession began
began with
with two crones carrying
carrying aa large
large cauldron, as aa symbol
symbol of
of
death, and
wisdom, death, and regeneration. As
As part
part of
of the
the ritual,
ritual, each
each introduced
herself, saying
herself, saying where she
she was from and
and what she
she contributed to the
to the
community. One woman said,
said, “I
“I am Marilyn,
Marilyn, daughter
daughter of
of Dorothy,
granddaughter of
of Judith,
Judith, great
great granddaughter of
of Laura, who was aa
daughter
daughter of
of Hecate. If you
Hecate. If would seek
you would wisdom with
seek wisdom with aa Crone,
Crone, seek
seek me.”
me.”
Some participants mentioned sexuality, which was aa revelation for for some
of the younger women attending the
of the the ritual. Breaking thethe stereotype of of
old
old women as useless and and weak, the crones presented
weak, the presented aging
aging as some-
thing to
thing to look
look forward to.to. They
They served as an example to to the
the younger
women thatthat each
each could look forward to to “an
“an old
old age
age where she
she could be be
respected and
respected and valued
valued by her community,
by her community, an an old age where
old age where sheshe could
could
be serious, playful,
be serious, sexual, wise,
playful, sexual, wise, powerful,
powerful, political, and humorous,
political, and
she so choose.”°!
should she
Croning
Croning isis a new rite of passage in
rite of in Paganism, developing as the religion
the religion
ages. There are fewfew ethnographic accounts published, butbut new rituals are
with new liturgies
developing, with liturgies being
being written. There is,
is, for
for example, aa new
Charge of the
Charge of the Crone circulating on the
the Internet, which begins,
begins,

Hear the
Hear the words of the Grandmother of
of the Time:
of Time:
She who has
She who been known as
has been
Hecate, Erishkagel, Cerridwen, Kali-Ma,
Hecate, Kali-Ma,
Anna, Perenna, Spider
Spider Woman,
Woman,
84
84 Chapter
Chapter 44

and
and many other names
—some feared, and
—some feared, and some loved,
some loved,
but
but none ever ignored.
ignored.
She
She itit is brings wisdom and
is who brings and
the
the awareness of eternity.
of eternity.>*

Pagans
Pagans are also
also developing rituals to to recognize the
the transition of into
of men into
elders.°
elders.
The final
The rite of
final rite of passage isis death. AsAs Starhawk notes in in her
her preface
preface toto
The Pagan
The Pagan Book of Living and
of Living Dying, when aa family
and Dying, family member dies, dies, one
does not have the the energy to to create new rituals. ItIt is to fall
is easier to fall back on
tradition,
tradition, which
which did did not
not exist
exist when
when her
her mother died. Thus, she she began
began toto
collect materials for for aa book. The
The result, The
The Pagan
Pagan Book of of Living
Living andand Dy-
Dy-
ing (1997), coauthored with M.
ing M. Macha Nightmare and the Reclaiming
and the
only aa script
Collective, includes not only for aa funeral or memorial service,
script for
but also
but also resource material for for comforting the the dying
dying and
and the
the bereaved.
The basic message of of the
the book isis that
that death is part of
is part of life,
life, a biological ne-
Life isis aa cycle,
cessity. Life
cessity. cycle, and death is is honored inin Pagan
Pagan traditions, some-
times even welcomed as an end end toto suffering. Pagans
Pagans feel
feel that death isis a
transformation, not just just an ending.
ending. The Reclaiming tradition, following
the
the teaching of of the
the Faery
Faery tradition, teaches that
that part
part of
of one’s self
self sur-
vives death. The Reclaiming tradition holds that there are three aspects
the self,
toto the self, what Starhawk calls the “Talking
calls the Self” (one’s
“Talking Self” (one’s rational con-
sciousness), the
the “Younger Self”
Self” (the
(the emotional and
and instinctive self),
self), and
and
the “Deep
the “Deep Self” (one’s core).
core). ItIt is
is the
the Deep
Deep Self,
Self, they
they believe, that is
is rein-
carnated.*4 This aspect
carnated.™ This aspect of of one’s self is
self is not spirit
spirit as opposed to
to matter. ItIt
is part
is part ofof extraordinary reality,
reality, not cut off
off or separate from ordinary re-
ality,
ality, but
but not always
always perceptible. Pagans Pagans speak
speak of of this
this extraordinary re-
ality, sometimes called the
ality, the otherland, in the Celtic-influenced sense of
in the of aa
place
place imaged as the
the realm of
of Faerie, the
the Summerland, Avalon, or thethe Isle
Isle
of Apples.°° The
of Apples. Pagan Book of
The Pagan of Living
Living and
and Dying
Dying suggests that the
the realm
of
of the
the dead isis nonlinear; one’s ancestors remain available even when
they
they have
have been reborn, because
been reborn, because the Deep Self
the Deep Self is
is timeless.°6
timeless.
Following the
the Faery
Faery tradition, some Reclaiming Witches teach that
one should align
align the
the three selves (Talking, Younger, and Deep) to
and Deep) to in-
in-
crease one’s health,
health, but also so that
that after
after death no parts
parts of
of one’s self
self get
get

leBs Buddhists, many Pagans Pagans believe

believe inin reincarnation, but
but without
the goal
the goal of
of release from
from rebirth. AA popular
popular Pagan
Pagan T-shirt proudly
proudly de-
de-
clares that
clares that the
the wearer isis a “born again
again Pagan.”
 Group
Group Practices 85
85

left behind as ghosts.*”

left ghosts.°” Because there isis no standard dogma
dogma in
in Paganism,
or even necessarily within the Pagan denominations, practitioners’ ac-
the Pagan
counts of
counts of death, and their
death, and their ideas of what
ideas of what Pagan
Pagan communities
communities should do
should do
following aa death, vary. Some suggest that
death, vary. that the
the rituals are more about
the living
comforting the living than
than about guiding
guiding the Deep Self
the Deep Self into
into the
the afterlife,
saying that the
saying the Deep
Deep Self
Self needs no guide,
guide, because it
it isis atat home inin ex-
traordinary reality.
reality.
Diane Baker, in
Diane Baker, Circle Round,
in Circle speaks of
Round, speaks the miscarriage
of the miscarriage of of aa baby
baby inin
terms of
of aa lost
lost spirit,
spirit, asking
asking the
the ancestors toto help
help itit on its
its journey,
journey, but the
but the
of the
focus of the ritual remains on the the woman’s loss.
loss. Baker suggests address-
ing the goddess
ing the goddess Hecate, saying, “Lady,
Hecate, saying, “Lady, the
the reaper,
reaper, I I am
am empty.
empty. You’ve
You’ve
taken life
taken life from
from my
my womb, life
life II wanted, life
life II invited. Come now and
and com-
fort me.”°§ Elsewhere, the
fort the book suggests that
that “offerings of food, lighted
of food, lighted
candles, or libations poured
poured out on the
the earth are tangible
tangible gifts of energy
gifts of
to help
to help bring
bring the dead to
the dead to aa place
place of
of renewal,” and
and that
that the
the expression ofof
grief gives
grief gives the
the dead the
the energy toto reach the
the otherland.*
otherland.°?
Victor Anderson, of the Faery
of the Faery tradition, taught
taught that the soul
that the soul lingers
lingers for
for
three days,
three days, so
so the body should
the body should not
not be
be left
left alone,
alone, and the rooms
and the rooms of the de-
of the de-
ceased should not be out during
be cleaned out during that
that time. This period gives
This period the
gives the
bereaved an opportunity toto say
say last
last things to the
things to the one crossing over.
over.® An-
derson also instructed that souls can stray
stray in
in cases of
of sudden or violent
death, or they
death, may not
they may not know that
that they
they are dead,
dead, and
and he
he suggested that
that
prayer and and ritual
ritual can helphelp aa soulsoul move on. This This straying
straying can be be aa linger-
linger-
ing near the
ing body or home, or aa failing
the body failing toto find
find thethe desired aspect
aspect of of the
the
otherland. Anderson felt felt that
that all images of
all images the afterlife exist,
of the exist, and
and hehe indi-
cated
cated thatthat you
you gogo where you expect to
you expect to go:
go: if you imagine
if you imagine you will will go
go to
to
hell, then
hell, then you
you will
will gogo there,
there, butbut youyou can proceed
proceed to to aa more pleasant
pleasant place,
place,
such
such as the the land ofof the
the ancestors.°!
ancestors.*!
The Pagan Book of Living
The Pagan Book of Living and and Dying
Dying provides aa comprehensive guide for
guide for
Pagans dealing
Pagans dealing with with death. It
It includes prayers for palliative
for palliative caregivers to
to
say,
say, as well
well as prayers for the dying to say. It also provides
for the dying to say. It also provides a healing rit-a healing rit-
ual for
ual for following
following an abortion, prayers for for use in in assisted suicide, and andaarit-
rit-
ual for
ual for removing life support.
life support. Rituals for
for washing the body, a blessing to
washing the body, a blessing to
say, and instructions for
say, and for smudging or censing censing the body are also
the body also supplied.
In addition, The
In The Pagan
Pagan BookBook ofof Living and Dying
Living and Dying furnishes a completecomplete ritual
script, including
script, including music,
music, for
for aa funeral or memorial, which can be
be adapted
adapted
as necessary or appropriate. It for dealing
It provides instructions for dealing with non-
Pagan participants in
Pagan in funeral services. The
The funeral service begins
begins with
with of-
of-
ferings to
ferings to the
the land,
land, asking
asking itit to
to receive the body. Offerings
the body. Offerings are made to
to the
the
ancestors, asking
asking them to to guide
guide the dead, and
the dead, and the
the ritual leader tells
tells the
the
deceased that s/he isis dead. Then the
that s/he the attendees share stories of the life
of the life of
of
the deceased. Finally,
the Finally, the
the attendees ritually
ritually release the
the deceased and
and ask
ask
for her/his rebirth.
for rebirth.
86
86 Chapter
Chapter 44

FURTHER READING

Pike, Sarah. Earthly

Pike, Earthly Bodies,
Bodies, Magical
Magical Selves: Contemporary Pagans
Pagans and the Search for
and the for Community.
Berkeley and Los
Berkeley Los Angeles: University of of California Press,
Press, 2001.
Starhawk, M.
Starhawk, M. Macha
Macha Nightmare, and the
Nightmare, and the Reclaiming
Reclaiming Collective. The Pagan
Collective. The Pagan Book
Book of Living and
of Living and
Dying: Practical Rituals, Prayers,
Dying: and Meditations on Crossing
Prayers, Blessings, and Crossing Over. San
San Francisco:
HarperSanFrancisco, 1997.
Starhawk, Diane Baker,
Baker, and
and Anne Hill.
Hill. Circle
Circle Round: Raising
Raising Children inin Goddess Traditions.
New York:
New York: Bantam, 1998.
1998.

NOTES

1. See the
1. See the Witches’ Gathering, www.witches-gathering.com (accessed June June 8, 2004);
8, 2004);
Murielle Varhelyi, personal correspondence, June
June 8,
8, 2004.
2.
2. Kathryn Rountree, Embracing the
the Witch and the Goddess: Feminist Ritual-Makers in
and the New
in New
Zealand (London: Routledge,
Routledge, 2004),
2004), 139,
139, 162.
162.
3. Stewart Farrar and
3. Janet Farrar, AA Witches’ Bible:
and Janet Bible: The Complete
The Complete Witches’ Handbook
(Custer, WA:
WA: Phoenix Publishing, 1996),
1996), 66-71.
66—71.
4.
4. Adrian Ivakhiv, Claiming
Claiming Sacred Ground: Pilgrims
Pilgrims and
and Politics at
at Glastonbury and
and Sedona
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press,
Press, 2001),
2001), 13.
13.
5.5. Farrar and
and Farrar,
Farrar, AA Witches’ Bible,
Bible, 24,
24, 111.
111.
6.
6. Farrar and
Farrar and Farrar,
Farrar, AA Witches’ Bible,
Bible, 27.
27.
7.
7. See Rountree, Embracing
See Embracing the Witch
the Witch and
and the
the Goddess, 155.
Goddess, 155.
8.
8. Embracing the
Rountree, Embracing and
the Witch and the
142.
the
Goddess, 142.
9.
9. Helen Berger,
Berger, A A Community of
of Witches (Columbia: University of
of South Carolina Press,
1999) 59.
1999), 59)
10.
10. Berger,
Berger, Community of of Witches, 73.
73.
11. Sarah Pike,
11. Earthly Bodies, Magical
Pike, Earthly Magical Selves: Contemporary Pagans and the
Pagans and for Com-
the Search for
munity (Berkeley: University of
munity Press, 2001),
of California Press, 2001), 1-2.
1-2.
12. Pike,
12. Pike, Earthly
Earthly Bodies, Magical Selves,
Bodies, Magical Selves, 3.
3.
13. Helen Berger,
13. Helen Berger, Evan A. A. Leach,
Leach, and Leigh S.
and Leigh from the
S. Shaffer. Voices from the Pagan
Pagan Census: AA Na-
Na-
Survey of
tional Survey of Witches and
and Neo-Pagans inin the the United States
States (Columbia: University of of South
Press, 2003),
Carolina Press, 2003), 203,
203, 206.
206.
14. Berger, Community of
14. Berger, of Witches, 75.
75.
15. These statistics are from Berger,
15. Berger, Leach,
Leach, and
and Shaffer, from the
Shaffer, Voices from the Pagan Census, 208,
Pagan Census, 208,
205, 210.
205, 210.
16.
16. Berger,
Berger, Leach, and
and Shaffer,
Shaffer, Voices from
from the
the Pagan
Pagan Census, 215.
Census, 215.
17. Sarah Pike,
17. Pike, “Forging
“Forging Magical
Magical Selves: Gendered Bodies and Ritual Fires atat Neo-Pagan
in Magical
Festivals,” in Magical Religion
Religion and
and Modern Witchcraft, ed.
ed. James R. Lewis (Albany: State
James R. Uni-
State Uni-
versity
versity of York Press,
of New York Press, 1996),
1996), 121.
121.
18. Pike,
18. Pike, “Forging Magical Selves,” 126.
126.
19. Pike,
19. Pike, “Forging Magical Selves,”
“Forging Magical Selves,” 123.
123.
20. Pike,
20. Pike, “Forging
“Forging Magical
Magical Selves,” 122.
122.
21. Pike,
21. “Forging Magical
Pike, “Forging Magical Selves,” 134-36.
22.
22. Jone
Jone Salomonsen, Enchanted Feminism: The
The Reclaiming Witches of
of San
San Francisco
Francisco (London:
(London:
Routledge,
Routledge, 2002),
2002), 47.
47.
23.
23. Margot
Margot Adler,
Adler, Drawing
Drawing Down
Down the
the Moon: Witches,
Witches, Druids,
Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and
and Other
Pagans
Pagans in
in America Today,
Today, revised and
and expanded ed,ed. (Boston: Beacon Press,
Press, 1986),
1986), 19.
19.
 Group Practices
Group 87
87

24. Wendy
24. Griffin, “The Embodied Goddess: Feminist Witchcraft and
Wendy Griffin, and Female Divinity,”
Sociology
Sociology ofof Religion 56 (1995): 35-49, www.csulb.edu/~weriffin/embodied.html (accessed
Religion 56
June 15, 2004).
June 15, 2004).
25. Graham Harvey,
25. Harvey, Contemporary Paganism: Listening People,
Paganism: Listening People, Speaking
Speaking Earth (New York:
Earth (New
New York
New York University
University Press, 1997), 41.
Press, 1997), 41.
26.
26. Rountree, Embracing the
the Witch and the Goddess, 143.
and the 143.
27. See
27. See Starhawk, Diane
Diane Baker,
Baker, and Hill, Circle
and Anne Hill, Circle Round: Raising
Raising Children in
in Goddess
Traditions (New
(New York:
York: Bantam, 1998),
1998), 306-10.
28. Charlene Spretnak, “Ecofeminism: Our
28. Our Roots and
and Flowering,” in
in Reweaving the
the World:
The Emergence of
The Emergence of Ecofeminism, ed. Irene Diamond and
ed. Irene and Gloria Feman Orenstein (San
(San Fran-
cisco: Sierra Club Books, 1990),
1990), 13.
13.
29.
29. Berger,
Berger, Community of Witches, 90.
Community of 90.
30.
30. Berger, Community of
Berger, of Witches, 1-3.
1-3.
31.
31. See Berger,
See Berger, Community ofof Witches, 91.
91.
32.
32. Starhawk, Baker, and Hill,
Baker, and Hill, Circle
Circle Round,
Round, 316-17.
33.
33. Starhawk, Baker, and Hill,
Baker, and Hill, Circle
Circle Round,
Round, 325-27.
34.
34. Starhawk, Baker,
Baker, and Hill, Circle
and Hill, Circle Round,
Round, 331-33.
35.
35. Salomonsen, Enchanted Feminism,
Feminism, 33.
33.
36. Berger,
36. Berger, Community of of Witches, 35.
35.
37.
37. See, for example,
See, for example, Lady
Lady Pixie
Pixie Moondrip’s Pagan “Lady Pixie Moon-
Pagan name generator, “Lady
drip’s Guide to
drip’s to Craft Names,”
Names,” Widdershins, www.widdershins.org /vol3iss4/m9710.htm (ac-
www.widdershins.org /vol3iss4/m9710.htm (ac-
cessed June
cessed 24, 2004).
June 24, 2004).
38. Berger,
38. Berger, Community of of Witches,
Witches, 27.
27.
39. Berger, Community
39. Berger, Community of of Witches, 36.
36.
40.
40. Starhawk, The Spiral Dance: AA Rebirth ofof the
The Spiral the Ancient Religion
Religion of
of the Goddess, 10th
the Great Goddess, 10th
anniversary ed.
ed. (New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1989), 173.
1989), 173.
41.
41. Salomonsen, Enchanted Feminism, 248-49.
42.
42. Salomonsen, Enchanted Feminism, 250-51.
43.
43. Salomonsen, Enchanted Feminism, 256-72.
44. Harvey, Contemporary Paganism,
44, Harvey, 202.
Paganism, 202.
45. Berger,
45. Berger, Community of Witches, 33.
of Witches, 33.
46. Harvey,
46. Harvey, Contemporary Paganism,
Paganism, 11.
11.
47. Berger,
47. Berger, Leach, and Shaffer,
Leach, and Shaffer, Voices from
from the
the Pagan Census, 142.
Pagan Census, 142.
48. Berger, Leach, and
48. Berger, and Shaffer,
Shaffer, Voices from
from the
the Pagan
Pagan Census,
Census, 28-29.
28-29.
49. Zsuzsanna Budapest,
49, Budapest, The Holy Book
The Holy Book of
of Women’s Mysteries
Mysteries (Oakland, CA:
CA: Wingbow
Wingbow
Press, 1989),
Press, 1989), 77-78,
77-78, 85-86.
50. Berger,
50. Berger, Community of
of Witches,
Witches, 38-40.
51. Griffin,
51. Griffin, “The
“The Embodied Goddess.”
52. This
52. This piece
piece isis usually
usually attributed to
to Gypsy,
Gypsy, “The Charge
Charge of
of the
the Crone,” Tryskelion, ed. ed.
Lady Shayra,
Lady Shayra, www.
www. Tryskelion.com (accessed JuneJune 24,
24, 2004),
2004), but
but other sites
sites say
say that
that itit was
by Hank
co-written by Hank Shadow in about 1996.
in about 1996. See,
See, for
for example, Amethyst, “The
example, Amethyst, “The Charge
Charge of of the
the
Crone,” Amethyst’s Wicca,
Crone,” Wicca, www.angelfire.com/r
www.angelfire.com/realm2/amethystbt/chargeofthecrone.html
ealm2/amethystbt/chargeofthecrone.html
June 24,
(accessed June 24, 2004).
2004).
53. See,
53. for example,
See, for example, Drowynn
Drowynn Forrest Torgerson, “Elder
“Elder Ritual for
for Men,”
Men,” PanGaia 39 39
(2004):
(2004): 57-59.
54.
54. Starhawk, M.M. Macha Nightmare,
Nightmare, andand the
the Reclaiming Collective, The Pagan Book
The Pagan Book of Liv-
of Liv-
ing and
ing and Dying:
Dying: Practical Rituals, Prayers,
Prayers, Blessings,
Blessings, and
and Meditations on Crossing
Crossing Over (San Fran-
Over (San
1997), 73.
cisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1997), 73.
55. Starhawk, Nightmare,
55. Nightmare, andand the Reclaiming Collective, The
the Reclaiming Pagan Book
The Pagan Book ofof Living
Living and
and Dy-
Dy-
ing, 80.
ing, 80.
88
88 Chapter
Chapter 44

56.
56. Starhawk, Nightmare, and the
the Reclaiming Collective, The
The Pagan Book of
Pagan Book Living and
of Living and Dy-
Dy-
ing, 104.
ing, 104.
57. Starhawk,
57. Starhawk, Nightmare,
Nightmare, and the Reclaiming
and the Reclaiming Collective,
Collective, The
The Pagan Book of
Pagan Book Living and
of Living Dy-
and Dy-
ing, 76.
ing, 76.
58. Starhawk, Nightmare, and
58. and the Reclaiming Collective, The Pagan Book of
The Pagan of Living
Living and Dy-
and Dy-
ing, 300.
ing, 300.
59. Starhawk, Nightmare, and
59. and the
the Reclaiming Collective, The Pagan Book
The Pagan of Living
Book of Living and
and Dy-
Dy-
ing, 81,
ing, 148.
81, 148.
60. Starhawk, Nightmare, and
60. and the
the Reclaiming Collective, The Pagan Book
The Pagan Book of
of Living and Dy-
Living and Dy-
ing, 154.
ing, 154.
61. Starhawk, Nightmare, and
61. the Reclaiming Collective, The
and the Pagan Book
The Pagan Book of
of Living and Dy-
Living and Dy-
ing,
ing, 154.
154.
62. Starhawk, Nightmare, and
62. and the
the Reclaiming
Reclaiming Collective, The
The Pagan Book of
Pagan Book of Living and Dy-
Living and Dy-
ing, 161-72.
ing, 161-72.
 a5
oot
ork
Myths and
Myths and Historical Origins
Origins

Geet
Ger celebrations, as well as other Pagan Pagan rituals and and gatherings, often often
include allusions to, to, or retellings
retellings of,
of, certain stories,
stories, myths,myths, andand under-
standings of
standings their history.
of their history. TheThe relationship of of myth
myth with history is
with history is often
blurred in in the
the various world religions’ origin origin myths,
myths, and this isis also
and this also true
of
of Paganism. However, myth myth should not not be be understood simply simply as bad bad his-
his-
tory.
tory. The common meaning meaning of “myth” is
of “myth” that itit isis something
is that something false or fic- fic-
tional,
tional, while historyhistory isis generally
generally felt
felt toto bebe aa more objective objective account of of
what really
what really happened. However, in in religious
religious studies, “myth” “myth” isis under-
stood in in the
the sense of being aa sacred or significant story.
of being Myths are inspi-
story. Myths inspi-
rational stories for for practitioners, some say say with
with archetypal content. Prac-
might argue that
titioners might that myths
myths are true and and describe aa more real real account
of why
of why things
things are the the wayway they
they are in in the
the same manner that that some peoplepeople
say that
say that aa novel can tell tell more truth about human life life than
than anyany purported
purported
nonfiction account.
In
In Paganism, as in in other religions, myths
other religions, myths function as tools tools ofof inspiration
and legitimation and
and and may serve other political political ends.ends. These uses of of myth
myth
are not
not necessarily manipulative, but but they
they indicate why why the the stories are re-
told:
told: because they they mean something to the tellers and
to the and the the listeners. Some
practitioners feel feel threatened by by questions of of historical accuracy, while oth- oth-
ers prefer
prefer to to regard
regard the myths primarily
the myths primarily as stories that that teach and and inspire.
Questions of of historical accuracy apply apply to to understandings of of Pagan
Pagan religion
religion
as “the
“the Old
Old Religion,” beliefs in in the
the theory
theory of of pagan “survivals,” interpre-
tations
tations ofof the
the medieval
medieval witch witch hunts
hunts asas the
the “Burning
“Burning Times,” Times,” and feminist
and feminist
revisionings of history, including
of history, including what is
is sometimes called the myth
the myth of of the
the
matriarchies. Other prominent mythological stories in in Paganism that that have

89
89
90
90 Chapter 55
Chapter

the stories of
history are the
less controversial relationships with history
less of the Wild
the Wild
Hunt, Ceridwen’s cauldron, Odin’s hanging Yggdrasil, and
hanging on Yggdrasil, and Inanna’s
descent into the
into the underworld.
Contemporary Pagans Pagans have often repeated
repeated aa story of historical origins
story of origins
that presents their
that presents religion as “the
their religion “the Old Religion.” According to
Old Religion.” to this
this story,
story,
Wicca, or Paganism more generally, represents the the survival ofof pre-Christian
pagan traditions into into modern times. In In this
this story,
story, “the Old Religion” often
“the Old often
refers to
to the
the religion of the
religion of the British Isles
Isles before Christian colonization, imag-
imag-
ined to
ined to be
be unchanged from the the Stone Age.
Age. AA typical
typical 1970s expression of the
of the
myth
myth can be be found in in a Church of All Worlds pamphlet written by
of All by Tim Zell,
Zell,
titled “Neo-Paganism: An An Old Religion for a
for a New Age.” Zell
Age.” Zell there ex-
presses the
the belief that
that “Pagan”
“Pagan” properly
properly describes a natural folk folk religion,
religion, an
religion of
indigenous religion the original
of the original inhabitants of of the
the British Isles,Isles, the
the
“faeries” or “heathens” who were persecuted by by the
the church following the the
Saxon invasions. The The pamphlet also also makes reference to to the
the church killing
killing
nine million people
people in in these persecutions, known as the Times.”?
the “Burning Times.”!
Many Pagans have discarded any
Many Pagans any claim to to continuity with pre-Christian
traditions due due to
to academic criticism, saying that their religion
saying that religion is is not a sur-
vival of
of pre-Christian traditions but but part
part ofof a revival and
and reconstruction of of
ancient religious
religious practices. Some retain the the phrase
phrase “the
“the Old Religion” but but
change
change itsits meaning to refer to
to refer the religion of
to the the culture of
of the of Old
Old Europe
Europe from
the
the Neolithic period
period of of prehistory.
The
The idea of of “the Old Religion” began began at at least as early
early as thethe German Ro- Ro-
mantics, in the late
in the late 1800s and and early
early 1900s,
1900s, long
long before the the development of of
contemporary Paganism as aa religion. religion. The German Romantics saw “the “the
Old Religion” as the
Old original, natural religion
the original, of humanity before the
religion of Fall
the Fall
(of
(of humanity from the the grace ofof God in in the
the garden
garden ofof Eden). They
They present
itit as a religion
religion not of
of reason but
but ofof poetry
poetry and mythology, and as aa religion
religion
that
that idolizes
idolizes the
the ideal
ideal feminine.
feminine. Friedrich
Friedrich Schlegel, forfor example, used the
the
phrase
phrase “the “the old
old religion” forfor this
this understanding of of nature religion in
in his
his
1799 novel Lucinde, in
in which aa man, Julius,
Julius, encourages aa woman, Lucinde,
to
to discard herher social sensibilities and and embrace her her passionate nature. The
novel refers to to them as priest
priest and priestess of of a religion of of free
free love. Lu-
cinde isis associated with with the
the light
light of
of the
the moon, as is is the
the Goddess in in later
developments of of Paganism. Her name alludes to the Latin word for
to the light
for light
(lux)
(ux) and to to Lucina, the the Roman goddess of of birth. Schlegel
Schlegel writes in in a po-
po-
etic style
style that is is inspirational to to contemporary Pagans: Pagans: “The religion II
have returned to is the
to is the most childlike and
the oldest, the worship fire
and simple. II worship fire
being the
as being the best
best symbol
symbol of of the
the Godhead. And where is is there a lovelier fire
fire
than the
the one nature has has locked deeply
deeply into thethe soft breast of of woman?”2
woman?”?
For
For Schlegel, as for for contemporary Pagans, this this religion
religion isis at
at once “the
Old Religion” and new. It It is
is the
the original.nature religion, but newly newly imag-
imag-
ined after the
the embracing of of reason; it it is
is a new religion
religion following urban- urban-
 Myths and Historical Origins
Myths and Origins 91
91

ization and
and the of the
the repression of the Victorian era. Schlegel’s presentation of
of
“the Old
“the Old Religion” had
had aa popular
popular appeal
appeal that
that spoke
spoke to the English
to the English Ro-
Ro-
who, in
mantics who, in common with
with the
the German Romantics, expressed
expressed an ide-
ide-
alized vision of life in
of life in the
the country. Schlegel
Schlegel wrote thatthat “in
“in the
the country—if
everything were as itit ought to be—lovely houses and
ought to and charming cottages
charming cottages
could adorn the
the green earth
earth like
like fresh plants
plants and
and flowers, and
and make it
it aa
garden worthy of God.”° Popular nostalgia
garden worthy of God.” Popular nostalgia for for rural England began at
England began at the the
end
end of the eighteenth
of the eighteenth century with the
century with rise of
the rise of urbanization,
urbanization, it it reached
reached aa
height in the 1850s, and
height in the 1850s, and it has it has continued ever since.*
since.t Contemporary Pa-
Pa-
ganism embraces this this popular nostalgia,
popular nostalgia, especially in
in Britain.
The popular
The popular appeal
appeal of of romantic images
images of of the
the countryside in in Britain
combined with the appeal of the
with the appeal of the idea of idea of “Merrie Olde England.”
England.” This This was
a popular
popular myth of
myth of thethe 1800s that
that “characterized pre-industrial England as
a land ofof social stability and harmony,
stability and harmony, operating above all through
all through com-
munal festivity.”°
festivity.”° ItIt idealized the the culture of of medieval and and Tudor EnglandEngland
as pagan, despite
despite the fact that
the fact that itit was Christian. It presented “Merrie En-
It presented En-
gland”
gland” as eternal and and changeless, ignoringignoring the the upheavals of of Christianiza-
tion and the
tion and the Reformation (the (the splitting
splitting of the church into
of the into Catholic and and
Protestant sects).°
sects). ItIt was not contemporary Pagans Pagans who created this myth,
this myth,
but they have
but they have embraced it, it, supported by by the
the theory
theory of of pagan survivals. In In
the late
the late Victorian andand Edwardian eras in in England,
England, the the idea
idea ofof folk-religion
survivals, the idea that
the idea that folk
folk traditions were living fossils of
living fossils of the
the past,
past, was
popular. This
popular. This idea
idea was based on the theory that
the theory that social strata could be
be in-
in-
terpreted
terpreted as geological strata, so that
that the
the lower classes were thought
thought to
to
represent cultural fossils,
fossils, survivals of This theory
of preliterate culture. This theory was
rejected in archaeology and
rejected in and anthropology in in favor ofof the
the comparative
method, but
but it in studies of
it continued in of folklore much longer.”
longer.”
The French historian Jules
The Jules Michelet, in
in his
his anti-Catholic book
book of 1862, La
of 1862, La
Sorciére, presented witchcraft as a pagan survival. In it, he
In it, he argued that
argued that
women were the the natural representatives ofof a religion
religion ofof nature, andand he
he
presented the
the witch as aa symbol
symbol of
of spiritual
spiritual freedom and and ofof the
the rights
rights of
of
and the
women and the working
working class. Michelet asserted that
that those killed in
in the
the
practiced aa pre-Christian fertility
witch hunts practiced fertility religion.’
religion. The
The American
journalist and
journalist and folklorist Charles Godfrey
Godfrey Leland claimed to have found ex-
to have
isting practices in
isting in Italy of the
Italy of religion described by
the pre-Christian religion by Michelet,
which hehe says
says his
his informants called “the old religion.” This
“the old This was not an or-
ganized religion,
ganized religion, he said, but
he said, but aa set
set of
of magical
magical practices, which he he described
as “something more than than aa sorcery, and
and something less than aa faith.”?
less than faith.”
Pagans
Pagans are somewhat unlikely
unlikely toto be
be directly
directly familiar with
with the
the writings
writings
of Michelet and Leland, but
of but they
they are usually
usually aware of the theory
of the theory of
of Pagan
Pagan
through the
survivals through the work of of Margaret Murray.
Murray. Murray
Murray was an anthro-
pologist who specialized in
pologist who in Egypt,
Egypt, but
but she
she also
also wrote on the
the folklore of
of
Britain and
and the
the witch hunts. Murray
Murray argued that the
argued that the ancient pre-Christian
pre-Christian
92
92 Chapter 55
Chapter

religion of
religion of Western Europe
Europe was Witchcraft. In
In The
The Witch-Cult inin Western
Europe, she contends that
Europe, she that “it
“it was aa definite religion
religion with
with beliefs,
beliefs, ritual,
ritual,
and
and organization as highly highly developed as that of any other cult
of any cult inin the
the
world.”1°
world.””"° She She posits
posits that
that the.religion was organized
organized into into a hierarchy, with with
slight local differences, as in
slight in other cultures, and and she
she presented itit as aa fer- fer-
tility religion.!!
tility religion." Wiccans adopted adopted her her suppositions that that the religion was
the religion
that of
that of the
the “fairy”
“fairy” or “primitive” race, that that these people
people survived up up toto
less
less than three hundred years in the past,
in the past, and that
that practitioners were
known as witches.!2 Wiccans expanded her her argument into aa sacred myth, myth,
beginning
beginning with Gerald Gardner. Gardner espoused
espoused the the idea that
that the
the
fairies were the the earlier settlers of of the
the British Isles in his
Isles in his book Witchcraft
Witchcraft To-To-
day, first
day, first published
published in 1954, aa book
in 1954, for which Murray
book for Murray wrote aa preface.
preface. This
This
story is
story still current in
is still in Paganism, repeated,
repeated, forfor example, in Ly de
in Ly Angeles’
de Angeles’
When II See See the
the Wild
Wild God:
God: Encountering Urban Celtic Celtic Witchcraft.'
Witchcraft.
Although Wicca bears little little resemblance to to the
the witchcraft described by by
Murray on the
Murray the basis
basis ofof the trials, practitioners use terms found
the witch trials,
in Murray’s work,
in work, such
such as “esbat,” “sabbat” (or
(or “sabbath”), and
and “coven.”
Murray’s theories were quitequite influential in the early
in stimulating the early develop-
develop-
ment of
of Wicca and
and may have been directly responsible for
been directly for the
the creation of of
some British covens.'4
covens.'* Murray
Murray changed
changed herher presentation of of the cult
the witch cult
between writing
writing TheThe Witch-Cult in in Western Europe,
Europe, first
first published
published in in 1921,
1921,
and The
and The God
God of the Witches, first
of the first published in in 1933,
1933, from aa description of of a
demonic devil-worshipping religion religion to
to the
the celebration of of aa fertility
fertility reli-
reli-
gion that
gion that worshipped Pan. She
She adopted
adopted the
the phrase
phrase “the Old
Old Religion”
Religion” in
in
The God of
The God the Witches, possibly
of the possibly from Leland’s work.'5 The God
work.'° The God of of the
the
Witches became aa best best seller inin the
the 1940s, right
right before the
the modern Craft
movement emerged.!¢
emerged.!°
Although Murray’s
Murray’s work was criticized by by witch-trial specialists at at
the time of
the of its
its first
first publication, her her argument that the witch hunts were
that the
aa persecution againstagainst a pre-Christian religionreligion was accepted
accepted by by many ac-
ademics into into thethe 1970s.!7
1970s.!” Additionally, Murray Murray wrote the the Encyclopedia
Britannica article on “Witchcraft”
Britannica “Witchcraft” for for the 1929 edition,
the 1929 edition, which
which gave
gave herher aa
lasting
lasting influence outside of of academia.'* Gerald Gardner, the first popu-
the first
larizer of of modern Paganism as Wicca, accepted and and promulgated Mur-
ray’s arguments about the
ray’s the survival of of pagan religion
religion in
in the
the British Isles
Isles
into modern times. Gardner indicates that
into that “witchcraft isis simply
simply thethe re-
mains of of the
the old
old pagan religion
religion ofof Western Europe, dating back to
Europe, dating the
to the
Stone Age,
Age, and that the
and that the reason for for the
the Church’s persecution of of it
it was
that
that itit was a dangerous rival.”!9 rival.”!? Gardner claimed to to have found rem-
nants of of this
this ancient religion and and toto have
have been initiated into into an existing
existing
coven in
in 1939. However, academic historians have never taken this
taken this
claim seriously, because his
his description.of
description of the
the religion was so dissimilar
from the
the witchcraft of
of English
English folklore.
folklore.29
 Myths and
Myths Origins
and Historical Origins 93
95

The
The myth
myth promulgated by accepted as factual by
by Gerald Gardner was accepted by
Wiccans for for some time but publicly challenged beginning
but was publicly beginning in in the
the 1980s
by Aiden Kelly.
by Kelly. Kelly
Kelly circulated aa manuscript describing the the history
history ofof
Gardnerian Witchcraft, which has has since been through
through many revisions and
and
isis now titled
titled “Inventing
“Inventing Witchcraft.” He He presents some of of his
his findings
findings in in
Crafting the Art of Magic: A History
Crafting the Art of Magic: A History of of Modern Witchcraft,
Witchcraft, 1939-1964. Kelly
Kelly
applied
applied the the same methods of of textual criticism that
that have been applied
applied to to
the
the Bible to
to Gardner’s Book of
of Shadows and
and concluded that
that Wicca is a
is
modern creation, not
not aa survival of
of an old
old religion.?!
religion.?!
Some Wiccans continue to to accept
accept Gardner’s account of of his
his initiation
and the
and the authenticity of his
of his historical claims as factual,
factual, in a parallel fashion
in a parallel
to the
to the belief
belief of
of some Christians in in the literal truth of
the literal of the
the biblical stories ofof
Jesus. The
Jesus. The belief that
that Paganism
Paganism isis the
the survival of of an ancient religion into
religion into
modern times,
times, rather than
than something
something created in the 1940s and
in the and 1950s,
1950s, pro-
pro-
vides aa sense ofof legitimacy for for some practitioners. ItIt allows them to to make
similar claims to to those
those of other world religions
of other religions to to a long
long history
history and
and last-
last-
ing
ing traditions. Some practitioners fear fear that
that ifif the
the religion
religion isis new, then
then itit is
is
just
just made up,up, aa fantasy
fantasy without substance, which will will not last.
last. However,
others celebrate the the idea
idea of
of creating religion that
creating a new religion that is
is not tied
tied toto pa-
pa-
triarchal institutions, thatthat freely
freely allows experimentation and the develop-
and the develop-
ment ofof rituals enabling religious experience.
enabling religious
Practitioners of of contemporary Paganism have long long described their their reli-
reli-
gion
gion as both old and new. As
old and As previously mentioned, Tim Zell Zell wrote about
Paganism in in these terms in in the
the 1970s. Starhawk has has reframed her her use of of
these terms somewhat, from her early presentation of
her early of Witchcraft as the the
religion persecuted in
pre-Christian religion in the
the witch hunts,
hunts, to the older
to the older religion
religion
of “Old Europe.” She
of began by
She began by making
making the the debatable claim of of an ancient
heritage for
heritage for the
the Craft,
Craft, framing
framing itit as the
the Old Religion as Margaret
Old Religion Margaret Murray
Murray
understood it.?2
it.2? However, she
she has
has also
also maintained from the beginning
from the
that “Goddess religion
that religion is
is unimaginably old, but contemporary Witchcraft
old, but
could just accurately be
just as accurately be called the Religion. The
the New Religion. The Craft,
Craft, today,
today, is
is
undergoing more than than aa revival, itit isis experiencing a renaissance, aa re-
creation.”?3 Starhawk now prefers
creation.” prefers to to cite
cite the
the anthropologist MarijaMarija
Gimbutas, and
Gimbutas, and the referent of
the referent of “the
“the Old
Old Religion”
Religion” is blurred and
is blurred and assimi-
assimi-
into the
lated into the culture of
of what Gimbutas calls
calls “Old Europe.” Investigating
the origins
the of her
origins of religion has
her religion has never been as important toto Starhawk as the
the
politics of
politics of her spirituality. She
her spirituality. She exhibits little
little interest inin the
the recent history
history
of
of the
the development of of Wicca and
and Witchcraft.”4
Witchcraft.”
Some practitioners distinguish between spiritual spiritual roots and and historical
roots inin discussing the the history
history of
of Wicca. While the the literal truth of of the
the con-
tinuity of
tinuity of forms of of religious practices from pre-Christian times isis ques-
practices from
tionable, the past certainly
the past certainly inspires
inspires the
the content of of beliefs inin Wicca,>
Wicca, and and
old practices inspire
old practices inspire the
the creation ofof new forms. Arguably, Prudence Jones Jones
94
94 Chapter 55
Chapter

and Nigel
and Nigel Pennick’s AA History
History of
of Pagan Europe (1995)
Pagan Europe (1995) renders the
the debate
about connections between ancient and and contemporary Paganisms moot
by elaborating how
by how Pagan ideas have
Pagan ideas have persisted
persisted in
in Europe
Europe and
and North
America.?6
America.”* Some Pagans Pagans feelfeel that
that pagan folk folk practices persisted
persisted with a
Christian veneer, and that this thin
that this thin covering has has been shed by by aa number
of people
of people who who have come to to identify
identify with contemporary Paganism. ItIt is is
likely that there are no hereditary Witches in
likely that in the
the sense of of being
being raised in in
a survival of of Murray’s witch cult, and that
cult, and that if
if there are practices with pre- pre-
Murray origins, the
Murray origins, the people
people involved did did not call call themselves witches or
have the
the accoutrements of of modern Witches.?”
Witches.”” However, it it isis possible
possible that that
those who describe themselves as hereditary Witches do do have family family tra-
ditions thatthat have beenbeen passed
passed on for for generations, and that these
and that these people
people
sometimes become Witches by by shedding aa Christian symbol symbol system that that
includes folkloric magical magical practices. Some of the practices described by
of the by
Raven Grimassi, Z. Z. Budapest,
Budapest, and others who who have have claimed that that they
they
learned their traditions from from family
family members—such as techniques for for re-
moving or averting
moving averting thethe evil eye, divination, healing,
evil eye, healing, and
and tonics—may
well be
well part of
be part of folk
folk traditions that that were not identified with any any particular
particular
religious
religious tradition but but were passedpassed down within families and and have re-
cently
cently been interpreted as pagan survivals. Some practitioners happily happily re-
fer to learning
fer to their craft
learning their craft from
from an aunt or grandmother who read read teatea
leaves or Tarot cards,cards, saying
saying thatthat the
the fact
fact that such relatives did did not know
they
they were Witches does does not invalidate the the teaching.
teaching.
Part of
Part the stories that
of the that Pagans
Pagans tell tell about pagan survivals is is the story
the story
of the “Burning
of the “Burning Times,” which links contemporary Pagans Pagans to to those who who
were killed in in the
the medieval witch hunts. In 1979, when The
In 1979, The Spiral
Spiral Dance
was first
was published, Starhawk
first published, Starhawk described
described the terrors of
the terrors of thethe “Burning
“Burning
Times,” citing
citing the estimate of
the estimate “nine million
of “nine million Witches
Witches executed.”28
executed.”?8 In In the
the
that she
notes that she added for for the
the tenth-anniversary edition, edition, Starhawk indi-
cates that low estimates run at
that low at about 100,000, and
and that
that the
the 99 million fig-
fig-
ure is “probably high.”??
is “probably high.””? She also mentions the
She also the development of of secrecy
around the the practices ofof Witchcraft during the “Burning Times,”
during the Times,” without
further clarification.*°
The exaggerations of
The of what happened in in the
the witch hunts are not gener-
ally the
ally the creations of Pagans but
of Pagans but are the
the result ofof long-standing misinfor-
mation. The volume of of data from trial
trial records isis enormous, and only since
and only
the 1970s have
the have academics started to to examine it it in
in detail. Early
Early research on
the
the trial
trial records examined only only “3% of of the
the available evidence. And that that
3%
3% was vastly
vastly different from thethe other 97%.”3! Because no one had had me-
thodically counted the the deaths resulting from the the witch hunts,
hunts, some spec-
spec-
ulations were greatly
greatly inflated. The
The nineteenth-centu
nineteenth-century ry American women’s
rights
rights activist Matilda JoslynJoslyn Gage accepted Michelet’s account of
Gage accepted of the
the
hunts, adding
witch hunts, adding the
the speculation that nine million women were killed.
that nine killed.
 Myths and
Myths and Historical Origins 9%
95

Her 1893 book,

Her 1893 book, Woman, Church, and State,
Church, and State, isis the
the origin
origin of that inflated
of that
number. Gage
Gage connected these women to the then-current theory
to the theory that cul-
that cul-
of prehistory were matriarchal,”
tures of matriarchal,** providing food for later
food for later develop-
develop-
ments of
of myth
myth in
in feminist spirituality.
Academic understandings of the European witch
of the witch hunts changed
changed with
the
the revelation of
of the forgeries of
the forgeries of a few
few famous medieval witch trials of of
southern France. Etienne Leon de de Lamothe-Langon reported
reported falsely that
falsely that
the
the Inquisition killed four hundred women in ina a single
single day.
day. He
He was not a
historian but aa sensationalist
but writer of
of horror tales.
tales. However, later
later
nonacademic readers of of his
his work did did not not necessarily know this. this. His
His ac-
count became frequently
frequently mentioned, and and while no one cites cites him
him directly,
directly,
the story
the story continues to to be
be retold without reference toto him, him, for
for example
example in in
popular
popular books such as Z. Z. Budapest’s The The Holy
Holy Book
Book of Women’s Mysteries
of Women's Mysteries
and
and Raven Grimassi’s The The Wiccan Mysteries.°>
Mysteries.?3 Scholars Norman Cohn and and
Richard Kieckhefer exposedexposed the beginning in
the fabrication beginning in 1972.%4
1972.4
Based on scholarly
scholarly analysis
analysis of of the trial records, probably
the trial probably not more than
100,000 people
people were actually
actually killed in
in thethe witch hunts.* This is
This still aa lot
is still lot
of people, but
of people, but it it does not
not constitute a a women’s holocaust, as some have
have
claimed. Some PaganPagan accounts present present the the witch hunts as a a politically mo-
tivated campaign against
against women’s power as midwives, healers, and and wise-
women, or witches. The majority
The majority of of those killed (between 75 and 80
75 and 80 per-
per-
cent)
cent) were women but
but notnot healers. Between 2 and
2 and 2020 percent, depending
on the
the region,
region, were healers. Magical Magical practitioners were actually actually more
likely to
likely to accuse their rivals than
than were doctors or church officials. In central
In
Europe, many more women than
Europe, than men were accused, but but inin Scandinavia
the
the numbers were more balanced, and
and in
in some areas, such
such as Iceland,
Iceland, men
targeted more than
were targeted than women, constituting 90 90 percent
percent of the accused.*
of the accused.
The witch hunts were not part
The part of
of an organized
organized campaign of of persecution
but were aa sporadic
but sporadic series ofof episodes.
episodes. ItIt was not
not the
the Inquisition or other
other
establishments of of the
the Catholic Church that that were responsible for for the
the ma-
jority of
jority of the killings. Areas under the
the killings. the control ofof the
the popes were relatively
relatively
free of
free of persecution. It in the
It was in the areas more distant from the the papacy, withwith
religious identities, that
less-certain religious that the
the witch hunts were most vicious.
Religious officials “based in the Italian states relentlessly harried people
in the people
reported to
reported to it
it for
for resorting to
to magical
magical practices
practices or for holding unorthodox
for holding
beliefs, with penances, fines,
beliefs, with fines, and
and imprisonment,” but
but not death.?”
death.°*” Christ-
ian
ian peasants (Protestant or Catholic) were more likely likely to their
to accuse their
neighbors than were church officials. Local secular courts did
neighbors than did most of
of the
the
killings, and
killings, and “the
“the worst horrors occurred where central authority had bro-
authority had bro-
ken down.”*8 The
ken down.” The Inquisition
Inquisition rejected
rejected the procedures recommended in
the procedures in the
the
Malleus Maleficarum, the
the “Hammer against
against the
the Witches,” aa work some-
times cited by Pagans as evidence of
by Pagans of church persecution. Secular courts
used this work,
used this work, not
not religious
religious ones.”
ones.*?
96
96 Chapter 55
Chapter

popular perception, the

In popular
In the witch hunts occurred in the Middle Ages
in the Ages
(the fifth to fourteenth
(the fifth to fourteenth centuries),
centuries), but
but the
the most
most intense
intense period
period of
of the
the witch
witch
hunts was not then, when church power was spreading
not then, spreading into into new areas,
new areas,
nor at
nor at its
its height
height of of power
power (in(in the eleventh to
the eleventh fourteenth centuries),
to fourteenth centuries), but but
from 1550 to to 1650,
1650, the time described as the
the time Age of
the Age of Reason. It It was at at this
this
time that church power was waning waning in in favor of of secular rationality and and thethe
church was destabilized by the Reformation, the
by the splitting
the splitting of theof the Christian
Church into into Catholic and and Protestant sects.4° The worst persecutions “took
sects.*? The
place
place in in areas like
like Switzerland and
and Germany, where rivalrival Christian sects
fought
fought to to impose religious views on each
impose their religious each other.’”4!
other.”"4!
Stories of of the
the “Burning Times” appeal appeal toto some contemporary Pagans Pagans in in
part
part because itit legitimates them through through aa sense of of moral superiority. ItIt al- al-
lows them to to present themselves as victims, justifying justifying aa righteous hatred
of oppressive Christianity. Some Pagans reject
of reject the
the idea
idea that those killed in in
the witch hunts practiced a pre-Christian religion,
the religion, but but theythey continue to to
feel a sense of
feel of solidarity
solidarity with
with thethe victims, who were wrongly accused of of
malevolent magical magical acts and and other heresies.
Another aspect of the appeal
of the appeal of of stories of the “Burning Times,” and
of the and
other ideas related to to the
the theory
theory of of pagan survivals, is is the
the desire of of many
Pagans to
Pagans to be
be in in continuity with the the Celtic past past of of Britain. All All things
things
“Celtic,” including clothes, jewelry, magical names, and
jewelry, magical and thethe pantheon of of
Celtic deities, are immensely popular popular in in Paganism. Many Many PagansPagans feelfeel nos-
talgia
talgia forfor aa supposed
supposed golden golden ageage identified with with the the Celts. This This isis imag-
imag-
ined as a simpler
ined simpler time of of greater connection to to the
the land,
land, with a stronger
of fellowship and
sense of images of
and community. Such images the
of Celtic culture and the
Celts are part
part of of the
the romantic appeal
appeal ofof the
the “noble savage.”4?
savage.”* The
The noble
savage is
is aa stereotype of of “primitive man” as morally
morally superior to to modern
humanity. It It isis generally aa symbol
symbol of
of the
the innate goodness of of humans when
free of
free of the
the corrupting influence of of civilization. The idealization of of the
the no-
ble
ble savage is is particularly associated withwith thethe Romantics of of the
the eighteenth
and
and nineteenth centuries, especially Jean-Jacques Rousseau. People People con-
tinue toto identify with such images,
images, wanting
wanting to to become noble savages, un-
derstood as a primitive ideal in in critique ofof modern civilization. JustJust as the
the
stereotype of of “the
“the Indian” presents North American Native Peoples Peoples as liv-
liv-
ing in
ing in accordance with nature, the the Celt isis presented as an exemplary hu-
man in in the
the natural state: strong, heroic, stoic, and and healthy.
Some Pagans
Pagans collapse
collapse all
all indigenous cultures into one category and and
freely
freely mix Celtic with Native American spirituality. spirituality.** Some practitioners
seem to to feel
feel that the
the Celt
Celt as noble savage is is an image
image that
that white people
people
adopt without issues of
can adopt of appropriation. This This possibility of
of indigenous
roots without appropriation has has a strong
strong appeal
appeal to to many North Ameri-
cans ofof European descent, all all of
of whom:
whom. are immigrants. However, Irish Irish
and
and Scottish people
people are not so sure itit isis not appropriation when Ameri- Ameri-
 Myths and
Myths Origins
and Historical Origins 97
97

cans, or even the

the English,
English, call
call themselves Celts. The
The romanticism of
of the
the
Celts homogenizes various peoples peoples into into aa pan-Celtic culture, supposedly
led
led byby wise Druids, in harmony
in harmony with nature and
and the
the faeries. Some Pagans
Pagans
feel that
feel that there is
is aa continuity of belief, practice,
of belief, practice, and and worldview across
Celtic cultures, so that a myth
that a myth or tradition from
from one place and
place and time can be
be
combined with that
with that of of others within pan-Celtic culture. Some Pagans
Pagans em-
brace thethe idea
idea ofof pan-European Celtic culture, but but some practice
practice region-
region-
ally
ally specific
specific reconstructionist traditions.“4
traditions.“ Many Many practitioners within Ar Ar
nDraiocht Féin Féin (ADF),
(ADF), for for example,
example, prefer prefer toto focus on the the traditions of of
specific
specific regions
regions and and to to reconstruct aa more culturally specific specific tradition.
While ADF supports the idea of
the idea of broad similarities between all all Indo-Euro-
pean cultures spanning
spanning Europe Europe and and Asia,
Asia, practitioners usually
usually adopt
adopt (or (or
are adopted
adopted by) by) a specific
specific patron
patron deity pantheon and
deity or pantheon and work within that that
specific
specific cultural milieu in in their
their rituals.
The
The romanticism of of the
the Celts
Celts is is not restricted to to the
the past.
past. Some New
Age
Age and Pagan practitioners avow that
and Pagan that contemporary Celts are more in- in-
tuitive than
than others. This leads to
This leads to a general
general perception
perception thatthat Celtic heritage
heritage
greater magical abilities, such
bestows greater such as clairvoyance, and and lends authen-
ticity to religious practice. AA number of
ticity to of practitioners suggest that that they
they
feel aa sense of
feel of returning to to their spiritual home in
their spiritual in visiting
visiting Scotland or Ire- Ire-
land,
land, and
and express aa beliefbelief thatthat they lived there
they lived there in
in a past
past life
life or lives.
The
The romantic view of of the
the Celts
Celts is part of
is part of larger
larger social trends in in Britain
and North America,
and North America, not not restricted to Paganism. In
to Paganism. In the British Isles,
the British Isles, the
the la-
la-
bel “Celt” used to
bel to apply
apply only only toto Gaelic speakers
speakers (Scots
(Scots Highlanders and and
Islanders, and
and the
the Irish,
Irish, Welsh,
Welsh, Manx,
Manx, and
and Northumbrians). More re-
cently, all
cently, all Scots
Scots and
and Irish, and even all
Irish, and all the English, are perceived
the English, perceived by by some
Celts. The
as Celts. The perception of of who are andand were thethe Celts is changing. In-
is changing. In-
creasingly, “Celticity
“Celticity is
is coming toto be
be seen as a quality
quality or aa matter of
of choice
rather than an issue ofof history,
history, geography, language
language or ethnicity;
ethnicity; it
it isis ‘a‘a
thing of
thing of spirit
spirit not of
of heritage.’”46 People
People who self-identify as Celts in
in this
this
may be
sense may be called “Cardiac Celts,”
Celts,” people
people who “feel in their
“feel in that
their hearts that
they are Celts,”
they Celts,” regardless
regardless of
of their genetic
genetic heritage
heritage and
and where they live.””
they live.*”
They
They identify with Celticity
identify with Celticity and
and the
the British Isles
Isles as their
their spiritual
spiritual home.
People often express this
People often this sense of identity through
of Celtic identity through consumerism.
Celticity
Celticity is intensely commodified:
is intensely there are
commodified: there are not
not only
only Celtic
Celtic Tarot,
Tarot, books
books
on Celtic totem animals,
animals, tree alphabets and deities, jewelry,
and deities, jewelry, and
and ritual
tools, but
tools, but also magazines, coasters, watches,
also magazines, socks, clocks,
watches, socks, clocks, mugs,
mugs, T-shirts,
T-shirts,
and
and ties. Modern geographic mobility
mobility has
has also
also caused aa renewed inter-
est
est in
in pilgrimage to
to “Celtic” sites,
sites, which are often remote areas ofof great
great
natural beauty.”
beauty.”
Identifying as Celts allows practitioners to
to distance themselves from
the mainstream culture of
the of late-modern urban life
life and to express their
and to
disaffection (social,
(social, political,
political, or spiritual)
spiritual) from the
the dominant culture.”
culture.°? It
98
98 Chapter
Chapter 55

provides them with aa sense of of indigenous

of legitimacy as practitioners of
religion. Some practitioners seem to
religion. to feel
feel that
that Paganism
Paganism is
is aa more proper
or fitting religion than
fitting religion than Christianity for
for those of
of the
the British Isles
Isles or those
of British ancestry, suggesting that
of that Paganism represents the
the religion
religion of
of
the land and its
the its people
people before Christian (or (or Roman) colonization. Celtic-
ity isis sometimes held
ity held up
up as a a better alternative than Eastern mysticism,
as the
the proper mysticism of the West.>!
of the West.5! Embracing Celticity has
has an appeal
appeal
in
in common with with other Pagan
Pagan revivals in in Europe,
Europe, where ethnicity,
ethnicity, his-
his-
tory, and
tory, and nationalism are often more important than
than the
the environmental
and
and feminist values supported by Paganism in
by Paganism in North America, Aus-
tralia, and
tralia, and New Zealand (colonized areas where ethnicity ethnicity tends to to be
be
more mixed). Embracing Celtic culture isis often more socially socially acceptable
than Norse or Germanic culture because of of the
the co-optation of of German
folk culture by
folk by Nazi Germany.
Germany.
Despite the
Despite the questions of of historical accuracy posed against practitioners’
posed against
interpretations of of their religion
religion as “the
“the Old
Old Religion,” and their romantic
interpretations of of Celtic culture and and nostalgia
nostalgia for for “Merrie England,” these
myths appeal
myths appeal toto many Pagans Pagans because they they allow peoplepeople to to imagine
imagine be- be-
ing part
ing part of of aa culture other than the the consumerist modern industrial culture
of
of the
the contemporary Western world. Even if the continuity
if the continuity of of contempo-
rary
rary practices with with medieval folklore and older traditions isis questioned
by scholars and
by and practitioners, ideas of of the
the past
past continue to to inspire
inspire con-
temporary Pagans.Pagans. Such myths myths root Pagan
Pagan traditions spiritually,
spiritually, if if not his-
his-
torically, creating
torically, creating aa community of of memory, aa sense of of aa shared history,
history,
and aa common pool
and pool ofof cultural symbols.
Even forfor those who do not specifically
do specifically adoptadopt an identity
identity as Celtic,
Celtic, sto-
ries of
ries of Celtic origin
origin are popular
popular in in Paganism. Many of the myths with
Many of the myths with en-
during appeal
during appeal in in Paganism, such as the Wild
the Wild Hunt and
and Ceridwen’s caul-
caul-
dron,
dron, are of
of Celtic origin.
origin. TheThe Wild Hunt is
is a a widespread Celtic myth,
myth,
common in in folklore throughout Western Europe. Europe. Generically, itit is is aa terri-
fying pack
fying pack of of hounds or men, or spirits spirits ofof them,
them, ledled byby the
the Wild
Wild Hunts-
man. TheThe Huntsman has
has historically been identified as Herne the
the Hunter
in southern England,
in England, Odin in in Scandinavia and and Germany,
Germany, and Gwyn ap
and Gwyn ap
Nudd, ruler of of Annwn, the the underworld, in in Wales. Contemporary Pagans Pagans
identify the
identify the leader of of the
the Wild
Wild Hunt as Herne the the Hunter as aa later later form
of Cernunnos, the
of the Horned God,
God, or as aa Celtic Pan,
Pan, god
god of
of nature and
and an-
imals.°*
imals. Alternatively, some Pagans
Pagans say that the
say that the goddess Diana, whom
some Wiccans equate with Aradia, leads the
the Wild Hunt. Some Pagans
Pagans in-
in-
dicate that
that the
the Wild
Wild Hunt
Hunt can be
be summoned, albeit
albeit at risk, to
at risk, to avenge “ex-
“ex-
treme wrongs against
against the
the earth.”%3
earth.”3
Ceridwen’s cauldron isis part
part of
of the
the Welsh story
story of
of Taliesin. Ceridwen, aa
witch in the story,
in the story, although
although often understood as a goddess in in Paganism,
brews a potion
potion toto give
give wisdom to to her
her ugly
ugly son to
to help
help him
him attract a mate.
mate.
 Myths
Myths and
and Historical Origins
Origins 99
99

The potion
The potion needs to
to brew in
in her
her cauldron for
for aa year
year and
and a a day,
day, and
and she
she
asks aa child,
asks child, Gwion Bach, to tend it.
Bach, to it. Three drops
drops of
of the
the brew boil out
brew boil out of
of
the pot
the and land
pot and land on hishis finger.
finger. Being
Being burned, he he puts
puts hishis finger
finger inin his
his
mouth to to soothe the pain and
the pain and immediately knows that that Ceridwen will will kill
kill
him for
him for stealing
stealing the magical understanding meant for
the magical for her
her son. He flees,
He flees,
changing form to
changing try to
to try to escape. First,
First, he
he becomes aa hare,hare, and Ceridwen
pursues himhim as aa hound. He He changes
changes into
into aa fish, and Ceridwen pursues
fish, and
him as an otter. He
him He changes into aa bird
changes into bird and
and she into aa hawk. He
she into flies into
He flies into
aa granary andand changes
changes himself into a grain grain of of wheat,
wheat, and and Ceridwen
changes herself into
changes into a hen
hen and
and eats him.
him. Nine months later,later, she gives birth
she gives
to aa child
to child so beautiful that she cannot bear
that she bear to
to kill
kill him
him as she
she had
had planned,
planned,
knowing itit was Gwion Bach
Bach reborn. She
She sews himhim into
into aa leather sack and
sack and
sets him
him adrift in the sea. AA boy
in the finds the
boy finds child and pulls
the child out, and he
pulls him out, he
becomes the chief
the chief bard of his
bard of his adoptive tribe, who
adoptive tribe, who name him Taliesin,
him Taliesin,
meaning “radiant brow.”*4
It
It isis perhaps
perhaps because Ceridwen’s cauldron is is associated with with the the rebirth
of Taliesin that
of that some say say itit isis also
also Ceridwen’s cauldron that that appears in in
Branwen, the the second branch of of the
the Mabinogion, aa collection of of Welsh sto-
ries and
ries and Celtic legends.
legends. ItIt isis in in this
this cauldron, which was drawn out of of aa
lake
lake in in Ireland,
Ireland, that
that fallen
fallen warriors could be be regenerated overnight,
overnight, albeitalbeit
no longer
longer able able to
to speak.°>
speak.°> Ceridwen is said to
is said to keep
keep herher cauldron of of wis-
dom, named
dom, named Amen,
Amen, at at the
the bottom of of Bala
Bala Lake
Lake (or (or Llyn
Llyn Tegid)
Tegid) in North
in North
Wales.**
Wales.°¢ Starhawk refers to to Ceridwen’s cauldron of of “rebirth and inspira-
and inspira-
tion” that
tion” that restored fallen warriors to to life.°”
life.5”
popular myths
Other popular myths in in Paganism are the the story
story of of Odin’s hanging
hanging on
Yggdrasil,
Ygegdrasil, the the story
story of of Demeter and and Persephone, and and thethe descent of of
Inanna. Each of of these involves a journey journey to to the
the underworld to to gain
gain occult
knowledge, and and thus the the stories are often understood to to describe initia-
tion.
tion. As As such,
such, they
they appeal
appeal in in particular
particular to to practitioners of of mystery tradi- tradi-
tions in in Paganism. Odin’s hanging hanging on Yggdrasil is is aa Norse story
story in in which
the
the god god OdinOdin sacrifices himself in in thethe manner in in which sacrifice was of- of-
fered to
fered to him.
him. In
In Norse myth,myth, Yggdrasil
Yggdrasil isis an ash ash tree and isis the axis of
the axis the
of the
world, aa symbol
world, symbol of of the
the cosmos. It It isis rooted in the underworld, the
in the the trunk
isis in
in middle earth, and
middie earth, and the the upper reaches are in the sky.
in the sky. The
The word “Yg- “Yg-
gdrasil” refers to
gdrasil” horse,” or,
to “Odin’s horse,” literally, the
or, more literally, the horse (drasil)
(drasil) of the
of the
terrible one (Ygg).
(Ygg). Odin hung
hung on Yggdrasil for nine nights,
for nine nights, pierced by
pierced by a
spear, to
to gain
gain wisdom. Being pierced
Being pierced with a spear
a spear dedicated his
his death to
to
Odin, sacrificing himself to
Odin, sacrificing to himself. He
He isis also
also said
said toto have sacrificed an
eye to
eye to drink from the well of
from the well of the the underworld, to which he
to he journeyed
while hanging
hanging on the
the tree. There he
he learned nine
nine charms or songs from his
his
uncle,
uncle, his brother, the
his mother’s brother, giant Bolthor. He
the giant also learned eighteen
He also eighteen
runes, which are
runes, which not specified
are not specified apart
apart from
from their
their uses: to heal,
uses: to heal, to
to calm
calm
storms, to
to seduce women, andand so on.*®
on.*®
100
100 Chapter 55
Chapter

The descent of
The of Inanna, originally aa Sumerian myth,
myth, and
and the
the story
story of
of
Demeter and
and Persephone, aa Greek myth,
myth, both
both involve aa seasonal triptrip to
to
the underworld. Starhawk recounts the
the the story
story of
of Inanna’s descent into
into the
the
and the
underworld and story of
the story of Demeter and
and Persephone in Round.°°
in Circle Round.°
Both stories provide
provide an explanation for
for the
the division of the year
of the into win-
year into
ter
ter and
and summer, and both are associated with
and both with grain, which lies
grain, which lies dormant
in the
in ground for
the ground for the
the winter,
winter, sprouts
sprouts and
and grows in the summer, and
in the and isis
cut down again
then cut again at They are myths
at each harvest. They myths of
of dying
dying and rising
and rising
again in
again in the cycle of
the cycle of the
the seasons, and Pagans associate these stories with
and Pagans with
regeneration and
regeneration rebirth, but
and rebirth, but also
also with
with initiation
initiation into the
the mysteries. The
The
myth of Demeter and
myth of and Persephone was enacted as part
part of the Eleusinian
of the
in ancient Greece. These stories also
mysteries in also have appeal
have feminist appeal
through the
through the importance of
of female deities in
in them: Inanna as Queen
Queen ofof
and Demeter as mother of
Heaven, and of the
the fertile earth. Similarly,
fertile earth. Similarly, Ceridwen
isis aa powerful female figure
figure as the
the owner of
of the
the cauldron of and
of “rebirth and
inspiration.” Contemporary Pagan
Pagan women find
find such
such images
images of
of female
power inspirational, and gainaa sense of
and some gain of legitimacy through appeal-
through appeal-
ing to
ing to stories ofof prepatriarchal goddesses such such as Inanna.
For
For some Pagans,
Pagans, particularly those
those whose religious affiliation overlaps
religious overlaps
with
with Goddess religion
religion andand feminist spirituality, the
the ideas of
of prepatriarchal
goddesses and and prepatriarchal culture are crucial to to their sense of of identity.
identity.
Some believe in in a golden
golden age of
age of matriarchy, when goddesses
goddesses were revered
and
and women were respected,
respected, until the
the destruction of
of their way of
way of life life by
by
patriarchal invasion. This is
This is sometimes referred to
to as the myth of
the myth of the the ma-
triarchies, andand itit serves as a myth myth of of origin for some Pagans.
origin for Pagans. However,
most practitioners of of Goddess religion,
religion, feminist spirituality, and Pagan-
Pagan-
ism do do not believe in in the
the historical existence of of matriarchal culture.
The
The myth
myth of of the
the matriarchies serves as the the feminist spirituality move-
history. ItIt provides an origin
ment’s sacred history. myth that
origin myth that encapsulates the the
thealogy, ethics, and politics
ethics, and politics ofof women’s spirituality,
spirituality, telling
telling the
the story
story of of
the
the sacred matriarchal past past and the invasion of
and the of patriarchy.© The The feminist
use ofof this
this myth
myth gives
gives aa revaluation to to the
the idea
idea ofof matriarchal prehistory
first
first espoused by by early
early anthropologists and and cultural historians in in the
the nine-
century, such
teenth century, such as J.J. J.J. Bachofen, Robert Briffault, and Erich
Briffault, and Erich Neu-
mann. These non-Pagan writers suggested
suggested that that human history
history shows aa
near-universal tendency
tendency toward ancestor worship,worship, and that the
and that the lack of
lack of
knowledge of of the
the male role
role in
in procreation would naturally have led
naturally have led to
to di-
di-
vinization of
of aa mother goddess. ThisThis theory
theory was supported by by Near East
East
archaeological findings
findings after
after World War II.& II.°
Nineteenth-century proponents of of theories ofof aa matriarchal prehistory
prehistory
presented it
presented it as an inferior prelude
prelude to to later civilizations. The mythmyth ofof the
the
matriarchies revisions the
the history
history of
of human culture as “herstory,” and cel- cel-
 Myths
Myths and Origins
and Historical Origins 101
101

ebrates the the idea of prepatriarchal goddess

idea of goddess worship. According to
worship. According the
to the
myth, women in
myth, in prehistory were respected and honored. Most Pagans Pagans
and practitioners of
and of women’s spirituality
spirituality do
do not use the the term “matri-
archy”
archy” to to describe the
the cultures ofof prehistory, but
but some dodo believe in in aa ma-
triarchal culture controlled by by women. Some versions of of this
this narrative in- in-
clude thethe idea
idea that
that women invented agriculture, and and theythey present
present
prepatriarchal societies as uniformly peaceful.®
peaceful. This
This mythic
mythic pastpast is pre-
is pre-
sented as a paradise for women and
paradise for and men, not as thethe inverse of of patriarchy
with women dominating
with dominating men,
men, but
but as
as egalitarian.
Practitioners who value thisthis myth
myth point
point to
to archaeologist Marija
Marija Gimbu-
tas’ theories about the
tas’ the culture of of “Old
“Old Europe”
Europe” as evidence. Gimbutas’
work presents an imageimage ofof aa Neolithic culture in in Europe that was peace-
Europe that
ful and
ful and egalitarian. Gimbutas describes the the symbolism of of this
this culture,
she calls
which she Old Europe,
calls Old Europe, as matrifocal rather than
than matriarchal, by
by
she means that
which she that itit was mother or women focused. Her
Her research sug-
sug-
gests that
gests that Old Europe was matrilineal and matrilocal, meaning that
Old Europe de-
that de-
scent was traced through
scent through the the female line,
line, with men moving to live
moving to live with
with
their wives’ people.
people. She that the
She indicates that the culture of Old Europe
of Old Europe was char-
acterized by
by aa Goddess of
of regeneration and
and was overrun by
by Indo-Euro-
pean patriarchal society,
society, which revered aa sky-god,
sky-god, through
through aa series of
of in-
in-
vasions over aa long period of
long period of time. Through
Through these invasions, the
the
of women and
denigration of and nature was introduced throughout Europe.
Europe.
take this
Some practitioners take this history of ancient matrifocal culture as aa nar-
history of
that explains
rative that explains women’s oppression andand the
the destruction of the envi-
of the
ronment. Some point
point to the Indo-European revolution as the
to the the origin
origin ofof the
the
from nature and
estrangement from and the of nature coincident
the desacralization of
with the
with the beginning ofof androcentrism (male-centered culture) in Europe
in Europe
around 4500 BCE.
BCE.%
The idea
The that all
idea that all Neolithic culture was without war isis demonstrably
false,
false, and
and thethe supposition of of an idyllic
idyllic culture in people lived
in which people lived in in
harmony with with one another and with the
and with the natural world isis speculative.
Even thethe nature of of the
the culture of of Old
Old Europe,
Europe, and and the
the manner of of its
its end-
end-
ing, are debatable. Some interpretations of
ing, of the
the data
data indicate that the cul-
that the cul-
ture of
of Old Europe was Indo-European and
Old Europe and that change came from
that change from within
rather than
than through
through foreign
foreign invasion. However, the the usefulness of of thethe
myth
myth is is not in its
in its historical truth but in its poetic appeal
truth but in its poetic appeal and its and its psycho-
logical and
logical and political
political value. The The validity
validity of of the story depends
the story depends not on ar-
chaeological evidence but but on itsits usefulness to to contemporary women. Like
the Christian myth
the myth of of the
the Fall
Fall of humanity from
of humanity the grace
from the of God in
grace of in the
the
story of
story the Garden of
of the of Eden,
Eden, thethe story
story ofof prepatriarchal culture isis only only
partly historical in
partly in nature. ItIt is also metaphor and
is also and myth.
myth. Its
Its power isis inin en-
visaging
visaging an alternative to to patriarchal culture.
culture.
102
102 Chapter 55
Chapter

Practitioners continue to to repeat

repeat stories ofof aa matriarchal or matrifocal
past because these
past these narratives have political
political implications. Not
Not all
all practi-
practi-
tioners use or understand the the stories in the same way.
in the way. Some practitioners
are more critical and skeptical
skeptical than
than others. Some are wellwell informed about
changing theories based on current archaeological evidence, and
changing and they
they fo-
fo-
cus on what is specific goddesses and
is known about specific and cultures of
of the
the Mid-
dle East.
dle East. For
For some, itit isis good enough that
good enough that such cultures can be
be imagined
for them
for them inspire
inspire political
political action. Practitioners suggest that
that what
what once was
be again,
can be again, and
and that
that what we can imagine
imagine we can create. Supporters ofof
the
the myth
myth draw inspiration from the of a culture that
the possibility of that honors
women. In In her
her novel The
The Fifth
Fifth Sacred Thing,
Thing, Starhawk suggests that,
that, ifif
such aa culture existed once, “it
such “it isis possible.”®
possible.”© Others similarly
similarly comment
that “we have lived sanely
that sanely before,
before, we can do
do itit again.”®
again.”

FURTHER READING

Eller, Cynthia. The

Eller, Cynthia. The Myth of Matriarchal Prehistory: Why
Myth of Why an Invented Past
Past Won't Give
Give Women aa
Future. Boston: Beacon Press,
Press, 2000.
2000.
Gibbons, Jenny.
Jenny. “Recent Developments in in the Study of
the Study of the
the Great European Witch Hunt.” TheThe
Pomegranate: AA New Journal
Journal of
of Neopagan Thought
Thought 55 (1998): 2-16.
Rees, Kenneth. “The Tangled Skein: The
Rees, The Role
Role of
of Myth
Myth in
in Paganism.” In
In Paganism Today, ed.
Paganism Today, ed.
Charlotte Hardman andand Graham Harvey,
Harvey, 16-31. London: Thorsons (HarperCollins), 1996.1996.

NOTES

1,1. Cited in
in Chas
Chas S.
S. Clifton, Her Hidden Children (Lanham, MD:
Clifton, Her Press, 2006),
MD: AltaMira Press, 2006), 78.
78.
2.2. Friedrich Schlegel,
Schlegel, Lucinde and
and the
the Fragments, trans. Peter Firchow (Minneapolis: Uni-
versity of
versity of Minnesota Press,
Press, 1971),
1971), 61.
61.
3. Schlegel, Lucinde
3. Schlegel, Lucinde and
and the Fragments, 108.
the Fragments, 108.
4.
4. Ronald Hutton, The Triumph of
The Triumph of the
the Moon: AA History of Modern Pagan
History of Pagan Witchcraft
Witchcraft (Oxford:
Oxford University Press,
Press, 1999),
1999), 117.
117.
5.
5. Hutton, Triumph
Triumph of the Moon,
of the Moon, 118.
118.
6.
6. Hutton, Triumph
Triumph of the Moon,
of the 120.
Moon, 120.
7.7. Hutton, Triumph
Triumph of
of the
the Moon, 112-13.
Moon,
8.
8. Triumph of
Hutton, Triumph of the
the Moon, 138-39.
Moon,
9.
9. Triumph of
Hutton, Triumph of the
the Moon,
Moon, 144.
10.
10. Margaret Murray,
Margaret Murray, The
The Witch-Cult in
in Western Europe:
Europe: AA Study
Study in
in Anthropology (Oxford:
Clarendon [Oxford University
University Press],
Press], 1921),
1921), 12.
12.
11. Murray, The
11. Murray, The Witch-Cult in
in Western Europe,
Europe, 13-14.
12. Murray, The
12. Murray, The Witch-Cult inin Western Europe,
Europe, 238.
238.
13.
13. Ly
Ly de
de Angeles,
Angeles, When II See
See the
the Wild
Wild God: Encountering Urban Celtic Witchcraft
Witchcraft (St.
(St. Paul,
Paul,
MN: Llewellyn
MN: Llewellyn Publications,
Publications, 2004).
2004).
14. Margot Adler, Drawing
14. Margot Drawing Down the the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess- Worshippers, and Other
Pagans in America
Pagans in America Today,
Today, revised
revised and expanded ed.
and expanded ed. (Boston:
(Boston: Beacon
Beacon Press,
Press, 1986),
1986), 56.
56.
15. Triumph of
15. Hutton, Triumph of the
the Moon,
Moon, 196.
196.
16.
16. Hutton, Triumph
Triumph of
of the
the Moon,
Moon, 200.
200.
 Myths and
Myths and Historical Origins
Origins 103
103

17. Hutton,
17. Triumph of
Hutton, Triumph of the Moon, 198;
the Moon, 198; Jone
Jone Salomonsen, Enchanted Feminism: The
The Reclaim-
ing Witches of
ing of San
San Francisco (London: Routledge, 2002), 89.
2002), 89.
18. Clifton,
18. Her Hidden Children,
Clifton, Her Children, 74.
74.
19. Gerald Gardner, The
19. The Meaning
Meaning of Witchcraft (New
of Witchcraft Magical Childe Publishing,
(New York: Magical
1959), Ao:
59) 9.
20. Triumph ofof the
20. Hutton, Triumph the Moon,
Moon, 206.
206.
21.
21. Clifton,
Clifton, Her Children, 85-86.
Her Hidden Children,
22. The Spiral
22. Starhawk, The Spiral Dance: AA Rebirth of
of the
the Ancient Religion
Religion of
of the
the Great Goddess, 10th
anniversary ed. (New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1989),
ed. (New 16.
1989), 16.
23.
23. Spiral Dance,
Starhawk, Spiral Dance, 22.
22.
24.
24. Salomonsen, Enchanged
Enchanged Feminism, 90.
90.
25.
25. Salomonsen, Enchanted Feminism, 90. 90.
26.
26. Hutton, Triumph
Hutton, Triumph of
of the Moon, 381.
the Moon, 381.
27.
27. Shelly
Shelly Rabinovitch, ““An’
““An’ Ye
Ye Harm None,
None, Do
Do What Ye
Ye Will’: Neo-Pagans and
and Witches
in Canada” (Master’s thesis,
in thesis, Carleton University,
University, Ottawa, 1992), 66-68.
Ottawa, 1992),
28.
28. Starhawk, Spiral Dance, 20.
Spiral Dance, 20.
29.
29. Starhawk, Spiral
Spiral Dance,
Dance, 214.
214.
30.
30. Starhawk, Spiral
Spiral Dance, 50, 72.
Dance, 50, 72.
31. Jenny
31. Jenny Gibbons, “Recent Developments in in the
the Study
Study ofof the
the Great European Witch
Hunt,” The
Hunt,” The Pomegranate: AA New
New Journal
Journal of
of Neopagan Thought
Thought 55 (1998):
(1998): 4.
4.
32.
32. Hutton, Triumph
Triumph of
of the
the Moon,
Moon, 141.
141.
33.
33. Gibbons, “Recent Developments,” 6.
6.
34.
34. Gibbons, “Recent Developments,” 5.5.
35.
35. Gibbons, “Recent Developments,” 15.
15.
36.
36. Gibbons, “Recent Developments,” 13.
13.
37.
37. Triumph of
Hutton, Triumph of the
the Moon,
Moon, 146.
146.
38.
38. Gibbons, “Recent Developments,” 8-9.
8-9.
39.
39. Gibbons, “Recent Developments,” 10-11.
40.
40. Gibbons, “Recent Developments,” 6.6.
41.
41. Gibbons, “Recent Developments,” 8.
8.
42. This argument isis developed
42. developed in
in Marion Bowman, “Cardiac Celts: Images
Images of
of the Celts
the Celts
in in Paganism
in Paganism,” in Paganism Today, ed. Charlotte Hardman and
Today, ed. and Graham Harvey,
Harvey, 242-51 (Lon-
(Lon-
don: Thorsons [HarperCollins], 1996).
1996).
43.
43. Bowman, “Cardiac Celts,”
Celts,” 247.
44.
44. Bowman, “Cardiac Celts,” 247.
Celts,” 247.
45.
45. Bowman, “Cardiac Celts,” 244.
Celts,” 244.
46.
46. Bowman, “Cardiac Celts,”
Celts,” 245.
245.
47.
47. Bowman, “Cardiac Celts,” 246.
Celts,” 246.
48. Bowman, “Cardiac Celts,”
48. 249.
Celts,” 249.
49. Bowman, “Cardiac Celts,”
49. 246.
Celts,” 246.
50.
50. Bowman, “Cardiac Celts,”
Celts,” 247.
247.
51. Bowman, “Cardiac Celts,”
51. Celts,” 248.
248.
52.
52. Stewart Farrar and
and Janet Farrar,
Janet Farrar, AA Witches’ Bible:
Bible: The Complete
The Complete Witches’ Handbook
(Custer, WA:
WA: Phoenix Publishing, 1996),
1996), 81.
81.
53.
53. Ly de Angeles,
Ly de When II See
Angeles, When See the Wild
the Wild God, 75.
God, 75.
54. See James
54. See James MacKillop, ed.,
ed., “Taliesin,” in
in Dictionary of Celtic Mythology (Oxford: Ox-
Dictionary of Ox-
ford University Press,
ford 1998), 353-54. For
Press, 1998), For aa Pagan retelling, see Starhawk, Diane Baker,
Pagan retelling, and
Baker, and
Anne Hill,
Hill, Circle Round: Raising
Raising Children in
in Goddess Traditions (New
(New York: Bantam, 1998),
1998),
134-37.
55. Alwyn Rees
55. Alwyn and Brinley
Rees and Brinley Rees,
Rees, Celtic Heritage: Ancient Tradition in
in Ireland and
and Wales
Wales
(New York:
(New York: Thames && Hudson, 1961),
1961), 47.
47.
104
104 Chapter 55
Chapter

56. James
56. James MacKillop, “Ceridwen, ” in of Celtic Mythology (Oxford: Oxford Uni-
in Dictionary of
versity Press,
versity Press, 1998), 76.
1998), 76.
57. Starhawk, Baker,
57. and Hill,
Baker, and Hill, Circle
Circle Round,
Round, 97-98.
58. See
58. See Kevin Crossley-Holland, The
The Penguin
Penguin Book of Myths: Gods
of Norse Myths: Gods of
of the Vikings (Lon-
the Vikings (Lon-
don:
don: Penguin
Penguin Books, 1980), 15-17, 186-88.
Books, 1980),
59. Starhawk, Baker,
59. Baker, and Hill, Circle Round,
and Hill, Round, 237-40,
237-40, 151-56.
60. Cynthia Eller,
60. Eller, Living
Living inin the
the Lap of the
Lap of the Goddess: The
The Feminist Spirituality
Spirituality Movement in
in
America (Boston: Beacon Press, 1995), 151.
Press, 1995), 151.
61. Eller,
61. Living in
Eller, Living the Lap
in the Lap of
of the
the Goddess, 152.
152.
62. Eller,
62. Eller, Living
Living in the Lap
in the Lap ofof the
the Goddess, 159.
159.
63. See
63. See Charlene
Charlene Spretnak,
Spretnak, “Ecofeminism:
“Ecofeminism: Our Roots
Our and Flowering,”
Roots and Flowering,” in
in Reweaving the
Reweaving the
World: The Emergence ofof Ecofeminism, ed.
The Emergence Irene Diamond and
ed. Irene and Gloria Feman Orenstein (San
(San
Francisco: Sierra Club
Club Books,
Books, 1990), 11. ItIt isis somewhat ironic that
1990), 11. that some practitioners blame
Indo-European for the
culture for the destruction of the cultures of
of the of matriarchal prehistory,
prehistory, while
others embrace it
it as the
the ancient root of
of Celtic culture.
64.
64. Kathryn
Kathryn Rountree, Embracing the the Witch and
and the
the Goddess: Feminist Ritual
Ritual Makers inin New
New
Zealand (London: Routledge,
Routledge, 2004), 56, 70,
2004), 56, 70, 63.
63.
65. Starhawk,
65. Starhawk, The Fifth Sacred
The Fifth Sacred Thing
Thing (New York: Bantam,
(New York: Bantam, 1993),
1993), 111.
111.
66. Charlene Spretnak, “Toward an Ecofeminist Spirituality,” Healing
66. Healing the
the Wounds: The
The
of Ecofeminism, ed.
Promise of ed. Judith Plant (Toronto: Between the
Judith Plant the Lines,
Lines, 1989),
1989), 131.
131.
 66
ook
ook
Literary
Literary Origins
Origins
and Influences
and

Ithough
Ithough most Pagans
Pagans dodo not
not regard
regard any
any particular text
text as scripture,
scripture,
written sources are enormously important in in Paganism. Pagans
Pagans are
voracious readers, not only of popular
only of popular texts on Paganism, but also of
but also of ac-
ademic texts from the disciplines of
from the folklore, anthropology, and
of folklore, and religion.
religion.
(This isis perhaps
(This less true of
perhaps less of recent converts to Paganism who
to Paganism who havehave
learned more from Internet sources.) Some groups created themselves en-
tirely
tirely out
out of
of literary
literary and
and academic sources, such such as the
the Witchcraft group
in
in California called the the New Reformed Orthodox Order of the Golden
of the
Dawn (NROOGD). In
In Britain in
in the
the 1940s and
and 1950s,
1950s, Wicca developed
largely out of
largely of early writings in
early writings in anthropology and and folklore, the the inspiration
of
of poetry and poetic
poetry and myth, and
poetic myth, and what is is sometimes called the the Western es-
oteric tradition.
“Esoteric” means obscure, something understood only only by by those with
those with
special
special knowledge or training. In this
training. In this context, it also usually
it also usually means “oc-
“oc-
cult,”
cult,” which means hidden. Esoteric knowledge is kept
is kept hidden from the
from the
mainstream. The The Western esoteric tradition is is made up
up ofof a group of
of texts
magic and
on magic and occult groups that that developed magical magical practices
practices based on
their interpretations of
their previous works, particularly Neo-Platonism and
of previous and
texts attributed to to Hermes Trismegistus. Some of of these texts can be be seen
as early
early prefigurations of of Paganism. Other texts, texts, particularly in in folklore,
folklore,
are believed to to have
have inspired
inspired thethe creation of of Wicca as aa reinvention of of
what were presented
presented as survivals of of pre-Christian pagan pagan traditions. Po- Po-
etry and
etry and novels continue to inspire and
to inspire and inform contemporary Pagans’ Pagans’ un-
derstandings of of divinity
divinity and their ritual practices.
and their

105
105
106
106 Chapter 66
Chapter

Heres ermes Trismegistus isis aa titletitle meaning “Hermes thrice thrice greatest.”
greatest.”
Piet Authorship of of numerous texts on astrology, and alchemy
magic, and
astrology, magic,
are attributed toto Hermes Trismegistus. Hermes is the messenger of
is the the
of the
gods
gods inin Greek mythology.
mythology. According to the Western esoteric tradition,
to the
the
the ancient Greeks called the the Egyptian
Egyptian god
god Thoth “scribe toto the gods,”
the gods,”
and attributed authorship of
and of sacred writings derived from from Egypt
Egypt toto
him. Post-Christian writings,
him. writings, some of of which maymay originate
originate in
in transla-
tions ofof this
this earlier material,
material, were attributed toto Hermes Trismegistus in in
aa similar fashion. These writings
writings form
form a body
body ofof writings known as
Hermetic literature. '

The
The histories of of Paganism and and of of folklore studies are entwined
through their common purpose of
through of critiquing the the Enlightenment.”
Enlightenment.* Pa- Pa-
ganism began
ganism began in in the
the context of the early
of the early twentieth century, after urban-
and changes
ization and changes in in British culture resulting from from modern life life and
and the
the
Enlightenment. “The Enlightenment” is is aa term used to to describe the pe-
the pe-
riod in
in European historyhistory when rationalism was coming coming to to replace
replace un-
questioned faith in in the
the authority of of church and state. There was aa great great
deal ofof faith
faith put
put into reason to to make people’s
people’s lives
lives better,
better, but
but at at the
the
same time the changes toward democracy from
the changes from feudalism (rule (rule by by aris-
tocracy) destabilized European society.
tocracy) society. AsAs people
people were forced to to come
to cities to
to to find work,
work, some became nostalgic for for a simpler
simpler life.
life. Some
people
people became critical of of the
the Enlightenment and instead celebrated as-
pects
pects ofof cultures that were perceived as “other,” including including non-Euro-
pean cultures and and peasant- or working-class cultures within Europe. Europe.
During the
During the Enlightenment, European writers developed relationships
with other peoples
peoples based on the the idea of of racial andand class
class differences.3
differences.?
When the the Enlightenment was criticized, the the cultures of of those who were
perceived as “other” were celebrated as possibly
perceived possibly better alternatives to to
the dominant views of
the of Enlightenment culture. In
In folklore studies, this
this
included not
not only
only North American Native traditions, but
but also
also the folk
the folk
traditions of of working-class people
people in
in Britain.
As discussed in
As in chapter
chapter 5,
5, early
early anthropologists and and folklorists devel-
oped aa theory
oped theory of of pagan survivals. ThisThis was inspired
inspired in part by
in part by Charles
theory of
Darwin’s theory of evolution, interpreted
interpreted in
in terms ofof cultural evolution.
The theory
The theory suggested that that folklore preserved aspects
aspects of
of previous stages
stages of
of
development, so folk folk customs were interpreted as remnants of of seasonal
fertility
fertility rituals.*
rituals.4 All
All folklore came to be identified with witchcraft. As
to be As
some Pagans
Pagans are fondfond of
of pointing out,
out, folk traditions such
such as decorating
decorating
 Literary Origins
Literary and Influences
Origins and Influences 107
107

Christmas trees and

and Easter eggs
eggs continued after
after Christianity came to to Eu-
Eu-
rope, acquiring aa “veneer of
rope, of Christianity.” Magical practices
practices of
of folk
folk tradi-
tions were often largely
largely unchanged
unchanged when Christian Saints’ names re-
placed the
placed the names of
of pagan deities. There were indeed survivals of
of folk
folk
traditions, but
but they
they were as much Catholic as they
they were pagan: “When
and his
Oliver Cromwell and his followers railed against
against ‘the
‘the old religion’ and
old religion’
forbade the
the performance ofof popular
popular year-cycle customs, they target-
they were target-
ing
ing the
the practice
practice ofof Catholicism and and customs associated with with it,
it, not the
the ac-
tual observance of
tual of pagan religions.
religions. Nevertheless, for for the
the reformers they they
were practically one and the the same. AA connection, however ill-conceived,
was formed in in European, and and especially British thought between the the
practice of
practice of folk
folk rituals andand customs and ‘paganism.’”® Protestant reform-
and ‘paganism.’”>
ers interpreted all all folk
folk tradition and magic as “pagan
and vernacular magic “pagan contam-
ination.”°
ination.” ManyMany contemporary Pagans Pagans later
later embraced the idea that
the idea that folk
folk
customs are pagan survivals, and they they continue to to view their
their own reli-reli-
gious practices
gious practices as being
being in in continuity with pre-Christian traditions.
One of
One of the important sources of
the most important of the
the theory
theory ofof pagan survivals isis
James Frazer’s The
James The Golden Bough.
Bough. Frazer (1854-1941) was aa student of of E.
E. B.
B.
Tylor, an early
Tylor, early anthropologist who originally espoused the
originally espoused the idea
idea ofof pagan
survivals. Frazer soughtsought to to expose pagan survivals to to rational analysis
analysis in in
order toto refute them,
them, and religion inin general. He
and religion He wanted to to show that Eu-
that Eu-
ropean folkfolk traditions were no less less irrational than
than foreign
foreign traditions, and
thus that all religion
that all religion isis based in in nonsense. However, rather than convinc-
ing
ing contemporary Pagans Pagans that that all religion isis based on irrational supersti-
all religion supersti-
tion, he
tion, he laid the basis for
laid the for the
the Wiccan seasonal mythic mythic cycle.
cycle. Frazer pre-pre-
sented pagan traditions as fertility fertility cults and
and argued
argued that involving
that rituals involving
the
the idea of of aa dying
dying and
and rising
rising god god resulted from aa universal myth myth under-
lying religion
lying religion everywhere. Pagans Pagans later took
took this
this supposed universality as
proof
proof of of the
the myth’s legitimacy.
myth’s legitimacy.
The Golden Bough
The Bough was firstfirst published in in 1890 in in two volumes. Frazer
later expanded
later expanded itit into
into twelve volumes and and finally abridged itit to
finally abridged to one vol-
vol-
ume, which was first first published
published in 1922. In
in 1922. In the
the 1911 third edition, Frazer
argues thatthat pagan traditions survive into into modern times. He He speaks
speaks ofof
“spring and
“spring and midsummer rites which our rude forefathers in Europe prob-
in Europe prob-
ably performed
ably performed with aa full full consciousness of of their
their meaning, and and which
many of of their
their descendants still still keep up, though
keep up, though the original intention of
the original of
the rites
the rites has
has been
been to
to aa great
great extent, but by no means altogether, forgot-
but by forgot-
ten.” Frazer does
ten.”” does not identify
identify these with witchcraft or with an organized
religion
religion as Margaret Murray later
Margaret Murray did.
later did.
Some aspects
aspects of ritual common in
of ritual in Wicca are visible in
in The Bough,
The Golden Bough,
and
and some may be
may be derived from it via later
from it via later writers who
who used it
it as a
a source.
The
The “cakes andand wine” served as refreshments in in Wiccan rituals are present,
present,
108
108 Chapter 66
Chapter

used in aa ritual context. However, the

used in the ritual itself little resembles what isis
itself little
done inin Wiccan circles. Of Of aa Dianic festival, he he recounts, “Hunting dogs dogs
were crowned and and wild
wild beasts were not not molested; young people people went
through
through aa purificatory ceremony in in her
her honour; wine was brought forth,
brought forth,
and the feast
and the feast consisted of a kid,
of a kid, cakes served piping hot
piping hot on plates of
plates of leaves,
and apples still
and apples still hanging
hanging in in clusters on the the boughs.”®
boughs.”8
Frazer’s work supports the the widespread Pagan Pagan notion of of conceiving thethe
Goddess as an overarching deity, than one goddess
deity, rather than goddess among others.
He asserts that
He that “Diana was not merely aa patroness of
not merely of wild beasts, aa mis-
wild beasts,
tress of
of woods and and hills,
hills, of lonely glades
of lonely glades and sounding rivers; conceived
as the
the moon, and
and especially,
especially, it
it would seem, as the
the yellow
yellow harvest moon,
she filled the
she the farmer’s grange with goodly fruits, and heard the
goodly fruits, the prayers of of
women in in travail.”° Frazer isis not referring to religion of
to aa religion of Witchcraft here,here,
but
but Wiccan readers can easily easily interpret hishis work as though
though he is.
he is.
Frazer introduced the the idea adopted by by Pagans,
Pagans, and and Wiccans in particu-
in particu-
lar,
lar, of
of a a god
god who isis sacrificed and and rises again
again in in a yearly
yearly ritual cycle.
cycle. HeHe
describes how this this god
god came to to be:
be: “Now on the the principle that
that the god-
the god-
dess of of fertility
fertility must herself be be fertile,
fertile, it
it behooved Diana to to have a male
partner. Her Her mate, if the testimony of
if the of Servius may be be trusted, was that
Virbius who had his perhaps rather his
his representative, or perhaps his embodiment, in in
the
the King
King of of the
the Wood at at Nemi. The aim of of their union would be be toto pro-
mote the
the fruitfulness of
of the
the earth, of animals, and
earth, of and of
of mankind; and
and it
it
might
might naturally
naturally be be thought
thought thatthat this
this object
object would be be more surely
surely attained
if
if the
the sacred nuptials were celebrated every year, the the parts
parts of of the
the divine
bride andand bridegroom being being played
played either by by their images
images or by by living
living
persons.”!° Wiccans call god who is
this god
call this is sacrificed the
the Horned God, God, and
they celebrate his
they his ritual mating with the the Goddess through the the Great Rite,
Rite,
which isis aa ritual sexual union, usually
usually performed symbolically by placing
by placing
an athame in in aa chalice of
of wine.
The New Golden Bough
The Bough (1959), a later abridgement of of the
the twelve-volume
edition, more explicitly identifies the the Goddess as a mother-earth figure, figure, a
belief supported by by many Pagans. Frazer’s concept of of the
the Goddess is is al-
al-
tered inin this
this edition, taking
taking thethe emphasis off off the
the Horned God, God, or thethe King
King
of
of the
the Wood. The New Golden Bough Bough presents their relationship thus:

AA great
great Mother Goddess, the
the personification of
of all
all the
the reproductive energies
energies
of nature, was worshipped under different names but
of but with aa substantial sim-
sim-
ilarity
ilarity of
of myth
myth and ritual by
by many people of Western Asia;
people of that associated
Asia; that
with her
her was aa lover,
lover, or rather series of lovers, divine yet
of lovers, yet mortal, with
with whom
she
she mated year
year by
by year,
year, their commerce being
being deemed essential to to the
the prop-
agation of
agation of animals andand plants,
plants, each in
in their
their several kind;
kind; andand further,
further, the fab-
the fab-
ulous union of of the
the divine pair
pair was simulated and,
and, as itit were, multiplied
multiplied on
earth by
by the real, though
the real, though temporary, union of of the
the human sexes at at the
the sanctu-
sanctu-
 Literary Origins and
Literary Origins and Influences
Influences 109
109

ary of
ary of the goddess for
the goddess the sake
for the of thereby
sake of thereby ensuring
ensuring the
the fruitfulness of the
of the
ground and
ground and the
the increase of
of man and
and beast."

Despite
Despite his his intention to dispel belief in
to dispel in religion,
religion, Frazer’s Golden Bough Bough
continues to to inspire Pagan belief in
inspire Pagan in the
the dying
dying and rising god who
rising god who mates
with the
with the Goddess in in seasonal festivals to to secure thethe fertility of the
fertility of the land.
The influence of
The of Charles Leland’s Aradia on the the development of of Wicca
isis perhaps
perhaps more immediately obvious than that of Frazer’s work. Leland
that of
(1824-1903) wrote explicitlyexplicitly ofof Diana as the the Goddess of of the
the witches.
Scholars describe Leland variously variously as an amateur ethnographer or ama-
teur folklorist. Leland producedproduced hishis work in in the
the late
late Victorian era, before
anthropology formed as aa discipline.!* He He was aa journalist
journalist by trade but
by trade but
studied aa number of folk and
of folk and indigenous cultures in in Europe
Europe and and North
America. He
America. He attended
attended somesome classes
classes onon folklore
folklore inin Germany,
Germany, so so he can be
he can be
called an amateur folklorist."
folklorist.!%
Like the
the French historian Jules Jules Michelet, Leland presented witchcraft
as a pagan survival and and a form
form ofof peasant resistance to to the
the Catholic
Church and and aristocratic power. His His book
book Aradia: The The Gospel
Gospel ofof the
the Witches,
first published in
first published in 1899,
1899, includes aa creation story story in
in which Diana fools Lu-
cifer into
into fathering
fathering Aradia, who becomes the the savior of the witches. Ac-
of the
cording to
cording to Leland, he
he met aa hereditary witch,
witch, Maddelena, in
in 1886,
1886, and
and
“employed herher specially
specially to
to collect among her her sisters of the hidden spells
of the spells
in
in many places all the
places all the traditions of the
of the olden time
time known to them.”"
to them.”'* HeHe
says that he
says that he drew on other sources in
in producing his book, but he did
his book, but he did

Figure 11.
Figure 11. Maddelena (from
(from Doreen
Valiente’s Rebirth of
of Witchcraft)
110
110 Chapter
Chapter 66

obtain aa handwritten copy of of the

the “Gospel” from Maddelena.'®
“Gospel” from Maddelena.!° He He indi-
cated that
that he
he was dealing with
dealing with a member of the strega,
of the strega, “fortune-tellers or
witches, who divine byby cards,
cards, perform
perform strange ceremonies in in which spir-
spir-
its are supposed to
its to be invoked, make and
be invoked, and sell
sell amulets, and and inin fact,
fact, com-
port generally as their reputed
port themselves generally reputed kind kind are wont to to do,
do, be they
be they
Black Voodoos in in America or sorceresses anywhere.” anywhere.”'¢
argued that
Leland argued that while he he did
did not
not know for for certain whether Madde-
lena obtained her
lena her knowledge of of strega
strega traditions from oral oral or written
sources, he he believed it it was chiefly
chiefly from
from oral
oral sources because magical magical prac-
titioners rarely
rarely make written records of their work.!”
of their work.'” In
In addition, he sug-
he sug-
gested that
gested that everything aa witch wrote would likely likely have been destroyed by by
priests or pious
priests pious Christians, who who would fear fear such
such documents.'®
documents.!* Some Pa- Pa-
gans similarly
gans similarly argue
argue thatthat there are few few written sources documenting the the
practice of of witchcraft because of of low literacy levels,
low literacy and because having
levels, and having
written material would have been been incriminating during during the
the witch hunts.
Aradia includes charms, invocations, and and spells.
spells. These generally
generally con-
things relevant to
cern things to daily
daily life:
life: love,
love, luck,
luck, andand good
good wine. ManyMany Pagans
Pagans
conduct similar sorts of of spells
spells and may find
and may find inspiration in in those recorded
by Leland. Leland indicates that
by that his
his book is “only the
is “only the initial chapter
chapter of of the
the
collection of ‘cantrips,’ incantations, and
of ceremonies, ‘cantrips,’ and traditions current in
in
the fraternity
the fraternity or sisterhood, the
the whole of of which are in in the
the main to be
to be
found in
found [his books] Etruscan Roman Remains and
in [his and Florentine Legends.”'9
Legends.”
Some contemporary Pagans
Pagans continue toto find
find inspiration in
in these books byby
Leland. More importantly, Leland’s work supported the the “equation ofof cer-
tain elements of
tain peasant culture—legends, beliefs,
of peasant beliefs, divination, and
and folk
folk
medicine—with thethe practice
practice of
of witchcraft, so that the
the presence of
of the
the for-
for-
proof of
mer stood as proof of the
the existence of the latter.”2°
of the The most significant
latter.”° The
in Aradia, regarding
passage in regarding the
the development of of Wicca and
and Paganism, isis
of the
a section of the text containing the teaching of
the teaching of Aradia, which later
(through
(through Gerald Gardner and
and Doreen Valiente) became the “Charge
the “Charge of
of the
the
Goddess.” ItIt was through
through this text that
this text that Gardnerian Wiccans acquired
acquired the
the
habit of meeting atat the
of meeting the full
full moon, the
the name of
of the goddess Aradia,
the goddess Aradia, and
and
possibly the
possibly the practice
practice of
of conducting rituals in
in the
the nude. (Gardner and
and oth-
oth-
ers in
in the
the New Forest coven were naturists, or nudists, apart
apart from their ac-
from their
tivities with
with Wicca.)
Margaret
Margaret Murray
Murray (1863-1963) built built directly
directly on Frazer’s description of of
folk traditions as pagan survivals of
folk of fertility
fertility cults,
cults, but
but she
she argued
argued that
that
witchcraft had been an organized religion.
had been religion. She
She presented witchcraft as aa
fertility
fertility cult
cult of
of a horned god,god, persecuted by Christian Inquisitors who
by
wrongly
wrongly interpreted him him as the
the devil.)
devil.71 Murray’s work has been used by
has been by
Gardnerians and and other Wiccans, primarily in in constructing andand substanti-
ating aa myth
ating myth of origin. Murray’s The
of origin. The Witch-Cult in in Western Europe,
Europe, first
first
published in in 1921 but popular in
but popular in the
the 1940s when Wicca was first first forming
forming
 Literary Origins
Literary Origins and
and Influences 111
111

as
as aa religion, seemed to to give
give evidence of of aa surviving witch cult. cult. More
More re-
cently,
cently, Wiccans see her her account as part part of history or inspirational
of sacred history
myth.
myth. HerHer books have
have been used for for inspiration in in the
the writing
writing of of myths
myths of of
origin and in
origin and in reconstructing Witchcraft from from aa perspective more sympa-
thetic than
than that
that of
of mainstream history.
history.
Murray contributed to
Murray to contemporary Paganism the theory that
the theory the
that the
witchcraft persecuted in in the
the witch hunts was an organized religion. religion. She
She
presented
presented this
this religion
religion as aa peasant or indigenous religion,religion, and
and asaa fertil-
fertil-
ity religion, which was aa common view of
ity religion, such religions.
of such religions. ItIt was through
through
her work that
her Pagans developed the
that Pagans the idea
idea that
that Witchcraft isis aa tradition that
that
stretches back to the Paleolithic era.2?
to the era.2* Murray
Murray linked the the “Devil” or
Horned God of of the
the trial with Paleolithic cave paintings in
trial records with in south-
ern France in in her
her Encyclopedia Britannica article on witchcraft.¥>
witchcraft.” According
According
to that
to that encyclopedia article,
article, the religion of
the religion of witchcraft survived into into the
the
eighteenth century inin England, and into “the
and into “the present day” (1929 isis the
day” (1929 the
publication date
date of
of the
the article) in and Italy.”4
in France and Italy.”4
of her
Because most of her evidence is
is taken from
from trial
trial confessions, the
the rituals
rituals
she
she describes focus on aa male deity, deity, and
and on “paying homagehomage to the Devil,”
to the
as she phrases it.
she phrases it. She
She deemphasizes the the importance of of the
the god
god in in her
her
later
later writings
writings on Witchcraft, but but inin some waysways herher God
God ofof the Witches can
the Witches
be seen as a culmination of
be of the
the cult
cult ofof Pan
Pan inin the
the writings
writings ofof modern Ro- Ro-
mantics
mantics in in England.*¢ Rather than
England.** Rather than the the Greco-Roman
Greco-Roman god god name
name of Pan,
of Pan,
Murray preferred
Murray preferred to call the
to call the Horned God God by by the
the Gallic godgod name Cer- Cer-
nunnos. She She collected evidence of of gods
gods with horns across Europe Europe and the
and the
Near East
East and
and interpreted them all all as aspects of of the
the Horned God, God, whether
he
he wore stag stag antlers or ram horns. Subsequently, Wiccans adopted adopted her her
idea of
idea of the
the Horned God their primary identification of
God as their of male deity.
deity.
Murray’s work also inspired
inspired thethe idea
idea ofof “The
“The Green Man,”
Man,” later picked
later picked
up by
up Pagans. Murray
by contemporary Pagans. Murray associated British folk folk traditions in in
general with
general with witchcraft, including
including the
the stories of
of Robin Hood, and
Robin Hood, and she
she
linked church carvings with with paganism. She She interpreted the the female figures
figures
in
in medieval churches as pagan goddesses of fertility, which,
of fertility, which, as previously
previously
discussed, inspired
inspired Lady Raglan, a fellow member of
Lady Raglan, of the
the Folk-Lore Soci-Soci-
ety, to
ety, to interpret the the foliate heads of of fourteenth- and and fifteenth-century
churches as Frazer’s dying dying and rising vegetation god,
and rising god, which RaglanRaglan
“The Green Man.”?7
called “The Man.”?”
Murray alsoalso linked the the word “witch” with with the
the meaning
meaning “to know,” aa
“to know,”
false
false etymology still still espoused by by some practitioners but but not byby scholars.”®
scholars.”
In
In addition, herher work gave gave Pagans
Pagans thethe idea
idea ofof dancing
dancing in inaa circle as aa rit-
rit-
ual
ual practice for securing
practice for securing fertility
fertility (of
(of land and game), and
and game), the sense of
and the of
witchcraft as “Celtic.”2?
“Celtic.”? The The practice of of dancing in in aa circle
circle has
has evolved
into the
the Pagan ritual of
Pagan ritual of the
the spiral
spiral dance. Murray’s work mentions “cakes
and wine,” but
and wine,” but she she describes the the practice
practice as varying from feasts, to
from feasts, to
Tt
112 Chapter
Chapter 66

homely
homely picnics,
picnics, toto wine and cakes and
and meat.*° She also
meat.°*? She also notes that
that candles
were used in ritual,3! but
in ritual,! but she does not suggest that
she does they were used
that they used at the
at the
cardinal points
points as they
they are by
by contemporary Wiccans. In In addition, she she re-
ports that “the ‘fixed number’ of
ports that of coven members among the the witches of of
Great Britain seems toto havehave been thirteen: twelve witches and and their
their offi-
offi-
cer.”32 Many Pagans
cer.”°2 Many reject hierarchical structures and
Pagans reject and regard
regard covens as
optional,
optional, but Murray’s influence is
but Murray’s is evident in the often-repeated idea
in the idea that
that
covens are “traditionally” made up up of
of thirteen members.
members.”
In many ways, Murray
In Murray made the the actual practice
practice of of witchcraft as aa re-
ligion possible
ligion possible by
by making
making thethe practices
practices ofof witches explicit
explicit in in The
The Witch-
Cult inin Western Europe.
Cult Europe. However, Gerald Gardner significantly changed changed
Murray’s
Murray’s work and and popularized itit as a religion
religion that
that continues into into mod-
ern times. Gardner seems to to have derived many of his ideas about ritual
of his ritual
from
from herher work,
work, including the structure
including the structure ofof the
the festival cycle and
festival cycle and the
the habit
habit
of calling
of calling thethe festivals “sabbaths” or “sabbats.” Initially, Initially, Gardner
adopted the
adopted the sabbaths Murray
Murray described as the the four
four sabbats of of Candle-
mas, May
May Eve
Eve (Beltain), Lammas, and
and Samhain. He
He later
later added the
the so-
lar festivals, initially
lar initially celebrated at
at the
the full
full moon closest toto the
the solstices
and equinoxes. Wiccans meet at
and at sabbats and
and esbats, as Murray
Murray describes
them, but not necessarily publicly, she suggests witches did
publicly, as she did at
at sab-
baths in
in the
the past.34
past.34 Some Wiccan groups follow her her suggestion that
that “the
“the
Esbat differed from the the Sabbath by by being primarily for
being primarily for business,
whereas thethe Sabbath was purelypurely religious.”%
The
The influence of
of writings on folklore by
writings by Frazer,
Frazer, Leland, and Murray
Murray is is
notable, but
but the
the understanding of
of deities in popular English culture
in popular English
more generally
generally derives from the the work ofof scholars of of the late Victorian
the late
and
and Edwardian eras. These scholars’ writings
writings on religion
religion focused on pri-
pri-
mal forces such
mal such as Earth, Sky, Corn
Earth, Sky, Corn (Grain), Vegetation, Nature, Mother,
Mother,
and of tension and
and Father. Wicca’s sense of and polarity
polarity between female and
and
male isis probably
male probably derived from such scholarly
scholarly writings
writings about religion,
religion,
since itit bears little
little resemblance to
to functional pantheons of
of indigenous
peoples
peoples as described by by modern anthropologists. Some scholars take take
this
this as evidence that that British Witchcraft isis essentially post-Christian
rather than pre-Christian.°6
pre-Christian.>°
The
The influence of
of English
English Romantic poetry seems to
to have tempered the
the
influence of of scholarly writings
writings about deities. Poetry,
Poetry, short
short stories,
stories, and
and
novels have influenced the the development of of Paganism as aa religion
religion
through writings
through writings that,
that, while not necessarily Pagan,
Pagan, approach Paganism in in
sensibility. The
The writings of of the
the English
English Romantic poets
poets John
John Keats,
Keats, Percy
Percy
Bysshe
Bysshe Shelley,
Shelley, and
and William Butler Yeats are filled with pastoral
pastoral imagery
and images
and images ofof nature as the
the greenwood (enchanting, leafyleafy glades
glades inhab-
ited by
ited elves or faeries). The
by elves The greenwood isis also portrayed as beingbeing pres-
ent
ent in
in single
single trees,
trees, stone circles, burial
burial mounds, cathedrals, grottoes, and
and
 Literary Origins
Literary Origins and
and Influences 113
113

pools.*”7 The
pools.*” The Romantics and and some later
later Victorians developed aa playful
playful
reenchantment of of nature through poetry and
through poetry and stories. TheyThey personified
natural forces (most of all
(most of all Pan)
Pan) but also wrote of
but also of other-than-human per- per-
sons such
such as faeries, gnomes, goblins,
goblins, dwarves, trolls, nymphs, mermaids,
trolls, nymphs,
selkies, dragons,
dragons, unicorns, elementals, and and various godsgods and
and goddesses.
In poetry
In poetry and
and fiction, these are accepted literary characters, but
accepted as literary but con-
Pagans may
temporary Pagans may understand them them as real,
real, as imagined, images,
imagined, as images,
as metaphors, or as archetypes.
Pan
Pan was relatively unimportant in
in Britain until
until he
he was celebrated in
in the
the
of English
poetry of English Romantics. He
He became notnot just
just aa god
god of the forest,
of the forest, but
but
the personification and
the guardian of
and guardian the English
of the English countryside. This This idea
idea of
of
the God
the God isis distinct from Frazer’s idea
idea of
of aa dying
dying andand rising
rising vegetation
god, although
god, although some Pagans
Pagans later
later combined the
the two by
by splitting the
splitting the
Horned God into the
God into the Holly
Holly King
King and the Oak
and the Oak King. may speak
King. Others may speak of
of
the old
the old and
and new stag,
stag, but
but many do do not conceive of of the
the Horned God
God as
split in
split in this
this manner. TheThe Romantics andand Victorians often presented
presented Pan
Pan as
aa god appeared at
god who appeared at twilight
twilight playing
playing aa set of pipes.
set of Percy Bysshe
pipes. Percy Bysshe Shel-
ley for example,
ley (1792-1822), for example, wrote in
in his “Hymn to
his “Hymn to Pan,”
Pan,”

The light
The light of the dying
of the dying day,
day,
Speeded by my sweet pipings.
by my pipings.
The Sileni and
The and Sylvans
Sylvans and Fauns,
and Fauns,
And the
And the Nymphs
Nymphs of of the
the woods and waves,
woods and waves,
To the
To edge of
the edge of the
the moist river-lawns,
And thethe brink of of the dewy caves,
the dewy
And all
And all that
that did
did then attend and
then attend and follow,
Were silent with
with love,
love, as you
you now, Apollo,
Apollo,
With envy of
of my
my sweet pipings.*®
pipings.*®

Pan also
Pan also appears in
in similar form in
in aa later
later story by Kenneth Grahame
story by
As mentioned in
(1859-1932). As in chapter
chapter 1,1, English
English writers of poetry and
of poetry and fic-
fic-
tion of
tion of the
the time often presented Pan as the
presented Pan the personification and
and guardian
guardian
of the
of English countryside as it
the English it was imaged
imaged byby urbanites on holiday:
holiday: itit is
is
always
always summer, and and the
the agricultural work of of peasants or the
the lower
classes isis unseen.*? Pan
Pan appears in
in Grahame’s book for
for children, The
The Wind
in the
in the Willows,
Willows, first
first published
published in
in 1908, in aa strange
1908, in strange interlude where an un-
named god god of the forest appears. Mole and
of the and RatRat are looking
looking forfor one of of Ot-
Ot-
ter’s children, Portly,
Portly, who
who is
is missing. They stay
They stay outout searching in their boat
in their boat
all night, and
all night, and near dawn the landscape seems to
the landscape to change:
change: “Their old old
greeted them in
haunts greeted in other raiment, as ifif they
they had slipped away and
had slipped put
and put
on this
this pure apparel and
pure new apparel and come quietly
quietly back, smiling as they
back, smiling they shyly
shyly
waited to to see if
if they
they would be be recognized again
again under it.”40
it.”4° They
They hear
hear
someone playing
playing pipes
pipes and
and are overcome by by aa feeling
feeling of
of awe. Mole sees
“the Friend and and Helper,”
Helper,” described as having
having “curved horns,” “shaggy “shaggy
114 Chapter 66
Chapter

and “kindly
limbs,” and
limbs,” eyes.”4! Immediately afterward, they
“kindly eyes.”4! Portly, but
find Portly,
they find but
they cannot quite
they quite remember their encounter with
with the
the god
god of
of the
the forest.
also wrote of
The Romantics also
The figures in
mythic figures
other mythic
of other that is
way that
in aa way is in-
in-
spirational for
spirational Pagans.
for contemporary Pagans. John John Keats (1795-1821) wrote about
an enchanting female spirit his poem “Lamia”:
in his
spirit in

Upon
Upon aa time,
time, before the
the faery
faery broods
Nymph and
Drove Nymph and Satyr
Satyr from the prosperous woods,
from the
Before King
King Oberon’s bright
bright diadem,
Sceptre, and mantle,
Sceptre, and mantle, clasp’d
clasp’d with dewy
dewy gem,
gem,
Frighted away the
Frighted the Dryads
Dryads andand the
the Fauns
green, and
From rushes green, and brakes, and cowslip’d
brakes, and cowslip’d lawns,
lawns,
The ever-smitten Hermes empty
The left
empty left
His
His golden
golden throne, bent warm on amorous theft:
theft:
high Olympus
From high had he
Olympus had he stolen light,
light,
On this
On side of
this side of Jove’s
Jove’s clouds, to escape
clouds, to escape the
the sight
sight
Of his
Of his great
great summoner, andand made retreat
Into aa forest on the
the shore of
of Crete.
Crete.”

Keats based this poem on aa folktale of

this poem of a a man who was enchanted by by aa
lamia, a seductive female serpent
serpent demon in in the
the original
original tale.®
tale.%
Rudyard Kipling (1865-1936) wrote stories featuring aa romantic view of
Rudyard Kipling of
the English
the English countryside, fitting the then-popular image
fitting the image of of “Merrie Olde
England” that has
England” has subsequently been preserved
preserved by by some Pagans.
Pagans. Con-
temporary Pagans
Pagans continue to enjoy Kipling’s
to enjoy Kipling’s Puck of Hill and
of Pook’s Hill and Re-
Re-
wards and
and Fairies,
Fairies, collections of
of stories,
stories, many of
of which are set in the
set in the Mid-
Mid-
dle Ages.
dle Ages. These stories were purportedly written for but are also
for children but also
by adults. Kipling’s stories influenced the
enjoyed by the practice that some Pa-
practice that Pa-
gans have of
gans of swearing by
by “Oak and
and Ash and Thorn.” The protagonist of
Ash and of
many of the stories, aa faery
of the faery named Puck,
Puck, always
always swears by by these. Verses
of “Puck’s Song”
of Song” appear in ritual, quoted
in Gardnerian ritual, quoted in the May
in the Eve and
May Eve and
August Eve
August Eve celebrations in “Ye Bok
in “Ye Bok ofof ye
ye Art
Art Magical,” Gardner’s origi-
origi-
nal Book of
nal of Shadows,“ and and “A“A Tree
Tree Song”
Song” hashas made its
its way
way into
into Pagan
Pagan
ritual,
ritual, sometimes without awareness of of its
its origin.*°
origin.
Pagan ideas about the
Some other Pagan the faeries are inspired
inspired by
by the
the poetry
poetry ofof
William Butler Yeats (1865-1939). Yeats wrote “The Stolen Child,” aa poem
that isis popular
that with Pagans
popular with Pagans and
and isis most familiar to to many through
through thethe
song recorded by by Loreena McKennitt.4©
McKennitt.4° Many Pagans feel
Many Pagans feel aa similar pull
pull toto
the land of
the land of faery
faery that
that Yeats describes inin his
his poem:

Come away, OO human child! child!

To
To the and the
the water and the wild
With aa faery, hand in
faery, hand hand,
in hand,
For
For the
the world’s more fullfull of
of weeping than you
weeping than you can understand.
understand.
 Literary Origins
Literary Origins and
and Influences
Influences 115
115

Where the
the wave of of moonlight glosses
glosses
The dim
The dim grey
grey sands
sands with
with light,
light,
Far
Far off
off by
by furthest Rosses
We foot it
We foot all the
it all night,
the night,
Weaving dances.*”
Weaving olden dances.‘”

Yeats lived
lived much of of his
his life in Ireland and
life in and was influenced byby the
the land-
land-
scape and
and folk
folk traditions there,
there, as well as by
by local myths.
myths. He
He spent
spent aa sum-
mer with Lady Gregory,
with Lady Gregory, who published the the Mabinogion, aa collection of of
medieval Welsh stories. He He had
had aa religious
religious temperament, but but his
his father
was aa skeptic
skeptic and did did not
not raise him to to have
have faith.
faith. Yeats searched through through
aa variety
variety of of esoteric traditions in in folklore, theosophy, spiritualism, and and
Neoplatonism. He He eventually
eventually became aa member of the occult group the
of the the
Hermetic Order of of the
the Golden Dawn, aa group that that later
later influenced the de-
the de-
velopment of
velopment of Paganism as part part of the Western esoteric tradition.
of the tradition.®
AA later member of of the
the Hermetic Order of of the
the Golden Dawn also also influ-
enced the the development of of Paganism: the the ceremonial magician magician Aleister
Crowley (1875-1947). Raised in
Crowley in aa conservative sect of of Christianity called
the Plymouth Brethren, Crowley
the Crowley became infamous for flouting the
for flouting the con-
ventions of of society
society and styling himself “the
and styling “the Beast.” The The Wiccan Rede “An “An
itit harm none, do do what thou thou will,”
will,” appears to to bebe derived from Crowley’s
statement in The Book
in The Book of the Law: “Do what thou wilt
of the wilt shall be be the
the whole of of
the
the law.”#?
law.” His definition of of magic
magic as “the “the Science and and Art
Art ofof causing
causing
Change
Change to to occur in in conformity with Will” also also influenced Pagan Pagan under-
standings of of magic
magic and some Pagans’ Pagans’ preference for for his
his spelling
spelling of of magic
magic
as “magick.”
“magick.”
It
It has long been
has long been rumored that that Crowley
Crowley wrote part part of the ritual texts in
of the in
Gerald Gardner’s original original Book of of Shadows. Doreen Valiente indicates
that the
that the influence of of Crowley’s
Crowley’s Book Book of of the
the Law
Law was visible inin the the original
original
Book of
Book of Shadows, but but that she reduced the
that she the “Crowleyanity” in in it,
it, retaining
the spirit
the spirit ofof the
the passage from from Leland’s Aradia,Aradia, which she she recognized as aa
source text, text, inin rewriting the Charge of Goddess.*°
the Charge of Goddess.°° Crowley and Crowley and Gardner
met in in May
May of of 1947 and
and exchanged a few
a few letters afterward,°!
afterward,>! but but Crowley
Crowley
died later that
died later that year. year. Crowley gave
gave Gardner a charter to
to operate aa chapter
chapter
of the Ordo
of the Ordo Templis
Templis Orientis, or Order of
of the Temple of
the Temple of the
the Orient (OTO).
(OTO).*?
It that Gardner consulted with Crowley in
It appears that in creating
creating texts for ritual,
for ritual,
or used Crowley’s written works. Valiente says says that
that Gardner used Crow-
ley’s work to
ley’s to supplement the the fragmentary material he he received from the the
New Forest coven, explaining that “he had felt
“he had felt that
that Crowley’s writings,
modern though
though they
they were, breathed thethe very spirit of paganism and
spirit of and were
expressed in
expressed splendid poetry.”°>
in splendid poetry.”*? Valiente suggests
suggests that
that the
the fact
fact that
that Gard-
ner paid
paid Crowley
Crowley for the OTO charter may
for the may be
be the
the origin
origin ofof the that
the rumor that
Gardner paidpaid Crowley
Crowley to to write the
the witchcraft rituals. It It should be be noted
noted
116
116 Chapter 66
Chapter

that Crowley was a magician

that Crowley than aa Witch. There isis no mention of
magician rather than of
Wicca asa a religion
religion in
in either his
his published
published or his
his unpublished writings.”
writings.™
Another member of of the
the Hermetic Order of of the
the Golden Dawn has has also
also
had
had aa lasting
lasting influence on Paganism. Dion Fortune (1891-1946) later later
founded the the Fraternity
Fraternity (now Society)
(now Society) of the of the Inner Light, and
Light, and her her work to-
to-
gether
gether with with Crowley’s forms the
the basis of the
of the Western mystery tradition.°°
Dion Fortune was the the magical
magical name of of Violet Mary Mary Firth, who, like
Firth, who, like Crow-
ley,
ley, was not aa Witch but
but a a practitioner of
of ceremonial magic. The rituals
magic. The
and imagery
and imagery of her novels The
of her The Sea
Sea Priestess, The The Goat-Foot God, God, and and Avalon
of the Heart have inspired
of the inspired PagansPagans in in creating
creating rituals. Pagans Pagans continue to to
recommend her her Psychic
Psychic Self-Defense for for practical
practical purposes.°°
Robert Graves (1895-1985) was not explicitly part part ofof the
the development
of
of Wicca, but but hehe appears to to have been a devotee of of the
the Goddess, and and he he
gave Paganism aa lasting lasting mythic
mythic vision of of the
the relationship between the the
Goddess and and her her consort. Graves was aa twentieth-century poet, poet, and and a
good, if
good, if eccentric, scholar. He He isis best
best known for for his
his theory
theory ofof myth
myth and and po-po-
etry presented in
etry his 1948
in his 1948 book,
book, TheThe White
White Goddess. This work was never
This work
meant to to be
be academic history history but but poetic metaphor.*” The
poetic metaphor.*’ The White Goddess isis
not just descriptive, but
just descriptive, prescriptive. In
but prescriptive. In it,
it, Graves advocates aa return return to to
Goddess worshipworship and and matriarchal society society to to reinvigorate poetry.
poetry. AA return
toto Goddess worship, he he thought,
thought, would give poetry force
give poetry force and and clear
clear
mythic vision.°*
mythic vision.** Graves felt felt that
that the only true theme, “the
the only “the Theme,” for for po-
po-
etry
etry was the the story
story cycle
cycle of of the
the Goddess and and herher marriage with with the Sun
the Sun
God and and hishis sacrifice.
writing about the
Graves’ writing the Theme isis aa rich rich source for for the
the seasonal
mythic cycle
mythic cycle inin Wicca. He He explains
explains that that “the
“the Theme, briefly,
briefly, isis the antique
the antique
story, which
story, which falls
falls into
into thirteen
thirteen chapters
chapters and and an epilogue, of
an epilogue, of the
the birth,
birth, life,
life,
death and and resurrection of of the
the God of of the Waxing Year;
the Waxing the central chapters
Year; the chapters
concern the the God’s losing losing battle with the the God of the Waning
of the Waning Year for love
for love
of the
of capricious and
the capricious and all-powerful
all-powerful Threefold Goddess, their mother, bride
and layer-out.”°?
and layer-out.”*? Graves wrote of of the
the Theme also also inin aa poem to to his
his son who
was bornborn the the day
day before the the winter solstice in 1945, “To
in 1945, Juan at
“To Juan at the
the Win-
ter Solstice”:
ter

She in
She in her
her left hand bears aa leafy
left hand leafy quince;
quince;
When with her her right
right she
she crooks a a finger, smiling,
finger, smiling,
How may the the King hold back?
King hold
Royally then he
Royally then he barters lifelife for
for love...
love.....
Much snow isis falling,
falling, winds roar hollowly,
hollowly,
The owl hoots
The owl hoots from
from the elder,
the elder,
Fear in
Fear your heart cries
in your cries to the loving-cup:
to the
Sorrow to to sorrow as the sparks fly
the sparks fly upward.
upward.
The
The log
log groans and and confesses:
There isis one story
story and
and one story only.
story only.
 Literary Origins
Literary Origins and
and Influences
Influences 117
117

Graves was apparently influenced by Murray. He

by Murray. He argues that that thethe
Theme was “secretly preserved as religious doctrine in the covens of
in the of
the anti-Christian witch-cult.”*!
the witch-cult.”°! Using Using poetry
poetry as evidence, he he argues for for
the survival of
the of ancient goddess religion religion into later times. For
into later For example,
example, he he
states thatthat “Demeter as aa Mare-goddess was widely widely worshipped under
the name
the name of of Epona,
Epona, or or ‘the Three Eponae,’
‘the Three Eponae,’ among among the Gallic Celts,
the Gallic Celts, and and
there isis aa strange account in in Giraldus Cambrensis’ Topography of of Ireland
which shows that that relics of of thethe same cult cult survived in in Ireland until until thethe
twelfth century.”® Poetic themes do do not
not indicate the the existence of
of a prac-
ticing cult, yet
ticing cult, yet Graves’ poetrypoetry isis aa fertile source for for the
the myth
myth and and symbol-
symbol-
ism of
ism of Wicca.
The White
The White Goddess isis stillstill recommended reading reading for for most Pagans,Pagans, and and
Graves’ theorytheory that
that the
the Goddess will
will return to
to power as belief in her
in her re-
turns
turns is is aa common
common Pagan Pagan sentiment.®
sentiment.® ItIt isis from from Graves,
Graves, as as well
well as as other
other
literary
literary sources, that
that Wiccans get their concept
get their concept of the of the Goddess as triune.
The
The Goddess had been been presented
presented previously in in triple form, but
triple form, but Graves
was unusual in in celebrating not just her
just her mother and maiden forms, but but
also the
also the Crone. He
He identified the
the Crone aspect of
aspect of the the Goddess with Cerid-
wen, whom he he interpreted as aa sow goddess goddess who eats her her own young.
Graves used Frazer as a source for his mythic
for his mythic vision of the
of the Goddess and and
her consort.®
her consort. He splitHe split Frazer’s dying
dying and and resurrected god into the
god into the gods of gods of
the waxing and
the waxing and waning year, year, probably
probably from from Welsh stories of of annual
fights,
fights, such as Gwyn Gwyn ap ap Nudd and and Gwythr
Gwythr in the Mabinogion.® Graves’
in the
understanding of of the
the seasonal relationship between the the Goddess and and thethe
God became integrated into
God into thethe Wiccan festival cycle. cycle. He He constructed aa
poetic
poetic mythmyth that
that contributed to to making Goddess religion explicit in
religion explicit in the
the
form of of Wicca.
Literary sources continue to
Literary to bebe important inspirations in in reconstruc-
tionist traditions in in Paganism. Reconstructionist traditions often often use the the
literature of of the
the cultures whose religion religion they they are reconstructing. Norse re-
constructionists, who sometimes identify themselves as Heathen or
Asatru, for for example,
example, find find inspiration in the Icelandic Eddas and
in the and the
the Sagas.
Sagas.
Heathens use the the Eddas and and the the Sagas
Sagas to to learn
learn about Norse deities and and re-
ligious practices. The
ligious practices. The Poetic or Elder Edda isis a a collection of of poems about
the god Odin and
the god other figures
and other figures in in Norse mythology,
mythology, probablyprobably recorded in in
the
the thirteenth century.
century. The The Icelander Snorri Sturluson composed the the Prose
Younger Edda,
or Younger Edda, which is is aa handbook on Icelandic poetry, poetry, in in thethe thir-
thir-
teenth century.
century. TheThe Sagas
Sagas are epic epic stories of of Viking
Viking heroes recorded be- be-
tween the the thirteenth and and fifteenth centuries. Heathens have developed a
shamanistic ritual practice practice of of seidr out out ofof a passage from the the Saga
Saga of Erik
of Erik
the Red.
the Red.
Seidr isis an ecstatic ritual practice
Seidr practice in in which aa practitioner goes goes into
into trance
(into the
(into the underworld or otherland) with the the help
help of of her
her coreligionists and and
118
118 Chapter 66
Chapter

in ritual.
questions from other participants in
answers questions The Saga
ritual. The from which
Saga from
seidr
seidr practices
practices are reconstructed gives
gives descriptions of
of a
a visiting
visiting seeress, aa
spdkona or
spdkona volva, including
or volva, including her clothing, shoes,
her clothing, staff, and
shoes, staff, She isis
cloak. She
and cloak.
asked to the future of
to consider the the community, and
of the and she eats aa ritual
she eats meal.
ritual meal.
The following
The day, she
following day, she sits “high seat” while others sing
sits onon aa “high sing aa special
special
song to
song “the powers”
to “the powers” so that she can go
that she go into trance.” In
into trance.* In aa contemporary
reconstruction of this practice,
of this practice,

the volva sits

the sits on the
the high
high seat holding onto her
her staff, byaa circle
staff, surrounded by
of singers.
of singers. The
The sound carries thethe volva into
into an altered state of
of awareness, in in
the spirit
the spirit world. There she with spirits,
she meets with spirits, gods
gods and forces, and
and forces, and puts
puts for-
for-
ward herher request for
for help
help or knowledge. When her her main task
task isis complete
complete and
and
the song
the song dies
dies out [the]
[the] volva isis still
still “between thethe worlds” and
and in this state
in this
she can give
she give oracular answers to to questions from members of the group.®
of the group.®

practices derived from the

Such practices the Sagas
Sagas can be
be profound experiences for for
Jenny Blain,
participants. Jenny Blain, aa researcher and
and practitioner, describes her first
her first
in seidr:
participation in seidr:

II had
had been hard, visualizing the
working hard, the journey and taking
journey and taking mental notes.
What II did
did not expect was thethe very strong pull,
very strong pull, experienced both as aa yearn-
ing and
ing and as aa direct physical
physical tug
tug to the pit
to the pit of
of my
my stomach, toto follow her. Re-
her. Re-
membering the
the instructions, II concentrated on visualizing the gates before
the gates
me, closed.
me, closed. Diana had said
Diana had said the seeress would
the seeress would remain
remain connected
connected to to us,
us, by
by aa
silver cord. I| felt
felt the
the cord,
cord, an umbilicus between myself
myself and felt its
and Winifred, felt its
tension. Questioners stepped
stepped forward, and
and listening,
listening, II felt that attachment,
felt that
that pull. Some
that pull. Some asked of jobs,
asked of jobs, some of
of relationships, health, future meetings,
One asked of
relatives. One of aa severe health problem
problem and the need to
and the to face
face her
her mor-
tality,
tality, and
and II listened in
in the
the half-world of of trance, before the gates, profoundly
the gates,
moved. When Winifred left left the
the high seat, II felt
high seat, felt my
my body
body doing work, draw-
doing work,
ing her
ing her back, lending my
back, lending my own strength.”
strength.

Greek reconstructionists look to to the

the Homeric hymns hymns and and to to Hesiod’s
writings. Some alsoalso look
look to
to the
the writings
writings of of Sappho.
Sappho. The The Homeric hymns hymns
include long
long verses honoring Demeter, Apollo, Apollo, Hermes, and and Aphrodite.
Hesiod’s Theogony,
Theogony, written late in the
late in the eighth
eighth century BCE, BCE, tells
tells a story
story of
of
the creation of
the of the and the
the universe and the god/desses. It It is
is aa creative genealogy
of
of the
the god/desses—he adds god/desses to fill in
to fill in gaps in in Greek mythol-
mythol-
ogy, and
ogy, and he possibly invented names for
he possibly the muses. Hesiod’s story
for the story begins
begins
with the
with the union of of Chaos (or
(or the
the Chasm) and and Earth. ItIt tells
tells of their chil-
of their chil-
dren, the
dren, the Titans,
Titans, and
and the
the subsequent war of the gods,
of the gods, won by
by Zeus and
and his
his
followers. The Theogony isis aa triumphalist celebration of
The Theogony the importance of
of the of
Zeus. It
It isis the
the oldest source of
of some of the best-known Greek myths,
of the in-
myths, in-
cluding the
cluding the stories of and Pandora.”
of Prometheus and Pandora.”
 Literary Origins and
Literary Origins and Influences
Influences 119
119

Egyptian reconstructionists, and

Egyptian and some Roman reconstructionists, find
find
inspiration in
in the The Metamorphoses, better known as The
the novel The The Golden
Ass, written by
Ass, by Lucius Apuleius
Apuleius (c.
(c. 123-180 CE).
CE). The
The Golden Ass
Ass tells the
tells the
story of
story of aa man who isis cursed by by aa witch andand turned into into an ass. He
He isis
eventually released by the goddess
by the goddess Isis,
Isis, and he he becomes one of of her
her
priests. The
priests. The novel isis from ancient Rome,
Rome, butbut itit isis also used in
also used in the
the recon-
struction of of Egyptian religion
religion because Isis
Isis was an Egyptian
Egyptian goddess.
goddess. InIn
the time of
the of the
the Roman Empire,
Empire, Isis
Isis became an overarching goddess figure, figure,
and she
and she isis presented as such in The Golden Ass. The
in The the protagonist
The vision the
has of
has of Isis
Isis isis particularly influential, not only
only for and Roman re-
for Egyptian and
constructionists, but also for
but also for Wiccans and
and other Pagans,
Pagans, as Isis
Isis is
is often
often un-
derstood as thethe Goddess, rather than as one goddess
goddess among others.
Contemporary novels have also also influenced Pagan Pagan traditions, particu-
particu-
larly the
larly fantasy novels of
the fantasy of J. R. R.
J. R. R. Tolkien, Marion Zimmer Bradley, Bradley,
Robert Heinlein, and,
Robert Heinlein, and, more
more recently, Terry Pratchett
recently, Terry Pratchett and and J.
J. K. Rowling.
K. Rowling.
Paganism has has been influenced in a general way by
in a general way by fantasy fantasy novels in
in
magic isis commonplace and
which magic and effective, and and inin which interaction
with other-than-human persons isis possible.
with The most obvious or explicit
possible. The explicit
influence isis Robert Heinlein’s novel Stranger
Stranger inin aa Strange
Strange Land, first pub-
Land, first pub-
lished in
in 1961.
1961. This science-fiction novel inspired
inspired the the formation of the
of the
Church of All Worlds (CAW),
of All (CAW), modeled on the church of
the church of the
the same name
in the
in the novel. Practitioners derived the the ritual greeting
greeting “Thou art art Goddess”
or “Thou art God,” and a liberal understanding of loving
or “Thou art God,” and a liberal understanding of loving relationships, relationships,
from thethe book,
book, which became influential more generally generally in in the
the Paganism
of the late
of the late 1960s and early
and early 1970s.
In Heinlein’s novel,
In the Church of
novel, the of All
All Worlds is is a religious
religious organization
founded by by aa man, who was raised by by Martians, to help humans over-
to help
come their alienation from each other and and the
the natural world. Local groups
of
of the
the church are called “nests” in
in the
the book,
book, and
and CAW follows that that struc-
ture. Members share
share aa rite of communion in
rite of in the nests, aa ritual
the nests, ritual of
of water
sharing derived from the
sharing This involves aa ritual recognition of
the novel. This of the
the
necessity of water for
necessity of all life,
for all speak the
life, as members speak the words “May you
“May you
never thirst” in
in sharing
sharing water. ItIt also
also involves aa ritual recognition of
of the
the
immanence, or indwelling, of
of the
the divine in each other,
in each other, as participants ad-
ad-
dress each
each other saying
saying “Thou art
art Goddess” or “Thou art art God.” The
greeting “Thou art
greeting art God” appears in novel, but
in Heinlein’s novel, but CAW practi-
practi-
have modified
tioners have itit into
into female and
and male
male statements, and
and itit has
has
passed into
passed into common Pagan
Pagan usage in
in that
that form.
form. Some CAW members also
also
practice group marriage, as in
practice in the
the novel,
novel, including cofounder of
of the
the group
along with his
Oberon Zell-Ravenheart, along his longtime
longtime partner, Morning Glory
partner, Morning Glory
Glory coined the
Zell-Ravenheart. Morning Glory the term “polyamory” toto describe
open yet
yet committed relationships such
such as they share.”) When CAW ob-
they share.”! ob-
tained tax-exempt status in
in 1970,
1970, it
it became the
the first recognized
first officially recognized
120
120 Chapter
Chapter 66

“. Sodas er me
ee
Figure 12.
Figure The Ravenhearts (photo
The provided by
(photo provided by Oberon Zell-Ravenheart)

Pagan religious
Pagan religious organization in the United States. As
in the As part
part of his activities
of his
with CAW,
CAW, Zell-Ravenheart edited the Pagan magazine
the Pagan magazine Green Egg, Egg, which
was influential on PagansPagans across North America, from 1968 to to 1975 and and
1988 to
from 1988 to 1996. Through
Through it, it, he
he popularized the the terms “Neo-Pagan” and and
“nature religion”
religion” beginning in the 1960s.
in the
Regarding the the influence of of novels on Paganism,
Paganism, “the“the influence of of J.J. R.
R. R.
R.
is, of
Tolkien is, of course, inestimable.””?
inestimable.”” Tolkien’s work essentially spawned spawned
the modern genre of
the of fantasy
fantasy and and gave the the language
language and and terms for for faeries
and
and other creatures to to English
English culture.”?
culture.” HisHis Lord
Lord of the Rings,
of the Rings, first
first pub-
pub-
lished in
in one volume in in 1968,
1968, encapsulates popular popular aspects
aspects ofof European
mythology and folklore. ItIt is is through
through Tolkien’s vision of Earth that
of Middle Earth that
many practitioners know the the mythology and and folklore of of elves,
elves, dwarves,
and
and wizards—if not from reading reading his his work directly,
directly, then through its
then through its indi-
rect influence on the
rect the role-playing game Dungeons && Dragons, Dragons, which isis
largely based on Tolkien’s universe. Tolkien’s influence was renewed in
largely in
the early
the early twenty-first century century through
through Peter Jackson’s trilogy trilogy of of films
based on The Lord of
The Lord the Rings.
of the Rings.
 Literary
Literary Origins
Origins and
and Influences 121
121

Many
Many Pagans find Marion Zimmer Bradley’s
Pagans find Bradley’s fantasy
fantasy novel The
The Mists
ofof Avalon inspirational. ItIt isis aa retelling of the
retelling of the story
story of King Arthur from
of King
the point
the point of
of view ofof the
the women involved and and isis set at
at the
the time of of the
the ini-
ini-
tial
tial confrontation between pre-Christian pagan traditions and and Chris-
tianity in
tianity in Britain. ItsIts appeal
appeal isis widespread among Pagans, including including
practitioners of of Goddess religion,
religion, Druidry, Wicca, and
Druidry, Wicca, and others. Pagans
Pagans
use The
The Mists ofof Avalon as an inspiration specifically for for initiation rituals
and
and men’s mysteries.”4
Terry Pratchett’s fantasy
Terry Pratchett's fantasy series of of Discworld novels, set in
novels, set in aa parody
parody of of
Medieval Europe
Europe and
and populated
populated by trolls, dwarves, wizards, witches, reg-
by trolls, reg-
ular humans, and
ular the “lords and
and the and ladies” (faeries),
(faeries), describes aa worldview
familiar to to Pagans. Pagans learn about the
Pagans. Pagans the nature of of other-than-human
persons and and about the the use of magic through
of magic through the
the novels. Pratchett’s pres-
entation of of witches’ views on deity deity inin the
the Discworld novels easily easily applies
applies
to Witches in
to in contemporary Paganism.” Just Just as in in the novels, Pagans
the novels, Pagans are
somewhat ambiguous in in their ideas about the the existence of of the
the god/
god/
desses. While Pagans Pagans do do not so much believe in in the
the god/desses as de- de-
velop relationships
velop relationships with with them,
them, as as in
in Discworld,
Discworld, the the fate
fate of the deities
of the deities are
are
somehow dependent on the faith of
the faith of the
the humans who believe in in them. A A
god
god without
without believers dwindles, as
believers dwindles, illustrated in
as illustrated in Pratchett's
Pratchett’s novel
novel Small
Small
Gods. As As one scholar explains, “Deities are fundamentally products products of of be-
be-
lief. This
lief. This maymay explain
explain whywhy deities do do whatever peoplepeople would like like to do ifif
to do
they had
they had thethe power or the the ability.
ability. Pratchett shares aa view of religion also
of religion also
known to to devotees of of Monty
Monty Python:
Python: itit becomes dangerous when taken
too seriously
too seriously and and isis best
best engaged
engaged in in or opposed
opposed with with humour.””6
The use of of magic
magic in in Discworld isis also also similar to to Pagan
Pagan understandings
of magic, and
of magic, and some Pagans
Pagans see Pratchett’s novels as aa teaching tool for for
the use of
the magic. Pratchett’s words, “People
of magic. “People who used magic without
used magic
knowing what they
knowing they were doing doing usually
usually came to to a a sticky
sticky end. All
All over the the
room sometimes,””” communicate aa Pagan
Pagan sense of
of interconnectedness
and an understanding that
and magical actions can have unexpected results.
that magical
Practitioners need
need toto consider carefully
carefully what might might happen.
happen. Pagans
Pagans of-of-
ten mention Ursula Le
ten Le Guin’s Earthsea series of of novels as aa teaching
teaching tool
tool
for the
for the ethical use of magic, while J.J. K.
of magic, K. Rowling’s series of of fantasy
fantasy novels
featuring Harry Potter,
featuring Harry Potter, now
now aa series
series of feature films,
of feature inspires interest
films, inspires interest in
in
magic and
magic and witchcraft more than itit influences ritual forms or practices practices
within Paganism.
Literary sources continue to
Literary to influence Pagan
Pagan practices and beliefs. The
practices and The
variety of popular
variety of popular books on Paganism and
and contemporary ready
ready access to
to
the
the Internet may lead
lead new Pagans
Pagans inin different directions than material on
magic and
magic folk traditions
and folk traditions did
did in
in the
the 1940s and 1950s,
1940s and 1950s, but
but Pagans
Pagans often
often
find their way back to the original
find their way back to the original sources that first inspired
that first inspired thethe develop-
develop-
ment of of Wicca and
and other Pagan groups.
Pagan groups.
122
122 Chapter 66
Chapter

FURTHER READING

Witching Culture: Folklore and

Magliocco, Sabina. Witching and Neo-Paganism inin America. Philadelphia: Uni-
versity of
versity of Pennsylvania Press,
Press, 2004.
Clifton, Chas S.,
Clifton, Chas S., and
and Graham Harvey.
Harvey. The Paganism Reader. New York:
The Paganism York: Routledge, 2004.
2004.
Harvey,
Harvey, Graham. “Fantasy
“Fantasy in
in the
the Study
Study of Paganism as Observed and
of Religions: Paganism and Enhanced
by Terry
by Terry Pratchett.” Diskus 66 (2000),
(2000), Web edition. http:/
http://web.uni-marburg.de/religion-
/web.uni-marburg.de/religion-
swissenschaft/journal/diskus (accessed June
June 8,
8, 2003).
2003).
Hutton, Ronald. The
Hutton, The Triumph
Triumph of
of the
the Moon: AA History
History ofof Modern Pagan
Pagan Witchcraft. Oxford: Ox-
ford University
ford University Press, 1999.
Press, 1999.

NOTES

1.
1. Lewis Spence,
Spence, “Hermes Trismegistus,” The
The Encyclopedia of
of the
the Occult (London: Bracken
Books,
Books, 1988),
1988), 208-9.
2.2. Sabina Magliocco,
Magliocco, Witching
Witching Culture: Folklore and
and Neo-Paganism inin America (Philadel-
phia: University
phia: University of
of Pennsylvania Press,
Press, 2004),
2004), 4.4.
3.3. Magliocco, Witching
Witching Culture, 37.
37.
4.4. Magliocco, Witching
Witching Culture,
Culture, 5.
5.
5.5. Magliocco, Witching
Witching Culture, 32.
32.
6.6. Magliocco, Witching
Witching Culture,
Culture, 32.
32.
7.7. James George
James George Frazer,
Frazer, The
The Golden Bough,
Bough, 3rd
3rd ed.
ed. (London: Macmillan, 1911),
1911), 1:xix.
1:xix.
8.
8. Frazer, Golden
Frazer, Bough,
Bough, 1:14.
1:14.
9.
9. Frazer, Golden
Frazer, Bough,
Bough, 2:128.
2:128.
10.
10. Frazer, Golden
Frazer, Golden Bough,
Bough, 2:129.
2:129.
11. James
11. James George
George Frazer,
Frazer, The
The New Golden Bough:
Bough: AA New Abridgment of
of the
the Classic Work,
Work, ed-
ed-
ited by
ited by Theodor H.
H. Gaster (New
(New York: Criterion Books,
Books, 1959), 299.
1959), 299.
12. Chas S.
12. S. Clifton and
and Graham Harvey,
Harvey, The Paganism Reader (New
The Paganism (New York: Routledge,
2004), 61.
2004), 61.
13.
13. Magliocco, Witching Culture,
Magliocco, Witching 46.
Culture, 46.
14.
14. Charles G.
G. Leland,
Leland, Aradia: Or
Or the
the Gospel
Gospel of
of the Witches (New
the Witches (New York: Samuel Weiser,
York: Samuel Weiser,
1974),
1974), vii.
vii.
15.
15. Leland, Aradia,
Leland, Aradia, vii.
vii.
16.
16. Leland, Aradia,
Aradia, v.v.
17.
17. Leland, Aradia,
Aradia, vii, viii.
vii, viii.
18.
18. Leland, Aradia, xi,
Leland, Aradia, xi, xii.
xii.
19.
19. Leland,
Leland, Aradia, 109.
Aradia, 109.
20.
20. Magliocco, Witching
Magliocco, Witching Culture,
Culture, 46.
46.
21.
21. Magliocco, Witching 47.
Witching Culture, 47.
22.
22. Magliocco, Witching
Witching Culture, 47-48.
23.
23. Clifton and
and Harvey, Paganism Reader,
Harvey, Paganism Reader, 92.
92.
24.
24. Clifton and
and Harvey,
Harvey, Paganism
Paganism Reader,
Reader, 91.
91.
25.
25. Margaret Alice Murray, The
Margaret The Witch-Cult inin Western Europe:
Europe: AA Study
Study in
in Anthropology (Ox-
(Ox-
ford: Clarendon [Oxford University
ford: University Press], 1921), 124.
Press], 1921), 124.
26.
26. Ronald Hutton, The Triumph of
The Triumph of the
the Moon: AA History
History of
of Modern Pagan
Pagan Witchcraft (Oxford:
Oxford University
University Press,
Press, 1999),
1999), 196.
196.
27. Hutton, Triumph
27. Hutton, of the
Triumph of the Moon,
Moon, 198.
198.
28. Clifton and Harvey,
28. Harvey, Paganism Reader,
Reader, 90.
90.
29. Magliocco, Witching
29. Magliocco, Culture, 48.
Witching Culture, 48.
 Literary Origins
Literary Origins and
and Influences
Influences 123
123

30.
30. Murray,
Murray, Witch-Cult in
in Western Europe,
Europe, 139, 140.
139, 140.
31.
31. Murray,
Murray, Witch-Cult in
in Western Europe,
Europe, 144.
144.
32.
32. Murray,
Murray, Witch-Cult in
in Western Europe,
Europe, 191.
191.
33.
33. and Harvey,
Clifton and Harvey, Paganism Reader, 90.
90.
34.
34, Murray, Witch-Cult
Murray, Witch-Cult inin Western
Western Europe,
Europe, 97.
97.
35.
35. Murray, Witch-Cult
Murray, in Western
Witch-Cult in Western Europe,
Europe, 112.
112.
36.
36. See, for example,
See, for Hutton, Triumph of
example, Hutton, of the Moon, 130-31.
the Moon,
37.
37. Graham Harvey,
Harvey, Contemporary Paganism: Listening
Listening People, (New York:
People, Speaking Earth (New
York University
New York University Press,
Press, 1997), 164.
1997), 164.
38. Percy
38. Bysshe Shelly,
Percy Bysshe Shelly, The
The Oxford
Oxford Book
Book of English Verse: 1250-1900, ed.
of English ed. Arthur Quiller-
Couch (Oxford: Clarendon Press,
Press, 1919),
1919), www.bartleby.com/101/605.html (accessed June
June 8,8,
2003).
39. Hutton, Triumph
39. Triumph of
of the
the Moon, 44.
Moon, 44.
40.
40. Kenneth Grahame, The
The Wind in in the
the Willows (London: Puffin Books, 1994), 120.
Books, 1994), 120.
41.
41. Grahame,
Grahame, Wind
Wind in
in the Willows, 124.
the Willows, 124.
42. M. H. Abrams, “John
42. M.H. “John Keats,” Norton Anthology of English Literature, 5th
of English 5th ed.
ed. (New York:
W. W.
W. Norton, 1986),
W. Norton, 1986), 2:827-28.
43.
43. Abrams, “John
“John Keats,” 826.
Keats,” 826.
44.
44. Hutton, Triumph of the
Triumph of the Moon,
Moon, 233.
45.
45. Clifton and
and Harvey, Paganism Reader, 80.
80.
46.
46. Loreena McKennitt, “Stolen Child,”
Child,” Elemental (Stratford, ON:
ON: Warner Music Canada,
Canada,
1994).
1994).
47. M. H.
47. M. H. Abrams, “William Butler Yeats,”
Yeats,” Norton Anthology
Anthology of English Literature, 5th
of English 5th ed.
ed.
(New York:
(New York: W.
W. W. Norton, 1986),
W. Norton, 1986), 2:1934.
48.
48. Shelly
Shelly Rabinovitch and
and James Lewis,
Lewis, eds.,
eds., Encyclopedia of
of Modern Witchcraft and Neo-
Witchcraft and Neo-
Paganism (New York: Citadel,
Paganism (New 2002), 170.
Citadel, 2002), 170.
49.
49. Aleister Crowley,
Crowley, TheThe Book of the
Book of the Law
Law (York Beach, ME:
(York Beach, ME: Samuel Weiser,
Weiser, 1976),
1976), 23.
23.
50. Doreen Valiente,
50. Doreen Valiente, The
The Rebirth of of Witchcraft
Witchcraft (Custer, WA: Phoenix Publishing, 1989),
(Custer, WA: 61.
1989), 61.
51.
51. Hutton,
Hutton, Triumph
Triumph ofof the
the Moon,
Moon, 221.
221.
52.
52. Valiente, Rebirth of
Valiente, Rebirth of Witchcraft,
Witchcraft, 16.
16.
53.
53. Valiente, Rebirth ofof Witchcraft,
Witchcraft, 57.
57.
54.
54. Hutton, Triumph of of the
the Moon,
Moon, 220.
55.
55. Rabinovitch and
and Lewis,
Lewis, Encyclopedia ofof Modern Witchcraft andand Neo-Paganism, 195. 195.
56. Rabinovitch and
56. and Lewis, Encyclopedia of of Modern Witchcraft andand Neo-Paganism, 104-5.
57. Margot Adler,
57. Margot Adler, Drawing
Drawing Down the the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and
Witches, Druids, and Other
Pagans
Pagans in
in America Today, revised
America Today, revised and
and expanded
expanded ed.
ed. (Boston:
(Boston: Beacon
Beacon Press,
Press, 1986),
1986), 60.
60.
58. M. H.
58. M. H. Abrams, “Robert Graves,” Norton Anthology ofof EnglishEnglish Literature, 5th
5th ed.
ed. (New
(New
York: W.
W. W.
W. Norton, 1986),
1986), 2:2245.
59.
59. Robert Graves, The
The White Goddess: AA Historical Grammar of
of Poetic Myth
Myth (London: Faber
&& Faber, 1948), 20.
20.
60. See Abrams, “Robert Graves,” 2250.
60. See
61.
61. Graves, White Goddess, 20.
20.
62.
62. White Goddess,
Graves, White Goddess, 337.
337.
63.
63. Hutton, Triumph
Triumph of
of the
the Moon, 190.
190.
64.
64. Hutton, Triumph
Triumph of
of the Moon, 192.
the Moon, 192.
65. Graves,
65. Graves, White
White Goddess,
Goddess, 62.
62.
66.
66. Hutton, Triumph
Triumph of of the
the Moon,
Moon, 193.
193.
67. Jenny
67. Blain, Nine Worlds of
Jenny Blain, of Seid-Magic: Ecstasy
Ecstasy and
and Neo-Shamanism in North European
in North European
Paganism
Paganism (London: Routledge,
Routledge, 2002),
2002), 31.
31.
68. K.
68. K. Kelly,
Kelly, “Close to to Nature: An with Annette Host,”
An Interview with Host,” Spirit
Spirit Talk
Talk 9,9, quoted
quoted in
in
Blain, Nine
Blain, Nine Worlds of of Seid-Magic, 44.
44.
124
124 Chapter
Chapter 66

69.
69. Blain, Nine
Blain, Worlds of
Nine Worlds of Seid-Magic,
Seid-Magic, 76.
76.
70.
70. See M.
See L. West’s
M. L. West's introduction
introduction toto Hesiod,
Hesiod, Theogony
Theogony and Works and
and Works Days, trans.
and Days, trans. M.
M. L.L.
West
West (Oxford: Oxford
(Oxford: University Press,
Oxford University Press, 1988).
1988).
71.
71. Shelly Rabinovitch and James
Shelly James Lewis, Encyclopedia of
of Modern Witchcraft and
and Neo-Pagan-
ism (New York:
ism (New Citadel, 2002),
York: Citadel, 2002), 122.
122.
72. Clifton and
72. and Harvey, Paganism Reader, 327.
327.
73. Graham Harvey,
73. Harvey, “Fantasy inin the
the Study
Study ofof Religions: Paganism as Observed and
and
Enhanced byby Terry
Terry Pratchett,” Diskus 66 (2000), Web edition, http://web.uni-marburg.de/
(2000), Web
religionswissenschaft/journal/diskus (accessed June
June 8,8, 2003).
2003).
74.
74. Clifton and
and Harvey,
Harvey, Paganism 326.
Paganism Reader, 326.
75.
75. See Harvey,
See “Fantasy in
Harvey, “Fantasy in the
the Study
Study ofof Religions.”
76.
76. Harvey, “Fantasy in
Harvey, the Study
in the Study of
of Religions.”
77.
77. Quoted in
Quoted in Graham Harvey,
Harvey, Contemporary Paganism:
Paganism: Listening People, Speaking Earth
People, Speaking
(New
(New York: New York
York University Press,
Press, 1997),
1997), 105.
105.
 77
ook
ook
Social and
and
Charismatic Influences

here is no
here is single founder
no single founder of
of Paganism,
Paganism, but
but aa few
few charismatic
charismatic figures,
figures,
popularizers, and and authors have
have had
had disproportionate influences on
the
the development of of Paganism. Characteristically, these individuals have have
had
had as much, or or more, impact
impact through
through their published writings
writings than they
they
have had in in person. Following thethe cultural trend of the revival of
of the folk tra-
of folk tra-
ditions and
and the popularity of
the popularity of magical
magical techniques fromfrom ceremonial magic
magic
in Britain, Gerald
in Britain, Gardner, Doreen Valiente, and
and Raymond
Raymond Buckland
brought Gardnerian Wicca to
brought to public
public attention in
in Britain and
and North Amer-
ica.
ica. Starhawk and Z. Budapest
and Z. Budapest were key
key contributors toto the
the development
of in California. Isaac Bonewits, Scott
of feminist Witchcraft in Scott Cunningham,
and Diana Paxson have been influential in
and in the
the diversification of Pagan-
of Pagan-
ism. While this
ism. chapter looks at
this chapter at influential individuals and their relations
and their
to social movements and
to and cultural trends in the development of
in the of Paganism,
itit is
is not a a complete
complete who’s who of of Paganism. There are aa number of of con-
that can serve that
temporary encyclopedias that that purpose.
Gerald Gardner (1884-1964) is the first
is the first great
great public
public figure in the
figure in the his-
his-
tory of contemporary Paganism. He
tory of He popularized Wicca through his his
writing, by
writing, by creating and through
creating covens, and through thethe Witchcraft museum on the the
Isle of Man,
Isle of Man, which he
he ran with Cecil
Cecil Williamson. Gardner became the
the
resident Witch,
Witch, and hehe used the
the museum as a a publicity
publicity tool.! If there was
If there
a surviving pagan religion in Britain or elsewhere before Gardner began
religion in began
popularizing Wicca, itit was wellwell hidden. Some Wiccans argue that al- al-
though
though there were no public
public practitioners prior
prior to
to Gardner’s publication
of
of Witchcraft Today in 1954,
Today in 1954, there were witches who,
who, fearing
fearing persecution,
remained hidden. These Wiccans refer to to the fact that
the fact that laws
laws against
against

125
125
126
126 Chapter 77
Chapter

witchcraft in in Britain were not repealed

repealed until
until 1951
1951 as evidence. ItIt is pos-
is pos-
sible
sible that
that Wiccan groups existed before Gardner’s publication of of Witch-
craft Today.
craft Today. However, without any any concrete evidence, itit isis more reason-
able to assume that
able to that there were no Wiccan groups preceding preceding thethe coven
that Gardner formed,
that Gardner formed, oror at
at least
least not
not until
until after
after the
the publication
publication of of Mar-
Mar-
garet
garet Murray’s
Murray’s The The Witch-Cult in Europe in
in Western Europe in 1921. There were
practicing magical
magical groups, and and there may even have been covens, but but
they did
they did not regard
regard themselves as Pagan Pagan or Wiccan untiluntil after exposure
to
to Gardnerian Wicca. ItIt appears as though though preexisting groups may may have
modified their practices under the
their practices the influence of of the
the Gardnerian Craft,Craft,
and later came to
and later to identify
identify as Wiccans and Pagans. Victor and
and Pagans. and Cora An-
derson, who developed the
the Feri, Faery, tradition, for
Feri, or Faery, for example, read
example, read
Gardner’s workwork in the 1950s. They
in the They corresponded with with him,
him, and
and later
later ini-
ini-
tiates in the
in the tradition appear to have used his
to have used his model as something of
of a
“style guide”
“style guide” for
for Feri
Feri practice, perhaps
perhaps due
due to its perceived
to its perceived authenticity
as aa survival ofof the
the witch cult
cult described byby Murray.”
Murray.”
Gardner was born
born in
in Blundellsands, England,
England, in 1884, and
in 1884, and was raised
raised
in
in aa middle-class family
family with aa governess. Due to
to recurring illnesses as aa
child, he
child, he received little
little formal education, but
but he
he traveled aa great
great deal,
deal, va-
cationing in in a variety
variety ofof warm climates duringduring the the winter to to calm his his
asthma. He He became a civil
a civil servant, managing tea and
tea and rubber plantations
in Borneo, and
in and later he
he worked as aa customs officer in in Malaysia. He He was
initiated as aa Freemason in in Ceylon and
Ceylon and became interested in
in magic in
magic in
Malaysia, and
Malaysia, and he he started reading anthropology and
and folklore.* He retired
He
from the civil service in
the civil in 1936
1936 and
and returned to to England
England withwith his wife,
his wife,
Donna. TheyThey lived inin London for for two years and
and then
then moved to to Highcliffe,
the New Forest area. Gardner joined
near the joined a nearby
nearby Rosicrucian Theatre
(an
(an amateur theatre group)group) andand began
began meeting
meeting with
with local
local occultists. He He al-
al-
leged that within the
leged the Rosicrucian Theatre group there was aa group called
the Crotona fellowship, through
the through which he he met “Old “Old Dorothy,” who who
headed the the New Forest coven.° He He claimed to to have
have been
been initiated by Old
by Old
Dorothy
Dorothy in in September of of 1939,
1939, and
and to
to have worked with her her coven into
the late
the late 1940s.°
1940s.¢
Gardner indicates that
that in 1946 he
in 1946 he received permission from
from the
the New
Forest coven toto publish
publish some rituals in in his
his novel High
High Magic’s Aid, first
Magic's Aid, first
published inin 1949 under thethe pseudonym Scire.”
Scire.”? After the
the repeal of the
repeal of the
laws against
laws against witchcraft in
in 1951 in
in Britain,
Britain, Gardner beganbegan to
to give
give press in-
in-
terviews to
terviews to advertise the
the existence of
of modern Witches.’ At
At this
this time,
time, he
he
also belonged
also to a naturist society,
belonged to society, or nudist group.’
group.? Gardner had had appar-
ently long
ently long been aa nudist,
nudist, and
and some Gardnerians continue his his practice
practice of
of
“sky-clad” rituals. In 1954, Gardner’s book Witchcraft
In 1954, Witchcraft Today
Today came out. In In
it, he names “Wica,”
it, he the religion
“Wica,” the of the
religion of wise. It
the wise. It seems likely
likely that
that Gardner
invented the
the word “Wicca” (his
(his spelling
spelling was variable) and the religion
and the religion
 Social and
Social and Charismatic
Charismatic Influences
Influences 127,
127

around 1950,'°
1950,'° although
although he he had been involved in in various magical prac-
magical prac-
tices not known by that name previously.
by that
Gardner’s claim to to have been
been initiated into
into a preexisting coven has has been
much debated. There is is no other
other first-hand account of of the reality of
the reality his ini-
of his ini-
tiation. Some
tiation. Some continue
continue to argue that
to argue that there
there waswas aa preexisting
preexisting coven,
coven, butbut
most scholars doubt the the existence of of the
the New Forest coven." “Old “Old
Dorothy” has
Dorothy” has been identified as Dorothy Dorothy Clutterbuck, but but Clutterbuck
was an upper-class woman in in the
the New Forest regionregion whowho appears not to to
have had
have had any
any occult leanings
leanings or any any connection to Gardner.!2 Gardner
to Gardner.'2
may have
may have named her her toto deflect attention from his his actual initiator, aa
woman identified by the pseudonym “Dafo,” who belonged to
by the to the
the Cro-
tona fellowship
fellowship and and was aa Co-Mason.'
Co-Mason.!° She She later
later withdrew from from thethe
becoming uncomfortable with
group, becoming with Gardner’s publicity.
publicity.
probably created Wicca out of
Gardner probably of Margaret Murray’s account of of
witchcraft as aa fertility
fertility religion
religion andand organized pre-Christian tradition, and and
from other readings
from readings in in anthropology and and folklore.'* Most Wiccan groups
have appeared
appeared onlyonly since 1970, and none before 1950. However, itit isis inac-
1970, and
curate toto say
say that
that Gardner completely invented Wicca, because “much of of
the
the material in in revival Witchcraft was already already in place by
in place by the early twen-
the early
tieth century.”'> That is,
tieth is, Gardner created and popularized Witchcraft as
an explicit
explicit religious
religious tradition based on preexisting groups and and writings
writings in in
the
the Western esoteric tradition and and folklore studies. And Gardner did did meet
people
people in the New Forest area who
in the who were practicing magic,
magic, such as Dafo.
In
In addition, although
although the
the rituals Gardner used drew
drew on aa number of
of dif-
dif-
ferent written materials underlying the the ideas of and passages taken from
of and
Murray, Leland, Crowley, Kipling,
Murray, Leland, Crowley, Kipling, and the Key of and the Key of Solomon,
Solomon, Doreen
Doreen Va- Va-
liente suggests that she
that she “found a
a basic structure” that
that was not
not derived
from
from them.!¢
Gardner called the the ritual book he he used his his “Book of of Shadows.” What
appears to to be early version of
be an early of this book, “Ye
this book, “Ye BokBok of of yeye Art Magical,”
was found
found behind aa filing
filing cabinet in library. It
in Gardner’s library. may be
It may be the
the ear-
liest surviving copy
liest copy of of his
his Book
Book ofof Shadows.'”
Shadows." It It was constructed to look
to look
like aa medieval grimoire, made up
like up of of bound blank sheets and and then filled
then filled
in somewhat as a scrapbook. He
in He copied
copied passages from from various sources,
arranging them thematically, with spaces left left for
for more material. Some of of
the copied
the copied passages came from from the Key of
the Key of Solomon, the Bible, the
the Bible, the kabbalah
(Jewish
(Jewish mysticism), and and Aleister Crowley’s writings.writings. It also includes rudi-
It also rudi-
mentary versions of rituals, with notes added in
of initiation rituals, the margins
in the margins for for
stage directions. These marginal
stage marginal notes are not not generally
generally included in in later
later
copies of
copies of the
the Book
Book ofof Shadows,
Shadows, which
which leadsleads some
some to to suggest
suggest that that “he
“he was
was
commenting on an already existing practice,” because “if
already existing he had
“if he had invented
the ritual
the ritual himself, there would
himself, there would have been no
have been no need
need to to add
add commentary
commentary and and
stage
stage directions.”!8 '® However, itit seems more likely likely that
that Gardner used used “Ye“Ye
128
128 Chapter 77
Chapter

Bok ye Art
of ye
Bok of Magical” as a magical
Art Magical” later Witches have
magical workbook, as later
to use their
tended to of Shadows. The
their Book of may therefore in-
pages may
The blank pages in-
that itit was not regarded as complete but
dicate that work in
but as aa work in progress.
Stage
Stage directions sometimes accompany new ritual scripts scripts written by by prac-
prac-
marginal notes are just
titioners, so Gardner’s marginal just as likely
likely to
to indicate thethe
newness of of the they are to
the rituals as they to indicate their age.
their age.
Allyn Wolfe,
Allyn Wolfe, a high
high priest
priest of the New Wiccan Church of
of the of central Cali-
Cali-
fornia, suggests that
fornia, that comparisons between his his group’s
group’s Book of of Shadows
and Gardner’s notebook indicates that that both are derived from an earlier
source. ButBut even if
if such aa text did exist, itit would only
did exist, only indicate that
that Gard-
ner took
took some material from aa preexisting British occult group, aa twenti-
eth-century group rather than than aa pagan survival. Gardner may may have pro-pro-
duced “Ye “Ye Bok” purely
purely to to substantiate his
his claim that he was copying
that he
previous tradition, just
previous just as hehe invented the the “Craft Laws,” but but he
he could just
just
as easily have believed that
easily have that hehe had
had found an ancient tradition, which was
in
in fact
fact aa twentieth-centu
twentieth-century ry creation. IfIf Gardner thought thought he he had
had found aa
remnant of
of ancient tradition, and added what he
and added he knew from folklore and
knew from and
anthropology, supplementing the
the materials he
he found, he would be
found, he be part of
part of
aa tradition of akin to
of folklore reclamation, akin the Grimm brothers’ collection
to the
and
and revisions of folk tales.!
of folk tales.!°
Gardner created modern Witchcraft as aa religious religious tradition and
and isis re-
sponsible for
sponsible for the
the initial drive to to popularize the
the Craft. He
He sought
sought publicity,
publicity,
wrote books on the the subject, and initiated people
subject, and people into
into what hehe represented
as a tradition of of Witchcraft continuous with with pre-Christian pagan tradi-
tions. He
He introduced most of the core ritual forms of
of the of Wicca from other tra-
ditions with which he he was familiar, such as Masonry. The The development
of Pagan Witchcraft in
of most Pagan in the
the United States can be be traced to
to Gardner’s
influence, and,
and, as Druid Isaac
Isaac Bonewits has
has pithily
pithily noted,
noted, he
he took
took “mate-
rial from
rial from any
any source that
that didn’t run too fast fast to
to get
get away.”2°
away.”?° Gardner was
successful in in popularizing Witchcraft in part because itit was sustained by
in part by
cultural trends that that supported
supported popular
popular interest in magic and folklore.
in magic
Margaret Murray’s work was popular popular at at the
the time,
time, and there
there was interest
in occult figures
in occult figures such
such as Aleister
Aleister Crowley.
Crowley. As As Valiente
Valiente notes, John John
Symond’s biography
biography of of Aleister Crowley,
Crowley, The The Great Beast,
Beast, published in in
1951, was less
1951, less sensationalist than
than previous
previous journalistic accounts of of his life,
his life,
and it
and public interest in
it renewed public in magic.”!
magic.?!
Doreen Valiente (1922-1999) isis largely largely responsible for for developing
developing the the
version of the Gardnerian Book of
of the of Shadows that that circulated in in the
the 1960s
1960s
and
and 1970s. She She has
has influenced the the development of of Paganism primarily
primarily
through
through her her rewriting
rewriting ofof Gardner’s Book of of Shadows in in the
the 1950s. SheShe
wrote thethe original verse form form of
of the
the Charge
Charge of of the
the Goddess based on aa
passage from Leland’s Aradia, and and the the Witches Rune, aa liturgyliturgy commonly
used in in Wiccan rituals to to raise power and and charge
charge magical tools. Her Her role
role
 Social and
Social Influences
and Charismatic Influences 129
129

Figure 13.
Figure 13. Doreen Valiente (from
(from Doreen Valiente’s Rebirth of
of Witchcraft)

in
in the
the development ofof Gardnerian Wicca was largely
largely unknown until
until the
the
1970s and
and 1980s. Verses she
she wrote have often been reproduced, particu-
particu-
larly in
larly in North America, as “traditional,” without crediting her or the
crediting her the
Gardnerian Book of of Shadows.
Gardner initiated Valiente in in 1953,
1953, and
and they
they were ritual partners for for
some time.
time. She became high high priestess of of his
his coven but held authority
but held authority over
the
the coven in in name only.
only. Valiente recalls,
recalls, “We were allowed to call our-
to call
selves High Priestesses, Witch Queens and similar
selves High Priestesses, Witch Queens and similar fancy titles; but fancy titles; but we
we
were still in the
still in position of
the position of having
having men running
running things and women doing
things and doing
as the
the men directed. As As soon as the the women started seeking seeking real
real power,
trouble was brewing.” In In her
her book TheThe Rebirth of Witchcraft, she
of Witchcraft, she discusses
the early
the early history
history ofof Gardnerian Wicca. She She debates the validity of
the validity of Gard-
ner’s claims,
claims, as well
well as the
the claims of another tradition based
claims of based on “the
“the
Pickingill Material,” about which she she draws no conclusions due due toto a lack
lack
of
of evidence. She isis very
evidence. She very critical
critical of
of both Gardner and
both Gardner and Alex Sanders, aa later
Alex Sanders, later
Witch. Ambivalent about both, both, she
she recounts their
their good
good points
points as well
well as
their bad
their bad points. later circled with Robert Cochrane (a
points. Valiente later (a pseudo-
pseudo-
nym)
nym) andand worked with him him until he died
until he died aa few
few years later,
later, inin 1966.
Cochrane practiced aa shamanic form form of
of Witchcraft, which later informed
the practices
the practices of
of the
the 1734 tradition.”
tradition.”’ (“1734” refers toto a mystical number,
rather than aa year.)
year.)
 DRO

—A
r wt
4 t=
, “ J

<> ay. _, a. ‘

Figure 14.
Figure 14. Alex
Alex and
and Maxine Sanders (photo
(photo from Stewart Farrar’s What Witches Do)
Do)
 Social and
and Charismatic Influences
Influences 13]
131

Alex Sanders (1926-1988) proclaimed himself “King “King of of the

the Witches.”
With
With his his wife
wife Maxine,
Maxine, styled
styled as “Queen of
as “Queen of the
the Witches,”
Witches,” he he founded what
founded what
came to to be
be known as the the Alexandrian tradition. The The Alexandrian tradition
isis largely
largely Gardnerian, but but with
with additional elements and and emphases from from
ceremonial magic magic and and spiritualism. In In 1965 andand 1966,
1966, Sanders became a
public figure,
public figure, and
and hishis popularity
popularity was challenged by by prominent Gardneri-
ans, who denounced him him as aa false
false Witch who lacked aa proper initiatory
lineage. He
lineage. He retorted that he had
that he had been initiated into into the Craft by
the Craft his grand-
by his grand-
mother and that itit was the
and that lineage of
the lineage of the
the Gardnerians that that was spurious.
spurious.
Sanders and his his wife
wife claimed to to preside
preside over 127 127 covens in in northern En-
gland,
gland, and
and they
they became famous in
in the
the London underground in
in the 1970s.
the 1970s.”
Alex
Alex Sanders was born in 1926, as Orrell
in 1926, Orrell Alexander Carter,
Carter, into
into aa work-
ing-class family.
ing-class His grandmother, said
family. His said to
to be
be “skilled inin the
the cunning
cunning
craft,” did
craft,” did practice
practice magic,
magic, and
and his
his mother was interested in in spiritualism
and introduced Alex to
and to the
the occult.
occult.”” He
He sought
sought initiation into
into Gardnerian
Wicca in
in the
the early
early 1960s but
but was refused. Patricia Crowther reports
reports that
that
he wrote to
he to her in November of
her in of 1961 saying that he
saying that he had always been
had always been in-
in-
terested in
in the
the occult and had seen her
and had her on television, and he wanted to
and he to
learn from
from her
her and her husband, Arnold. They
and her They met, but she
met, but took aa dislike
she took
to him
to him and
and refused toto initiate him.
him. HeHe later began
began circling
circling with Pat
Pat Kopan-
ski,
ski, who hadhad received first-degree initiation from the the Crowther’s coven
but
but had developed aa dislike for
had developed for their
their coven’s practice.
practice. Sanders may have
may have
eventually obtained initiation to the first
to the first degree
degree from aa Witch with thethe
magical
magical name Medea,
Medea, butbut the
the details ofof her lineage and
her lineage and Sanders’ contact
with her
her are sketchy.”6
sketchy.”°
Janet (b. 1950)
Janet Farrar (b. 1950) and
and Stewart Farrar (1916-2000) were initiated into into
Sanders’ tradition, which Stewart coined “Alexandrian.”*”
“Alexandrian.””” They
They wrote a
number of of books, notably AA Witches’ Bible,
books, notably Bible, a a popular
popular manual in in Algard
Algard
tradition (which blends Alexandrian and and Gardnerian Witchcraft). This This
text virtually
text virtually replaced
replaced thethe practice
practice ofof hand copying
copying aa coven’s Book of of
Shadows in in some groups, as it it includes most of of that
that material, as well
well as
commentary on the the origins
origins of
of various parts
parts ofof the text, including ac-
the text,
knowledgment of of Valiente’s contributions. The The Farrar’s moved to to Ireland
inin 1975 and added Irish
1975 and Irish elements to their practice.
to their practice. They
They became estranged
from
from Sanders byby the
the late 1970s, and
late 1970s, with Doreen Valiente. Together
and allied with Together
they
they analyzed
analyzed the
the various versions of the Book of
of the of Shadows and con-
cluded that
that Sanders’ tradition was based on Gardner’s rather than than being
being
inherited from his family.
from his The Algard
family.22 The Algard tradition has
has been
been prominent inin
some parts
parts of
of Canada, through the Odyssean
through the Odyssean tradition of the Wiccan
of the
Church ofof Canada.
Raymond
Raymond Buckland, with his
Buckland, with his first wife, Rosemary
first wife, Rosemary Buckland,
Buckland, brought
brought
Gardnerian Wicca to
to the
the United States in in the
the early
early 1960s. They
They formed
aa coven in
in New York andand became the the official representatives of the
of the
132
132 Chapter
Chapter 77

vet

Figure 15.
Figure 15. Janet and
Janet and Stewart Farrar (from
(from Farrar and
and Farrar’s Eight
Eight Sabbats for
for Witches)

denomination
denomination in the
in United States,
the United States, until
until theythey divorced
divorced in in the
the early
early
1970s. Gardner forwarded queries joining Wicca from Americans
queries about joining
to Ray Buckland, and
to Ray Buckland ran
and Buckland ran aa Witchcraft museum like like Gardner’s
on Long
Long Island. Buckland initially initially held
held that only only initiated Witches with
aa traceable lineage
lineage were “real” Witches—that is, that only
is, that only Gardnerian
initiates were “real” Witches, disdaining “do-it-yourself” initiates. He He
later changed his mind, though,
later changed his mind, though, and produced and produced a number of
of books for
for
popular
popular consumption.” His “Big
His “Big BlueBlue Book,” Buckland’s Complete Book
Complete Book of of
Witchcraft, introduced many American practitioners to the Craft. It
to the Craft. It
served as aa how-to guide guide forfor self-initiation, a training guide, and
a training guide, and aa coven
manual for for those who who could not find find an existing
existing coven to to train with.
with.
Buckland was born born inin 1934. His
His father was a
a Gypsy, and Buckland stud-
Gypsy, and
ied Gypsy culture and
ied Gypsy and thethe occult. He He read
read Gardner’s work in in the
the 1950s
and
and started corresponding with him,
him, continuing after he
he moved to the
to the
United States. He He and and Rosemary returned to
to thethe United Kingdom to be
to be
initiated inin 1963.%
1963.°° In 1973, shortly after
In 1973, shortly after their their divorce, Ray
Ray created a
a new
denomination, the
the Seax-Wica tradition, also
also called “Saxon Wicca.”3! It
It is
is
less
less rigid and more democratic than Gardnerian Wicca,
rigid and and itit recognizes
Wicca, and recognizes
 Social and
and Charismatic Influences
Influences 133
11338)

It was designed
self-initiation.*? It designed to
to be and new. It
be accessible and It isis not directly
directly
from Saxon origin
descended from origin but
but is
is rather newly
newly created, with Saxon folk-
folk-
lore included.*8
lore included.*?
Witchcraft also
also came toto the West Coast of
the West of the
the United States in
in the
the 1960s
and
and 1970s,
1970s, but
but itit developed
developed inin aa different
different and
and eventually more influential
eventually more influential
way
way in in combination with with feminist Goddess religion, largely through
religion, largely through thethe
teachings of of Zsuzsanna
Zsuzsanna Budapest and Starhawk. Zsuzsanna
and Starhawk. Zsuzsanna Budapest,
Budapest,
commonly called “Z.” Budapest, isis an American feminist Witch and and is is
largely responsible for
largely for the
the re-creation of of “Dianic”
“Dianic’” Witchcraft, thethe tradition
presented in in Leland’s Aradia. She She initially
initially advocated aa completely sepa-
rate practice for women, and
practice for and she
she continues to be a lesbian and aa priestess
to be priestess
of Diana,
of the goddess
Diana, the goddess in in Aradia. While some elements of of her
her practice
practice ap-
ap-
pear to
pear to be
be derived directly
directly from Leland’s Aradia and the Gardnerian Book
and the
of Shadows, she
of she does not citecite these works. Diana isis an appropriate god- god-
dess for
dess Budapest because of
for Budapest her portrayal
of her portrayal as an emancipatory force in in
Aradia, but
Leland’s Aradia, but also
also because thethe Roman goddess
goddess Diana was known
for shunning the
for shunning the company of of men.**
men. Murray
Murray had had described Witchcraft as
“the
“the Dianic Cult,” but following
Cult,”*> but following Budapest, women’s-only groups have have

Figure 16.
Figure 16. Z.
Z. Budapest (photo provided
Budapest (photo provided by
by Z.
Z. Budapest)
Budapest)
134
134 Chapter 77
Chapter

called Dianic. Dianic Witchcraft largely

been called largely became the practice of
the practice of
religion.” However,
Witchcraft as “women’s religion.”%° another of Dianic
group of
developed about
Dianics, developed
the McFarland Dianics,
Witches, the the same time
about the time as Bu-
as Bu-
This group includes men, and
dapest’s group. This
dapest’s well
and itit recognizes male as well
divinity.°”
as female divinity.°’ ;
Budapest was born in in 1940 in Hungary,
1940 in she immigrated to
and she
Hungary, and to United
States in
States 1959, initially
in 1959, Chicago, where
to Chicago,
initially to she married
where she and had
married and chil-
two chil-
had two
dren. She
dren. She left she came to
left what she to view as the of her
slavery of
the slavery role as
her domestic role
and moved to
wife and
aa wife Angeles, where she
Los Angeles,
to Los meeting with
began meeting
she began femi-
with femi-
nists at
nists at women’s liberation celebrations. She She knew many pagan pagan customs
the secular context of
inin the of Hungarian folkfolk culture, but in 1970,
but in she started
1970, she
reading
reading other
other folklore
folklore in
in English
English and
and began
began celebrating the
the sabbats with
with
other women in
other in aa group that
that became the Anthony coven,
the Susan B.B. Anthony
founded in 1971.%5
in 1971.%
She ran the
She the Feminist Wicca,
Wicca, an occult shop
shop in
in California, for time,
for some time,
leading her
which Starhawk visited, leading her to
to participate in
in her
her first
first large
large all-
all-
ritual, led
women ritual, led by
by Budapest.*?
Budapest.°? Budapest has has claimed that
that seven hun-
hun-
dred women were initiated into her tradition in
into her in the
the 1970s.*° She
She did
did not
not
all who call
initiate all call themselves Dianic Witches—man
Witches—many y had
had no direct con-
to Budapest—bu
nection to Budapest—butt in the
in the 1980s,
1980s, there
there were hundreds of
of Dianic
Dianic
operating as women’s-only groups.*!
covens operating groups.*! These
These women were inspired
inspired
by Aradia
by Aradia and
and Budapest's
Budapest's The
The Feminist Book
Book of
of Light
Light and
and Shadows, later
later pub-
pub-
as The
lished as The Holy
Holy Book
Book of
of Women’s Mysteries,
Mysteries, a a how-to book
book that
that became aa
core text for
for what came to to be
be known as “feminist spirituality,” aa term
coined byby Budapest.”
Budapest.#
The Holy
The Holy Book
Book ofof Women’s Mysteries
Mysteries has has enough
enough in in common with with Gard-
Gard-
nerian material that that itit appears to to bebe derivative, but but Budapest
Budapest denies
denies hav-
hav-
ing
ing ever read
read Gardner’s work.
work.* She She indicates that the work of
that the work of the the scholar
ofof classical Greek
Greek culture Jane Jane Ellen
Ellen Harrison was her her chief
chief inspiration.”
inspiration.
She
She has has claimed to be
to be a a hereditary witch, following the teachings
witch, following the teachings of of her
her
mother,
mother, an artist, altar builder, and psychic.
artist, altar builder, and psychic. She says her She says her mother pre-
pre-
sented her her art
art and
and psychic
psychic skills
skills as “peasant,”
“peasant,” and and she
she explains
explains that
that “peas-
“peas-
ant” and
ant” and “pagan”
“pagan” are the the same word word in in Italian.
Italian. Budapest
Budapest indicates that that
she
she was a
a Witch before
before she she was a
a feminist, and that there have been
and that there have been many many
herbalists and
herbalists and healers
healers in in her
her family,
family, documented
documented back back toto the
the year
year 1270.%
1270.
Budapest
Budapest was arrested for fortune-telling in Los
for fortune-telling in Los Angeles in Angeles in 1975. She
She
fought the
fought the chargecharge on grounds of the right to
grounds of the right to religious religious freedom (providing
counseling), but
counseling), but lost.
lost. Nine
Nine years
years later,
later, after
after many
many appeals,
appeals, thethe law
law was de-de-
feated and and struck
struck down by by Rose
Rose Bird,Bird, then
then on the the California Supreme
Supreme
Court. Traditional Wiccan Witches
Court. Witches generally
generally did did not
not support
support Budapest
Budapest
against the
against the charges,
charges, largely
largely because of of her
her feminist
feminist politics,
politics, butbut some
other Pagans
other Pagans spokespoke in in her
her defense in in letters
letters to
to the
the Pagan
Pagan magazine
magazine GreenGreen
Egg.#° Her
Egg.*° Her trial
trial brought
brought Witchcraft to to public
public attention in in California, and and
 Social and
and Charismatic Influences 135
135

drew attention to to anti-occult laws.

laws. The Los Angeles
The Los Angeles law
law forbade fortune-
telling, regardless
telling, regardless of
of whether money was charged not, and
charged or not, and was against
against
any practice
any of magic,
practice of magic, including clairvoyance and and palmistry.*”
In 1980,
In Budapest led
1980, Budapest led aa large
large ritual
ritual at the Pan-Pagan Festival in
at the the
in the
American Midwest, and for the
and for first time
the first time involved men in
inaaritual,
ritual, as
of the
guardians of the perimeter for
for women participating in
in aa sky-clad
sky-clad ritual.
For most of
For of the
the women, itit was their
their first ritual in
first ritual in aa nonpolarized setting
setting
(i.e.,
(i.e., itit was women andand goddess
goddess focused, rather than bitheistic with pre- pre-
scribed male and and female roles).
roles). ItIt was aa moving
moving experience for for the
the partic-
partic-
ipants, and “many
ipants, and “many of
of these women were forever changed by their experi-
by their experi-
ence.”“8
ence.”45 Budapest contributed to the development of
to the of separate men’s and
and
women’s mysteries, and and to
to aa decline inin animosity
animosity toward gender-specific
events at at Pagan
Pagan festivals. Some Pagans Pagans regard
regard separatist Dianic Witch-
craft as a necessary stage
craft stage in in the growth of
the growth of a more balanced view of of
women and and god
and men, and god and
and goddess,
goddess, in in the Craft, and
the Craft, and practitioners de-de-
bate about whether the the need for for separate men’s and and women’s rituals has has
past.?? Budapest herself has
past.” has mellowed, and and conflicts between feminist and and
mainstream Craft have mostly subsided.
have mostly
Budapest isis somewhat charismatic, and and although
although much of the wider na-
of the
tional Pagan
Pagan community rejected her, she
rejected her, she isis loved and
and respected by by many
in
in California.°° She
She isis respected
respected for for her
her creativity, for for her
her ability to inspire
ability to inspire
and craft
and craft new rituals,
rituals, and for leaving
and for leaving historical
historical questions to the academ-
to the
ics. She wrote the
ics. She the classic chant “We
“We All From the
All Come From the Goddess,”>! she
Goddess,”*! she
hosted aa television show in the 1980s,
in the 1980s, and she has
and she has a continuing public
public
in Paganism through
presence in through lecture tours, workshops, articles on the
the
Goddess, and her website.°?
and her
The Goddess-religion version of
The of Paganism espoused
espoused by by Budapest
Budapest and and
Starhawk attracted many women who had had become estranged from from or-
ganized
ganized religion
religion in in the
the second
second wave of of feminism in in the
the late
late 1960s (the (the
first
first wave being being the
the suffragist
suffragist movement, which won women the the right
right
to vote). Feminist influences introduced aa questioning of
to vote). of sexism and and pa-
pa-
triarchy within Paganism, the
triarchy the idea
idea that
that “the
“the personal
personal isis political,” and and
the consensus decision-making process, as well
the well as aa sometimes counter-
academic approach to to history
history and
and myth.
myth.°? Practitioners following Bu- Bu-
dapest’s lead
dapest’s lead took
took an attitude of of creative inspiration toward myth, myth, his-
his-
tory, and
tory, and tradition. Feminist practitioners often quote quote aa passage from from
Monique Wittig’s
Monique Wittig’s novel Les Les Guérilliéres (The
(The Wars):
Wars): “There was aa time
when you you were not not aa slave, remember that. that. . . . . . Make an effort to to re-
member. Or, failing that,
member. Or, failing that, invent.”°4invent.”°4
Starhawk,
Starhawk, an an American
American feminist
feminist Witch and an
Witch and initiate of
an initiate the Faery
of the Faery tra-
tra-
dition, isis a a cofounder of the
of the Reclaiming tradition. Starhawk is
is an interna-
tionally known author and
tionally and spokesperson for for the
the Craft and and for for Goddess
religion. Her
religion. Her books have
have been
been translated into
into German, Danish,
Danish, Italian,
Italian,
136
136 Chapter
Chapter 77

Portuguese, and
Portuguese, and Japanese.®>
Japanese. She
She wrote
wrote The Spiral Dance, one of
The Spiral of the
the most
commonly known how-to books introducing practitioners to
to Paganism.
She has
She has been
been influential in
in Paganism through
through embracing feminism while
the participation of
encouraging the of men.
Starhawk is is also
also well known for for her
her political
political activism. She She became po- po-
litically
litically active in in protests against against the the Vietnam War War in in the
the 1960s when she she
was in in high
high school, and and she she has
has never stopped.stopped. She eventually became aa
She eventually
prominent leader and and organizer
organizer in in the
the peace, antinuclear, and and antiglobal-
ization movements. She She says
says thatthat politics
politics andand spirituality have always always
gone together
together for for her,5°
her,>° andand this
this combination isis integral integral to to the
the Reclaiming
tradition she she cocreated. Environmental awareness in in particular
particular is is inherent
to her
to practice of
her practice of Witchcraft. She She feels that spiritual
feels that spiritual awareness inspires inspires
political
political action, and and she she says
says that the the Goddess is is not only
only a symbol
symbol but
also
also a living
living beingbeing who who “makes demands on us.”°”
Starhawk was born Miriam Simos in in 1951,
1951, into a Jewish
Jewish family.
family. SheShe be-
be-
gan to have
gan to have a Pagan a Pagan view
view of
of the
the world
world in
in the
the summer
summer of
of 1968,
1968, as
as she
she
hitchhiked and
hitchhiked and camped
camped along along the the coast
coast of of California. She She recalls, “For the the
first
first time I
I lived in
in direct contact with nature, day
day and
and night.
night. I
I began
began to
to
feel
feel connected to the
to the world in a
in a new way, to
to see everything as alive, erotic,
alive, erotic,
engaged in in a constant dance of of mutual pleasuring, and myself myself as a special
special
part
part ofof itit all.”°8
all.”°* In In the
the fall
fall of 1968, she
of 1968, she started college
college at at the
the University of of
California, Los Angeles (UCLA), and
Los Angeles class on Witchcraft with aa
taught aa class
and taught
friend as a project for for an anthropology course. They They formed aa coven and and
began
began to to improvise rituals. A A short while later,
later, she
she met what she she called
“real Wiccan Witches” and found “a “a framework for for understanding the the ex-
periences [she] [she] had already already had” upon hearing hearing the the Charge
Charge of of the
the God-
dess. SheShe underwent some training with those “real Wiccan Witches” but but
was not inclined at the time to
at the to follow their disciplined training program. program.?
Starhawk met Z. Z. Budapest in in the
the early
early 1970s and learned from her, her, but
but
she
she did not become integrated into Budapest's circle. She She graduated from
UCLA and started writing novels. She moved to to New York to try to
to try to get
get
published, but
but she
she had
had aa series of
of dreams that
that led
led her
her back to
to California,
where she
she began
began a more disciplined religious practice
practice and started writing
what was eventually published as TheThe Spiral
Spiral Dance. She taught
taught classes
again on ritual and
again and formed the
the Compost coven out of of them. She met Vic-
Vic-
tor and
tor and Cora Anderson, who trained her
her in
in the
the Faery
Faery tradition, and
and she
she
gained
gained status in
in the
the Pagan
Pagan community, being
being elected first officer of
of the
the
Covenant of of the
the Goddess in in 1976.
By
By 1977,
1977, Starhawk developed a desire for for a more political
political religious
practice than Compost could provide. She She moved to to San Francisco and
Raving, a coven for
founded Raving, for women only,
only, run on a nonhierarchical basis
with no high
high priestess.°!
priestess.*! In
In 1979,
1979, she started the
the Reclaiming community, a
feminist Witch group, with Diane Baker. Reclaiming began began as Goddess
Goddess
 Social and
and Charismatic Influences
Influences 137
IBY,

religion, conducting emancipatory rituals as aa teaching

religion, teaching collective on
Witchcraft. Out Out of
of those first
first classes, students formed the the Holy
Holy Terrors
coven, and
and the
the Wind Hags.
Hags. Starhawk and and others in in the
the Reclaiming com-
munity
munity putput on the
the first
first Spiral
Spiral Dance ritual at at Samhain of 1979, coinciding
of 1979,
with the
the publication of of Starhawk’s book book of of the
the same name. Raving be-
Raving be-
came thethe Reclaiming Collective in 1980 and
in 1980 and continues to to present an an-
nual
nual Spiral
Spiral Dance ritual in in the
the Bay
Bay Area.©
Area.
In 1981,
In 1981, Starhawk was arrested at at aa demonstration against
against the opening
the opening
of
of aa nuclear power plant plant atat Diablo Canyon.
Canyon. She She began
began to to support
support anar-
chist politics and
chist politics and direct action against
against environmental destruction, and and Re-
Re-
claiming opened to
claiming was opened to male participants. She has been arrested many
She has
times since, for demonstrating against
since, for against clear cutting
cutting old-growth forest in in
Clayoquot Sound, and and inin Genoa forfor her
her participation in in antiglobalization
protests, among other
protests, among other causes.
causes.
Starhawk’s influence has has been
been primarily
primarily in in adding
adding an overtly
overtly political
political
tone to
to Paganism,
Paganism, initially
initially feminism, and
and later
later anarchism, direct action,
action,
and
and antinuclear andand antiglobalization sentiments. HerHer outlook might
might bebe
described as the
the “California Cosmology” version of of Witchcraft, aa phrase
phrase
used to
used to describe the of nineteenth-century American pantheism
the evolution of pantheism
through Californian writers in
through in the
the 1970s. They
They included an eclectic mix
mix ofof
alternative ideas, the common belief “that
ideas, the “that everything inin the
the cosmos is is
both
both sacred and
and interconnected; that in the
that humans in the developed
developed world
have become tragically—perhaps fatally—disconnected from the the cosmos;
and that
and that reconnection isis possible
possible given only aa change
given only change of
of attitudes.”
The Spiral
The Spiral Dance became the
the best-selling book
book on Paganism, replacing
Gardner’s Witchcraft Today
Today as the
the model how-to text, text, largely
largely because of
of
Starhawk’s talent as a writer. Her writing
writing is
is clear and impassioned, and
clear and and
she is
she with having
is “popularly credited with having inspired the the foundation ofof hun-
dreds ofof groups ofof witches all all over Europe
Europe andand North America.”® Some
that The
estimate that Spiral Dance “created aa thousand women’s covens and
The Spiral and
spiritual groups,”
spiritual groups,” “perhaps more than than all the Gardnerians and
all the and Alexan-
drians combined.” Some say say that although
although sheshe is original and tal-
is an original tal-
ented writer, she
she isis not an original
original thinker: “Her genius lay in
genius lay in taking
taking ideas
ideas
from others andand combining and and applying them in in powerful ways.”°”
powerful new ways.”
While Wicca was spreading into North America from Britain and was
being transformed by
being its encounter with
by its with feminist Pagan other
Pagan groups, other
American Pagan
Pagan traditions began began to
to develop.
develop. AtAt Carleton College,
College, stu-
dents formed the
the Reformed Druids of
of North America (RDNA) in 1963, in
in 1963, in
protest of
protest the school’s requirements that
of the that students attend religious
religious serv-
ices.
ices. Although the
the requirement was waived a year year later, and though
later, and though
RDNA was not initially
initially intended to
to be
bea a religious
religious group, itit grew into
into one,
and into the
and the contemporary PaganPagan movement through through Isaac Bonewits.
Bonewits joined
joined RDNA through his his roommate at at Berkeley,
Berkeley, and they
and they
138
138 Chapter
Chapter 77

Figure 17.
Figure 17. Isaac Bonewits (photo
(photo provided
provided by
by Isaac Bonewits)

established aa grove there as an overtly religious Pagan

overtly religious Pagan group. AA subse-
quent schism with
quent with more-secular RDNA groups lead
lead to
to the
the formation of
of
the New Reformed Druids of
the of North America (NRDNA).® Bonewits later
later
founded Ar
Ar nDraiocht Féin (ADF),
(ADF), which grew into
into aa much larger
larger organ-
than RDNA. He
ization than He has
has since run ADF as aa self-admittedly “benevo-
lent dictatorship,”®’
lent dictatorship,” and has
has sometimes been
been a controversial figure
figure in
in Pa-
Pa-
ganism, leading some to
ganism, leading to describe himhim as “extremely opinionated
opinionated and and
often
often difficult, even
even egotistical,”
egotistical,” while
while noting that “he
noting that “he remains one of the
of the
most interesting
interesting Pagans
Pagans around.””
Born inin 1949,
1949, Bonewits was religiously inclined from from an early age. He
early age. He
went toto aa high
high school seminary
seminary butbut was atat the
the same time reading about
time reading
magic, and he
magic, and he later
later returned to to the public school system.
the public system. He He isis perhaps
perhaps
best
best known for for earning
earning aa bachelor’s degree
degree inin magic
magic from
from Berkeley
Berkeley in in
1970 through
1970 through theirtheir independent studystudy program, aa featfeat that
that the
the adminis-
tration subsequently made impossible to repeat. He
to repeat. He went on to get aa doc-
to get doc-
torate in
in anthropology from Berkeley. Publicity from his degree
from Berkeley. Publicity from his degree in magic in magic
 Social and
Social and Charismatic Influences
Influences 139
139

led to
led to the
the publication of Real Magic,
of Real Magic, which discusses ritual,
ritual, magic,
magic, and
and
psychic phenomena. He
psychic He has
has been aa public
public figure
figure in
in various branches ofof
since, and
Paganism ever since, and continues to He has
to produce books. He has been initi-
ated into
ated into the
the Gardnerian Craft,
Craft, NROOGD,
NROOGD, and
and the
the Order of
of the
the Temple
Temple of
of
the Orient,
the Orient, among other
other traditions.”!
Bonewits has been most influential through
has been through his
his ideas on magic, his dis-
magic, his dis-
cussion of the principles
of the principles of magic, and
of magic, and his
his theory of how magic
theory of magic works as
discussed in the multiple
in the multiple editions of Real Magic.
of Real Magic. He hashas also
also promoted
scholarship and general
scholarship Pagan learning
general Pagan learning from
from academic sources on Pa- Pa-
ganism and
ganism and Pagan history. He
Pagan history. He has
has long
long been
been critical of Pagan acceptance
of Pagan
of
of false
false histories concerning the the witch hunts and and ancient matriarchies,
and he
and he greatly
greatly contributed to the growing
to the growing critical awareness of of historical
issues inin Paganism in in the
the United States by the mid-1970s.” He
by the He angered
angered
many by by calling
calling the
the Wiccan revival myth myth “the
“the myth
myth ofof the
the Unitarian,
Universalist, White Witchcult of
of Western Theosophical Brittany.””>
Brittany.””? He
He
has been critical
has critical also of Robert Graves, calling
also of calling him “a sloppy
him “a sloppy scholar”
who “has
who “has caused more badbad anthropology to
to occur among Wiccan groups
than almost any other work.” The
The problem
problem was not so much in in Graves
himself, whom Bonewits praises for his inspirational use of
for his of metaphor
and myth,
and myth, but
but in
in practitioners who treated Graves’ andand Murray’s
Murray’s writ-
ings as “sacred scripture.””4
ings
A
A number ofof people
people find
find Bonewits’ categorization of Pagans into
of Pagans into paleo-
paleo-
pagans, mesopagans, and
and neopagans useful. Paleopaganism refers to in-
to in-
digenous polytheistic traditions. Mesopaganism refers to to reconstruction-
ist
ist traditions that began
that began under the
the influence of
of monotheistic and gnostic
and gnostic
ideas, such
ideas, such as some early
early forms of
of Druidism. Neopaganism (also
(also spelled
spelled
“Neo-Paganism”)
“Neo-Paganism’) refers to to revivalist and
and re-creationist groups formed af- af-
ter
ter about 1960,
1960, under the
the influence of
of modern ideas about inclusivity and
and
equality, that
equality, that is,
is, with
with political
political consciousness.”°
consciousness.” More specifically, Bonewits
defines Neo-Paganism as “polytheistic (or (or conditional monotheistic) na-
ture religions
religions that
that are based upon the older or Paleopagan religions; con-
the older
centrating
centrating upon an attempt to the humanistic, ecological and
to retain the and cre-
ative aspects
ative aspects ofof these oldold belief systems while discarding their their occasional
brutal or repressive developments, which are inappropriate.””inappropriate.””°
In the
In the 1980s,
1980s, Paganism diversified further with with the
the development of of re-
constructionist traditions drawing drawing from
from aa number of but Wicca
of cultures, but
continued to to grow
grow in in popularity, particularly through the the development of of
solitary practitioners. Scott
solitary Scott Cunningham’s books, Wicca: AA Guide for for the
the
Solitary Practitioner and
Solitary and Living
Living Wicca: AA Further Guide for for the
the Solitary Prac-
Solitary Prac-
titioner,
titioner, made this this development possible.
possible. Cunningham (1956-1993) was
initiated into
into aa number of of groups butbut preferred
preferred solitary
solitary practice. His writ-
practice. His
ings made the
ings the teachings of of Wicca widely
widely available, providing access to to
the religion
the religion for
for practitioners who did did not have
have contact with teaching
teaching
140
140 Chapter
Chapter 77

in the
covens in States, or did
the United States, did not want to
to practice
practice within organized
groups. Along
groups. Along with
with writers
writers such
such as
as Heather O’Dell and
Heather O’Dell and Marion
Marion Green,
Green,
Cunningham made Wicca accessible to to those who
who were not not interested in
in
working in
working in covens.””
By making the
By making the teachings
teachings ofof Wicca available outside of teaching covens,
of teaching
Cunningham contributed to to the
the growth
growth of beyond initia-
of eclectic Wicca beyond
tory traditions.”®
tory traditions.” HeHe presented Wicca as a modern religion,
religion, newly
newly created
and
and open
open toto possibility, but
but inspired
inspired by past traditions. Indirectly, Cun-
by past
ningham
ningham may have have contributed to to thethe increased role role ofof festivals in in Pa-
Pa-
ganism
ganism beginning in the 1980s,
in the 1980s, since some solitary solitary practitioners attend
such festivals in
such place of
in place of regular
regular group practice” to gain a periodic
to gain periodic sense
of
of belonging.
Cunningham produced more than than thirty
thirty books on Witchcraft and and top-
top-
ics
ics related to the practice
to the practice of of Paganism. He
He isis one of Llewellyn
of Llewellyn Publications
most successful authors,®°
authors,*° and and he
he isis one of of the
the best-selling PaganPagan authors
for a popular
for a popular audience. More than
than 400,000 copies
copies ofof Wicca: AA Guide forfor the
the
Solitary
Solitary Practitioner were sold per year by 2000,°! and
per year by 2000,5! and it is it is now available in
in
Spanish. Perhaps it is in part
Spanish. Perhaps it is in part due to the due to the success of
of Cunningham’s guide
guide
that
that hishis publisher,
publisher, Llewellyn Publications, prefers its book titles
prefers its titles to
to include
“Wicca” rather
“Wicca” rather than
than “Witchcraft”
“Witchcraft” or or “Paganism,”
“Paganism,” aa decisiondecision thatthat contin-
contin-
ues to to influence the the use of of these
these terms by by practitioners. Increasingly, Pa- Pa-
gans identify with
gans identify with “Wicca” as a generic generic term for for “Pagan.”
AA major
major exception
exception to the tendency toward aa preference
to the preference for for the
the terms
“Wicca” and and “Wiccan” isis in in Heathen and and Asatru groups, who sometimes
even refuse the the label “Pagan.” One of of the
the more prominent practitioners in in
this area is
this is Diana Paxson, leader of
of Hrafnar (“The
(“The Ravens”), aa Heathen/
Asatru reconstructionist group inin the
the United States founded inin 1988. She
She
isis respected in the Heathen/Asatru community and
in the and has
has exerted an aes-
thetic influence on Paganism more broadly through the
broadly through the Society
Society for Cre-
for Cre-
ative Anachronism (SCA),
(SCA), which she
she cofounded. The SCA, which
The SCA, which began
began
at a party
at party in
in Paxson’s backyard in
in 1966,
1966," revives the
the clothing and prac-
clothing and prac-
tices of
tices of the
the Middle Ages
Ages and the Renaissance, as well
and the well as
as music,
music, herbalism,
and medieval cooking.
and cooking. Many
Many practitioners find
find their way into
their way into local Pagan
Pagan
communities through and the
through SCA events, and the medieval flavor of
of their
their prac-
tices permeates Pagan
Pagan aesthetics.
Paxson was born born in
in 1943 and
and grew up
up in She earned aa mas-
in California. She
degree in
ter’s degree in comparative literature and
and has
has had several novels pub- pub-
lished. She
She trained as an Episcopal minister atat one time,time, which has has led
led
some toto jokingly
jokingly describe some rituals ofof Fellowship of the Spiral
of the Path, to
Spiral Path, to
which sheshe also
also belongs,
belongs, as “High
“High Episcopagan.”83
Episcopagan.”*® SheShe was first
first initiated
by
by her
her sister-in-law, the
the novelist Marion Zimmer Bradley.
Bradley. She
She has
has studied
Wicca, neo-shamanism, and
Wicca, other traditions, but
and other but her
her focus is
is on Asatru,4
Asatru,*4
although she
she remains aa member of of NROOGD and the kabbalistic group
and the
the Fellowship of
the the Spiral
of the Spiral Path.
Path.®
 and Charismatic Influences
Social and Influences 141
141

Paxson’s greatest has been in

greatest influence has in the
the revival of
of oracular seidr,
seidr, or
divination from from the high seat,
the high seat, about which she she teaches workshops
throughout the the United States and and Europe.
Europe. Oracular seidr seidr “in
“in its
its present
form was first
form first practised within today’s today’s Heathenry
Heathenry in in the
the USUS when Diana
Paxson went looking looking for for ‘something for the women to
for the to do’
do’ while men
were involved in in performing ‘viking‘viking games’
games’ and and drinking
drinking beer, beer, playing
playing
out the
out the . . . stereotype of the
of the macho warrior.”®°
warrior.”® She hasShe has authored aa num-
ber of
ber of novels with Pagan
with Pagan elements, and
and sheshe contributes regularly to Pagan
to Pagan
magazines.* She also edits
magazines.*’ She also edits Idunna, journalIdunna, a journal devoted to
to Heathenry.
Many
Many other people people could be be included in in aa list
list of
of those who who have
have made
important contributions or played played significant roles in the
in the development of
of
Paganism. Ed Fitch, for example,
Ed Fitch, for example, has has been credited with creating
creating the the
“outer court” structure commonly used in in Wiccan and and other Pagan Pagan
groups.°§ Gwydion
groups.*§ Gwydion Pendderwen (Tom DeLong) was aa prominent bard
(Tom DeLong)
(musician and storyteller)
(musician storyteller) whose
whose songs
songs became
became well well known
known and and loved be- be-
yond
yond hishis home state of of California. Lady Lady Sheba (Jesse (Jesse Wicker Bell) Bell) pub-
pub-
lished thethe Gardnerian Book of of Shadows for the first
for the first time. Sybil
Sybil Leek be- be-
came known for for her
her claim to to be
be initiated into into aa tradition other than than
Gardnerian Wicca. Oberon Zell-Ravenheart (formerly (formerly Tim Tim Zell
Zell or Otter
greatly contributed to
G’Zell) greatly to the
the Church of of All
All Worlds and and influenced
Pagans more generally through
Pagans through his his editorship of of Green Egg. Egg. Aiden Kelly Kelly
became infamous for for creating
creating doubt in in the
the authenticity of of Gardner’s
claim to to having
having been initiated into into aa preexisting religion.religion. Margot
Margot Adler
became well well known to to practitioners as well well as scholars of of Pagan
Pagan studies
through her
through her thoroughly researched and and unsurpassed survey of of American
Paganism, Drawing Drawing Down the the Moon. More recently,
recently, Chas Clifton has has done
much to to foster the the growth
growth of the field
of the field of Pagan studies, moderating
of Pagan moderating the the
Nature Religion Scholars Network e-list, e-list, organizing meetings meetings at at the
the
American Academy of of Religion,
Religion, andand editing
editing TheThe Pomegranate: The The Interna-
tional Journal
tional Journal of Pagan Studies. These people,
of Pagan people, and and others,
others, continue to to shape
shape
the
the development of of Paganism
Paganism into diverse traditions.

FURTHER READING

Clifton,
Clifton, Chas. Her Hidden Children. Lanham, MD:
Her Hidden MD: AltaMira Press,
Press, 2006.
Hutton, Ronald. The
The Triumph
Triumph ofof the
the Moon: AA History of Modern Pagan
History of Witchcraft. Oxford: Ox-
Pagan Witchcraft. Ox-
ford
ford University Press, 1999.
University Press, 1999.

NOTES

1.1. Margot
Margot Adler,
Adler, Drawing Down the
the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and Other
Goddess- Worshippers, and
Pagans in
Pagans in America Today,
Today, revised and
and expanded ed. (Boston: Beacon Press,
expanded ed. Press, 1986),
1986), 62.
62.
2.2. Cora
Cora Anderson indicates that
that the
the main “trunk” of
of the
the Feri stemming from the
Feri tradition stemming the
Andersons did
did not
not rely
rely on Gardnerian material, but
but that
that there
there are branches of
of the
the tradition
tradition
142
142 Chapter 77
Chapter

that are more influenced by

by Gardnerian practice. Cora Anderson, personal
practice. Cora personal communication,
August 23,
August 23, 2005. See also Chas
See also Chas S. Clifton, Her
S. Clifton, Her Hidden Children (Lanham,
(Lanham, MD:
MD: AltaMira, 2006),
2006),
132.
3.
3. Sabina Magliocco, Witching
Witching Culture: Folklore and
and Neo-Paganism inin America (Philadel-
phia: University of
phia: Press, 2004),
of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), 48-49.
4.
4. Ronald Hutton, The Triumph of
The Triumph of the
the Moon: AA History
History of
of Modern Pagan
Pagan Witchcraft
Witchcraft (Oxford:
Oxford University
Oxford University Press
Press 1999),
1999), 205.
205.
5. Magliocco, Witching
5. Magliocco, Witching Culture, 49.
Culture, 49.
6.6. Hutton,
Hutton, Triumph
Triumph of
of the Moon, 206.
the Moon, 206.
7.7. Adler,
Adler, Drawing
Drawing Down
Down thethe Moon,
Moon, 61.
61.
8.8. Hutton, Triumph
Triumph of
of the Moon, 206.
the Moon, 206.
9.
9. Adler, Drawing
Adler, Down the
Drawing Down the Moon,
Moon, 61.
61.
10.
10. Clifton, Her
Her Hidden Children, 75.
75.
11.
11. Her Hidden Children, 87.
Clifton, Her 87.
12.
12. Hutton, Triumph
Triumph of the Moon,
of the Moon, 211.
211.
13.
13. Hutton, Triumph
Triumph of
of the
the Moon, 212-13.
14.
14. Tanya Luhrmann, Persuasions
Tanya of the
of the Witch's Craft
Craft (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 1989),
Press, 1989), 42-43.
15. Magliocco, Witching
15. Witching Culture,
Culture, 51.
51.
16.
16. Doreen Valiente, The
Doreen Valiente, Rebirth of
The Rebirth Witchcraft (Custer,
of Witchcraft (Custer, WA:
WA: Phoenix
Phoenix Publishing,
Publishing, 1989),
1989), 63.
63.
17. Magliocco,
17. Magliocco, Witching Culture, 51.
Witching Culture, 51. Magliocco does not
Magliocco does not state
state when
when the book was
the book was found,
found,
but Hutton, following Aiden Kelly’sKelly’s research, indicates that
that “Ye
“Ye Bok of ye
Bok of Art Magical”
ye Art Magical” pre-
pre-
cedes thethe 1953 version ofof the
the Book of of Shadows. See See Hutton, Triumph
Triumph of the Moon, 227.
of the 227. It
It isis
held in
held in a collection of
of Gardner’s papers in in Toronto byby Richard and
and Tamarra James.
James.
18. Magliocco, Witching
18. Witching Culture,
Culture, 52.
52.
19. Magliocco,
19. Witching Culture,
Magliocco, Witching Culture, 52-54.
52-54.
20. Quoted in
20. in Adler, Drawing Down the
Adler, Drawing the Moon,
Moon, 70.
70.
21. Valiente, Rebirth of
21. of Witchcraft, 17.
Witchcraft, 17.
22. Valiente, Rebirth of
22. of Witchcraft, 182.
Witchcraft, 182.
23. Chas S.
23. S. Clifton and
and Graham Harvey,
Harvey, The
The Paganism
Paganism Reader (New
(New York: Routledge,
2004), 215.
2004), 215.
24. Hutton, Triumph
24. Triumph of
of the Moon, 326.
the Moon,
25. Hutton,
25. Hutton, Triumph
Triumph of
of the Moon, 330-31.
the Moon,
26. Hutton, Triumph
26. Triumph of
of the
the Moon, 320-22.
27. Hutton, Triumph
27. Hutton, Triumph of
of the
the Moon, 329.
Moon, 329.
28. Hutton,
28. Hutton, Triumph
Triumph of
of the Moon, 338-39.
the Moon, 338-39.
29.
29. Clifton and Harvey,
Clifton and Harvey, Paganism
Paganism Reader, 209-10.
Reader, 209-10.
30. Shelly
30. Shelly Rabinovitch and
and James
James Lewis, Encyclopedia of
of Modern Witchcraft
Witchcraft and
and Neo-Pagan-
ism (New York:
ism (New York: Citadel,
Citadel, 2002),
2002), 30.
30.
31. Magliocco,
31. Witching Culture,
Magliocco, Witching Culture, 70.
70.
32. Rabinovitch and
32. and Lewis,
Lewis, Encyclopedia of
of Modern Witchcraft
Witchcraft and
and Neo-Paganism, 31.
31.
33. Adler,
33. Adler, Drawing the Moon,
Drawing Down the Moon, 93.
93.
34. Hutton, Triumph of
34, of the
the Moon,
Moon, 344.
344.
35. Adler,
35. Adler, Drawing
Drawing Down
Down the
the Moon,
Moon, 121.
121.
36. Jone
36. Jone Salomonsen, Enchanted Feminism: The
The Reclaiming
Reclaiming Witches of San Francisco (London:
of San
Routledge, 2002),
Routledge, 2002), 242.
242.
37.
37. Wendy and Wicca,” in
Wendy Griffin, “Goddess Spirituality and in Her
Her Voice,
Voice, Her
Her Faith, ed. Arvind
Faith, ed.
and Katherine K.
Sharma and K. Young
Young (Boulder, CO: Westview Press,
(Boulder, CO: Press, 2003).
2003).
38. Adler,
38. Drawing Down the
Adler, Drawing the Moon,
Moon, 77.
77.
39. The Spiral
39. Starhawk, The Spiral Dance: AA Rebirth of
of the
the Ancient Religion
Religion of
of the
the Great Goddess. 10th
anniversary ed.
ed. (New
(New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1989),
1989), 3.
 Social and
and Charismatic Influences
Influences 143
143

40. Hutton,
40. Hutton, Triumph
Triumph of
of the Moon, 344.
the Moon, 344.
41.
41. Adler,
Adler, Drawing
Drawing Down the Moon,
Down the 121.
Moon, 121.
42. Rabinovitch and Lewis,
42. Lewis, Encyclopedia of
of Modern Witchcraft and Neo-Paganism, 32-31. The
Witchcraft and The
original publication of
original of The of Light
The Feminist Book of Light and
and Shadows credits the the members of the Su-
of the Su-
san B. Anthony coven with authorship, but
B. Anthony but Budapest
Budapest isis listed as the
the author of
of The
The Holy
Holy Book
Book
of
of Women’s Mysteries, although she she notes others as contributors.
43. The
43. The similarities with Gardnerian material may may be due to
be due to both traditions using
using Le-
Le-
land’s Aradia as aa source.
44.
44. Personal communication, JulyJuly 5,
5, 2005. See also Hutton, Triumph
See also Triumph of
of the
the Moon,
Moon, 344.
344.
45.
45. Adler, Drawing
Adler, the Moon,
Drawing Down the Moon, 76.76.
46.
46. Clifton, Her Hidden Children, 121.
Clifton, 121.
47.
47. Adler, Drawing
Adler, Drawing Down the Moon, 187.
the Moon, 187.
48. Adler,
48. Adler, Drawing Down the
Drawing Down the Moon, 426.
Moon, 426.
49. Salomonsen, Enchanted Feminism, 242-43.
49.
50.
50. Adler, Drawing Down the
Adler, Drawing the Moon,
Moon, 187.
187.
51. Hutton,
51. Hutton, Triumph
Triumph of
of the
the Moon, 360.
360.
52. Personal communication, July
52. July 5,5, 2005. See also Rabinovitch and
See also and Lewis,
Lewis, Encyclopedia of
of
and Neo-Paganism, 32.
Modern Witchcraft and 32. Budapest's website can be be found atat www.zbu-
dapest.com.
53. Clifton,
53. Clifton, Her
Her Hidden Children, 121-22.
54.- Monique
54. Monique Wittig, Les Guérilliéres (Boston: Beacon Press,
Wittig, Les Press, 1985),
1985), 89.
89.
55. Rabinovitch and
55. and Lewis,
Lewis, Encyclopedia ofof Modern Witchcraft and
and Neo-Paganism, 250.
250.
56. Starhawk, Webs
56. Webs of
of Power: Notes from
from the
the Global Uprising
Uprising (Gabriola Island,
Island, British Co-
Co-
lumbia: New
New Society
Society Publishers, 2002),
2002), 4.
4.
57.
57. Starhawk, Dreaming the the Dark: Magic,
Magic, Sex
Sex and
and Politics, new ed.
ed. (London: Mandala [Un-
[Un-
win
win Paperbacks], 1990),
1990), xvi.
xvi.
58. Starhawk, Spiral
58. Spiral Dance,
Dance, 2.2.
59. Starhawk, Spiral
59. Spiral Dance,
Dance, 2-3.
2-3.
60.
60. Starhawk, Spiral 3-5.
Spiral Dance, 3-5.
61. Salomonsen, Enchanted Feminism, 39.
61. 39.
62. Salomonsen, Enchanted Feminism, 1.1.
62.
63. Salomonsen, Enchanted Feminism, 39-40.
63.
64. “The
64. “The California Cosmology” is is aa phrase
phrase developed
developed by
by Alston Chase. Ronald Hutton
that Starhawk learned this
suggests that this perspective through
through Carolyn at Berkeley.
Carolyn Merchant at Berkeley. Hut-
Hut-
ton, Triumph
ton, Triumph of
of the
the Moon, 350-51.
Moon, 350-51.
65.
65. Hutton, Triumph
Triumph of
of the
the Moon,
Moon, 345, 347.
345, 347.
66.
66. Adler, Drawing Down the
Adler, Drawing the Moon,
Moon, 228, 418.
228, 418.
67.
67. Hutton, Triumph
Triumph of
of the
the Moon, 350.
350.
68.
68. Rabinovitch and
and Lewis, Encyclopedia of
of Modern Witchcraft and Neo-Paganism, 26.
Witchcraft and 26.
69.
69. Quoted in Adler,
Quoted in Adler, Drawing
Drawing Down the Moon, 327.
the Moon, 327.
70.
70. Adler,
Adler, Drawing
Drawing Down the
the Moon,
Moon, 327.
327.
71.
71. Rabinovitch and
and Lewis, Encyclopedia of
of Modern Witchcraft and Neo-Paganism, 26.
Witchcraft and 26.
72. Witching Culture,
72. Magliocco, Witching Culture, 192-93;
192-93; Hutton, Triumph
Triumph ofof the
the Moon, 369.
Moon, 369.
73. Adler,
73. Drawing Down the
Adler, Drawing 45.
the Moon, 45.
74.
74. Quoted in Adler, Drawing
in Adler, the Moon,
Drawing Down the Moon, 59.
59.
75. Isaac Bonewits, “Defining
75. Isaac “Defining Paganism: Paleo-,
Paleo-, Meso-,
Meso-, and 2.5,” Isaac Bonewits’
and Neo- 2.5,”
Homepage, 2001,
2001, www.neopagan.net/PaganDefs.html (accessed August
August 6, 2004).
6, 2004).
76. Quoted in
76. Quoted Adler, Drawing
in Adler, Drawing Down the
the Moon,
Moon, 10.
10.
77. and Lewis,
77. Rabinovitch and Lewis, Encyclopedia of
of Modern Witchcraft
Witchcraft and
and Neo-Paganism, 69.
69.
78. Rabinovitch and
78. and Lewis,
Lewis, Encyclopedia of
of Modern Witchcraft
Witchcraft and
and Neo-Paganism, 70.
70.
79. Clifton
79. Clifton and Harvey, Paganism
and Harvey, Paganism Reader, 273.
Reader, 273.
144
144 Chapter 77
Chapter

80.
80. Clifton and Harvey, Paganism
and Harvey, Paganism Reader, 273.
Reader, 273.
81.
81. and Lewis,
Rabinovitch and Lewis, Encyclopedia ofof Modern Witchcraft and
and Neo-Paganism, 70.
70.
82.
82. Clifton, Her
Her Hidden Children, 117.
117.
83.
83. Magliocco,
Magliocco, Witching
Witching Culture,
Culture, 146.
146.
84.
84. Rabinovitch and Lewis, Encyclopedia ofof Modern
and Lewis, Witchcraft and
and Neo-Paganism, 208-9.
85.
85. Magliocco,
Magliocco, Witching
Witching Culture, 81.
Culture, 81.
86.
86. Jenny Blain, Nine Worlds of
Jenny Blain, of Seid-Magic: Ecstasy
Seid-Magic: Ecstasy and
and Neo-Shamanism inin North
North European
European
Paganism (London: Routledge, 2002),
2002), 143.
87. Rabinovitch and Lewis, Encyclopedia of
87. of Modern Witchcraft and
Witchcraft and Neo-Paganism, 209.
209.
88. Rabinovitch and
88. and Lewis, Encyclopedia of of Modern Witchcraft and
and Neo-Paganism, 103.
103.
 8
ook
ook
Denominations

n discussing the
the forms and types
types of
of Paganism, it
it is to use aa
is necessary to
flexible typology,
typology, because practitioners do
do not necessarily fall
fall neatly
neatly
into
into distinct categories. There are identifiable denominations inin Pagan-
Pagan-
ism, named groups or traditions of
ism, of Pagan
Pagan practice, but
but there are also
also
forms ofof practice
practice that
that run across thethe denominations, such as as eclectic and
and
solitary
solitary practice.
practice. There are also also overlapping religious
religious movements and and
types
types ofof religious practice
practice that
that generate cross-denominational forms of of
Pagan
Pagan practice,
practice, such
such as shamanism, feminist spirituality, and and New AgeAge
practices. Shamanism, feminist spirituality and Goddess religion religion exist as
religious
religious traditions in in themselves, but they also
but they overlap with Paganism as
also overlap
forms of Pagan practice.
of Pagan practice. Some traditions discussed as denominations can
also be
also be seen as forms of practice, such as specific
of practice, specific family
family traditions and
and re-
constructionist traditions. The The generally diverse and flexible structure of of
Paganism makes Pagan
Paganism Pagan traditions difficult to to categorize.
The
The majority of of practitioners practice
practice an eclectic form of of Paganism.
Eclectic forms of of Paganism are traditions or practices
practices that
that draw from mul-
tiple traditions, blending
tiple blending them intointo new forms,
forms, either for specific rituals or
for specific
to create new Pagan
to Pagan denominations. A A ritual can be be eclectic,
eclectic, an individ-
ual’s solitary
ual’s practice can be
solitary practice be eclectic, and
and aa tradition can bebe eclectic but
but sta-
sta-
ble over time in
ble in an individual’s
individual's practices
practices or in in group practices. An indi-
An indi-
vidual or group might,might, for example, construct a ritual on the
for example, basis of
the basis of what
feels
feels right, taking inspiration from
right, taking from a folk
folk practice described in in Luisah
Teish’s Jambalaya,
Jambalaya, using
using aa reproduction of of aa Cretan goddess
goddess figure,
figure, and
and
playing
playing Cuban drum music during during thethe ritual,
ritual, weaving multiple
multiple elements
into
into aa new synthesis.
synthesis. A A solitary
solitary practitioner mightmight develop
develop relationships

145
145
 146
146 Chapter 88
Chapter

with the
with goddess Hecate from the
the goddess the Greek pantheon, as well
well as Brigid
Brigid from
Celtic mythology, and bring together
and consistently bring together elements ofof both cul-
cul-
in all
tures in all her/his ritual work. Some groups form an eclectic practice
practice that
that
develops into a denomination of
develops of Paganism, such as the
the New Reformed
Orthodox Order
Orthodox Order of
of the
the Golden
Golden Dawn
Dawn (discussed
(discussed with
with other Witchcraft de-
other Witchcraft de-
nominations below),
below), and
and the of All
the Church of All Worlds.
The Church of of All Worlds, known as CAW,
All Worlds, CAW, isis aa pantheistic, often
often poly-
poly-
theistic eclectic denomination. Members are not necessarily Pagan, Pagan, as lo-lo-
cal groups are completely autonomous, but
cal but many are. CAW practitioners
share aa common recognition of
share of divinity
divinity as immanent, or within humans
and thethe rest of
of nature. As As discussed in in chapter
chapter 7,7, CAW is is modeled after
the Church
the Church of of All
All Worlds
Worlds in in the
the novel Stranger inin aa Strange
novel Stranger Strange Land,
Land, but
but Zell,
Zell,
Christie, and
Christie, other early
and other early members
members of CAW also
of CAW also drew
drew on on other
other sources
sources of of
inspiration. Despite
Despite AynAyn Rand’s antireligious stance, her her novels Atlas
Shrugged
Shrugged and The Fountainhead were also
and The also important influences in in the for-
the for-
mation of of CAW,
CAW, particularly in the
in the context of
of creating
creating an alternative to the
to the
strict upbringing that that many experienced growing up up in
in the
the 1950s. Other
important sources were emerging emerging research on ecology ecology and and ancient cul-
tures, and Abraham Maslow’s ideas about self-actualization.!
tures, and
Many
Many Pagans
Pagans are solitary
solitary practitioners, meaning
meaning they
they practice
practice their
their re-
ligion
ligion singly
singly rather than in
in aa group. As
As solitaries, they
they are not members of of
any particular group with an identifiable denomination,
any denomination, but but they
they may feel
feel
an affinity
affinity for
for a particular tradition. They
They forma “hidden majority” of
of Pa-
Pa-
gans,* perhaps
gans,’ perhaps constituting up up to 70 or 80
to 70 80 percent of of practitioners, ac-
cording
cording toto estimates made by by an executive of of aa popular
popular publisher
publisher ofof Pa-
Pa-
gan books? and
gan books’ and Witchvox.com cofounder Fritz Jung.t Jung. Academics report aa
lower proportion of of solitaries, but
but still
still more than 50 percent.5
50 percent.°
Pagans choose solitary
Pagans solitary practice
practice for
for a variety
variety ofof reasons. Some are “in “in
the broom closet” and do
the do not want coworkers or neighbors to to know theythey
are Pagan.
Pagan. Others have not found aa group to to their liking,
liking, or are tem-
porarily
porarily between groups. Some simply simply prefer
prefer aa solitary
solitary practice. Solitaries
may
may be be inin contact with
with their
their local Pagan
Pagan community
community throughthrough friends but but
not practicing together, or they they may havehave contact with other Pagans Pagans
through
through online communities
communities (listservs, chat chat groups, and web rings) rings) or
through regional festivals. Solitaries are more likely likely than
than other practition
practition--
to live
ers to in rural
live in rural areas andand small towns. They They tend to to be
be in
in their twen-
ties
ties and correspondingly single.
and correspondingly They are also
single. They also more likelylikely than group
practition
practitioners ers to
to be
be heterosexu al, and,
heterosexual, and, according to at least
to at least one study,
study, they
they
are less
less likely
likely to
to be
be politically active than
than group practition ers.°
practitioners.®
The
The general accepta nce within Pagani
acceptance Paganismsm ofof solitary
solitary practice as aa legiti-
legiti-
mate form of of practice isis perhaps structur
structurally
ally unique
unique to to Pagan
Pagan religion
religion,”
,”
but
but itit may be be less
less accepta ble or common in
acceptable in some denomin ations of
denominations Pa-
of Pa-
ganism
ganism than than inin others. Wiccans appear to to be
be more likely
likely toto value group
group
 Denominations 147
147

practice over solitary

practice solitary practice,
practice, with some practitioners viewing
viewing coven
training
training as necessary to to becoming “a “a real
real Witch.”8
Witch.”® Practitioners in
in initia-
tory in particular are more likely
tory traditions in likely to regard solitary
to regard solitary practice
practice as
inferior. The
The individualism of
of solitaries presents aa challenge or resistance
to the routinization and
to the institutionalization of
of Paganism.’
Paganism.? AA solitary
solitary Witch
can initiate her/himself by
by whatever means desired, but but in
in an organized
tradition like
like Gardnerian Wicca,
Wicca, aa teaching
teaching coven must be found, and
be found, and ini-
ini-
tiation must be sought through
be sought through aa predetermined and highly highly structured
process. Solitaries do do not have
have toto agree with
with anyone about how to to conduct
a ritual,
ritual, and
and they may have no interest in
they may teaching others or in
in teaching in serving
serving thethe
larger Pagan community, whereas in
larger Pagan in group practice, practitioners gener- gener-
ally
ally learn from elders and and develop
develop group norms as aa matter of of course.
Paganism also also takes on a number of of forms of practice in
of practice its overlap
in its overlap
with New Age Age spirituality, Goddess religion, religion, feminist spirituality, and and
shamanism. Feminist spirituality can be be regarded
regarded as aa form of practice
of practice
(feminist Paganism) and and aa denomination within Paganism, as with Dianic
Witchcraft and and thethe Reclaiming tradition, but spirituality and
but feminist spirituality and
Goddess religion
religion are alsoalso movements that that extend beyond
beyond Paganism. Pa- Pa-
ganism isis interrelated with Goddess religion,
ganism religion, feminist spirituality, and and
women’s spirituality more broadly through the
broadly through the common use use ofof
metaphors, images images of deity as Goddess, and
of deity understandings
and understandin gs ofof divinity
divinity as
immanent in in women’s bodies and and in
in nature more generally. Practitioners
emphasize the the equality,
equality, andand sometimes the the superiority, of of women.
Feminist spirituality spans aa number of of religions,
religions, including
including Judaism,
Christianity, and and others. Rosemary
Rosemary Radford Ruether, for for example, isis ac-
tive
tive in Christian feminist spirituality,
in Christian spirituality, asas isis Judith
Judith Plaskow
Plaskow in in Jewish
Jewish fem-
fem-
inist spirituality. The
inist The Fellowship
Fellowship of of Isis
Isis isis an eclectic and and pluralist God- God-
dess group practicing
dess practicing feminist spirituality. They They were founded in in 1976 inin
Ireland and quickly became an international group. The
and quickly The Fellowship of of
Isis
Isis isis not exclusively Pagan,Pagan, butbut multifaith.!° Like Like some other groups in in
religion, itit is
Goddess religion, is not restricted to to women. Some men participate in in
Goddess religion
religion andand feminist spirituality, but but not when itit isis character-
ized
ized as “women’s spirituality,” aa term that, that, ironically, is meant to
ironically, is to be
be in-
in-
clusive of of non-feminist—
non-feminist—identified
identified women. Goddess religion religion isis some-
times seen as aa type type ofof women’s spirituality, because practitioners may may or
identify as feminist. Some practitioners of
may not identify of women’s spirituality
do not
do not use anthropomorp
anthropomorphic metaphors such
hic metaphors such as “Goddess” for
for the
the di-
di-
vine, or do
vine, do not perceive
perceive the
the Goddess as aa person external to
to themselves.
Whether feminist spirituality, Goddess religion, or Paganism isis described
as aa subset of
of the
the others isis often chosen based on what an author or
speaker
speaker wants to to emphasize.
Feminist spirituality
spirituality began
began in in the
the late
late 1960s and
and early
early 1970s in
in the
the
States, at
United States, at about the same time
about the time on the
the east
east and west coasts. In
and west In
 148
148 Chapter
Chapter 88

California, Z.
Z. Budapest
Budapest coined the term in
the in 1972." In
In Massachusett s,
Massachusetts,
Mary Daly
Mary Daly called on women to form
to form an “exodus community” in
in her
her
1971 sermon at
1971 at Harvard Memorial Church, when she
she called on feminists
to leave the
to the church and create aa new community outside patriarchal in- in-
stitutions. The
The feminist spirituality movement developed in in a variety
variety of of
small groups at at about the the same time. In In some feminist groups, a spiri- spiri-
tual
tual dimension evolved over time: some consciousness consciousness--raising
raising groups
became spirituality groups and began doing ritual as well
began doing well as holding
holding
discussions in in circle. Some early early Pagan
Pagan women’s spirituality meetings
might be
might be described as a cross between Gardnerian ritual and and a con-
sciousness-raising
sciousness-rais ing group, as women shared their personal experiences
sitting
sitting in
in a circle andand brought
brought spiritual practice into the the group by by creat-
ing aa sense of
ing of sacred space.
Various groups using using thethe acronym “WITCH” in in the
the 1970s were origi-
origi-
nally
nally wholly political in
wholly political in focus,
focus, but they picked
but they picked up up on thethe fact that the
fact that the
witch hunts had had targeted
targeted women and that that modern women were also also op-
op-
pressed, andand they
they began
began to to reclaim thethe word “witch” through feminist
spirituality
spirituality.. Those in in the
the women’s movement who desired aa spiritual spiritual as-
pect
pect toto their politics
politics encourage
encouragedd each other to to form covens and invent
new traditions that that valued women if if they
they did
did not like
like what they
they found in in
existing Pagan groups, some of
existing Pagan of which used to be quite
to be quite sexist and/or het-
erosexist. Some PagansPagans havehave been critical of of practitione
practitioners rs of
of Goddess reli-
reli-
gion
gion and feminist spiritualit
spiritualityy for
for their
their use and understanding of
and understanding of mythic
history, particularl
history, particularlyy their ideas about matriarchamatriarchall prehistory, but but liberal
feminism has has largely
largely permeated Paganism in in North America.
Pagans have develop
developed ed shamani
shamanicc forms of of Witchcra ft, Druidry,
Witchcraft, Druidry, and
and Hea-
thenry,
thenry, creating an overlap
overlap between Paganism
Paganism and neo-shamanism. Pagans
and neo-shamanism. Pagans
create shamani
shamanicc forms of of Wicca and Druidry
Druidry through
through thethe work of of writers
such as Caitlin and
and John Matthews. In
John Matthews. In Heathen ry, Jenny
Heathenry, Jenny Blain,
Blain, Robert Wal-
lis,
lis, and
and Diana
Diana Paxson
Paxson havehave develop
developeded shamani
shamanicc forms of practice.
forms of practice.
“Shama nism” usually
“Shamanism” usually refers to indigen
to indigenousous religiou
religiouss practice
practicess for
for relating
relating
with spirits, thethe otherwo rld, or extraor
otherworld, dinary reality.
extraordinary reality. “Neo-s hamanism”
“Neo-shamanis m”
generall
generallyy refers to to contemp orary practices
contemporary practices inspired
inspired by, by, but
but not in in continu-
ity with, indigen
ity with, ous practices
indigenous practices of of shamani sm. Shaman
shamanism. Shamanism ism is is aa categor
categoryy ofof
religion
religion created by by academi cs, initially
academics, initially from reading
reading reports of of traders and
travelers
travelers.. Academi
Academics cs first identified shaman
first identified ism with the
shamanism the Tungus people of
Tungus people of
Siberia, from whom they they took thethe word “shaman
“shaman.”.” Subsequently,
Subsequently, itit came to to
be
be associat ed with similar indigen
associated ous practices
indigenous practices inin other places.
places. Western ac-
ademics constru
constructed
cted thethe idea of of “shama
“shamanism”
nism” initially
initially from indigen
indigenous
ous
groups, andand they
they continu
continuee toto associat
associatee shaman
shamanismism with indigen ousness, al-
indigenousness, al-
though
though such practices
practices may be be universal.,!2
universal.!2
Shamanism shares with Paganism
Shamanism Paganism aa numbe
numberr of of practi ces and beliefs,
practices beliefs,
such as magic,
magic, trance
trance,, posses sion, and raisin
possession, raisingg energy
energy.. Practi ces of
Practices of both are
are
 Denominations
Denominations 149
149

often directed toward healing,

healing, and both involve relationships with other-
than-human persons. However, shamans usually undergo an initiation
usually undergo
process quite
quite different from that
that practiced in Pagan
in Pagan groups. ForFor shamans,
it
it is
is usually
usually aa severe experience of of confrontation with one’s mortality,
mortality, of-
of-
ten through
through illness or aa trance experience of dismemberment.
of dismemberme nt. Paganism
overlaps
overlaps with shamanism primarily in in the
the form ofof neo-shamanism rather
than indigenous shamanism. ItIt isis labeled “neo” because itit is
than is reconstruc-
tionist rather than in in continuity with
with indigenous practices.
Neo-shamani
Neo-shamanism sm is called “urban shamanism,” usually
is sometimes called usually in
in
the
the context of of universalized
universalized versions of of shamanic traditions removed
their cultural origins,’3
from their origins, such as Michael Harner’s “core shaman-
ism.”'* Indigenous critics of of neo-shamans have have called such practitioners
“white shamans” and “plastic medicine men.”!5 Neo-shaman
and “plastic Neo-shamanism
ism isis some-
times “dismissed as nostalgic, and and challenged as having
having reduced Shaman-
ism
ism to
to its
its lowest common denominators
denominators:: essentially
essentially drumming, vision
quests and
quests and Otherworld journeys.
journeys. ItIt isis frequently marked by
by typically
typically
individualismm,, vague universalism and
modern individualis woolly psychologiza
and woolly psychologiza--
tion.”1° However, some shamanic practitioners
tion.” practitioners,, particularly those
those who
who are
reconstruction
reconstructionist
ist Pagans, argue that
Pagans, argue they are practicing
that they their own
practicing their indige-
own indige-
nous traditions in
in reviving
reviving traditions of
of their Saxon, Celtic,
their Saxon, Norse, or Ice-
Celtic, Norse, Ice-
landic ancestors. In
landic In addition,
addition, some are quite
practitioners are
some practitioners nuanced in
quite nuanced in
their understandin
their understandi ngg of they are reconstructi
of how they reconstructinngg traditions, and and are po-
po-
litically aware of
litically of issues of of appropriation
appropriation..!”!”
Despite the
Despite the desires of of many Pagan
Pagan practitioners
practitioners,, Paganism also over-
Paganism also
laps with
laps with New
New AgeAge spirituality.
spirituality. “New Age” Age” refers
refers toto aa new era in
in human
consciousness.
consciousnes s. ItIt isis sometimes associated with with the
the “Age
“Age of of Aquarius”
Aquarius” as a a
post-Christian Aquarius isis the
post-Christian era. Aquarius the sign
sign following
following Pisces,
Pisces, taken
taken in
in this
this con-
text to
text to represent
represent Christianity, in in the
the progression of of the (going
the Zodiac (going
backward in in relation to to the
the order
order of
of the birth signs
the birth signs in
in astrology).
astrology). This
This pro-
pro-
gression of
gression of ages
ages isis aa reinterpretation
reinterpretation of of the
the twelfth-cent
twelfth-century Joachim de
ury Joachim de
of history
Flores’ division of history into
into the
the ages
ages of
of the
the Father,
Father, the
the Son,
Son, and
and the
the
Holy Spirit,
Holy Spirit, correspondin
corresponding, g, respectively, to to the
the ages
ages ofof the
the Hebrew Bible,
Bible,
the Christian
the Christian New New Testament,
Testament, and and the
the Holy
Holy Spirit.
Spirit. In
In the
the New
New Age
Age inter-
inter-
pretation, the
pretation, the three
three ages
ages are changed
changed to to the
the ages
ages of
of Aries
Aries (the
(the Father),
Father),
Pisces (the
Pisces (the Son),
Son), and
and the
the New AgeAge of of Aquarius.'8
Aquarius.!®
New Age
New Age spirituality
spirituality exhibits aa tendency
tendency toward millenariani
millenarianism and
sm and
apocalypticism,
apocalyptici sm, oror the
the belief
belief in
in a a coming
coming inevitable cataclysmic
cataclysmic change,
change,
with the
with the end
end ofof the
the era of of Pisces andand the
the beginning
beginning of of aa New
New Age.
Age. This
This
New Age
New Age isis thought
thought toto bebe an age
age that
that will
will be
be less
less corporeal,
corporeal, andand inin which
humans will will ascend
ascend toto aa higher
higher consciousnes
consciousness. New Age
s. New Age spirituality
spirituality tends
tends
toward aa dualistic understandi
understanding ng of of matter and
and spirit,
spirit, seeing
seeing the
the natural
world as
material world as an illusion
illusion or as somehow secondary to to the
the spiritual
spiritual
(ethereal or
(ethereal or astral).
astral). ItIt tends
tends toto have
have aa transcendent
transcendental
al outlook,
outlook, and,
and, being
being
 150
150 Chapter 88
Chapter

influenced by
by theosophy, it
it isis more universalistic than
than Paganism, taking
taking
from Hinduism, Buddhism, and
elements from Christianity.
and Christianity.
Age spirituality isis a type
New Age type of
of religious
religious outlook that
that is
is found in in a
number of of religious and isis often not identified with any
religious traditions, and any religion
religion
in particular. There are Buddhist, Christian, and
in Pagan New Age
and Pagan practi-
Age practi-
tioners, for
for example. The
The New AgeAge isis not easily
easily delimited because it has no
it has
identifiable religious
religious institutions, and
and practitioners rarelyrarely identify
identify them-
selves as New Agers.
Agers. Arguably, “New Age” Age” should be be understood as an
adjective rather than aa noun, since itit isis not so much aa movement asaa set of
set of
tendencies or characteristics found in in various religions
religions and movements.
Religious
Religious traditions can be be examined in in terms of of toto what extent or degree degree
they
they can be be described as New Age, Age, rather than by by classifying them as part part
of
of the
the New New Age
Age movement, which does not exist as aa quantifiable entity.!9 entity.'9
Some researchers present Witchcraft as a subculture of of the
the New Age Age
movement, or use “Witchcraft“Witchcraft”” and “New Age” Age” interchange
interchangeably.”ably.”? In In cat-
egorizing Paganism with the the New Age, Age, some researchers inaccuratel inaccuratelyy
present Paganism as “world rejecting.”2! rejecting.”! PagansPagans almost invariably see the the
divine as immanent within rather than transcenden transcendentt of of the
the natural world.
Pagans believe in
Few Pagans in a radically
radically transcenden
transcendentt deity deity or godhead.
Pagans
Pagans often joke joke about the the difference between New Age Age and Pagan Pagan
events, saying
saying that
that it
it can bebe summed up up in in two decimal points: points: if if three
dollars admits one to to a Pagan
Pagan workshop
workshop,, a similar New Age Age workshop
will cost three hundred dollars. Pagans Pagans tend to to portray New Age Age practi-
tioners as “fluffy
“fluffy bunnies,” superficia
superficially lly playing with belief in in angels,
angels,
channelin
channeling, g, spirit
spirit helpers,
helpers, andand animal guides. Pagans Pagans suggest that that New
Agers
Agers focus on good, good, “white” energy, without recogniti recognition on of the neces-
of the
sary roles and importanc
importancee of of death and darkness. N. N oting
oting problems with
the
the New Age Age use of of such metaphor
metaphorss of of white and light light inin terms of of racism,
Pagans
Pagans tend to to present New Agers Agers as more concerned with personal de- de-
velopment than Pagans
velopment Pagans are, at at the
the expense of of political
political and environme
environmental ntal
awareness
awareness.. Pagans suggest that that the the New Age Age focus on good good energy as
white light light indicates a lack of of depth
depth and aa failure to to recognize one’s
shadow side. However, it it is
is possible that Pagans Pagans themselve
themselvess project what
they
they dislike about their coreligion coreligionists ists onto New New Agers
Agers in in their presenta-
tion of of New AgersAgers as superficia
superficiall practitioners
practitioners who draw from too many, many,
too diverse sources without awareness of of issues of of appropria tion. The
appropriation.
lack
lack of of people who identify as New New Age
Age practition
practitioners ers isis conspicuo
conspicuous. us.
Witchcr
Witchcraft aft can be be seen as a form of of practic
practicee within Pagani sm, but
Paganism, but also as
a group of denominations. Generically,
of denominations. Generically, practit ioners refer to
practitioners to these tradi-
tions as “the Craft,” a term that origina lly referre
originally referredd to to Masonr
Masonry, y, aa Wester
Westernn
myster
mysteryy traditi on that influe
tradition nced some of
influenced of the
the early
early forms of of Witchcr aft,
Witchcraft,
notabl
notablyy Wicca. Practit ioners of
Practitioners of the
the Craft are called “Witch es” or “Wicca
“Witches” ns.”
“Wiccans.”
Some of of these practit ioners wear a pentac
practitioners le pendan
pentacle pendantt or ring, ring, a five-p ointed
five-pointed
 Denominations 151
aT

star
star inside aa circle,
circle, as aa marker of
of their religious identification, as some
their religious
Christians wear aa cross, and
and some Jews
Jews the
the Star
Star of
of David. Witches form the
the
largest portion of
largest portion of Pagan
Pagan practitioners, but
but of
of these,
these, not all
all are practitioners
of
of Wicca. Wicca maymay be
be the
the most visible andand largest
largest denomination within
Paganism, but
but counting
counting practitioners is is confounded by by people
people meaning
meaning
different things by “Wicca.” In
things by In Britain,
Britain, “Wicca” refers
refers exclusively toto Gard-
nerian and
and Alexandrian traditions, while
while in
in the
the United States it
it is
is often
often
conflated withwith Witchcraft and and Paganism more generally. Some call call Gard-
nerian andand Alexandrian Wicca “British Traditional Witchcraft,” but but inin
Britain this
this refers to family or hereditary traditions. Some practitioners use
to family
the label “Wicca” simply
the label simply because they they prefer
prefer itit to
to “Witch.”
Some who identify
identify themselves as Wiccans regard regard initiated WiccansWiccans as as
the
the most committed Pagans
Pagans andand suggest that only those trained in
that only those in aa coven
are “real”
are Witches, or
“real” Witches, that Pagans who do
or that do not identify
identify themselves as
Witches are simply
simply hiding
hiding their identity as Witches. This
their identity has led
This has led some re-
searchers to report that
to report that Witches are more committed to
to their religion than
their religion than
other Pagans.” However, some Pagans Pagans see thisthis attitude as domineering.
Many reject the
Many reject the labels “Witch” and and “Wiccan,” to to distance themselves ei- ei-
ther from
ther from what
what they
they see as the history of
the questionable history Wicca, or from
of Wicca, from the
the
fabricated association with with heretics killed as “witches” in in medieval times.
Witchcraft groups are organized into into covens. These are usually usually small
local groups with
local with generally less less than a dozen members, although outer-
court groups may include many many more people.
people. Witchcraft has has generally
generally
followed the the basic form and and structure of of Gardnerian Wicca. Perhaps Perhaps not
all Witchcraft traditions are derived from
all from Gardnerian Wicca, but all
Wicca, but all seem
to be
to be influenced by by itit in
in their
their use of
of the
the seasonal festival cycle
cycle and
and inin the
the
structure of of individual rituals. Other Witchcraft traditions are not not neces-
sarily bitheistic, as Wicca generally
sarily generally is.is.
The Gardnerian and
The and Alexandrian denominations
denominations of of Wicca are initiatory
initiatory
mystery traditions. Initiates are sworn to
mystery taking an oath
to secrecy, taking oath not toto re-
veal the secrets of
veal the of their initiation. Some Wiccans have have criticized others for for
revealing oath-bound material, particularly for
revealing for publishing versions of of the
the
Book of
Book of Shadows. Gardnerians and and Alexandrians can be be traced back
back to to
initiation by
initiation by Gerald
Gerald Gardner
Gardner andand Doreen Valiente, or
Doreen Valiente, or Alex
Alex and Maxine
and Maxine
Sanders, and
Sanders, and sometimes both lineages,
lineages, as in in Algard
Algard traditions such
such as thethe
and the
Farrars’ and the Wiccan Church of of Canada. Mary Mary Nesnick coined the the term
“Algard”
“Algard” to to describe thethe tradition sheshe formed through joint initiation in
through joint in
and Alexandrian Wicca.
Gardnerian and Wicca.** AA number of
of practitioners have
have
been initiated in
been in both
both traditions.
Gardnerian and and Alexandrian groups maintain aa hierarchy of status
hierarchy of
based on levels
based levels of
of initiation, lineage, how many practitioners one has
lineage, how has ini-
ini-
tiated, and how
tiated, and how many
many covens havehave hived off
off from
from one’s group. “Hiving
“Hiving
off” is
off’ the process of
is the of forming
forming aa “daughter” coven when
when enough new
enough new
 152
152 Chapter 88
Chapter

people have been trained and

people have and initiated to require the
to require the formation of
of a sepa-
sepa-
rate group. Gardnerian andand Alexandrian covens are traditionally said said to
to
be made.up
be made up of
of between three and and thirteen members, but but more often they
they
include between five
five and eight
eight people.
people. Sabbat celebrations openopen to
to the
the
public
public may be
be much larger.
larger. There is is no laity
laity within the
the Gardnerian and
Alexandrian traditions, but
but practitioners make distinctions between neo-
phytes
phytes or novices, who
who are new students; first,
first, second, and third degree
and third degree
initiates; high
high priests
priests and priestesses (coven leaders); and and “witch queens”
(high
(high priestesses who have a number of daughter covens).
of daughter
Through thethe publicati
publicationon of
of how-to books on solitary
solitary practice and books
supportin
supportingg self-initia tion,
self-initiatio n, a variety
variety of
of traditions have emerged within
Wicca. All forms of of Wicca, when distingui shed
distinguishe d from Paganism more gen-
erally, with the
erally, the exception of of some Dianic groups that self-ident
self-identify
ify as Wic-
can, tend to
to be
be bitheistic, revering aa Goddess and aa God,
God, sometime
sometimess called
the “Lady” and the
the the “Lord.” Individua
Individuall covens often use more specific specific de-
de-
ity
ity names,
names, such
such as
as Cernunno
Cernunnos s and Ceridwen, or Arianrhod and Lugh. Lugh. Of-
Of-
ten the
the Goddess isis elevated in in importanc
importance, e, just
just as the
the high
high priestess isis el-
el-
evated inin relation to
to the high
high priest.
priest. Wiccan groups emphasizemphasizee balance of of
the
the sexes and
and sometimes require
require the the polarity
polarity ofof male and
and female ritual
partners. Wiccans typically meet at at the
the esbats (based on the the cycle
cycle of
of the
the
moon, usually
usually at
at the
the full
full moon, but
but sometimes at
at the
the dark of
of the
the moon)
and at
at sabbats (the
(the eight
eight seasonal festivals).
Feri
Feri (or
(or Faery)
Faery) Witchcr aft is
Witchcraft is a a denomi nationn started by
denominatio by Victor and
and Cora
Anders
Andersonon inin the
the United States in in the
the 1950s or 1960s,
1960s, with possibl
possiblee an-
teceden ts as early
tecedents early as the
the 1920s. It It began
began as a mixture of of South Americ
American an
folk magic, Kabbala
folk magic, Kabbalah,h, Haitian Vodou, and a shamanic shamanic interpr etationn of
interpretatio of
Hawaii
Hawaiian an Huna traditio ns. There are a number of
traditions. of branche
branchess in
in the Feri tra-
the Feri
dition,
dition, some of of which have been more heavily heavily influen ced by
influenced by Gardne rian
Gardnerian
and Alexand rian Wicca than others. Feri
Alexandrian Feri claims a non-Ga rdneriian
non-Gardner an origin
origin
through
through Victor Anders on’s reporte
Anderson's reportedd member ship in
membership in a coven known as the the
Harpy
Harpy coven in in souther
southernn Oregon
Oregon in the
in the 1920s and 1930s. Anders
Anderson on also
also
often told a poetic
poetic story
story of
of his
his initiati
initiation on in
in 1926 by
by asmall
a small African woman
who told him he he was a Witch.
Witch.24 He He came upon her her sitting
sitting nude in in circle,
surrou
surrounded
nded by by brass bowls of of herbs. She She initiate
initiatedd him throug
throughh sex and
told him
told him the
the secrets of
of the
the traditio n, and he
tradition, he then had
had aa vision of of the
the
Horned God. Anders Andersonon indicat
indicateses that hehe decided to to start a coven many
years later after reading GardnerGardner’s ’s Witchcraft
Witchcraft Today.
Today.2> This would have
been inin the
the 1950s,
1950s, accordi
accordingng toto Cora Anders on’s memoir Fifty
Anderson’s Fifty Years inin the
the
Feri
Feri Traditio n, althoug
Tradition, althoughh Victor had initiate
initiatedd Cora by by 1944,
1944, shortly
shortly after
they
they were married .26 Some of
married.” of the
the later version
versionss ofof the Feri traditio
traditionn ap-
ap-
pear toto have develo ped largely
developed largely in in conform ity with Gardne
conformity rian Wicca,
Gardnerian Wicca,
which some scholar
scholarss suggest Anders
Anderson on may have initiall
initiallyy believe
believedd toto be
be
an authent ic pagan survival
authentic survival,, althoug
althoughh Cora indicat es that
indicates that Victor thought
thought
 Denomination
Denominatio nss 153
1s

Gardner was wrong, even if

if he
he did
did the
the best he could. In
best he In the
the original
original
of Feri,
branch of Feri, Hawaiian influences were more important than
than Gardner-
ian ones. Anderson spoke
ian spoke Hawaiian fluently, having having learned the language
the language
as a child.” HeHe connected the the menehune of of Hawaii with with thethe Fairies ofof
Western Europe,
Europe, believing
believing both
both toto be
be a a race of of little
little people
people who spread
spread
out of
of Africa thousands of of years ago.*8 Inspired by
ago.’8 Inspired the Huna belief in
by the in
three souls, religious traditions that
souls, and other religious that support the
the idea of three
of three
souls, as well as Max
souls, Max Freedom Long’s Long’s writings
writings on the unconsciouss
the unconsciou
“Younger Self” andand conscious “Talking Self,” Feri Witchcraft supports the
“Talking Self,” the
idea
idea of
of aa third
third soul,
soul, which is the
which is the sacred or
sacred or “Deep
“Deep Self.”2°
Self.”2° This
This idea has
idea has
been taken up up by
by many inin the
the Reclaiming tradition, through
through Starhawk,
who studied with the Andersons and
with the and was initiated into
into the
the Feri
Feri tradition,
tradition,
which she,
she, like
like many, refers to
to as the “Faery”
the “Faery” tradition.
The New Reformed Orthodox Order of of the
the Golden Dawn (NROOGD)
isis an eclectic denomination
denomination of
of Witchcraft that
that began
began in
in San
San Francisco, Cal-
Cal-
ifornia, in in 1967. ItIt is
is a coven-based initiatory mystery tradition inspired inspired by by
literary
literary and anthropologic
anthropological al sources, particularly Robert Graves’ The The
White Goddess. Aiden Kelly Kelly isis one of of the
the major
major figures
figures inin NROOGD, and and
his
his criticisms of of Gardner’s claim to to have been initiated into into aa preexisting
group may be be related to to NROOGD’s pride pride in in being
being a modernly invented
tradition. NROOGD NROOGD first first formed out of of a course assignment on designing
a ritual. AA group of of friends performed the the ritual a few times, and they
few times, they
were surprised at at how much they they enjoyed
enjoyed their their experience of raising
of raising
power, so they they formed a group in the late
in the late 1960s. Other prominent mem-
bers
bers inin NROOGD are Don Frew and and Diana Paxson.
NROOGD rituals emphasize poetry and artistry. They
and artistry. They are designed to to
be beautiful and
be and toto bypass
bypass intellectual skepticism by by appealing toto the the
senses aesthetically. NROOGD rituals are often lead lead byby three priestesses
and aa priest.
priest. Practitioners invoke the the Goddess in in triple
triple form and perform
chanting
chanting and dancing dancing on the the theme of of Persephone’s descent into, into, and
and re-
from, the
turn from, the underworld.”
underworld.* Their rituals often also include spell spell work
and the
the sharing
sharing of of food. Like other Witchcraft traditions, NROOGD has has
eight
eight main festivals, but but inin place
place of of the
the fall
fall equinox celebration, they they hold
an annual ritual based on the the ancient Greek Eleusinian mysteries.3! Like Like
Pagan groups in
other Pagan the Bay
in the Bay Area of of California, NROOGD regularly
holds public
public sabbats in in addition to to private
private events within covens.
Dianic Witchcraft is is aa feminist, Goddess- and women-focused women-focused denomi-
nation. Some Dianics practice in in aa separatist fashion, excluding men and and
any
any sense of of male deity,
deity, as in in Z.Z. Budapest’s
Budapest's early early practice. Some practi-practi-
tioners focus on the the Goddess in in a monotheistic manner as a single single over-
arching deity,
deity, but
but Dianics are often polytheistic, drawing on aa variety variety of of
goddess figures.
figures. Even when practitioners focus on Goddess in in the
the singu-
singu-
lar,
lar, She
She isis apt
apt toto be
be recognized
recognized in in three forms: maiden, mother, and and crone.
crone.
 154
154 Chapter
Chapter 88

Practitioners also
also often recognize divinity
divinity as immanent in
in themselves,
identifying with Artemis, for
for example, as the “virgin” huntress, who is
the “virgin” is
virgin
virgin inin the
the sense of of being
being neither married nor a mother. Most Dianic
groups are women’s-only groups, and they they often practice
practice an eclectic form
of
of Witchcraft in in covens.
Reclaiming is is also
also aa feminist Witchcraft tradition but but isis egalitarian in fo-
in fo-
cus, including both both men and women. ItIt is is aa nonhierarch
nonhierarchiical
cal denomina-
tion, and groups within itit run on consensus. Reclaiming isis distinctive for
tion, for
its
its blend ofof politics
politics and
and spirituality; its
its activities are oriented toward em-
powerment and emancipatio
emancipationn.. Reclaiming isis anarchist, organized into into
largely
largely autonomou
autonomouss cells,
cells, but
but members alsoalso practice inin covens for for ritual
work. Initiation isis available for
for those who
who choose to
to undertake it,
it, but
but it
it is
is
not required for participation.. Reclaiming began
for participation began as aa teaching
teaching collective
in San
in San Francisco,
Francisco, California,
California, offering
offering courses in
in Witchcraft and Goddess
spirituality. The
The Reclaiming Collective obtained tax-exempt status in in 1990
after incorporati
incorporatingng.*?
.*? The
The Reclaiming tradition grew in in the
the Bay
Bay Area, but
but
also
also through
through intensive weeklong apprentices
apprenticeshhip
ip courses inin the
the summer,
which came to to be
be known as “Witchcamp
“Witchcampss.”
.”
Reclaiming practitioners
Reclaiming practitioners practice
practice an eclectic ritual style,
style, summari zed as
summarized
“EIEIO,” which stands for
for ecstatic, improvis ational,
improvisatio nal, ensembl e, inspired,
ensemble, inspired,
and organic. In In San Francisc
Francisco,o, Reclaim
Reclaiming ing practiti oners tend to
practitioners to use the the
Celtic deity
deity names Brigit Brigit and Lugh Lugh for for the
the Goddess and God, God, followin
followingg
the
the legacy
legacy of of Starhawk
Starhawk’s ’s initiatio
initiationn into the the Faery
Faery tradition
tradition,, butbut the
the multi-
cultural context of San Francisc
of San Franciscoo alsoalso influenc
influences es Reclaim
Reclaiming ing practiti oners..
practitioners
They
They celebrat
celebratee Samhain
Samhain,, for for example
example,, in in conjunct
conjunctionion with the the Day
Day of of the
the
Dead,
Dead, through the the influenc
influencee of of Mexican AmericanAmerican tradition
traditions.s.>3 Reclaiming
Reclaiming
groups elsewher
elsewheree are autonomautonomous ous and take take ona variety
variety of of different forms
dependi
depending ng on the the inclinat ion of
inclination of practiti oners and their cultural contexts.
practitioners
Family
Family traditi
traditions,ons, practit ioners of
practitioners of which are someti sometimes mes called heredi-heredi-
tary Witches,
tary Witches, constit
constituteute aa form of of practic
practicee and a group of of denomi nationns.
denominatio s.
Family
Family traditi
traditionon groups are founde foundedd on the the claim of of a practit ioner to
practitioner to have
learne
learnedd Witchc raft from a family
Witchcraft member, stereot
family member, ypicalllyy a grandm
stereotypical other,,
grandmother
rather than from books or public public groups
groups.. TheyThey often indicat
indicatee thatthat they
they
have
have learne
learnedd their practices from
their practices from an an oral
oral traditi on, and
tradition, and that
that this
this is why
is why
there are no written records suppor supportingting their claims. These traditi traditions
ons are
often largely
largely based on the the practic
practiceses of of Gardne
Gardnerianrian Wicca,
Wicca, butbut with further
inspira tion drawn from the
inspiration the culture of of the practitioner’ss ethnic back-
the practitioner’
ground
ground,, as in in Leo Louis Martel Martello lo and Lori Bruno’ Bruno’ss Italian Americ American an
Witchc raft (Stregh
Witchcraft eria). Martel
(Stregheria). Martellolo and Bruno formed the the Trinac rian Rose
Trinacrian
Coven in in the
the late
late 1970s based in in part
part on aa family
family folk-h ealing traditi
folk-healing tradition.on.
Z. Budapest draws on Hungar
2. Budapest Hungarianian folk traditions in
folk traditions in her
her practic
practicee and has has
descri bed herself as a heredi
described tary Witch. Accord
hereditary Accordinging to to some scholar
scholars,s, Vic-
tor and Cora Anders Anderson’son’s use of of folk
folk magic
magic in in the
the Feri
Feri traditi
tradition on they
they
 Denominations
Denominations 155
155

founded locates the the Feri also as aa family

Feri tradition also family tradition.*4
tradition.24 The
The claims
of
of family
family traditions and and ancient mystical
mystical heritage
heritage have been dismissed by by
some as a coping
coping mechanism for for aa lack
lack of
of substance in in such traditions, but but
embracing folk practices can also also bebe aa form of of resistance against
against the lev-
the lev-
eling
eling process of of assimilation into
into American culture and and the
the secular deval-
uation of folk traditions.
of folk
While some denigrate practitioners such as Raven Grimassi (a(a pseudo- pseudo-
nym)
nym) for making questionable claims about family
for making family traditions, Grimassi’s
tradition of of Italian Witchcraft can be be viewed in in terms ofof “folklore recla-
recla-
mation and and ethnic identity
identity creation.”°° His folklore-enhan
His folklore-enhanced ced practices
may be
may be interpreted as aa form
form ofof resistance to to the
the melting
melting potpot of
of dominant
American culture. Grimassi claims to have been
to have been initiated by his aunt into
by his into
aa family magical tradition of
family magical folk healing
of folk healing that
that included divination and and
techniques for for removing
removing thethe evil eye.3” He
evil eye.?” He claims that his Aridian tradi-
that his
tion isis aa North American branch
tion branch of
of Tanarra, aa version of
of “the Old Reli-
“the Old Reli-
gion” from
gion” from central Italy, brought to
Italy, brought to the
the United States by
by his
his relatives. He
He
describes itit as aa blend of of Italian traditions aimed atat restoring the Witch-
restoring the
craft tradition given
craft given by by Aradia. Some scholars suggest that that his
his tradition
appears to be created out of
to be of Leland’s Aradia and
and from
from generic
generic Wicca,
Wicca, with
with
Etruscan or Tuscan window dressing
dressing drawn from folklore, remarking
remarking that that
he does
he does not his sources, whether written,
not name his his relatives.
written, or his is pos-
relatives.° ItIt is pos-
sible
sible that
that Grimassi’s practice
practice of Religione, “the
of Stregheria as laIa Vecchia Religione, “the Old
Old
Religion,” isis based on aa family
Religion,” family practice
practice derived fromfrom Leland’s Aradia ininaa
previous generation, but
previous generation, its resemblance
but its resemblance to Wicca suggests
Gardnerian Wicca
to Gardnerian suggests
that the
that the tradition isis derived from
from Gardner’s practices
practices as much as from from
Italian sources. However, this this isis unlikely
unlikely toto be
be aa problem
problem for Amer-
for Italian Amer-
ican practitioners,, especially
ican practitioners especially ifif they engaged in
they are engaged in folklore reclamation
and identity
and identity creation.
Reconstructionist
Reconstructi Paganism isis aa form
onist Paganism form of of practice,
practice, and
and aa group of of de-
de-
nominations, that that reconstructs the the practices
practices ofof pre-Christia
pre-Christiann traditions.
Reconstructionist
Reconstructi differ from
onist traditions differ from family
family traditions in in that
that they
they aim
aim
toto reconstruct thethe ancient traditions of of aa place
place and
and culture,
culture, for
for example
example
those of
those of Etruria,
Etruria, rather than
than using
using the the later
later folk
folk traditions of of Tuscany
Tuscany inaina
largely Wiccan context,
largely context, as
as in
in Grimassi’s tradition. Reconstructi
Reconstructionists often
onists often
explicitly stress that
explicitly that their
their practices
practices are not
not derived from the
the traditions of
of
Wicca, New
Wicca, New Age
Age spirituality,
spirituality, or
or ceremonial magic.
magic. Most
Most reconstructio
reconstructionist
nist
have aa high
traditions have high regard
regard for
for scholarly
scholarly knowledge
knowledge ofof their
their traditions,
and emphasize
and emphasize historical accuracy in in their
their practices. Practitioners study
study
archaeology and
archaeology and ancient
ancient and
and classical
classical texts,
texts, striving
striving toto stay
stay current
current with
with
academic research. TheyThey tend
tend toto idealize different eras of of the
the past,
past, de-
de-
pending on the
pending the time
time of
of Christianiza
Christianization
tion inin the
the location
location ofof the
the culture they
they
reconstructing.
are reconstructin g. Practitioners do do not
not necessarily live
live in
in the
the geographic
geographic
with the
areas associated with the traditions they
they are reconstructin
reconstructing. However,
g. However,
 156
156 Chapter 88
Chapter

some do, and

some do, their traditions
and their traditions can be seen
can be seen to
to some degree as
some degree as indigenous
indigenous
movements.
Egyptian reconstructionis
Some Egyptian reconstructionistt Pagans
Pagans callcall their tradition Kemeti-
cism,
cism, from
from “Kemet,” referring
referring toto the
the land of Egypt. Practitioners regard
of Egypt. regard
the
the tradition as an African‘tradit
African traditional
ional religion, although
although most practition-
practition-
ers appear to to be English-speaking
be English-speaki ng white Americans. Some Kemetic prac-
titioners focus on Ma’at (truth) and Netjer,
Netjer, understood as the the single
single divine
that is
force that is manifested through
through aa number of of gods and goddesses. The
gods and The
Kemetic Orthodox tradition describes this this interpretation of of Netjer
Netjer as
“monolatry,” as distinct from
from monotheism.2
monotheism.’° Some Kemeticists focus on
the
the ancient Egyptian mythology of of Isis,
Isis, Osiris,
Osiris, and
and Horus. Kemetic prac-
prac-
tice
tice includes priestly
priestly and personal devotions, often through through elaborate
group rituals, and
and daily
daily prayer. Practitioners also
also engage inin ancestral de-
de-
votions, giving
giving offerings so that the
the ancestors willwill protect them.
Greek reconstruct ionists,
reconstructionis ts, who refer to
who refer their tradition as Hellenism
to their os or
Hellenismos
Hellenism, revere the the Olympic pantheon of of gods
gods andand goddesses. Votive
offerings toto the
the deities are important to to their religious
religious practice,
practice, as well
well as
hospitality in in relation to to other humans. “Hellenis
“Hellenismos”mos” refers to to the
the reli-
gion
gion ofof ancient Greece that the the Roman emperor Julian Julian attempted to to re-
vive. Julian was a nephew of the emperor Constantin
of the Constantinee and became em-
peror himself in in 361,
361, but hehe was killed just
just aa few
few years later.*”
later. The
The Julian
Julian
Society,
Society, an American group founded in in the
the late
late 1960s,
1960s, isis not exclusivel
exclusivelyy
Hellenist, but
but isis instead aa nondenomi national
nondenominati onal Pagan
Pagan group. Hellenion is is
an American group that that practices Greek reconstructionis
reconstructionistt Paganism. They They
obtained tax-exempt status in in 2002.*"
2002.4! Hellenists in in general take inspiration
from ancient writings such as the the Homeric hymnshymns and other works at-
tributed to
to Homer, as well
well as those
those of
of Hesiod and
and Julian.
Julian. They
They also
also take
take
inspiration from archaeolog
archaeology. y.
Reconst ructionists
Reconstructioni sts of
of Roman paganism
paganism refer
refer to
to their tradition as Religio-
their tradition Religio-
Romana, revivin
Romana, revivingg the
the name of of the
the pre-Chr istian religion
pre-Christian religion ofof Rome. TheyThey re-
constru
constructct the
the religion as it it was practiced
practiced from the the foundi
foundingng ofof Rome in in 753
753
BCE to to the
the beginni
beginningng of the Christi
of the an Roman Empire
Christian Empire in in 394 CE,CE, but
but they
they
also
also take inspira tion from pre-Roman
inspiration pre-Roman Latin and and Etrusca
Etruscann culture. 4? Recon-
culture.*?
structio nist practit
structionist ioners of
practitioners of Religio -Romana, followi
Religio-Romana followingng ancient practice
practice,,
value piety,
piety, family,
family, commun
community,ity, and the the state. Practit ioners honor ances-
Practitioners
tors,
tors, lares
lares (gods
(gods ofof the
the gate
gate and househo ld), and di
household), di penates (gods
(gods ofof the
the
hearth and granary ), as well as god/de
granary), sses such as Iuppite
god/desses luppiterr and Iuno,Iuno,
more familiar to to English
English speaker
speakerss as Jupiter
Jupiter and Juno.
Juno. They
They also
also revere
others in
in the
the Roman panthe on such as Minerva
pantheon Minerva,, Vesta,
Vesta, Ceres, Diana,
Ceres, Diana,
Venus,
Venus, Mars, Mercurius, Neptun
Mars, Mercurius, us, and
Neptunus, and Volcanu
Volcanuss (the last three
(the last three more fa-
fa-
miliar as Mercury
Mercury,, N
Neptune,
eptune, and Vulcan)
Vulcan),, as well
well as Apollo.
Apollo.
Celtic recon structionism is
reconstructioni is popul ar in
popular Paganism throughout
in Paganism throughout the English-
the English-
speak ing world in
speaking in the
the form of Druidry or Druidism.
of Druidry Druidism. Druidic
Druidic practi ces re-
practices re-
 Denominations
Denominations 157
187,

ys,

Figure 18.
Figure 18. Contemporary Druid (photo by
Druid (photo by Wendy
Wendy Griffin)

construct Celtic culture based on archaeological information about the

the
Celts in Britain and
Celts in and Western Europe,
Europe, and
and scant written sources such
such as
as Tac-
Tac-
itus’ incidental comments on the
itus’ the Celts
Celts of
of Europe
Europe in in Germania. Some
Druidry
Druidry isis not
not Pagan;
Pagan; some, which Isaac Bonewits describes as “mesopa-“mesopa-
gan,” isis monotheistic and
gan,” and isis syncretic with
with Celtic Christianity. The
The ancient
ancient
158
158 Chapter
Chapter 88

Druids were aa priestly

priestly class
class in
in Celtic culture made up up of
of learned people
people
who held the lore (stories
who held the lore (stories and and genealogies) of the people in their memories,
of the people in
and
and from whom political political leaders were drawn. Roman incursions and and
Christianization eliminated the the Druid class in in Britain. A A number of of Druid
groups formed in in Britain beginning
beginning in in the
the eighteenth
eighteenth andand nineteenth cen- cen-
turies for political and
for various political religious reasons. Most members at
and religious at that
that
time
time were Christian, but but in the 1960s
in the 1960s and 1970s, some Druid groups
and 1970s,
emerged as Pagan.
Pagan. Some Pagan Pagan Druids joinedjoined existing
existing Druid groups, and
others formed new orders.‘orders.
Druids tend
tend somewhat to to resemble the the stereotype of of bearded men in in
long
long white robes conducting ceremonies in in oak
oak groves and and at
at Stonehenge.
Contemporary Druids are not necessarily bearded, but but there are more men
than women in in Druidry,
Druidry, and they they do
do tend
tend to
to wear white robes for for rituals.
They also tend
They also tend toto have aa special
special fondness for for trees,
trees, and
and oaks in particular,
oaks in
and have negotiated with Britain’s English English Heritage department to to gain
gain
access toto Stonehenge to to celebrate thethe summer solstice. Druid groups are
organized
organized intointo groves and and orders: groves are local local groups, while orders
tend to be national or international organizations. Traditionally, the
to be the orders
are divided into
into bards,
bards, ovates, and
and druids. The
The bards are storytellers and
and
poets, the ovates are prophets and
poets, the and seers, and
and the
the druids are priests
priests and
leaders. Both learning and performance are important in in Druidry.
Druidry.
Norse and
and Germanic reconstruct ionist traditions are collectivel
reconstructionist collectivelyy called
Heathenry, sometimes referred to to as “the
“the Northern Tradition,” or
“Asatru” based on the the Icelandic word meaning
meaning dedicated to to the Asir, aa
the A&sir,
group ofof deities. Heathenry isis practiced as an indigenous revival tradition
in
in Iceland, Germany,
Germany, and
and the Scandinavian countries. Asatru has
the Scandinavian has been
been an
officially
officially recognized religion
religion in
in Iceland since 1973. More generally, Hea-
thenry isis inspired
thenry inspired by
by northern European
European traditions, sometimes more so
it isis reconstructed,
than it but practitioners
reconstructed, but practitioners see themselves as reviving the
the
indigenous traditions of of northern Europe, or Anglo-Sax on and
Anglo-Saxon and Teutonic
culture. Practitioners
Practitioners are not restricted to to northern Europe but are found
Europe but
throughou
throughoutt Europe,
Europe, as
as well
well asas in
in North
North American and Australia.
American and Australia. Mem-
Mem-
bership in Heathen groups is
bership in is not generally restricted by origin, but
by ethnic origin, but
some groups are overtly
overtly racist and do do restrict membershi
membershipp in
in this way.
this way.

pi
Teas:
s the
the Asir are thethe deities of
of war, which would imply that
imply that
the Asatru are dedica
the dedicatted
ed to to the
the deities of
of war. However, despite
despite
this
this etymol
etymoloogy,
gy, practit
practitiioners
oners ofof Asatru are not just
just dedica
dedicatted
ed to
to the
the
deities of
of war, but
but also toto Norse deities more general
generallly,
y, includ
includiing
ng the
the
Vanir,
Vanir, who are the
the deities of
of the
the land.
land.
 Denominations
Denominat ions 159
159

Racism and ethnic identity

identity are ongoing issues in in Heathen groups, butbut
most mainstr
mainstreeam
am groups trytry to
to preserve aa sense of
of openness and inclu-
sivity and are against
Sivity against racist members joining.
joining. Heathen groups seem to to
have an overall tendency
tendency toward right-wi
right-winng politics, expressi
g politics, expressinngg conser-
vative views on sex, politics,
politics, and
and history.
history. Because of this, many Heathen
of this,
groups take an explicitlexplicitlyy antiracis
antiracistt stance, although in in the
the United States,
States,
Heathen Groups Groups called “Odinist
“Odinistss”” do
do not
not necessarily renounce racism,
and some are overtly overtly white supremac
supremaciists.
sts. Such groups take take inspiration
from the the perceive
perceivedd warrior mythosmythos of of the
the Viking
Viking era but but are rooted in in
ideas from Nazi Germany Germany.. Asatru groups are more likely likely to to look toto Ice-
land for
land for inspirati
inspiratioon.
n. Odinism in in Britain, for
for example in in Odinic Rite
groups, is is not associated with Nazism. Heathen groups began began to to form in in
England in
England in the early 1970s and in
the early in North America in in the late 1970s, and the
the late the
racist/an
racist/anttiracist
iracist division originates in in that
that formativ
formativee period,
period, continui
continuinng g
to be aa problem in
to be in some groups.
Local Heathen groups are called “kindreds “kindreds”” or “hearths,”
“hearths,” the the structure
and
and organizatio
organizationn of of which varies.“
varies.46 Local groups are most easily easily found
through larger larger networking
networking organizatio ns such as the
organizations the Ring
Ring of of Troth,
started by by Edred Thorson in Texas, or Hrafnar, started by
in Texas, by Diana Paxson in in
California,
California, both of of which are antiracist. The The Ring
Ring ofof Troth also also exists in in
Britain, in in addition to to Odinic Rite groups, and and Hammarens
Hammarens Orden Sallskap Sallskap
is
is in
in Sweden. Some Heathens wear a hammer sign sign as a symbol of of their re-
ligious
ligious affiliation,
affiliation, either to to indicate their dedication
dedication to to the
the god
god Thor or toto
Heathenry in
Heathenry in general.*”
general.’”
Heathen groups share a common cosmology cosmology of of nine worlds, linked
through Yggdrasil,
through Yggdrasil, the the world tree. Midgard, or “Middle Earth,” is is the
the
realm of of humans. There are also the the realms ofof the frost giants,
giants, the fire
fire gi-
gi-
ants,
ants, and other giants
giants (Jotnir); that of
(Jotnir); that of the
the Zsir
sir (gods
(gods of
of war)
war) and the
the Vanir
(gods
(gods of
of the
the land and fertility);
fertility); and the
the land of
of the
the light
light elves,
elves, the
the dark
elves (dwarves),
(dwarves), and the
the dead. In
In addition to
to gods
gods and goddesses,
goddesses, Hea-
thens recognize a variety of
of other-than- human persons, including spirits
other-than-human spirits
of
of the
the land,
land, called landvettir.
landvettir. “Wight”
“Wight” isis a general term for for other-than-h
other-than-hu- u-
man persons in in Heathenry,
Heathenry, indicating
indicating sentient beings
beings including gods, gods, lo-
lo-
cal
cal and ancestral spirits,spirits, and others.** Heathens are more emphatically emphatically
polytheistic
polytheistic than Pagans Pagans in in some other traditions,
traditions, and they they are more
likely
likely to to insist on thethe ontological
ontological existence of of the
the gods
gods and goddesses
goddesses as
actual beings
beings rather than as metaphors
metaphors or psychologica
psychologicall forms.*?
forms.*”
The
The most significantt Heathen
most significan Heathen celebrations
celebrations areare Winternights,
Winternights, Yule, Yule, and
and
Sigrblot. Winternights
Winternights is is a harvest festival honoring the the dead and the the be-
be-
ginning
ginning of of winter.
winter. Yule
Yule isis the
the winter
winter solstice,
solstice, celebrated
celebrated as as the
the New Year,
New Year,
and is is a time forfor oaths. Sigrblot, meaning “victory,” is is a celebration
celebration of of the
the
beginning
beginning of of summer and may may originally have been aa ritual to to ensure
“victory” in in the
the coming
coming raiding
raiding season.*°
season. Heathens also hold ritual events events
 160
160 Chapter 88
Chapter

called blots
blots to
to exchange gifts
gifts with the
the gods
gods and with ancestors. Contem-
porary Heathens generally
generally substitute the
the blood offerings
offerings of
of traditional
blots with offerings
blots offerings of
of mead.°! As
As discussed in
in chapter
chapter 7,7, practices
practices such as
this and
this and seidr
seidr are reconstructed based on historical texts,
texts, such
such as the
the Ice-
Ice-
landic Eddas and and Sagas.
Sagas.
The
The development of oracular seidr
of seidr isis attracting more women to to the
the de-
de-
nomination, which was initially initially ofof interest mostly
mostly to to male practitioners.
Other magical
magical practices
practices of of Heathenry include galdr galdr and
and taufr. Galdr isis the
taufr. Galdr the
chanting
chanting of of runes, toto attune practitioners to to the
the rune and bring bring them into into
resonance with it, it, and
and can be be combined with seidr.5* Heathens may, for
with seidr.52 for ex-
ample, chant runes to
ample, bring themselves into
to bring into harmony
harmony to to pursue the the com-
mon purpose of of setting
setting the
the stage
stage for
for one among them to go into
to go into the deeper
the deeper
trance necessary for for seidr. Some practitioners describe this this as the majority
the majority
of those participating going
of going as farfar as to the gate
to the gate of the underworld, while
of the
the
the one engaging in goes through
in seidr goes through the the gate.
gate. Taufr
Tuufr refers to to the practice
the practice
of making
of making talismans, usually
usually by carving runes onto objects,
by carving objects, aa practice ev-
ident from archaeological remains as well as from from stories and and poems.
Pre-Christian folk
folk traditions havehave also
also been revived in in the
the Baltic coun-
tries of
of Eastern Europe.
Europe. The revived folk folk traditions of of Lithuania, Esto-
nia,
nia, Latvia, and
and other Eastern European
European countries are most often prac-
prac-
ticed byby people
people living
living in in those countries, rather than in in aa multicultural
diaspora context. Baltic Baltic reconstructioni
reconstructionists sts tend to to identify
identify as PagansPagans
through ethnicity
ethnicity rather than through through adherence to to other aspects of of con-
temporary Paganism such as polytheism or reverence for for nature. The The
history
history of of these reconstructioni
reconstructionist st groups includes racism in in celebration
of
of ethnicity,
ethnicity, but but contemporary groups do do not practice
practice ethnic exclusivity.
exclusivity.
In practice, participation is
In is generally restricted to to those who know the the
relevant languages. Music isis important in in Baltic reconstructioni
reconstructionist st Pa-
ganism, with folk
ganism, folk songs—dainas in in Latvia, and and dainos in in Lithuania—
serving as resources for
serving ritual.3
for ritual.
Romuva is is a reconstructionist
reconstructionist group that that began
began at at the
the end of of the
the nine-
teenth century
century in in Lithuania
Lithuania,, with Vyduna Vyduna (Wilhelm Storosta) reviving reviving
folk
folk celebrati
celebrations ons in in combinat
combination ion with theosophy.
theosophy. This This group continue
continuedd
into the
into the 1920s but but was halted by by the
the Soviet invasion of of Lithuania
Lithuania.» .»4 It It was
revived again
again in the 1960s as a folklore group, which engaged in
in the in the
the col-
col-
lection ofof folk songs and dances and the the re-creati
re-creationon ofof old
old festivals, under
the
the name Ramuva. Despite Despite the the name change
change and the the ostensible
ostensible cultural
rather than
than religious
religious focus,
focus, it it was disbande
disbandedd again
again by by the Soviets in
the in 1971,
1971,
only
only toto reemerge during during perestroi
perestroika ka inin 1988. ItIt is
is now led led by Jonas Triku-
by Jonas
nas, who has has been involved with the the group since the the late
late 1960s. ItIt became
Romuva again again in in 1991, reviving the
1991, reviving the earlier name and connection with pre-
and connection pre-
Christian religion rather than than justjust folklore.5
folklore.555 Ethnicity and and national her- her-
 Denominations
Denominations 161
161

itage important to
itage are important to Romuva members, but but also harmony with
also harmony with andand re-
spect for
spect for nature.
nature. Not
Not allall members identify
identify as Pagan,
Pagan, butbut many do. do.
In Latvia, the
In Latvia, the group Dievturi practices reconstructionist Baltic Pagan- Pagan-
ism. “Dievturi” refers
ism. refers to to “those who holdhold by
by the
the god
god Dievs,” aa highhigh god
god
of the
of sky. Practitioners also
the sky. recognize Laima, the
also recognize goddess of
the goddess fate, and
of fate, and
Mara, the
Mara, the goddess
goddess of of material well-being, but but they tend to
they tend to regard
regard them
them as
helpers of
helpers of Dievs. Dievturi was
Dievs. Dievturi was founded
founded in in 1926
1926 byby Ernest Brastins, who
Ernest Brastins, who
was executed by by the
the Soviets in in the
the 1940s. Some members were exiled to to
the United States
the States during
during the the Soviet persecutions, and and they
they later
later returned
to Latvia. The
to The tradition gradually
gradually reemerged
reemerged with the erosion of
with the of Soviet
control in in late Janis Silins
late 1980s. Janis Silins and
and Olger
Olger Auns currently
currently lead the the group.
Under their
their leadership,
leadership, Dievturi isis not
not anti-Semitic, but
but Brastins was, and
and
in
in his
his time Dievturi was closely closely linked with Fascist groups in in Latvia such
as Perkunkrusts, meaning meaning “Thunder Cross.” Cross.”5¢ Dievturi’s practices practices are
based on dainas,
based dainas, or folksongs
folksongs that give detailed descriptions of
that give of ancient be- be-
liefs and
liefs and customs, and and which were developed specifically for
developed specifically for solstice andand
equinox
equinox rituals.°”
Pagans in
Pagans in Ukraine prefer
prefer toto call
call themselves yazychnyks or ridnovirs, and and
their religion
religion yazychnytstvo or ridnovira. Yazychnytstvo has has no exact trans-
lation but
lation refers to
but refers to pre-Christian
pre-Christian Slavic Slavic andand revived
revived Slavic
Slavic traditions,
traditions,
while ridnovirs are practitioners of
while of “native faith.” Pagans Pagans in in Ukraine and and
elsewhere in in Eastern Europe
Europe differdiffer from
from Pagans
Pagans in in English-speaking
countries in in their
their preference for for thinking
thinking of of their
their religion
religion in in ethic
ethic terms as
religion, and
indigenous religion, and inin their
their treatment of of texts such as the the Book ofof Ve-
Ve-
les and
les and LevLev Sylenko’s
Sylenko’s Maha Vira Vira as scripture. In In addition, some Ukrainian
Pagan groups, such
Pagan such as RUNVira, which began began in in the
the 1960s,
1960s, are more
monotheistic than than polytheistic,
polytheistic, and and are led led primarily
primarily by by men. “RUNVira”
isis an acronym for for Ridna Ukrains’ka Natsional’na Vira, Vira, meaning
meaning “Native
Ukrainian National Faith.” Pravoslavia isis another Pagan Pagan groupgroup in in
Ukraine, whose name refers refers toto “right
“right worship,”
worship,” in in contrast to to the
the “right
“right
practice”
practice” of of orthodoxy
orthodoxy in in Christianity. Pravoslavia was founded in in 1993
1993
by
by Volodymyr Shaian, and
Shaian, and it it takes the Book of Veles
the Book of Veles as scripture.
scripture. In In contrast
toto most Pagans
Pagans in in English-speaking countries, Pagans Pagans in in Ukraine tend tend toto
support right-wing politics
support right-wing politics and ethnic and ethnic nationalism, sometimes with
with overt
anti-Semitism.*
Pagans may
Pagans may joke
joke “that
“that Paganism
Paganism isis now aa‘real ‘real religion’
religion’ like
like other
other di-
di-
vided and and divisive religions,”
religions,”°’? butbut Pagan
Pagan denominations do do not
not often
often
into conflict over doctrinal issues. Practitioners sometimes come
come into
into conflict when
into when they
they think
think an individual or
or group isis trying
trying toto speak
speak for
for
all Pagans
all Pagans and
and they
they feel
feel misrepresented. Other
Other conflicts can arisearise when
feel that
practitioners feel that others are judging
judging their
their religious
religious practices
practices to
to be
be in-
in-
that they
authentic based on criteria that they do
do not
not feel
feel are appropriate. However,
However,
162
162 Chapter
Chapter 88

Pagans hold it
Pagans hold it as an ideal that
that they
they are content to let others believe what-
to let
ever they
they want and
and approach
approach divinity they feel
divinity however they feel is
is appropriate.

FURTHER READING

Adler, Margot. Drawing

Adler, Drawing Down the
the Moon: Witches,
Witches, Druids, Goddess-
Goddess-Worshippers,
Worshippers, and
and Other Pa-
Pa-
gans
gans in
in America Today.
Today. Revised and expanded
expanded ed.
ed. Boston: Beacon Press, 1986.
Press, 1986.
Harvey, Graham. Contemporary Paganism:
Harvey, Paganism: Listening People, Speaking
Listening People, Earth. New York:
Speaking Earth. York: New
York
York University Press, 1997.
University Press, 1997.

NOTES

1.1. Margot
Margot Adler,
Adler, Drawing
Drawing Down the
the Moon: Witches, Druids,
Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and
and Other
Other
Pagans in
Pagans in America Today
Today (Boston:
(Boston: Beacon Press,
Press, 1986),
1986), 287-288,
287-288, 293.
293.
2. Helen Berger,
2. Helen Berger, Evan
Evan A.
A. Leach,
Leach, and Leigh S.
and Leigh S. Shaffer, Voices from
Shaffer, Voices from the
the Pagan
Pagan Census:
Census: AA Na-
Na-
tional Survey
Survey of
of Witches and
and Neo-Pagans in
in the
the United States (Columbia: University of
of South
Press, 2003),
Carolina Press, 238.
2003), 238.
3. See Chas
3. See Chas S. Clifton and
S. Clifton Graham Harvey,
and Graham Harvey, The
The Paganism
Paganism Reader (New York:
Reader (New Routledge,
York: Routledge,
2004), 273.
273.
4. Shelly Rabinovitch and
4. Shelly and James
James Lewis,
Lewis, Encyclopedia of
of Modern Witchcraft and
and Neo-Pagan-
Neo-Pagan-
ism (New York: Citadel,
ism (New Citadel, 2002), 305.
2002), 305.
5.
5. Helen Berger,
Berger, A A Community of of Witches (Columbia: University of of South Carolina Press,
Press,
1999),
1999), 50,
50, reports
reports that 50.4
50.4 percent ofof practitioners are solitaries.
6.
6. Berger,
Berger, Leach,
Leach, and Shaffer, Voices
and Shaffer, from the
Voices from the Pagan
Pagan Census,
Census, 118-21.
118-21.
7.
7. Rabinovitch andand Lewis,
Lewis, Encyclopedia of of Modern Witchcraft
Witchcraft and
and Neo-Paganism, 252.
252.
8. Berger,
8. Community of
Berger, Community of Witches,
Witches, 51.
51.
9.9. Berger, Leach,
Berger, Leach, and
and Shaffer, Voices from
Shaffer, Voices the Pagan
from the Census, 230.
Pagan Census, 230.
10.
10. Rabinovitch and
and Lewis,
Lewis, Encyclopedia of of Modern Witchcraft
Witchcraft and
and Neo-Paganism, 97,
97, 100.
100.
11.
11. Rabinovitch and Lewis,
Lewis, Encyclopedia of of Modern Witchcraft
Witchcraft and
and Neo-Paganism, 97.
97.
12.
12. Graham Harvey,
Harvey, Shamanism: AA Reader (London: Routledge,
Routledge, 2003),
2003), 5-6.
5-6.
13.
13. Rabinovitch and
and Lewis,
Lewis, Encyclopedia of of Modern Witchcraft
Witchcraft and
and Neo-Paganism, 250.
250.
14.
14. See
See Michael Harner, TheThe Way
Way of the Shaman (New York:
of the York: HarperSanFrancisco,
HarperSanFrancisco, 1990).
1990).
15.
15. Rabinovitch and
and Lewis,
Lewis, Encyclopedia of of Modern Witchcraft and and Neo-Paganism, 186.
186.
16.
16. Graham Harvey, Contemporary Paganism:
Harvey, Contemporary Paganism: Listening People,
People, Speaking
Speaking Earth (New
(New York:
New York University Press, 1997),
University Press, 110.
1997), 110.
17. See Robert J.J. Wallis, Shamans/Neo
17. See -Shamans: Ecstasy,
Shamans/Neo-Shamans: Ecstasy, Alternative Archaeologies
Archaeologies and
and Con-
temporary Routledge, 2003.
Pagans. London: Routledge,
temporary Pagans.
18.
18. Rabinovitch and Lewis,
Lewis, Encyclopedia of of Modern Witchcraft
Witchcraft and Neo-Paganism, 177.
and Neo-Paganism, 177.
19.
19. Douglas Ezzy,
Ezzy, “New Age Age Witchcraft? Popular Spell Spell Books and and thethe Re-Re-
enchantmen
enchantmentt ofof Everyday
Everyday Life,”
Life,” Culture and
and Religion 44 (2003):
(2003): 49.
49.
20. For
20. For examples of those who conflate Witchcraft and
of those and the
the New AgeAge movement, see TanyaTanya
M.
M. Luhrmann, Persuasions of of the
the Witch’s
Witch's Craft
Craft (Cambridge
(Cambridge,, MA: Harvard University
University Press,
Press,
1989), 30; Wouter J.
1989), 30; J. Hanegraaff, New Age
Hanegraaff, New Age Religion
Religion and
and Western Culture (Leiden: Brill,
Brill, 1996), 79.
1996), 79.
For
For discussion ofof the
the issue, Ezzy, “New Age
issue, see Ezzy, Age Witchcraft?”
Witchcraft?” 50.
50.
21. Rabinovitch and
21. Rabinovitch Lewis, Encyclopedia
and Lewis, Encyclopedia of of Modern Witchcraft
Witchcraft and
and Neo-Pagani sm, 176.
Neo-Paganism,
22. See
22. See Berger, Community of
Berger, Community of Witches, 10, 51.
Witches, 10, 51.
23. Rabinovit
23. ch and Lewis,
Rabinovitch Lewis, Encyclope dia of
Encyclopedia of Modern Witchcraft and
and Neo-Paganism, 6.
Neo-Paganism,
 Denominations 163
163

24.
24. Cora
Cora Anderson, personal
personal communication, August,
August, 23 2005.
23 2005.
25. Margot
25. Margot Adler, Drawing
Drawing Down the the Moon: Witches, Druids,
Druids, Goddess-Worshippers
Goddess-Worshippers,, and
and Other
Pagans in America
Pagans in America Today,
Today, revised and expanded
revised and expanded ed.
ed. (Boston: Beacon Press,
(Boston: Beacon Press, 1986),
1986), 78-79.
78-79.
26.
26. Cora
Cora Anderson, personal
personal communication, August
August 23,
23, 2005.
2005.
27. Cora
27. personal communication, August
Cora Anderson, personal 23, 2005.
August 23,
28. Chas S.
28. S. Clifton,
Clifton, Her
Her Hidden Children (Lanham,
(Lanham, MD: AltaMira, 2006),
2006), 130.
130.
29.
29. Sabina Magliocco, Witching Culture: Folklore and and Neo-Paganism in in America (Philadel-
phia:
phia: University of Press, 2004),
of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), 178.
178.
30.
30. Witching Culture,
Magliocco, Witching Culture, 83.
83.
31.
31. Rabinovitch and Lewis, Encyclopedia of
and Lewis, of Modern Witchcraft and Neo-Paganism,
Witchcraft and 188-89.
32.
32. Rabinovitch and
and Lewis, Encyclopedia of of Modern Witchcraft and
and Neo-Paganism,
Neo-Paganism, 219-20.
219-20.
33.
33. Magliocco, Witching
Witching Culture, 226.
226.
34.
34. Magliocco, Witching
Witching Culture, 70.
70.
35.
35. Magliocco, Witching
Magliocco, Witching Culture, 214.
214.
36.
36. Magliocco, Witching Culture, 214.
Witching Culture, 214.
37.
37. Magliocco, Witching
Witching Culture,
Culture, 213.
38.
38. Clifton,
Clifton, Her
Her Hidden Children,
Children, 125.
125.
39.
39. House ofof Netjer,
Netjer, “What IsIs Kemetic Orthodoxy?” Kemetic Orthodoxy website, July July 8,8,
2001,
2001, www.kemet.org/kemexp1.html (accessed August
www.kemet.org/kemexp1.htmil August 16, 2004).
16, 2004).
40.
40. Clifton and
Clifton and Harvey,
Harvey, Paganism
Paganism Reader, 22.
Reader, 22.
41.
41. Epistates,
Epistates, Hellenion website, 2004,
2004, www.hellenion.org
www-.hellenion.org (accessed August 16, 2004).
August 16,
42.
42. Nova
Nova Roma,
Roma, “Declaratio Religionis
Religionis Romanae,” Nova Roma,
Roma, 2004,
2004, www.novaroma
.org/religio_romana/declaration_religio.html (accessed August
August 16,16, 2004).
2004).
43. Graham Harvey,
43. Harvey, Contemporary Paganism:
Paganism: Listening People,
People, Speaking
Speaking Earth
Earth (New
(New York:
New York
York University Press,
Press, 1997),
1997), 18-19.
18-19.
44. Harvey,
44. Harvey, Contemporary
Contemporary Paganism,
Paganism, 65.
65. ;
45. Jeffrey
45. Jeffrey Kaplan,
Kaplan, “The Reconstruction of of the
the Asatru
Asatrt and Odinist Traditions,” Magical
Magical Re-
Re-
ligion
ligion and Witchcraft, ed.
and Modern Witchcraft, ed. James R. Lewis (Albany:
James R. (Albany: State University
University of
of New York Press,
Press,
1996),
1996),200.
200.
46.
46.Rabinovitch and Lewis,
Lewis, Encyclopedia of
of Modern Witchcraft and
and Neo-Paganism, 127.
127.
47.
47.Harvey,
Harvey, Contemporary Paganism,
Paganism, 58-59.
48.
48.Rabinovitch and
and Lewis, Encyclopedia ofof Modern Witchcraft and Neo-Paganism, 126.
Witchcraft and 126.
49.
49.Harvey,
Harvey, Contemporary Paganism,
Paganism, 67-68.
50.
50. Harvey, Paganism, 58.
Harvey, Contemporary Paganism, 58.
51.
51. Rabinovitch and Lewis,
Lewis, Encyclopedia of and Neo-Paganism, 127.
of Modern Witchcraft and 127.
52.
52. Harvey,
Harvey, Contemporary Paganism, 61-62.
53. See Michael Strmiska, “The Music of
53. See of the
the Past in Modern Baltic Paganism,”
Past in Reli-
Paganism,” Nova Reli-
gio:
gio: The Journal of
The Journal and Emergent Religions
of Alternative and Religions 88 (2005).
(2005).
54. Rabinovitch and
54. and Lewis,
Lewis, Encyclopedia of
of Modern Witchcraft and
and Neo-Paganism, 180-81.
55. Strmiska, “Music of
55. the Past.”
of the
56. Strmiska, “Music of
56. the Past.”
of the Past.”
57. Rabinovitch and
57. and Lewis,
Lewis, Encyclopedia of
of Modern Witchcraft
Witchcraft and
and Neo-Paganism, 182.
58. Adrian Ivakhiv,
58. Ivakhiv, “In
“In Search of Deeper Identities: Neopaganism and
of Deeper and Native Faith in
Faith in
Contemporary Ukraine,” Nova Religio
Religio 88 (2005).
59. Blain,
59. Blain, Jenny,
Jenny, Douglas Ezzy, and
Douglas Ezzy, and Graham Harvey.
Harvey. Researching
Researching Paganisms: Religious Ex-
Religious Ex-
periences and
periences and Academic Methodologies (Walnut Creek,
Creek, CA:
CA: AltaMira Press,
Press, 2004),
2004), 245.
245.
 eb
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 99

ook
oot
Ethics and Politics
Ethics and

Arryine different methods of

Arening of study
study to
to Paganism
Paganism yields
yields various per-
per-
the ethics and
spectives on the and politics
politics of
of the
the religion
religion and its practition-
and its
Studying popular
ers. Studying popular spell
spell books and
and articles in Pagan magazines reveals
in Pagan
different concerns than than in
in studying
studying book-length works written by by practi-
practi-
tioners whowho approach
approach Paganism with with an awareness of of scholarly
scholarly writings
writings
on its
its history, politics, and
history, politics, and ethics. Still
Still more perspectives appear from the the
study of
study of Pagan
Pagan practitioners through
through Internet forums,
forums, face-to-face inter-
inter-
views,
views, and and sociological studies conducted through through thethe use ofof surveys.
One gets
gets aa different sense of of the
the popularity ofof and
and commitment to to certain
ethical perspectives such
ethical perspectives such asas feminism,
feminism, environmentalism,
environmentalism, and and cultural
cultural
appropriation when one looks atat what Pagans
Pagans say
say and
and do in different con-
do in
and forums. Consequently, interdisciplinary study
texts and study isis necessary to to
gain
gain aa nuanced understanding of of ethics and
and politics
politics inin Paganism. The The
study of writings
study of will not
writings alone will not necessarily
necessarily give
give aa sense of
of the
the politics
politics em-
bedded in the daily
in the daily lives
lives of
of Pagans, and the
Pagans, and the study
study of Pagan practices will
of Pagan will
not necessarily yield
not yield aa sense of
of Pagan
Pagan ideals.
Pagan
Pagan ethics are often critical of
of mainstream culture, so what Pagans
Pagans
say about ethics often has
say has an active political
political component. However, ethics
ethics
also to be
also tend to be embedded in Pagans’ daily
in Pagans’ daily lives,
lives, expressed through
through atti-
atti-
tudes toward,
toward, and
and actions in
in relation to, sexuality, environmental issues,
to, sexuality, issues,
and
and social justice,
justice, more than articulated in in rule-based ethics. Pagans
Pagans have
developed formal ethics in the
in the context of magic
of magic use and
and have begun to
begun to de-
de-
velop
velop a a discourse on environmental ethics. Feminist ethics are often im-
im-
plicit and
plicit and are
are thus
thus more
more evident
evident in
in actions
actions than
than in
in words,
words, while cultural
while cultural
appropriation isis a more contentious issue. All political
All political orientations are

165
165
 166
166 Chapter 99
Chapter

represented in in the Pagan population, but

the Pagan but activist and and radical stances tend tend
to
to bebe more visible than than conservative perspectives.
Pagans value experience more than
Pagans than belief
belief or the
the articulation of it, so Pa-
of it, Pa-
gans do
gans do not tend
tend to to produce
produce formal ethics as written arguments. They They of- of-
ten prefer
ten prefer to
to express their ethics through living living example,
example, and they tend
and they tend to to
be
be uncomfortable with anything that that might
might be be construed as preaching
preaching or
telling others what to
telling to do
do or what isis right.
right. Starhawk, for for example,
example, suggests
that ethics,
that ethics, as aa set
set of
of rules and
and laws,
laws, become necessary only only when ulti- ulti-
mate meaning
meaning isis projected
projected outside the the natural world. Moral integrity,
integrity, sheshe
feels, results from
feels, from listening
listening to
to immanent divinitydivinity and and taking
taking responsibil-
ity
ity for
for oneself.! Pagans
Pagans tend toto reject
reject the the idea
idea ofof applying
applying universal prin- prin-
ciples
ciples of of ethics,
ethics, preferring
preferring situational ethics that that are responsive to to con-
texts, and and they
they often emphasize personal responsibility and and the the
importance of of thinking
thinking about the the consequences of of one’s actions. More Pa- Pa-
gan writings on ethics are appearing as the
gan writings the religion
religion matures, although
although
magical
magical ethics still still predominate, as in in the
the recent book on ethics by by Shelly
Shelly
Rabinovitch and Meredith MacDonald, An An Ye Ye Harm None: Magical
Magical Moral-
ity
ity and
and Modern Ethics.
The ethic of of “do
“do what you will, will, save you you harm none,” sometimes
called thethe Wiccan Rede (or (or “counsel”), is is a a common ethical principle in in
contemporar
contemporaryy Paganism, particularly among Wiccans and other
Witches. As As previously noted,noted, itit isis similar to to Aleister Crowley’s state-
ment “Do
“Do what thou
thou wilt
wilt shall be the
shall be the whole of
of the
the law,”
law,” with
with the
the added
injunction of of harming
harming none. Gerald Gardner may have derived the the Rede
in
in part
part from the the Jain
Jain idea of ahimsa, or nonharming. He
of ahimsa, He appears to to have
taken the the term “sky“sky clad” from the the Jains,
Jains, from his study of
his study of them in in In-
In-
dia. There is
dia. is a sect of of Jains,
Jains, called the the Digambaras, which means “sky “sky
clad,”
clad,” whowho renounce clothing?clothing.
Pagans usually
Pagans understand the
usually understand the Rede as an ethic for magic, as a restric-
for magic,
tion on what one should do do inin the
the context of of casting
casting spells.
spells. Because magic magic
works through the the logic
logic that
that everything isis interconnected,
interconnected, spells and rit-
spells and rit-
uals can have unexpected
uals unexpected results, and and Pagans
Pagans teach that that magical practi-
tioners need to to accept responsibility for
accept responsibility for their actions, including
including any any unin-
tended consequenc
consequences. es. Ursula Le Le Guin’s series of of Earthsea novels
illustrates thethe ethics of magic use, and isis often recommen
of magic recommended ded as aa teach-
ing tool.
ing tool. In
In AA Wizard of of Earthsea, thethe protagonist,
protagonist, out of of pride
pride inin response
to
to the
the taunting of of aa schoolmate
schoolmate,, casts aa spell to summon the
spell to the spirit
spirit ofof aa
dead woman and and accidentall
accidentallyy looses a malevolent entity entity that
that haunts him
for many years.
for
Pagans
Pagans often associate
associate the the idea
idea ofof threefol
threefoldd return with with thethe Rede,
Rede,
which indicate
indicatess that
that what you do do comes back
back toto you threefold. In
you threefold. In this,
this,
they
they are influenc
influenced ed by the idea
by the idea of karma, underst
of karma, understoodood as the the “law of of re-
Le-
turns,” although
although Pagans usually usually expect the the return to to occur sooner than than
 Ethics and
Ethics and Politics 167
167

the
the next incarnation. For at at least some Pagans,
Pagans, itit isis consequence that
that
produces the
produces the threefold return, not judgment
judgment by bya a deity.
deity. Starhawk makes
this explicit
this in her
explicit in her writing,’ but for
writing,’ but for others,
others, judgment might might be
be perceived
toto come from
from aa deity.
deity. Some Pagans
Pagans suggest that that consequences to to the
the
next seven generations should be be considered, an idea idea derived from Na-
tive American traditions.
tive
The adoption
The adoption of of ideas
ideas and
and ritual practices fromfrom Native American and and
other indigenous traditions has lead to
has lead to accusations of appropri-
of cultural appropri-
ation. Cultural appropriation refers to to the
the borrowing,
borrowing, use, or appropria-
tion of
tion of cultural traditions outside of
of one’s ethnic background. Critics of
of
such uses of
such of cultural traditions see itit as cultural theft
theft and part
part of
of the
the con-
tinuing legacy
tinuing legacy of
of colonization. Given that that most practitioners of Paganism
of Paganism
are eclectic, blending
blending different cultural elements, appropriation isis an im-
im-
portant issue
portant issue for
for the
the religion.
religion. ItIt isis probably
probably most problematic in in terms ofof
the
the appropriation of
of indigenous traditions, but
but some Gardnerians com-
plain that other Pagan
plain that Pagan traditions appropriate from from their
their traditions. How-
ever, Raven
ever, Raven Grimassi says that he developed Stregheria, Italian
says that he developed Stregheria, Italian American
Witchcraft, inin response to to Celtic practitioners who faulted him him for the
for the
cultural imperialism of of his
his Roman ancestors.‘ Irish Irish practitioners some-
times express anger
anger atat the
the appropriation of of Celtic traditions by by North
Pagans.
American Pagans.
Accusations of of cultural appropriation are most familiar in in terms ofof the
the
use of
of Native American traditions by by outsiders. SuchSuch practitioners are dis-
dis-
paragingly referred to
to as the
the “Wannabee Tribe,” meaning
meaning those who
who want
to be
to be Native American—white people
people playing
playing atat or pretending to
to be
be “In-
“In-
dians.” This
This includes “Indian” hobbyists in Europe,
hobbyists in Europe, and Bear Tribe
and Bear Tribe mem-
bers in
bers in North America, as well as
well as some Pagan
Pagan andand neo-shamanic practi-
practi-
Most Bear
tioners. Most Bear Tribe
Tribe members are white,
white, and
and the
the current leader,
leader,
Wind, has
Wabun Wind, has been
been referred to
to as
as aa “whiteshaman.” Whiteshamans
use aa pastiche
pastiche of
of “Indian” garb
garb and
and ritual
ritual items,
items, presenting themselves as as
“real Indians” in
“real in contrast toto actual
actual Native American persons. Another ex-
ample familiar to
ample to many
many Pagans
Pagans isis the
the popular
popular writer Lynn
Lynn Andrews,
Andrews, who who
claims to
claims to be
be have been taught
have been taught byby aa Native American woman in in her
her book
book
Medicine Woman and and others,
others, while
while the
the tradition sheshe describes isis made
made upup
of aa variety
of variety of
of indigenous
indigenous practices
practices and
and beliefs.
beliefs. One
One might
might be
be tempted
tempted toto
think of
think of these
these practitioners as “jelly
“jelly donuts”: flaky
flaky white
white on the
the outside,
outside,
with artificial red
with red flavoring on the
the inside,
inside, in
in terms opposite
opposite toto the
the label-
ing of
ing of assimilated Native Americans as “apples”
“apples” (meaning
(meaning red
red on the
the out-
side and
side and white
white on the
the inside).
inside).
Not all
all Pagans
Pagans are aware of
of issues
issues of
of appropriation, but
but many feel
feel con-
it. Some
flicted about it. Some of
of their
their defenses against
against accusations ofof cultural ap-
ap-
charged because of
propriation are emotionally charged of their
their conflicted feelings.5
feelings.®
They are defensive because they
They they feel
feel threatened by
by having
having their
their practices
practices
 168
168 Chapter 99
Chapter

exposed
exposed to to challenges ofof inauthenticity. Politically sensitive Pagans Pagans have
have
a general
general sense that
that practitioners need to to seek develop recip-
seek permission, develop recip-
rocal relationships, and seekseek deep
deep rather than than superficial knowledge of of
cultural traditions inin borrowing. Some feel feel that
that blending
blending isis not advisable,
while other
while other Pagans
Pagans are unaware
unaware of,of, or unconcerned with, with, issues of of ap-
ap-
propriation.
Some practitioners saysay that
that if they find
if they find thethe idioms ofof other cultures
“meaningful and and compelling,” then their use of of such idioms isis appropri-
ate. Scott Cunningham, for
ate.° for example, says,
says, “If“If you feel particularly at-
you feel at-
tracted to
to other sacred calendars, feel feel free
free to adapt them. . . .. So
to adapt So long
long as
the rituals are fulfilling and
the and effective, why
why worry?”’
worry?”” Other practitioners
are more defensive, such
such as A.
A. Lizard,
Lizard, who said in an Internet discussion
said in
forum, “Use your dream catchers in
forum, in good
good health. There are plenty
plenty of
of na-
tive Americans using
tive 486
using 486 based PCs
PCs made in right now, and
in Taiwan right the
and the
fact that
fact that the
the i486 chip
chip or a Taiwan assembly plant plant largely
largely come from non-
Native American cultural origins origins doesn’t affect their their usefulness to to their
their
Native American user base in in the
the least.
least. AA tool
tool isis aa tool
tool is
is aa tool. The ques-
tool. The ques-
tion isn’t who invented it, it, it
it is
is DOES IT IT WORK FOR YOU???”8 Looking Looking
at
at who benefits inin each of
of these cases isis useful. Where ritual activities and and
accoutrements come from matters. Would there not be be something offen-
sive
sive about using
using a crucifix to to turn one’s compost, even ifif one regards regards it it as
aa sacred task?
The sense thatthat itit isis okay
okay toto appropria
appropriate te thethe traditions of of others to to serve
one’s own needs seems to be a specifical
to be specifically ly Western idea,
idea, based on aa con-
ception of
ception of knowledge
knowledge as unrelated to to cultural context rather than embod-
ied,
ied, encoded, and and taught
taught through
through particular ethical relationsh relationshipsips andand in in
specific places. As
specific places. As an outgrowth Western culture, culture, Pagans
Pagans do emphasize
do emphasize
the
the needs of the self
of the self in in their defenses of of cultural borrowing.’
borrowing. Some prac-
titioners suggest that that borrowing is is aa universal practice in in religion,
religion, as new
religions form through
religions syncretism, but
through syncretism, but this
this defense can “effectively
“effectively si- si-
lence critical voices of of those cultures they themselves claim to
they themselves to honor,”
honor.”1°
Some practit ioners have come into
practitioners into dialogu
dialoguee with Native Americ ans on
Americans
the
the issue of of Pagan appropriation of
Pagan appropriation of Native American
American traditions.
traditions. At At the
the
1993 Parliam ent of
Parliament of World Religions
Religions in in Chicago
Chicago,, Lakota elders criticiz ed
criticized
Paganis
Paganism, m, among other traditions, traditions, for for appropr
appropriation
iation ofof “practices
“practices of of wor-
shippin
shippingg in in circle, invoking
invoking the the four directio
directions,ns, and purifying
purifying with burn-
ing incense as imitati
ing imitation on of
of their own practices.”
practices.” Represe
Representatives
ntatives of
Covena
of the
the
Covenant nt ofof the
the Goddes
Goddesss argued argued thatthat thethe origins
origins ofof these practic es within
practices
Pagani
Paganism sm are in European magical traditions,
in European traditions, which the the elders at at the
the con-
ference accepte
accepted. d. Howeve
However, r, Pagans
Pagans do borrow other aspects of
do borrow of Native
Americ
American an traditio ns, and
traditions, and Native Americ
Americans ans continue
continue toto criticize .!! Practi-
criticize." Practi-
tioners inin New Zealand borrow element elementss of of non-We stern traditio
non-Western ns, espe-
traditions, espe-
cially from Native Americ
cially American an traditio
traditions.
ns. They
They use drummi
drumming ng forfor trance
trance
 Ethics and Politics
Ethics and 169
169

journeys, they they employ

employ the practice of
the practice of acquiring “power animals,” and
acquiring “power and
they
they use smudging for for purification.
purification.!!2? Indigenous scholars have been par- par-
ticularly
ticularly critical of of lucrative New New Age
Age uses of of Native American traditions
of
of sweat lodges,
lodges, pipe
pipe ceremonies, and medicine wheels.13 wheels.”3
To
To be be fair,
fair, the
the Pagan adoption of
Pagan adoption of indigenous traditions and the the inter-
mixing
mixing of of other cultural traditions isis not necessarily motivated by by profit
profit
and consumerism,
and consumerism , but
but more often by by aesthetics and and pragmatism. Pagans Pagans
are inspired by by an eclectic assortment of of traditions, and and theythey mix
mix them in in
their
their rituals to to create beautiful rituals that that work. However, Pagans Pagans also also use
cultural traditions outside their their own ethnicity because they they often see these
“other” traditions as spiritually
spiritually more authentic than than mainstream culture.
Those who borrow do do so because they they want to integrate seemingly
to integrate seemingly more
authentic traditions into into aa privileged
privileged new culture. However, there there isis aa con-
tradiction between wanting wanting thosethose cultures to be unchanging and
to be and pure, fit- fit-
ting
ting their image of
their image of ancient indigenous traditions, but but also
also insisting
insisting on the the
flexibility and adaptability of of those traditions in in their
their own practices.!4 Peo- Peo-
ple are attracted to
ple are to Native American traditions by by their
their perception of of these
these
cultures’ respect
respect forfor nature and and their
their sense of of interconnect
interconnecteedness dness of all
of all
things, and
things, and thethe presentation of of Native American traditions as aa panacea
for
for environment
environmentaall destruction and and other problems problems in in modern culture.!5
culture.15
Some practitioners continue to
Some indigenous cultures as repositories of
to see indigenous of
spiritual knowledge lost
spiritual lost to culture.!° The
to Western culture.'® problem with
The problem with such
such ro- ro-
mantic views of of indigenous traditions isis that that they
they are fedfed byby a a desire to to es-
cape accountabilit
cape accountabilityy for genocide, and
for racism, genocide, contemporary
and contemporar problems of
y problems of
substance abuse abuse andand sterilization abuse. appropriatorss render
abuse. Romantic appropriator
contemporary
contemporar indigenous struggles
y indigenous struggles for justice invisible.!7
for justice invisible.”
Some practitioners suggest
Some suggest that that itit can be be problematic to to argue thatthat reli-
reli-
gion should be
gion be ethnically
ethnically based. While itit isis easy toto sympathize with with ar-
guments of
guments of Native Americans against against cultural appropriatio
appropriation, n, itit becomes
less so
less so when
when Heathens and and practitioners of of Eastern European
European Paganisms
Paganisms
insist on an ethnic basis
insist basis forfor their
their religious
religious practices.
practices. Such
Such Pagan
Pagan practi-
practi-
immediately presented
tioners are immediately presented as racist ifif they they try
try toto restrict their
their in- in-
digenous traditions to
digenous to those of of their
their own ethnicity.
ethnicity. The The difference of of
power in
power in these
these situations isis important,
important, and
and itit should
should be
be noted
noted that
that the
the bal-
bal-
of power can change
ance of change over time.
time. Arguments
Arguments against
against appropriatio
appropriationn
present ethnicities as
present as natural,
natural, essential,
essential, stable
stable categories,
categories, but
but ethnicity
ethnicity isis
socially constructed. Ethnic
socially Ethnic and
and cultural differences are real,
real, but
but not ab-
ab-
solute, and
solute, and the
the biological
biological basis of
of race isis questionable.
questionable.'8
'8
Pagans are generally
Pagans generally described asas “white,”
“white,” butbut they
they often
often do
do not
not iden-
tify as white,
tify white, citing
citing aa variety
variety of
of European
European ethnicities in in their
their back-
back-
ground.!? ItIt isis not
ground.!? not just
just the
the culture of
of the
the populations
populations of
of North
North America,
Brazil, and
Australia, Brazil, and other
other places
places colonized by
by Europe
Europe that
that are multi-
multi-
- cultural,
cultural, but
but often
often the
the individuals themselves. Pagans
Pagans often
often describe
describe
 170
170 Chapter
Chapter 99

themselves
themselves as “mutts,”
as “mutts,” and
and Pagan groups, particularly
Pagan groups, in larger
particularly in larger cities,
cities,
can involve aa mix of
of cultural backgrounds. IsIs it still appropriation if
it still half
if half
the
the members are of
of Irish
Irish descent, or if
if two of
of them
them are African or Native
American? Some Pagans
Pagans argue
argue that
that “gods
“gods do
do not respect cultural bound-
aries,” as Gus
aries,” says of
Gus diZerega says of his with Umbanda.”
his experience with Umbanda.”° He
He does
not mix Umbanda
not Umbanda and Witchcraft, but
and but he
he feels called to
feels called practice both.
to practice
Others suggest that
that because of of reincarnation, the
the ethnicity
ethnicity of
of one’s cur-
rent incarnation isis not all important.”! Groups
not all Groups like
like Reclaiming
Reclaiming have been
have been
accused of of cultural appropriation when they they have tried to include ele-
tried to ele-
ments from aa variety
variety of
of cultural backgrounds in in efforts to be inclusive,
to be
leading
leading to to the
the suggestion that that “when it it comes toto the
the thorny
thorny issues of of
multiculturalism and and respect for for other cultural traditions, itit seems at at
times that
that Witchcraft cannot win win forfor trying.”
Respectful participation may be be possible when white people people develop
develop
relationships withwith Native American communities (rather than individu-
als) and work in
als) and solidarity with Native American groups on social justice
in solidarity justice
issues.”
issues. Starhawk indicates that that borrowing
borrowing entails responsibility “to “to par-
par-
ticipate in
in the very real
the very struggles being
real struggles waged for
being waged for liberation, land,
land, and
and
cultural survival.”*4 She She suggests that that practicing Paganism, as revived
European traditions, should obviate the the desire toto participate in
in
“Wannabee” activities.2> However, “it
“it cannot be said that
be said the movement
that the

Figure
Figure 19.
19. North
North Altar
Altar with multicultural elements, Samhain Spiral
Spiral Dance celebration
of
of the
the Reclaim
Reclaimiing
ng community in in San Francisco (photo
(photo by
by M.
M. Macha Nightma
Nightmare)
re)
 Ethics and
Ethics and Politics 171
171

as aa whole mobilizes forfor such

such causes. . ... . Whatever Starhawk says,
says, one
senses aa mix
mix of
of romantic nostalgia forfor the
the primitive or exotic with cul-cul-
tural ignorance
ignorance or naivety
naivety when Pagans and and witches proclaim
proclaim the
the po-
po-
tency of,
tency for example, their
of, for their power animal or dream-catcher .”26 Some
dream-catcher.”°
practitioners take
take on aa strategy ofof identifying themselves with Native
American critics and
and distancing themselves from New Agers,’
Agers,2” seeming
to
to project
project unethical borrowing practices onto New Age Age practitioners
while defending their their own practices.
Appropriation
Appropriati on isis an unresolved issue issue in in Paganism, especially in in relation
to identity issues for
to identity for people
people of of mixed heritage,
heritage, but but also
also in in colonized areas
where practitioners engage in in practices related to to the
the bioregional
bioregional idea idea of of
rooting
rooting in in place environmentalis
place as an environmenta list t strategy. For Pagans who practice
For Pagans practice
their religion as nature religion,
their religion religion, it it can be be important to to honor the the spirits
spirits of of
the land.
the land. Pagans
Pagans sometimes seek seek toto know these these spirits through contact
spirits through
with indigenous
with indigenous sources,
sources, whether
whether through individuals, communities
through individuals, communities,,
and/or anthropological
anthropological sources. Borrowing from indigenous traditions isis
culturally sensitive in
culturally in New Zealand. Practitioners respect respect Maori cultural
knowledge and spirituality but
and spirituality but dodo not generally
not generally try to try to incorporate
incorporate itit intointo
their practices to any great
their practices to any great degree, degree, unlike aspects
aspects of of Native American spir-
spir-
ituality have adopted.
they have
ituality they Pagans may,
adopted. Pagans may, for example, acknowledge and
for example, and
honor local
local deities andand/or local tribes at the beginning
/or local tribes at the beginning of of outdoor rituals.”8
rituals.”
ethics are more integrated
Feminist ethics integrated into into Pagan
Pagan practice
practice than than ethical sen-
sibility regarding
sibility regarding cultural appropriatio
appropriation. n. The The vast
vast majority
majority of of American
Pagans support gender
Pagans support gender equity,
equity, with 88.1 88.1 percent in in favor
favor of of passing
passing an
amendment to to enshrine equal equal rights
rights in in thethe American constitution.
Slightly more female than
Slightly than malemale practitioners support support this this initiative, but but
male Pagans
male Pagans are much more likely likely toto support the the amendment than than thethe
general American public.”
general public.” In In Pagan
Pagan writings
writings and and practice,
practice, adherence to to
feminism isis often
often assumed. The The Goddess isis given given priority
priority over male male di- di-
vinity, and
vinity, and priestesses are given given priority
priority over priests priests in in Wicca,
Wicca, generally
generally
as aa compensatio
as compensation for the
n for the pervasive
pervasive patriarchy
patriarchy in in mainstream monothe-
istic traditions. The
istic The elevation of of the
the Goddess to to the
the exclusion of of the
the God
God
and
and men was more pronounced early early in in the
the second wave of of feminism, al- al-
though itit continues in
though in some women’s-onl
women’s-only circles. The
y circles. The exclusion of of men
explicit in
was explicit in Z.
Z. Budapest’s
Budapest’s Holy Holy Book
Book ofof Women’s Mysteries,
Mysteries, a a manifesto
of spiritual
of spiritual politics
politics andand radical separatist
separatist feminism. Budapest's Budapest’s 1979 1979 book
book
states, “We
states, “We are committed to to winning,
winning, to to surviving,
surviving, to to struggling
struggling against
against
patriarchal oppression,” and
patriarchal and “we “we are opposed
opposed to to teaching
teaching our magic magic and and
craft to
our craft to men untiluntil the
the equality
equality of of the
the sexes isis aa reality.’”°°
reality.”°° In In the
the 1989
1989
edition of
edition of the book, Budapest
the book, Budapest adds, adds, “We“We teach
teach ‘Pan’
‘Pan’ workshops
workshops today today andand
work together
work together withwith men who who havehave changed
changed themselves into into brothers.”31
brothers.”3!
The equality
The equality of of the
the sexes isis implicit
implicit in in Cunningham
Cunningham’s Wicca: AA Guide
's Wicca: Guide for
for
the Solitary
the Solitary Practitioner. Complementa
Complementarity rity of of the
the sexes isis oftenoften assumed as as
 W72
172 Chapter 99
Chapter

part
part of
of the
the polarity
polarity of male and
of male and female in Wicca, but
in Wicca, but the
the implementation
of the
of the equality
equality of
of the
the sexes in
in practice
practice came toto Gardnerian Wicca largely
largely
from the
the United States. Doreen Valiente relates coming
coming toto feminist con-
sciousness through reading Starhawk and others.32
through reading Many attribute the
others.*2 Many the
widespread feminist awareness in in Paganism to the influence of
to the the sense
of the
of
of empowerment and and emancipatory politics of feminist spirituality and
politics of and
religion in
Goddess religion in Starhawk’s work. The
The emphasis on the the Goddess, and
and
the
the mass of
of Paganism books written byby women or focused on women’s re-
lationship to
to the
the Goddess, has
has more recently led to
recently led to books aimed at at male
male
practitioners, such
such as When II See
See the Wild God,
the Wild God, written by
by aa woman, Ly Ly de
de
Angeles, and
Angeles, and other works written by by and
and for
for men, such
such as A.
A. J.
J. Drew’s
Wicca for for Men.
Men.
Practitioners and scholars tend to to assume that that Paganism, as nature re-
ligion,
ligion, is is associated with environmentalism. Pagans
with environmentalism. Pagans are much more
likely to
likely to support further government spending for for environmental pro- pro-
tection than the the general
general American population: 92 92 percent of of Pagans
Pagans ver-
sus 55.7
55.7 percent of of the
the general
general American population. There isis less less
agreement about other aspects aspects ofof how environmental ethics should be be
practiced, and for for some practitioners, environmentalism
environmentalism is is not impor-
impor-
tant, even for
tant, for those who who see nature as sacred.
Pagans
Pagans often espouse the the idea
idea that
that environmen
environmental tal ethics consist in in fol-
fol-
lowing nature or acting
lowing acting in in harmony with nature, an idea idea that
that is also com-
is also
mon in in general
general writings about environmen talism. Some Pagans,
environmentalism. Pagans, such as
Starhawk, feel feel that
that ethical action isis inspired
inspired by by the
the Goddess as incarnated
in the living
in the living cosmos, or as nature personified. Druids might might say that eth-
say that eth-
ical action
ical action as as action inspired by
action inspired by Awen, the the life force of
life force nature. However,
of nature. However,
nature is is not just the “greenwood
just the “greenwood”” where everyone gets gets along
along andand no one
gets
gets eaten. Scientifically
Scientifically minded ecologists indicate that nature is is not nec-
essarily
essarily harmonious but but isis unpredictab
unpredictable,
le, even chaotic. According to to post-
post-
modern thought,thought, the the meaning
meaning of of “nature” is is not transparent
transparent,, and itit is is nec-
essary to to consider with whose idea of of nature one should try try toto bebe inin
harmony.
harmony.** Some practitioner practitionerss see nature as Gaia in in James Lovelock’s
sense of of a self-regulat
self-regulating ing system that,
that, although it it preserves life, life, expresses
no favoritism in in terms of of supporting human life. life. Some see nature as
mother earth, earth, but
but others express concern that that thisthis maymay havehave undesirable
implications for
implications for what women are supposed to to bebe like
like ifif they
they are “natural.”
Others regardregard nature in in terms of of the
the sublime, something to to respect and
admire, or even fear,
admire, fear, as something more powerful than
more powerful than humans.
humans. Less Less
commonly in in Paganism, some see nature as fragile fragile and in in need of of human
protection or stewardship
stewardship.. Some Pagans, Pagans, in in common with environmen environmen--
talists,
talists, see nature as something that that needs to to bebe preserved apart apart from hu- hu-
mans, sometimes as something pure and and pristine, as if if we have fallen
from aa natural state, state, and natural areas need to to be
be protected from certain certain
 Ethics and
Ethics and Politics
Politics VWs
173

kinds of of people
people (sometimes the the urban poor, or local local poor).
poor). Nature is is not
simply
simply identifiable as something to to follow; peoples’
peoples’ ideas of of nature and and
divinity
divinity influence how they they are inspired to to ethical action.
However, to
However, to say that all
say that all ideas of of nature are interpretive need not deny
not deny
the reality
the reality of of practitioners’ religious
religious experiences of of inspiration of of ethical
action, such as having having knowledge or understanding that that comes from
Awen, or Adrian Harris’ argument for for somatic knowledge of ecology.
of ecology.
Harris, a a Wiccan and and a founding
founding member of of the Dragon Environ-
the British Dragon
Group, suggests that
mental Group, that Paganism may unique role
may have aa unique role in
in ecology,
ecology,
providing aa revolution in
providing making sense of
in making reality by
of reality putting people
by putting people backback
in touch with their bodies and
in the Earth. He
and the He argues that that somatic (or (or em-
bodied) knowledge of of nature and the body as part
the body of nature can teach
part of
people “that all
people things are ultimately one.” He
all things He understands somatic
knowledge as that that which is felt in
is felt in “good
“good sex” and in
sex” and in “powerful ritual.”
ritual.”5
knowledge but
is not cerebral knowledge
ItIt is but gut
gut feeling,
feeling, thethe result of direct experience.
result of
Because it it isis experienced in in the through the
body rather through
the body the intellect, itit does
yield aa set
not yield set of principles or program of
of ethical principles of action. Nonetheless, itit
motivates environmental actions like the campaigns to
like the Salisbury Hill
to save Salisbury Hill
and Twyford Down from road road building. (The Twyford Down protest was
(The Twyford
to save three
to sites, aa national park,
three sites, greenbelt land,
park, greenbelt and protected
land, and land. De-
protected land. De-
spite massive protest, the
spite road was built,
the road cut twelve minutes of
to cut
built, to of com-
muter time.) Harris feels
feels that through participation in
that direct experience through in
ritual can lead
lead toto empowerment, which can then in action toward
then result in
radical social change.*°
change.*
Written expressions ofof environmental ethics in Paganism
in contemporary Paganism
can also
also be
be found in the work of
in the of Starhawk and
and Carol Christ. For
For Starhawk,
environmental awareness isis inherent to to the practice of
the practice of Witchcraft. She She sees
her spirituality as an earth-based tradition, and
her and not only
only one thatthat isis cele-
cele-
bratory of
bratory of nature, butbut that
that is
is also
also a force
force for
for instigating communal change. change.
She suggests that
She that thethe Pagan
Pagan recognition that that humans live live interdepend-
ently in
ently community with other
in community other animals,
animals, plants,
plants, and
and other entities
entities should
should
inspire the
inspire the desire for for social change.*”
change.” Although
Although her her sense of of ethics isis more
often implied
implied in in her
her strategies than explicitly stated, she she does indicate that that
true vision inspires
inspires political action. For Starhawk, the
the Goddess is
is not only
only
aa symbol,
symbol, butbut aa living
living being
being who “makes demands on us.”38 us.”°8 She
She recom-
mends “picking
“picking up up thethe garbage
garbage that you find
that you find in
in your path,”
path,” metaphori-
cally and literally, as
cally and literally, as “an “an ethical guide for
guide for a modern age.”°?
age.”°?
Carol Christ provides
provides more of of aa theoretical foundation for for ethics in in
religion in
Goddess religion in her
her systematic thealogy,
thealogy, Rebirth of of the
the Goddess. God-
dess-focused practitioners of of Paganism take take inspiration from the the writings
writings
of Christ,
of Christ, but
but itit is
is unclear
unclear to
to what
what extent
extent she
she identifies herself as
identifies herself as Pagan.
Pagan.
Christ explains
explains how
how the
the immanence of
of the
the Goddess in
in humans and the the
rest of
of the
the natural world undergirds aa natural sense of
of ethical relations.
relations.
 174
174 Chapter
Chapter 99

Humans who
who are in
in touch with being
being embodied experience empathy in
empathy in
their
their relations with others, including
with others, including nonhumans, and
and are aware of
of their
their
dependence on the
the Earth
Earth and
and of
of the
the total
total interdependence of
of the web of
the web of
life. The
life. symbol of
The symbol of the
the Goddess, through
through ritual,
ritual, Christ argues, brings
brings en-
vironmental values toto consciousness. Rather than
than lacking
lacking aa principle of
of
justice, as some critics have
justice, have claimed,’°
claimed,*° the of the
the immanence of the Goddess in
in
nature inspires
inspires ethical action. Ethics does does not
not require
require aa basis in
in transcen-
dence, Christ argues, if nature is “intelligent and loving” rather than
dence, Christ argues, if nature is “intelligent and loving” rather “bru-
than “bru-
tal
tal and blind.”4!
blind.”*! While cautioning that
that ethics are necessarily context de-
de-
pendent, she
she provides aa list of
list of principles for
for Goddess religion:
religion:

¢ life.
Nurture life.
¢ Walk inin love
love and
and beauty.
beauty.
¢ the knowledge that
Trust the that comes through
through thethe body.
body.
¢ Speak the
Speak the truth about conflict,
conflict, pain,
pain, and
and suffering.
suffering.
¢ Take only
only what you you need.
¢ Think about the the consequences of of your actions forfor seven generations.
¢ Approach the the taking
taking of
of life with great
life with great restraint.
e Practice great
great generosity.
¢ Repair the web.”
Repair the web.“

Although Christ’s systematic thealogy thealogy isis aa rare example of of highly

highly artic-
ulated ethics in in Paganism, feminist and and environmental
environmentalist ist values are com-
monly expressed in
monly in Paganism
Paganism through
through things
things like
like their positive attitudes
toward the the body,
body, sexuality, and and nature, and their respect for for people
people who
choose to to live
live different lifestyles.
lifestyles. ManyMany Pagans
Pagans describe what they they dodo as
aa “way
“way of of life”
life” rather than than aa religion.”
religion. Daily Daily life
life for
for Pagans
Pagans is is not mun-
dane or profane
profane as opposed to to some more spiritual concern. Pagans Pagans inte-
grate
grate spirituality into into their dailydaily lives in in their work and and inin their leisure,
their leisure,
but
but this
this can be be a source of of tension for Pagans who feel
for Pagans feel that their jobs
that their jobs en-
tail
tail complicity in in systems that that go
go against
against “nature.” Some Pagans Pagans undergo
undergo
aa sort ofof compartmenta
compartmentalizationlization when the the ethics of of their religious practice
religious practice
are inin conflict with their job job requirements.
requirements. Some Pagans Pagans are pacifists,
pacifists, butbut
there are PagansPagans in in the
the military.
military.4 Other Pagans Pagans feel
feel torn between the the de-
de-
sire
sire toto opt
opt out of of Western civilization and and the
the responsibility
responsibility to to engage
with it it in
in protest. Pagans’
Pagans’ attitudes about conformism and and blending
blending into into
mainstream culture are diverse. Some Some fear
fear persecution or ridicule,
ridicule, while
others feelfeel a need to to set themselves apart. apart.
The
The ethics of of the
the daily
daily practic
practiceses ofof conserv ative Pagans
conservative Pagans are largely
largely in-in-
visible because they they blend into the the mainstr eam. Other ethics of
mainstream. daily life
of daily life
embedded in
embedded in Pagans’ lives lives are visible in practices around food
in their practices food and
appreciation of
their appreciation the body
of the body andand sexuality.
sexuality. Some Pagans Pagans express their
religious values through
religious through growing
growing and harvesting
harvesting their own food. Gar- Gar-
 Ethics and
Ethics and Politics 175
175

dening
dening makes
makes them
them aware
aware of,
of, and
and appreciative of, natural
appreciative of, natural cycles, includ-
cycles, includ-
ing
ing rain and
and cold periods
periods of
of dormancy.
dormancy. Some practitioners see hunting as
a sacred task,
task, while others are vegetarian. Pagans
Pagans generally see sexual ex-
pression as natural rather than sinful,sinful, and
and they
they tend
tend to
to value all body
all body
types,
types, young andand old,
old, because of of the
the immanence of of divinity
divinity in all bodies.
in all
Many
Many Pagans also exhibit a preference for
Pagans also for natural methods and products,
and products,
including herbalism and and other naturopathic medicine, such as therapeu- therapeu-
tic massage. Some Pagans
tic Pagans leave offerings
offerings to
to landwights and and household
deities,
deities, whether in
in the city or in
the city in rural
rural areas, as aa reminder of
of their depen-
depen-
dence on the
the Earth for
for food, air, and
food, air, and water. According
According toto some Pagans,
Pagans,
their spirituality has has made it it impossible for for them to litter, or not
to litter, not toto recy-
cle and
cle and compost.
Reverence for for nature can inspire inspire political awareness and and action inte- inte-
grated into
grated into daily
daily life.
life. Some recent work in in environment
environmental al philosophy
points to
points to everyday
everyday life life for environmental
for environment al solutions, suggesting that that indi-
indi-
vidual complicity
complicity inin the system of
the system of industrial society—the cars we drive, drive,
the food we buy,
the food buy, our participation in in overconsumpti
overconsumption—shou on—should ld be be aa
point of
point of political
political action. However, others argue argue that
that the system does
the system does notnot
end by
end by individual action: “picking “picking up litter beside aa power station,
up litter station, aa
factory, a a quarry or aa motorway
chemical factory, motorway isis as valuable as putting putting an
Elastoplast
Elastoplast on aa severed arm.”*5 arm.”* Pagans integrate their
Pagans integrate their politics
politics of of every-
day life
day life with emancipatory
with emancipator politics.
y politics.
Pagans are active participants in
Pagans in mainstream politics through voting,
politics through voting, butbut
they are skeptical
they skeptical about
about the the integrity
integrity of of existing
existing social institutions,*
institutions,*°6 so
they also
they also participate
participate in in activities such such as political
political protests and and letter-writ-
ing
ing campaigns. While While Pagan identificationn with
Pagan identificatio with environment
environmental al activism
increased between 1977 1977 and and 1986,
1986, itit still
still constituted only only aa segment
segment of of the
the
Pagan
Pagan movement as
as a a whole. In that period, only
In that period, only about a about a quarter of Pagans
of Pagans
felt that
felt that Paganism
Paganism in in general
general was political.4”
political.*” Pagans’
Pagans’ self-identific
self-identification ation as
apolitical may
apolitical may have had have had more to do with
to do with their their distrust of
of mainstream po-
po-
litical institutions than than their
their actual levelslevels of of political
political activity
activity through
through otherother
channels. According
According to to more recent research, the the vast majority of
vast majority of Pagans
Pagans
vote, albeit
vote, albeit more enthusiastica
enthusiastically lly at at the
the national level level than
than in in state
state oror local
local
elections. In In addition, about about half
half of of all
all Pagans
Pagans engage in in letter-writin
letter-writingg cam-
paigns, about
paigns, about aa quarter
quarter participate in in some sort sort of
of local
local grassroots politicalpolitical
activity, and
activity, and almost half half participate
participate in in political
political demonstrati
demonstrations.** Social
ons.® Social
protest may
protest may not not bebe aa majority
majority position
position within
within Paganism,
Paganism, but but activism isis
highly visible amongst
highly amongst practitioners.
practitioners.
Pagans exhibit aa wide
Pagans wide variety
variety of
of political
political orientations.*
orientations.4?? Pagan
Pagan reverence
for nature does
for does not
not necessarily translate into
into political
political action inin defense of of
Celebrating “nature” does
nature. Celebrating does not
not necessarily
necessarily lead
lead toto environment
environmental al
awareness. One One scholar practitioner,
practitioner, for
for example,
example, reports
reports that
that at
at aa full-
full-
trip toto Avebury
moon trip Avebury one winter,
winter, she
she found
found “a
“a collection of of ritual
ritual litter,
litter,
176
176 Chapter 99
Chapter

primarily candles and

primarily and wax, that
that indicated that
that whatever was foremost in
in
the minds of
the of those who
who had
had performed their rituals around specific
specific stones
of this great
of this great circle the
the night
night before, it was not environmental care—at least
before, it
not inin any
any way thatthat envisaged
envisaged practitioners’ own actions as potentially
potentially
causing problems.”*°
causing problems.”°” Ribbons, bits bits ofof string, and other small offerings
string, and
might be
might be inoffensive votive offeringsofferings for for some Pagans,
Pagans, but but when left be-
left be-
hind, they
hind, they can become eyesores for for others. Despite
Despite widespread expressions
of reverence for
of for the Earth, researchers have found “a
the Earth, deep split
“a deep split between
Pagans whose commitment to to ecological principles was strong strong andand practi-
practi-
cal, and
cal, and those whose commitment was limited to a religious
to a religious vision.”>!
Women practitioners are slightly slightly more politically
politically active than than male prac-prac-
overall, but
titioners overall, they are significantly more likely
but they than males to
likely than to take
take
part
part inin demonstrations. Pagans Pagans in in general
general are much more likely likely toto partici-
partici-
pate in
pate in such events than the general
than the general American population.>?
population.*2 While women
are more politically active than than male practitioners, especially through through their
their
participation in in ecofeminism, practitioners of of the
the Church of of All
All Worlds
and Feraferia also
and also tend to to be
be politically active.53
active.5? Some research indicates
that practitioners of
that of women’s spirituality may may be be the
the most radical Pagans,Pagans,
and that
and that those practicing traditions emerging from from British initiatory witch-
craft are the
craft least politically active,*4
the least active,“ butbut itit appears that the influence of
that the of
British initiatory
initiatory traditions in in North America may be be more conservative
than the
than the development of of those same traditions in in the
the United Kingdom.
While Gardnerian and and Alexandrian groups may be be less
less politically active
than eclectic groups in in North America, some groups in the United King-
in the King-
dom,
dom, such
such as thethe Dragon
Dragon Environmental Group, Group, are more politically active
than many North American groups. In In addition, Gardnerians note that the
that the
original
original New Forest coven engaged engaged in in political
political action, conducting aa ritual
to
to repel
repel thethe Nazi invasion of of Britain during
during the the Second World War, War, al-al-
though
though some academics suggest that that this
this story
story maymay be be apocryphal.
apocryphal.®>
Using ritual to
Using to achieve political
political ends is is a a common Pagan Pagan strategy for for
implementing ethics. Pagans Pagans also also often
often mixmix issues in in political rituals,
combining ecology and feminism in
ecology and in ecofeminism. Pagans Pagans engage in in direct
action using magic and
using magic and ritual,
ritual, as well as conducting these activities as
parts
parts ofof demonstrations and and atat separate events. Direct action entails a di- di-
rect refusal to comply with
to comply with aa perceived wrong, and interference with
those carrying
carrying out out such
such a wrong. ItIt is is intended to to destabilize systems of of
control and to
to undermine the
the compliance of
of enforcers, making
making it
it expen-
sive to
to enforce control. It It is
is effective because itit creates a a crisis of
of legiti-
legiti-
macy as people
people cease to to believe that the system is
the system is working.*
working. Direct action
includes things
things like
like ecotage andand monkey
monkey wrenching (destroying ma-
chines like
like bulldozers at at road-building sites),
sites), but
but also
also other confronta-
tions with political
political and corporate power throughthrough activities like
like sit-ins and
tree sits.
tree Most direct-action
sits. Most direct-action protest
protest isis nonviolent,
nonviolent, despite
despite mainstream
mainstream
 Ethics and
Ethics and Politics 177
177

URIS IS OOS

Figure 20. Spontaneous Pagan

Figure 20. Pagan ritual led by Starhawk at
led by political demonstration
at political
against G20 meeting
against meeting in
in Ottawa, Canada,
Canada, 2001 (photo
(photo by
by Barbara Jane Davy)
Jane Davy)

news coverage that

that highlights sensationalist violence. ItIt may
may include civil
disobedience, but
disobedience, but itit is not always
is not always illegal.
illegal.
Pagans and
Some Pagans and environmentalists suggest that direct action has
that direct has spe-
cial
cial virtues. The
The experience ofof being out in
being out in nature, away
away from the shelter
from the
of
of home atat road-building protests, lends an awareness of of where water and
food
food comes from and and aa more immediate sense of of human dependence on
the
the natural world. In
In direct action,
action, one isis also
also forced to
to confront one’s
one’s
fears of the state,
of the state, of physical harm,
of physical harm, and
and sometimes of of heights
heights (in
(in tree sits)
sits)
of being
or of being in in aa state of
of anarchy.
anarchy. InIn addition, it it often works because it it is
is
expensive to evict protestors. This
to evict has been particularly successful
This tactic has
in the
in the antiroad movement in in Britain, inin which Pagans
Pagans participate. How-
ever, direct-action campaigns are generally generally reactive, they they focus
focus on single
single
issues, and they
issues, and they can draw media attention away from ongoing long-term
long-term
campaigning.*”
campaigning.”
Participation in in direct action may
may bebe less
less visible in in contemporary PaganPagan
discourse than
than other sorts of of environmentalist action because it
it tends to
to
be something one does rather than
be than writes about. In In contrast toto Pagan
Pagan dis-
dis-
course, direct action isis highly
highly visible as an activity.
activity. Starhawk continues to to
participate in in antiglobalization (or (or global-justice) protests that that use the the
same sorts of of direct-action techniques that that she and others developed in
she and in
antinuclear protests, as do do Canadian PaganPagan groups and Starhawk
and others. Starhawk
178
178 Chapter 99
Chapter

sends out regular

regular updates her political
updates on her political activities via
via e-mail and her
and her
website, www.starhawk.org.
In Britain,
In Britain, Dragon
Dragon Environmental Group also participates in
Group also in direct-
action campaigns, as well
well as
as other strategies, including regular lobbying
including regular lobbying
and eco-magic. Eco-magic isis designed
designed to
to use ritual to
to protect
protect the
the Earth and
stop environmental destruction, and
stop and itit involves contacting the the local spir-
local spir-
its of
its place. Dragon
of place. Dragon runs aa course instructing people people how to to do
do eco-magic,
organizes conservation work,
organizes work, and
and conducts antiroad and and anti-GMO cam-
paigns (against
paigns (against genetically
genetically modified organisms). Dragon Dragon alsoalso offers a bio-bio-
magic course that
magic that involves the the study
study of of woodland ecology,ecology, of of coming
coming to to
know trees, and and of of developing spiritual
spiritual relationships with with them. Mem-
bership in
bership in Dragon
Dragon overlaps
overlaps with
with that
that of
of the
the radical environmental group
Earth First!,
First!, which beganbegan inin the
the United States,
States, and Dragon camps offer
and Dragon offer
Council of of All
All Beings
Beings workshops similar to to those in
in Earth First! groups.
Pagans use magic
Pagans magic and and ritual toto effect political
political change primarily through
change primarily through
changing
changing individual consciousness, and,
and, toto a lesser
lesser extent, to
to act directly
directly
on local
local environments or the the Earth as aa whole. While “navel gazing” gazing” maymay
be aa stereotype of
be apolitical
of apolitical mysticism, some Pagans
Pagans believe that private
that private
meditation isis directly
directly beneficial to to the
the Earth because everything isis con-
nected. Others apply apply sympathetic magic magic in in Earth-healing rituals. Some
practitioners, for example, use homeopathic healing
for example, healing for for watersheds by by
blessing purified
blessing purified water and “inoculating” a body body of of water. In In addition to to
these
these direct effects on the
the natural world,
world, Pagans
Pagans feel
feel that magic, ritual,
that magic, ritual,
and
and myth
myth can work through through changing human consciousness. Even a
statement can change
change consciousness, Starhawk says: “If “If we call
call the
the world
alive, we begin
alive, begin to bring her
to bring back to
her back to life.”5*
life.”58 Ritual can present a a richer al- al-
ternative pattern to to mainstream consciousness and and challenge
challenge cultural pat- pat-
terns ofof domination. Starhawk argues that that since the
the basic cause of of envi-
ronmental destruction is is our estrangement from the the natural world,
world, it it can
be
be cured by by aa return to to a belief in immanence, which is
in immanence, is essentially a
change
change in in consciousness.” A A political
political ritual of raising the
of raising the dragon,
dragon, pub- pub-
lished byby Moonshine magazine, was effective in in consciousness raisingraising forfor
the
the antiroad movement in in Britain.*! TheThe dragon
dragon subsequently became a
symbol of
symbol of Pagan
Pagan environmentalism in in Britain.
Symbols are an important means of of changing
changing conscious ness and
consciousness and main-
taining alternativ
taining alternativee worldview
worldviews. s. Carol Christ argues that that we cannot just just

ie
I: Council of of All
All Beings
Beings rituals, people
people take
take on the
the roles
roles of
of various
animals and
and speak
speak ofof their
their suffering.
suffering. Some participants in in these ritu-
ritu-
als experience possession by
als by endangered or persecuted animals who who
call
call on humans to to exercise greater iritervention against
against exploitation.
 Ethics and Politics
Ethics and 179
179

reject
reject problematic symbols,
symbols, such as that
that of
of a radically transcendent mas-
culine God. “Symbol
“Symbol systems cannot simply
simply bebe rejected,”
rejected,” she
she says.
says. “They
“They
must bebe replaced.
replaced. Where there isis not any
any replacement, the mind will
the will re-
vert to
to familiar structures at
at times of
of crisis,
crisis, bafflement, or defeat.”®
defeat.” In Pa-
In Pa-
gan
gan ecofeminist practice, the the symbol
symbol of the Goddess and
of the images of
and images of Earth
are used to to motivate change.
change. Worldviews can be
be changed through art
changed through art and
myth, particularly through
myth, through performance art art as ritual, because
as ritual, because it motivates
it motivates
action. This This sort of of performance is is sometimes called “eco-drama.” It can
It can
take the
take the form form of of performances such such as Rachel Rosenthal’s performance art art
“Gaia,” in
“Gaia,” in which she she chastises and appeals to
and appeals her audience to
to her to heal the
heal the
Earth,
Earth,® as well as more carnivalesque activities and street theatre during during
political demonstrations and
political protests. Anti-GMO activists, for
and protests. for example,
use aa giant
giant “FrankenTony” costume to to parody
parody the the Tony
Tony the Tiger charac-
the Tiger
ter that Kellogg’s uses to
ter that to market cereals containing genetically modified
foods to
foods to children. Eco-drama isis often used used as part part ofof direct-action cam-
paigns, but
paigns, but itit tends to to have elements of of celebration and and “info-tainment.”
“info-tainment.”
ItIt can bebe educational, entertaining, fun, political at
and political
fun, and the same time.
at the Pa-
time. Pa-
gan eco-drama often
gan often includes dancing,
dancing, drumming, and singing, and
and singing, ef-
and itit ef-
fectively models a way of of life
life different from from thatthat which isis protested.
protested.
Rosenthal’s form form of of eco-drama is is somewhat similarlysimilarly designed to to pro-
voke an ethical and and political through aesthetic performance.
political response through
Feminism and and environmentalism
environmentalism are the the most visible political perspec-
tives of of Paganism, particularly through through the the overlap
overlap of of Paganism with
ecofeminism. Feminist ethics are well well supported within Paganism, if if not
currently often voiced. Magical Magical ethics are the the most highlyhighly developed
developed
ethics in in Paganism, particularly through through oral oral teaching
teaching traditions, and and to to
an extent in in written works. Environmental ethics are developing in in Pa-
Pa-
ganism
ganism through through current discourse, and and issues in in cultural appropriation
continue to be debated. Other contentious issues in
to be in contemporary Pagan- Pagan-
ism are discussed in
ism chapter 10.
in chapter 10.

FURTHER READING

Albanese, Catherine L. Religion and the

L. “Nature Religion to Metaphysics.” In
the Turn to In Reconsidering Na-
Na-
ture
ture Religion.
Religion. Harrisburg,
Harrisburg, PA:
PA: Trinity
Trinity Press
Press International, 2002.
2002.
Blain, Jenny. “Contested Meanings: Earth Religion
Blain, Jenny. Religion Practitioners and
and the Everyday.” The
the Everyday.” The
Pomegranate: A A New Journal of Neopagan Thought
Journal of Thought 12 (2000): 15-25.
12 (2000):

NOTES

1. Jone Salomonsen,
1. Jone Salomonsen, Enchanted
Enchanted Feminism:
Feminism: The
The Reclaiming
Reclaiming Witches
Witches of
of San
San Francisco
Francisco (London:
(London:
Routledge, 2002),
2002), 81.
81.
180
180 Chapter 99
Chapter

2.2. Christopher Key Chapple, Jainism

Key Chapple, Jainism andand Ecology:
Ecology: Nonviolence inin the Web of
the Web of Life
Life (Cam-
(Cam-
bridge,
bridge, MA: MA: Harvard University Press, 2002),
University Press, 2002), xxxii.
3.
3. Starhawk, “Ethics and and Justice in Goddess Religion,”
Justice in Religion,” in The Politics of
in The Spiritual-
of Women’s Spiritual-
ity: Essays
ity: Essays on the
the Rise
Rise of Spiritual:Power within
of Spiritual.Power within the
the Feminist Movement, ed. ed. Charlene Spretnak
Spretnak
(Garden City, City, NY:
NY: Anchor Press [Doubleday], 1982), 1982), 417.
4.4. Sabina Magliocco,
Magliocco, Witching
Witching Culture: Folklore and and Neo-Paganism in in America (Philadel-
phia: University
phia: University of Press, 2004),
of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), 219.
219.
5.5. Sarah M. M. Pike, Earthly Bodies, Magical
Pike, Earthly Selves: Contemporary Pagans
Magical Selves: Pagans and the Search for
and the for
Community (Berkeley,
Community (Berkeley, CA: University of
CA: University of California
California Press, 2001), 137.
Press, 2001), 137.
6. See
6. See Pike, Earthly Bodies,
Pike, Earthly Bodies, Magical
Magical Selves, 139.
Selves, 139.
7.7. Scott
Scott Cunningham, Wicca: AA Guide Guide for the Solitary
for the Solitary Practitioner (St.
(St. Paul,
Paul, MN:
MN: Llewellyn
Llewellyn
Publications, 1988), 48.
1988), 48.
8.8. Quoted inin Pike, Earthly Bodies,
Pike, Earthly Magical Selves,
Bodies, Magical Selves, 140.
140.
9.9. Pike,
Pike, Earthly Bodies, Magical
Earthly Bodies, Selves, 137.
Magical Selves, 137.
10. Pike, Earthly
10. Pike, Earthly Bodies, Magical Selves,
Bodies, Magical Selves, 144.
144.
11. Magliocco, Witching
11. Culture, 216.
Witching Culture, 216.
12. Kathryn
12. Kathryn Rountree, Embracing the and the
the Witch and the Goddess: Feminist Ritual-Makers in
in New
Zealand (London:
Zealand Routledge, 2004),
(London: Routledge, 2004), 165-66.
165-66.
13. Andy
13. Smith, “For All
Andy Smith, All Those Who Were Indian in
in aa Former Life,” in Ecofeminism
Life,” in and
Ecofeminism and
the Sacred,
the Sacred, ed.
ed. Carol J.J. Adams (New
(New York:
York: Continuum, 1993), 1993), 168.
168.
14. Pike,
14. Pike, Earthly Bodies, Magical
Earthly Bodies, Selves, 153.
Magical Selves, 153.
15. Smith, “For
15. Smith, All Those Who
“For All Who Were
Were Indian,” 168. 168.
16. See Rountree,
16. See Rountree, Embracing the Witch
Embracing the Witch and
and the
the Goddess, 166.
166.
17. Smith, “For
17. Smith, All Those Who
“For All Who Were Indian,”
Indian,” 169.
169.
18. Witching Culture, 209.
18. Magliocco, Witching 209.
19.
19. Magliocco, Witching Culture, 212.
Witching Culture, 212.
20. Magliocco,
20. Magliocco, Witching
Witching Culture,
Culture, 228.
228.
21. Pike, Earthly
21. Pike, Bodies, Magical
Earthly Bodies, Magical Selves, 139.
Selves, 139.
22.
22. Magliocco, Witching
Witching Culture,
Culture, 220-21.
23. Smith,
23. Smith, “For
“For All
All Those Who
Who Were Indian,”
Indian,” 171.
171.
24,
24. Starhawk, The Spiral Dance: AA Rebirth of
The Spiral of the
the Ancient Religion of the
Religion of the Great
Great Goddess, 10th
anniversary ed.
ed. (New York: HarperSanFrancisco,
HarperSanFrancisco, 1989),
1989), 214.
214.
25.
25. Starhawk, Spiral
Spiral Dance,
Dance, 214.
214. Starhawk echoes Andy Andy Smith’s comments on this
this issue.
See Smith,
See “For All
Smith, “For All Those WhoWho Were Indian,” 169.
Were Indian,” 169.
26. Rountree, Embracing the
26. the Witch
Witch and
and the
the Goddess, 167.
167.
27. Pike,
27. Earthly Bodies,
Pike, Earthly Magical Selves,
Bodies, Magical 145.
Selves, 145.
28. Rountree,
28. Rountree, Embracing the Witch
Embracing the Witch and
and the
the Goddess,
Goddess, 167-68.
167-68.
29. Helen Berger,
29. Berger, Evan A. Leach, and
A. Leach, and Leigh
Leigh S.
S. Shaffer,
Shaffer, Voices from the
Voices from Pagan Census: A
the Pagan Na-
A Na-
tional Survey
Survey of
of Witches and
and Neo-Pagans in
in the
the United States (Columbia: University of
of South
Carolina Press, 2003), 73-74.
Press, 2003), 73-74.
30.
30. Zsuzsanna E.E. Budapest, The
The Holy
Holy Book
Book of
of Women’s Mysteries, Part
Part 11 (Oakland, CA:
CA: Su-
Su-
san B.B. Anthony
Anthony Coven No.
No. 1,
1, 1979), 9, 10.
1979), 9, 10.
31.
31. Zsuzsanna Budapest, TheThe Holy
Holy Book of of Women’s Mysteries (Oakland, CA: Wingbow
Wingbow
Press,
Press, 1989), 3.3.
1989),
32.
32. Doreen Valiente, The
The Rebirth of
of Witchcraft (Custer,
(Custer, WA:
WA: Phoenix Publishing,
Publishing, 1989),
1989), 191.
191.
33.
33. Berger,
Berger, Leach, and Shaffer,
Shaffer, Voices from
from the
the Pagan
Pagan Census,
Census, 67.
67.
34.
34. Adrian Ivakhiv, “Whose Nature? The Transcend ental Signified of
Transcendental of an Emerging Field,”
Field,”
The Pomegranate: AA New Journal
The Pomegranate: Journal of
of Neopagan Thought
Thought 88 (1999):
(1999): 16.
16.
35.
35. Adrian Harris,
Harris, “Sacred Ecology,” Paganism Today,
Today, ed.
ed. Charlotte Hardman and Graham
Harvey
Harvey (London:
(London: Thorsons
Thorsons [HarperCo llins], 1996),
[HarperCollins], 1996), 152.
152.
36. Harris,
36. Harris, “Sacred
“Sacred Ecology,”
Ecology,” 153.
153.
 Ethics and
Ethics and Politics 181
181

37. Starhawk,
37. Starhawk, Truth
Truth or
or Dare:
Dare: Encounters with
with Power, Authority,
Authority, and
and Mystery
Mystery (New
(New York:
York:
HarperSanFranciisco,
HarperSanFranc 1987), 23.
sco, 1987), 23.
38. Starhawk, Dreaming the
38. the Dark: Magic,
Magic, Sex
Sex and
and Politics, new ed.
ed. (London: Mandala [Un-
[Un-
win 1990), xvi.
win Paperbacks], 1990), xvi.
39.
39. Starhawk, “Ethics and and Justice in
in Goddess Religion,” inin The
The Politics of
of Women’s Spiritu-
Spiritu-
ality:
ality: Essays
Essays on the
the Rise of Spiritual
Rise of Spiritual Power within the
the Feminist Movement, ed.ed. Charlene Spretnak
City, NY:
(Garden City, 1982), 422.
NY: Anchor Press [Doubleday], 1982), 422.
40. See Carol Christ,
40. See Christ, Rebirth of
of the
the Goddess: Finding
Finding Meaning
Meaning inin Feminist Spirituality (Read-
(Read-
ing, Addison-Wesley Publishing, 1997),
ing, MA: Addison-Wesley 1997), 176.
176.
41.
41. Christ,
Christ, Rebirth of
of the
the Goddess,
Goddess, 156.
156.
42. Christ,
42. Christ, Rebirth of
of the
the Goddess, 167.
167.
43. Margot
43. Adler, Drawing
Margot Adler, Drawing Down the the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers
Druids, Goddess-Worship pers,, and
and Other
Pagans
Pagans inin America Today,
Today, revised and
and expanded ed. ed. (Boston: Beacon Press,
Press, 1986), 372.
1986), 372.
44. Chas Clifton has
44. has discussed the of pacifism and
the issue of and Pagans
Pagans inin the military. Chas S.S.
the military.
Clifton,
Clifton, “Fort Hood’s Wiccans and the Problem of
and the of Pacifism” (paper
(paper presented at at the
the annual
meeting of
meeting of the
the American Academy
Academy of Religion, Nashville, Tennessee, November 20,
of Religion, 20, 2000).
2000).
45. Graham Harvey,
45. Harvey, Contemporary Paganism: Listening People,
People, Speaking
Speaking Earth (New York:
New
New York University
York Press, 1997),
University Press, 1997), 140.
140.
46.
46. Berger,
Berger, Leach,
Leach, and Shaffer, Voices
and Shaffer, Voices from
from the
the Pagan
Pagan Census, 2003,
2003, 88.
88.
47.
47. Adler, Drawing
Adler, Down the
Drawing Down the Moon,
Moon, 412, 409.
412, 409.
48.
48. Berger,
Berger, Leach,
Leach, and
and Shaffer,
Shaffer, Voices from the
Voices from the Pagan
Pagan Census, 55-57.
49. Adler, Drawing
49. Adler, Drawing Down the
the Moon,
Moon, 405, 407; Marion Bowman, “Nature,
405, 407; the Natural, and
“Nature, the and
Pagan Identity,” Diskus 66 (2000), Web
Pagan Identity,” http://web.uni-marb
Web edition, http://web.uni urg.de/religionswis
-marburg.de/re ligionswis
senschaft/journal/di (accessed May
skus (accessed
senschaft/journal/diskus May 16, 2001).
16, 2001).
50. Jenny
50. Jenny Blain,
Blain, “Contested Meanings:
Meanings: Earth Religion
Religion Practitioners andand the
the Everyday,”
The
The Pomegranate: AA New
New Journal
Journal of
of Neopagan
Neopagan Thought
Thought 12 25.
12 (2000): 25.
51.
51. Adler, Drawing
Adler, Drawing Down thethe Moon, 400.
Moon, 400.
52.
52. Berger, Leach,
Berger, Leach, and
and Shaffer, Voices from
Shaffer, Voices from the
the Pagan
Pagan Census, 59.
59.
53.
53. Adler, Drawing Down the
Adler, Drawing the Moon,
Moon, 403, 414.
403, 414.
54.
54, Adler,
Adler, Drawing
Drawing Down the
the Moon,
Moon, 415.
415.
55.
55. Ronald Hutton, The
The Triumph
Triumph of the Moon: AA History
of the History of
of Modern Pagan Witchcraft (Oxford:
Pagan Witchcraft
Oxford University
University Press,
Press, 1999),
1999), 208.
208.
56. Webs ofof Power: Notes
56. Starhawk, Webs Notes from
from the
the Global
Global Uprising
Uprising (Gabriola Island, British Co-
lumbia: New
New Society
Society Publishers, 2002),
2002), 228.
228.
57. Andy
57. Andy Letcher, “’Virtual
“Virtual Paganism’ or Direct Action? The The Implications ofof Road
Protesting
Protesting for
for Modern Paganism,” Diskus 66 (2000),
(2000), Web
Web edition, http:/
http:/ /web.uni-marb
/web.uni-marburg
urg
.de/religionswissenschaft/journal/diskus May 16,
.de/religionswissenschaft/journal/diskus (accessed May 16, 2001).
2001).
58.
58. Truth or
Starhawk, Truth or Dare,
Dare, 8.8.
59.
59. Truth or
Starhawk, Truth or Dare,
Dare, 98.
98.
60.
60. Starhawk, Dreaming
Dreaming thethe Dark,
Dark, 5,5, 9.9.
61.
61. Letcher, “Virtual Paganism’
Letcher, Paganism’ or Direct Action?” 4-5. 4-5.
62. Quoted
62. Quoted inin Starhawk, Webs
Webs of of Power,
Power, 263.
263.
63. Elinor Gadon,
63. Elinor Gadon, “Gaia Consciousness: EcologicalEcological Wisdom for the
for the Renewal of
of Life
Life on
Our Planet,” in
in The
The Once and
and Future Goddess: AA Symbol for Our
Symbol for Time (San
Our Time (San Francisco: Harper
Harper &&
Row, 1989),
Row, 1989), 363.
363.
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 10
10
ook
oot
Current Issues
Issues

Gre
1h ae in Paganism
issues in Paganism center around the the public
public image
image of of the reli-
the reli-
gion and practitioners’ feelings
gion feelings about how
how Paganism should develop.
Some practitioners and and denominations want Paganism
Paganism to to grow into an in- in-
religion, while others would prefer
stitutionalized religion, that itit stay
prefer that stay aa private
private
and
and decentralized practice
practice conducted in in small groups. Some are con-
cerned that
that developing institutionalized forms of the religion
of the religion dulls
dulls its
its
countercultural tendencies, but but others want toto present Paganism as main-
stream toto gain
gain the legal rights
the legal rights and
and protections afforded other religions.
religions.
The
The basic divide isis between those who want Paganism to be an organized
to be organized
religion, and
religion, those who
and those who do
do not, either because they
not, either they want it to be
it to be counter-
and do
cultural and do not see how
how this
this feature can persist
persist in in aa bureaucracy, or
because they
they want to
to preserve itit as aa private
private mystery religion.
religion. Many
Many Pa- Pa-
gans,
gans, particularly those who
who have been involved in in the
the religion for aa long
religion for long
time, fear
time, that the
fear that the contemporary mainstreaming and and commercialization
of
of Paganism
Paganism somehow diminish it. it. Such practitioners are concerned that that
the
the recent popularity of of Witchcraft in in television programs, movies, and and
books encourages consumerism and and trivializes their religion.
their religion.
The most contentious issues arise from the
The the desires of of some practitioners
to
to flaunt their alternative behavior and and exhibit their religion
religion as counter-
cultural on the
the one hand,
hand, and those who are more concerned with foster-
and those
ing mainstream acceptance and
ing and pursuing legal
legal rights
rights and
and protections on
the other.
the other. This divide becomes particularly obvious at at festivals,
festivals, where Pa-
Pa-
gans come into
gans into conflict over their
their identity
identity as Pagan
Pagan and struggle to
and struggle to control
how others
how others perceive their religion.
perceive their religion. However, it
it isis also
also evident in
in relations
Pagans and
between Pagans other religions.
and other religions. Some Pagans
Pagans are confrontational

183
183
184
184 Chapter 10
Chapter 10

with members of of other religions,

religions, while others pursue interfaith dialogue dialogue
and
and cooperation with
with Christians and others on common issues such as
peace, the the environment, and and social
social justice.
justice.
The
The first Pagan umbrella organizations began
first Pagan began as antidefamation groups,
to try
to try to
to educate the the public
public and
and the
the media about PaganismPaganism to to prevent re-
ligious persecution. Such
ligious Such organizations have have tended to present Paganism
to present
as being
being as mainstream as possible,possible, to to make it it appear harmless so that that Pa-
Pa-
gans will
gans will bebe allowed the the same rights
rights andand protections as members of of other
religious groups. Some practitioners prefer
religious prefer toto remain hidden to avoid per-
to avoid per-
secution, either as solitaries or or as members of of groups thatthat are totally
totally pri-
pri-
and closed,
vate and closed, but
but some practitioners participate in in Pagan
Pagan pride
pride events,
publicizing their their religious
religious orientation and forcing it
and forcing into the
it into the mainstream.
Interfaith work encourages mainstream acceptance of Paganism, ifif not
of Paganism, not
the mainstreaming of
the Pagan practice.
of Pagan practice. Local interfaith councils are often
engaged
engaged in in community relations, as well well as antiracism activities. Some Pa- Pa-
gan groups have obtained representation in
gan in the
the Parliament of of World Reli-
gions,
gions, an international interfaith group of of scholars and and practitioners of the
of the
world’s religions.
religions. The
The Parliament has has met periodically since 1893 and has
and has
a mission to to foster harmony between religions religions and and to
to work for for peace, jus-jus-
tice, and sustainability.|
tice, sustainability.! Pagan
Pagan groups that that send delegates include Circle
Sanctuary, Gaia’s Womb, EarthSpirit
Sanctuary, EarthSpirit Community, Covenant of of the
the God-
God-
dess, Pagan
dess, Pagan Federation International, and and Reclaiming. The The first Pagan
first Pagan
elected to to the
the board of of trustees of the Parliament was Angie
of the Angie Buchanan in in
2003, representing Circle Sanctuary.
2003, Sanctuary.”

Figure 21.
Figure 21. Selena Fox withwith other members of of the
the Parliament of
of the
the World’s Religion
Religions
s
Assembly of
Assembly of Religious
Religious and Spiritual
Spiritual Leaders (photo
(photo from Circle Magazine
Magazine 91)
91) (Photo
courtesy of
of Circle Sanctuary, www.circlesanctuary.org, PO PO Box 9,
9, Barneveld
Barneveld,, WI
WI 53507
USA; 608-924-
USA; 608-924-2216.)
2216.)
 Issues
Current Issues 185
185

Interfaith work is is hindered by by the

the hostile attitude of of some Pagans
Pagans to-
ward Christianity. Some practitioners are angry and bitter about their their ex-
periences with being being raised in in Christian families or communities. In In
some cases, these practitioners identify identify with those killed in the “Burning
in the
Times,” conflating the the Inquisition, the burning of
the burning of witches, and contem-
witches, and contem-
porary fundamentalism, and and they
they present this
this image
image as representative of of
all Christianity.? Other practitioners label this
all bashing,”
this as “Christian bashing,”
feeling that
feeling that acceptance of Christianity as aa legitimate faith
of Christianity faith perspective is is
aa sign
sign of maturity. This
of maturity. This isis a point
point ofof conflict on Pagan
Pagan listservs and and news-
groups, and in magazine letters forums.*
and in forums. Some Pagans
Pagans take
take offence at at be-
be-
ing wished aa “merry
ing “merry Christmas” and and decline to to attend office Christmas
parties, while others delight
parties, delight inin explaining thethe pagan origins
origins ofof Christian
festivals and and traditions such as Valentine’s Day Day inin the
the Roman festival of of
Lupercalia, or Christmas trees and and Easter eggs. Pagans
Pagans whowho are hostile
to Christianity stress the
to the continued animosity of people like
of people like Pentecostal
televangelistt Pat
Pat Robertson and
and his
his followers, who
who blame feminists, “pa-
“pa-
gans,”
gans,” and for the
and gays for the ills
ills of
of American culture. Robertson isis the the founder
of
of the
the Christian Coalition and and hosts the show The
the television show The 700
700 Club.
The Washington Post has
The has cited
cited him
him as saying,
saying, “The
“The feminist agenda
agenda isis not
not
about equal for women. ItIt isis about aa socialist, anti-family
rights for
equal rights anti-family political
political
movement that that encourages women to to leave their husbands, kill
leave their kill their
their
children, practice
children, practice witchcraft, destroy
destroy capitalism and and become lesbians.”5
Robertson, along with Jerry
along with Falwell, blamed “pagans,”
Jerry Falwell, feminists, gays,
“pagans,” feminists, gays,
and others
and for the
others for attacks on
the attacks the United
on the States on
United States 11, 2001,
September 11,
on September on
2001, on
aired only
aa show aired only aa few days later.
few days later. These
These are not the of main-
the views of
stream Christians.
Pagans embrace victim status because itit allows them
Some Pagans them to
to claim the
the
moral high
high ground
ground in
in relating
relating to
to Christians. In
In addition, “Persecutio
“Persecutionn sto-
ries have more entertainme
ries entertainment than accounts of
nt value than of neighbors
neighbors cooperat-
ing, and
ing, and they
they sharpen
sharpen the
the boundaries of
of one’s
one’s own identity
identity in
in contrast to
to
the ‘other.’””6
the ‘other.’”° However, stories of
of persecution are not without basis
basis in
in fact.
fact.
Although Pagans do have
Although Pagans do have a a number of legal
of legal rights
rights to practice their
to practice their reli-
reli-
gion without
gion harassment, discrimination,
discriminat ion, or persecution
persecution, they do
, they do not
not
have the
have the same rights
rights as practitioner
practitionerss ofof mainstream religions
religions toto perform
perform
marriages in all countries, or the same access to tax-exempt
marriages in all countries, or the same access to tax-exempt status. Edu- status. Edu-
cating employers and
cating and actively
actively pursuing
pursuing rights
rights to
to take
take religious
religious holidays
holidays
isis necessary, andand practitioner
practitionerss are currently
currently struggling to to exercise their
their
rights in
rights in the
the military
military andand inin correctional institutions. Pagans
Pagans also
also experi-
experi-
problems in
ence occasional problems in custody
custody cases, andand more serious harassment
and persecution do
and do occur.
Some serious maltreatme
Some maltreatment nt of of Pagans
Pagans involves accusations of of involve-
ment withwith Satanism, as remnants of of misinforma
misinformation and fear
tion and fear mongering
of the
of the Satanic panic
panic of of the
the 1980s.
1980s. Occasional books,
books, such
such as William
William
186
186 Chapter 10
Chapter 10

Schnoebelen’s Wicca: Satan's

Satan’s Little White Lie,
Lie, continue to
to propagate the
the
myth
myth that
that Wiccans or Pagans
Pagans more generally
generally practice
practice Satanism. Schnoe-
belen purports to have practiced
to have practiced as a Wiccan, believing
believing Wicca to be a
to be
harmless nature religion
religion when he
he started, but coming to
but coming to believe itit was Sa-
Sa-
he advanced through
tanist as he through the degrees. This sort of
the degrees. of propaganda isis pro-
pro-
duced by by evangelical publishers like like Chick Publications andand isis not
not taken
seriously byby scholars of religion. Pagan
of religion. Pagan practitioners are quick
quick to to point
point
out that
that Satan isis aa character of
of Christian tradition rather than
than aa Pagan
Pagan god.
god.
An extreme case of
An of persecution occurred in in the
the hate
hate crime committed
against aa Pagan
against Pagan student of of Austin Peay State University, Tennessee. Two
Peay State Two
men allegedly
allegedly ran down Brandon Morrison, aa Druid,
Druid, with
withaa pickup
pickup truck,
truck,
bound him,
him, and
and beat him for
beat him for almost an hour,
hour, cutting
cutting him
him from neck
neck toto
hip. His
hip. His assailants quoted
quoted the
the Bible to
to him, saying, “Thou shalt
him, saying, shalt not suffer
aa witch to
to live,”
live,” and
and indicated that they
that they would stop only ifif he
stop only he repented
repented
and accepted
and accepted God. They left
They left him with a
a broken rib, tied
rib, tied to
to aa tree. Police
are currently
currently investigating this
this crime.”
Less intense, although still
Less still troublesome, problems
problems associated with
with fes-
fes-
tivals are more common. The The owner of of aa Pagan
Pagan festival site
site in
in New York
called Brushwood found aa letter in his local
in his local paper warning people
warning people
against
against the
the presence ofof the
the festival. The
The author of the letter
of the letter recounted his his
supposed former involvement with with Satanism, drinking
drinking blood,
blood, and doing
and doing
drugs. He claimed to
drugs. He to have
have visited the
the festival andand seen people
people from his his
former involvement withwith Satanism, and and hehe warned people against letting
people against letting
their
their children get
get involved with Paganism, saying, “They will
saying, “They will brain wash
them,
them, turn them into drug
them into drug addicts,
addicts, show them all
all the
the immoral and
and de-
de-
viant things you can dream of.
things you of. . . . . Bet
Bet you
you will get in
will not get during their
in during their
darkest rituals, but
but your children might.”
might.”® Circle Sanctuary, in in Wiscon-
sin,
sin, had to
to get
get aa restraining order against Reverend Jeff Jeff Fenholt, a fun-
damentalist who was harassing Pagans at
harassing Pagans at their festival site
site as part of a
part of
national campaign against Witchcraft.’ AA ritual site
against Witchcraft.? site on private
private property
near Atlanta inin rural Georgia
Georgia was systematically desecrated. First there
was minor vandalism and
and the
the theft of some ritual
theft of ritual items,
items, but
but concerned
neighbors later dismantled the the site.
site. Footage
Footage of of this
this was shown on local
television after the the neighbors formed aa coalition and called a press con-
ference “to“to stop
stop the Witches.’””1019
the Witches.”
Festivals are usually
usually held in rural areas, where neighbo
in rural neighborsrs are less likely
less likely
to
to be
be friendly
friendly or knowledgeable
knowledgeable about Pagans Pagans and their actual religiou religiouss
beliefs and
and practices
practices than their neighbo
neighborsrs inin the
the urban areas where most
Pagans live.
Pagans live. Some festivals respond toto infiltrat
infiltration
ion of
of their festivals by by un-
educate
educatedd neighbors
neighbors hoping
hoping to to catch damning evidence on film film byby hiring
hiring
security forces and
security and requirin
requiringg festival particip ants to
participants to wear plastic
plastic tags, al-
tags, al-
though
though particip ants are unhappy with this
participants this solution. Secrecy
Secrecy andand tighten-
tighten-
ing
ing of
of security for
for festivals can exacerba te site
exacerbate site neighbor
neighbors’s’ fears, polarizing
fears, polarizing
 Current Issues
Current 187
187

Pagans and
Pagans and Christians who each refuse to to see or accept
accept that
that the
the average
practices and beliefs of of each are more acceptable to to each other than are the the
radicals on either side.”
side."
There seem to to be
be more rumored fearsfears about custody
custody battles thanthan actual
cases before the
the courts, although
although Circle Magazine's
Magazine’s Lady
Lady Liberty
Liberty League
League
notes the
the difficulties ofof one couple
couple in
in adopting their grandchildren after
adopting their
the
the death of
of the
the parents, thethe opponents of of which cited their
their religious af-
religious af-
filiation.!? In aa recent divorce case in
filiation.'? In in Indiana, Judge
Judge Cale
Cale J.
J. Bradford ruled
that a child
child should not be be exposed to to Pagan
Pagan practices over the the objections
of
of the
the parents, who are both both Wiccan.!3 Harassment and and occasional dis-
dis-
crimination seem more common, as in in the
the eviction ofof Terry
Terry and
and Amanda
Riley,
Riley, members of of the
the Southern DeltaDelta Church of of Wicca,
Wicca, inin Jonesboro,
Arkansas, in in 1993. Their landlord, accompanied by by two evangelical
evangelical
Church of of the
the Nazarene ministers, told them that they needed to
that they to vacate
their occult bookstore for for the
the protection of of children andand to
to preserve the
the
identity of
identity their town as Christian.'*
of their Christian.'4 Wiccan priestess Cynthia Simpson
won aa federal case in
in Richmond, Virginia, on November
November 13,
13, 2003. She
She was
discriminated against against byby being
being excluded from serving serving as clergy
clergy inin prayer
at the
at the opening
opening meetings of of the
the Chesterfield County County Board because she she
was not part part ofof “the Judeo-Christian tradition,” thus thus violating
violating thethe Amer-
ican First Amendment separation of of church and and state.!5
For most Pagans,
For Pagans, petty harassment is
petty is the
the most common problem. Loud
pestering by bya a local preacher interrupted aa religious religious meeting
meeting conducted at at
aa local parkpark by by Lianna Costantino, high high priestess of of the
the Sylvian
Sylvian Hearth
Pagan Temple
Pagan Temple near Franklin, North Carolina, leading leading Costantino to to call
call
the
the local sheriff to to remove the the protesters. The The same preacher
preacher denounced
her at
her at aa town meeting, accusing her her of hosting aa left-wing
of hosting left-wing website. After
aa public-educ
public-educatio ationn campaign, when he he again
again tried to to speak against her
speak against at
her at
meeting, the
aa town meeting, the mayor and city city attorney asked him to to desist.16 Pagans
desist.'6 Pagans
also report harassment in
also report their workplaces, such
in their religious lit-
such as uninvited religious lit-
erature left
erature in their
left in their cubicles,
cubicles, jokes
jokes at the water
at the cooler about
water cooler broomsticks,,
about broomsticks
and aggressive proselytism
and proselytism.. New Witch contributor Michael Samhain sug- sug-
gests that
gests practitionerss take
that practitioner take proselytism as an opportunity for for teaching
teaching
and dispelling stereotypes. He
and recommends
He recommend that practitioner
s that practitionerss not become
aggressive or defensive but but remain calm and say that
and say they have chosen
that they
their path after
their path after considerabl thought. He
considerablee thought. also instructs that
He also that it okay toto
it isis okay
say that their
say that religion is
their religion private and
is private and to to decline to it, particularly ifif
to discuss it,
the
the person seems incapable of of listening.!7 Pagans use Hallowe’en as
listening.!”? Some Pagans
an opportunity for public education, since media people
for public people routinely con-
duct
duct interviews withwith practicing Witches and Pagans at
and other Pagans at that time of
that time of
year in North America. Practitioner
year in Practitionerss see this public-relations
this as aa public-relat ions oppor-
tunity to
tunity to discuss the stereotypingg of
the stereotypin hags, and
of witches as hags, and to to separate
themselves fromfrom Satanism in in the
the public
public mind-set.
mind-set.
188
188 Chapter 10
Chapter 10

An
An American book, Pagans
American book, Pagans andand the
the Law,
Law, by Dana D.
by Dana D. Eilers,
Eilers, provides
provides aa
practical guide
guide for
for bringing
bringing cases involving freedom of of religion
religion toto court,
and
and indicates what to
indicates what to dodo about
about harassment
harassment and libel.!8 In
and libel.'® In Canada,
Canada, KerrKerr
Cuhulain’s LawLaw Enforcement Guide to to Wicca hashas long
long provided
provided aa resource
for
for practitioners and police.!? For
and police.'? For the
the most part,
part, Pagans
Pagans do do have
have freedom
of
of religion,
religion, excepting the right to
the right to perform
perform marriages, which isis denied in in
some areas, butbut they
they need to to use the
the lawlaw to
to enforce their
their rights.
rights. A A number
of groups supporting religious
of religious freedoms for Pagans are currently
for Pagans currently active.
These include Circle
Circle Magazine’s Lady Lady Liberty
Liberty League;
League; thethe Association of of
Magical and
Magical and Earth Religion; and, through
Religion; and, through providing information, the On-
the On-
tario Organization for for Religious Tolerance and and the
the Pagan
Pagan Federation/
Fédération Paienne in in Canada. The The Pagan
Pagan Unity
Unity Campaign
Campaign was created
the aim of
with the of “protecting and furthering Pagan
and furthering Pagan rights,”
rights,” and
and toto “raise
political awareness and and encourage politicalpolitical participation” in in America.”
They began
They began an “I“I am” campaign in in 2001,
2001, encouraging practitioners to to
send
send postcards of their
postcards of local towns and
their local and cities to
to elected officials, with “I
with “I
amaPagan__” on the
the back.
back. Practitioners were instructed to fill in
to fill the
in the
blank to to say
say “I
“I am aa Pagan
Pagan mother,” or “I“I am aa Pagan Pagan professional,” or
whatever they felt was appropriate, and
they felt and toto include the
the Pagan
Pagan Unity
Unity slo-
slo-
gan: “I“I am free. We We are united.” Through this this campaign, the the group in- in-
tended to to gain
gain political
political recognition for for Pagans
Pagans as aa voting bloc. Across
voting bloc.
North America, Pagan Pagan Pride projects
projects and
and events, modeled on gay pride,
gay pride,
have similar objectives of of raising
raising public
public awareness of of their existence.
The United
The States military
United States military has been aware
has been aware of Wicca, if
of Wicca, not Paganism
if not Paganism
more generally, since the the 1970s,
1970s, when access to
to chaplains in in the military
the military
began
began to to be
be an issue. Conservative lobby lobby groups and members of of Con-
gress have protested Fort Fort Hood’s OpenOpen Circle,
Circle, and
and when George
George W. W. Bush
was running
running for
for office in
in 1999,
1999, he
he said,
said, “I
“I don’t think witchcraft is
is aa reli-
reli-
gion and
gion and II wish thethe military
military would take look at
take another look at this
this and decide
against it,” but
against it,” but the military has
the military has consistently supported thethe chaplains’ de-
de-
cision to
to allow the
the Wiccan group, defending
defending the
the American First
First Amend-
ment guarantee of of freedom of of religion.?!
religion.”
Pagan
Pagan and and interdenominational
interdenominational chaplains who are knowledgeable knowledgeable
about Paganism are becoming more common at at college
college and university
campuses, as well well as in the military,
in the military, but
but practition ers in
practitioners in correction
correctional al insti-
tutions continue to have problems accessing religious
to have religious services and and being
being
allowed to to practice their religion freely.
their religion Practitioners report that
freely. Practitioners that their
their
rights
rights to
to freedom of of assembly
assembly and and toto possess religious items have been been
denied. An inmate in in Texas reports that
that the
the chaplain
chaplain at his institutio
at his institutionn re-
fuses to
fuses to let his Pagan
let his Pagan group meet and refuses to to issue a pass
pass for
for him to
him to
wear a pentagra
pentagramm medallion
medallion,, which he he regards
regards as an emblem of of religious
identifica tion.” Circle Magazine'
identification.” Magazine'ss Lady
Lady Liberty
Liberty League
League reports that that a vol-
vol-
unteer clergy
clergy person, Sarah Rydell, Rydell, in
in the
the Colorado Departme nt of
Department of Cor-
rections, has been discrimin
has been ated against in
discriminated being denied the
in being the right to serve
right to serve
 Current Issues 189
189

as a volunteer. AA policy of the

policy of the department disallows staff
staff members from
also serving
also serving as volunteer clergy,
clergy, and
and Rydell
Rydell was ostensibly rejected
rejected be-
be-
cause she
she isis also
also aa staff
staff member. However, Protestant volunteers who are
also staff members have been allowed toto continue. The
also staff The department has has
initiated an official investigatio
investigationn intointo this
this matter. Similarly, the Lady Lib-
the Lady
erty
erty League
League reports that that aa Protestant chaplain
chaplain at at Lee
Lee County
County Correctional
Institution in in Tennessee is is attempting to to disband aa Pagan
Pagan group by by tar-
geting
geting religious
religious volunteer Laurel Owen, slandering her her to
to the
the FBI,
FBI, saying
saying
that she
she was present during during a a beating
beating in in order to to have herher barred from from
participationn for
participatio for her
her own safety.
safety. The
The League
League concludes that that “every
“every case
lof
[of religious discrimination] that that Pagans have won in in California has has been
followed by by an immediate transfer of of the
the participants,” effectively dis- dis-
banding the groups. Within American state prisons,
the groups.”* Pagans are effec-
prisons, Pagans
tively
tively being
being denied the right to
the right to assemble to to participate in in religious
religious serv-
ices,
ices, and there are also also a a number of
of pending
pending cases regarding rights to
regarding rights to
possess religious
religious materials, such such as books and and pentacles. However, it it ap-
ap-
pears as though
though the the federal system may may be be more amenable to Pagans, and
to Pagans,
in the
in the spring
spring of 2005,
of 2005, in in the
the Ohio case of of Cutter v.v. Wilkinson, the the Supreme
Supreme
Court ruled in in favor of of allowing prisoners access to to alt.religion, an un-
moderated public public electronic discussion list list with content on alternative re-
ligious including Paganism.”4
ligious views, including
The
The desire of of practitioners
practitioners for for legal
legal protections from harassment, per- per-
secution, and discrimination,
discrimination, and and the
the right
right toto practice their
their religion freely,
religion freely,
inevitably leads to
inevitably to increasing levels of of organization.
organization. When Pagans Pagans askask for
for
the same rights
the rights and
and protections as members/adher
members/adherents ents ofof mainstream re-
ligions, government,
ligions, government, police, police, and
and military
military officials inevitably ask, ask, “Who
are your leaders?” and and “What are their credentials?”” The
their credentials? The desire of of practi-
practi-
tioners
tioners for for the
the services of of chaplains, and for clergy persons who are
for clergy
legally allowed to
legally perform marriages
to perform marriages and and funerals, as well well as thethe desire
for
for tax-exempt status for for Pagan organizations,
Pagan organizatio ns, drives the bureaucratiza-
the bureaucrati za-
tion of
tion the religion.
of the religion.

MM
Me: churches, synagogues, and
and mosques are run as charitable
organizations in the United States,
in the States, so they do not have
they do have to pay
to pay
and can issue tax receipts
taxes and for donations. Some Pagan
receipts for Pagan organi-
organi-
zations have
have obtained tax-exempt status inin the the United States begin-begin-
ning in
ning the early
in the early 1970s,
1970s, but
but practitioners complain that the
complain that the rules
rules
governing tax-exempt status are designed designed on the basis of
the basis of the
the organ-
ization ofof Christian churches, and and that
that maintaining charitable status
encourages the the mainstreaming of of Pagan
Pagan traditions on aa Christian
model. Of Of particular
particular concern for for some groups isis the
the requirement of of
aa membership list. list.
 190
190 Chapter 10
Chapter 10

AA clergy
clergy class isis evolving
evolving in
in Paganism, corresponding to
to aa developing
laity
laity that
that increasingly wants the “pastoral” services offered in
the “pastoral” in other reli-
reli-
gions. However, some Pagans
gions. Pagans resist the
the mainstreaming of of the
the religion
religion inin
forms that
that mimic thethe institutional structures of of Christianity, “pastoral”
counseling being
counseling being aa particular sore point.
point. (Practitioners who
who object
object to the
to the
use of
of this
this term say that Pagans
say that Pagans are not a
a flock of sheep to
of sheep to bebe shepherded,
as the
the term in
in Christian pastoral
pastoral counseling metaphorically suggests.)
suggests.) As
As
children are increasingly raised in
in Pagan
Pagan households, some practitioners
in initiatory
in initiatory traditions are concerned about how how this this isis changing theirtheir tra-
tra-
ditions when the the religion
religion is is something one is
is born into
into rather than a path
than path
one chooses as an adult.
Some practitioners are happy happy to to become clergy clergy serving
serving aa community of of
laypeople. It It may be be that
that some like having the
like having the power and status that that
comes with with being
being a member of of the
the clergy,
clergy, but but some people people are just just natu-
ral organizers and would like
ral like to
to make a a living
living doingdoing what they enjoy and
they enjoy and
do well. Such practitioners have an interest in
do well. in thethe development of of institu-
tional structures within Paganism for for clergy
clergy training
training and and thethe collection of of
money. In In some denominations of of Paganism, payment for for ritual services
is
is prohibited. Gardner’s Craft Laws, Laws, for for example,
example, prohibit prohibit payment for for
“the art,”
art,” or magical
magical work,
work, but but allow payment for for other services in in bene-
fit of the
fit of the Craft. Gardner felt felt that
that payment for for “the
“the art” would tempt tempt peo-
ple to use itit for
ple to for “evil purposes.”25
Given the the cost of of maintainin
maintainingg the bureaucratic structures necessary for
the bureaucratic for
larger organizations, in
larger organizations, in terms of time and money, some practitione
of time practitioners rs
question the the value of of such developme
developments. nts. As As discussed in in chapter
chapter 2,2, some
actively oppose the
actively the formation of institutional structures within Paganism.
of institutional Paganism.
Maintaining an organizati
Maintaining organization on often requires that that a lot lot of
of energy be be devoted
simply
simply to to keeping the the institution in in place. Committees form to
place. Committees to handle
fund-raisin
fund-raising, g, someone
someone has has toto keep minutes, and
keep minutes, and someone
someone has has to make
to make
that
that sure all all the
the other thingsthings necessary to to maintain a public public corporatio
corporationn
and/or charitable status are looked after. Even renting renting aa space for for aa ritual
event or publicpublic festival requires some organizati organization. on.
Some practiti oners fear
practitioners fear that the the mystery or “juice” “juice” of religious expe-
of religious
rience is is being lost
being lost as Pagani Paganism sm is is routini
routinized zed and and become
becomess an organiz
organized ed
religion.. One
religion One Wiccan elder commen comments, ts, “As “As its numberss have
its number have grown, II
fear it
fear it has also become, on average,
has also average, more superfic superficial. ial. I I wonder some-
times where the the Craft is headed.””6 For
is headed.”6 For some, the the mystery of of the
the tradi-
tion isis threate
threatened ned by by exposin
exposingg private
private beliefs about history history and and origins
origins
to public,
to public, and and academic,
academic, scrutiny
scrutiny.. Others are more concern concerned that Pa-
ed that Pa-
ganism
ganism will become filled with dead institut institutions ions as the the focus is is shifted
from seeking
seeking religiou
religiouss experie
experiencence to to maintai
maintaining ning institut ions. This leads
institutions.
Chas Clifton to to argue thatthat “our model should be be the
the tent rather than the the
cathedra
cathedral. l. Cathedr
Cathedrals als are alwaysalways needing new roofs and plumbi plumbing ng re-
re-
 Current Issues
Issues 191
191

pairs.
pairs. Tents are packed up and moved to
packed up to where they
they are needed next.”27
He asks
He asks whether the religion is
the religion is about maintaining institutional struc-
tures or about celebration, meditation, spell spell casting,
casting, andand spiritual
spiritual devel-
opment. If If it
it isis going
going to to happen
happen in in community, it it will
will probably have to to
be about all
be all of
of these things.
things. Not Not all Pagans see themselves as part
all Pagans part of
of aa
religion. Like
mystery religion. Like most religions, Paganism has has aspects of of both cel-
cel-
ebration and initiation, allowing allowing room for for family
family participatio
participationn and and com-
munity work as well
munity personal development.
well as personal
For
For some practitioners,
practitioners, Paganism will will always
always be be about the mystery, the
the mystery, the
juice of
juice of alternative behavior, and and countercultu
counterculturral al politics.
politics. Some will will want
their religion to
their religion be private
to be private rather than aa publicly publicly practiced
practiced religion,
religion, while
others enjoyenjoy how how their religious
religious practices challenge the the mainstream
through the
through the concepts
concepts of of female deity,deity, ritual nudity,
nudity, ritual sex, entheogen
use, recreationai
recreational drugs, drugs, or anarchist politics. politics. Such
Such practitioners want so-
cial change
cial change more than than social acceptance, to to challenge
challenge the the mainstream
rather
rather thanthan join
join it.it. Others want for for their
their religion
religion to be publicly
to be publicly recognized
as legitimate, and and for for being
being Pagan
Pagan to to be
be as unremarkable
unremarkable as being being Baptist.
Baptist.
Such basic differences of of opinion regarding Pagan
opinion regarding identity often become
Pagan identity
apparent atat publicpublic festivals. Festival participants have high high expectations
about finding
finding an ideal ideal sense of of community at festivals—that
at festivals—th the commu-
at the commu-
nity will be
nity will be unified and that the
and that the festival will be aa time
will be time of self-definition
of self-definiti on
and expression. Conflicts arise
and particular because,
arise atat festivals inin particular Pa-
while Pa-
because, while
ganism isis quite
ganism quite diverse,
diverse, festivals symbolize
symbolize the the entire community.”
entire community.”8
Most conflicts atat festivals are about
Most about representati
representation and identity,
on and identity, or or how
how
Pagans understand themselves and
Pagans and present
present themselves to to each
each other
other and
and
to the public.”
to the public.” The The organizers of of festivals often present present the the festivals in in
terms as as mainstream as as possible
possible to to ease relations with the the surrounding
community by by presenting themselves as normal and and friendly.
friendly. However,
some participants want to to be
be able
able to to express themselves at at festivals in in
ways that
ways that are not not possible
possible in in other
other contexts, for for example,
example, through
through cos-
tumes and and behavior. Some Some want festivals to to be
be aa countercultu
countercultural Pagan
ral Pagan
party
party zone.*° Some participants like like toto show all all their
their tattoos and and smoke
marijuana freely
marijuana freely atat festivals, but but others
others are offended by by such
such behavior.3!
behavior.?!
Struggles
Struggles over meaning arise
meaning arise in ritualin ritual spaces at festivals, particularly
at festivals, particularly in in
the main ritual area, which
the main ritual area, which is shared by the is shared by the greatest number of people.
of people.
Practitioners come into into disagreemen
disagreement t over proper uses of of space, andand keep-
keep-
ing it sacred.
ing it sacred. Festival participants exhibit diverse attitudes about how
about how to to
do this and
do this and what what constitutes keeping
keeping it it sacred. Complaints about how toto
how
keep aa fire
keep fire pit
pit sacred
sacred center around drinking
drinking alcohol (and
(and leaving
leaving beer
beer
cans) and
cans) and smoking
smoking (and
(and leaving
leaving butts).**
butts). Some
Some participants
participants complain
complain
about loud
about loud drumming
drumming that
that goes
goes on
on all
all night,
night, but
but others,
others, such
such as chaos
chaos ma-
gician Maddog,
gician Maddog, assert that
that loud
loud drumming
drumming isis how
how they
they contact the
the di-
di-
_ vine.*
vine.*? Festival organizers
organizers have
have additional concerns about
about drumming
drumming
192
192 Chapter 10
Chapter 10

when itit disturbs nonparticipants ofof the

the festival atat neighboring sites
sites or in
in
surrounding areas. These
surrounding These sorts
sorts of conflicts are
of conflicts are aired
aired inin newsletters, such
such as
as
aa Ms. Manners column
Ms. Manners column in
in the Elven Chronicle,
the Elven Chronicle, which
which offers an opinion
offers an opinion
about disputes
disputes concerning the fire pit
the fire pit at
at ELFfest. The
The author writes against
against
“loud, show-off blasts on congas; drying
drying wet sox (etc.);
(etc.); cooking hot dogs
cooking hot dogs
over thethe ritual firefire (unless it it isis Friday)
Friday) . . .. overt sexual grabbing;
grabbing; drinking
songs; exaltations of of how late itit isis and
how late and isn’t
isn’t it great to
it great to be
be part
part ofof third shift
third shift
li.e., up late]; getting
li.e., up late]; getting falling falling down drunk;
drunk; suggesting women have no
have
right
right to to drum and
and should let the
let the MEN do it; and
do it; and lover’s quarrels.”
quarrels.”*4
Festival rules generally
generally prohibit
prohibit the the use of of illegal
illegal drugs,
drugs, but such poli-
but such poli-
cies are typically
typically not enforced, and there there isis no consensus within the
the festi-
val
val communities about illegal illegal drugdrug use. The The use of of illegal drugs at
illegal drugs at festivals
is
is not widespread and
and isis no more serious than what is typical at
is typical at rockrock con-
certs.° Pagans often
certs.*° Pagans often have an attitude of of openness toward hallucinogens,
sometimes called entheogens (meaning (meaning substances used used to to make contact
with
with divinity), some of of which are illegal, illegal, but
but some Pagans Pagans are against
against allall
nontherapeutic drug drug use. Workshops on entheogens are offered at at some
festivals, but but some practitioners complain that that this sort of
this sort thing can en-
of thing
courage the the wrong impression about Paganism. A A letter to to Green
Green EggEgg com-
ments on an episode episode where a a child child of of aa visiting
visiting non-Pagan friend found aa
copy of of the
the magazine with an article on drug drug use in in aa religious
religious context and and
said, “Hey,
said, “Hey, man, these Pagans Pagans are sex fiends and and drug
drug addicts!”
addicts!’
Paganism is generally aa sex-positive religion,
is generally religion, and and thethe festival atmos-
phere in
phere in particular is
is permissive, but but some practitioners feel feel that
that festivals
should be be aa “safe
“safe space.”*”
space.”°” As As in any other segment of
in any the population, sex-
of the
ual
ual predation can occur in in Paganism, and Pagans Pagans have expressed con-
cerns over teachers and elders in in the
the Pagan
Pagan community who imply imply or re-
quire sexual access as part
quire part of of initiation or mentoring relationships. relationships.
However, most concerns about sex are related to
to harassment at
at festivals,
festivals,
perhaps because some participants experience them as “temporary au-
perhaps
tonomous zones” and expect aa carnivalesque atmosphere.*8 Festival or-
ganizers have created guidelines for dealing with
for dealing with sexual harassment be- be-
cause
cause of of occasional incidents. For
occasional incidents. For everyone
everyone to to feel
feel safe,
safe, rules,
rules, and their
and their
enforcement, are necessary, but but this
this conflicts with
with many participants’
ideals of of individualism and self-expression.
and self-expression.29
Festival goers also
Festivalgoers also come into conflict about how how much sexual activity activity itit
isis appropri
appropriateate toto display
display at at festivals. Nudity
Nudity isis commonp
commonplace lace atat festivals
and unremarkable,
and unremark able, butbut some practitio
practitioners
ners exhibit BDSM behavior. Some
Pagans object
Pagans object toto seeing
seeing these practices on display
display at particularly
at festivals, particularly
when children are present, but but others contend that their sexuality is
that their is part
part
of their spirituali
of spirituality.
ty. Again,
Again, these activities generally
generally do do not involve any- any-
thing more extreme than is
thing is apparent as rock concerts.
concerts.49 40 One Pagan
Pagan group
circulate
circulatess a pamphle
pamphlett for teenagers intereste
for teenagers interestedd in
in the
the occult and concerned
and concerned
 Current Issues
Issues 193
193

parents that
that indicates that
that “a
“a teenager seeking drugs and
seeking sex, drugs and rock and
and
roll
roll in
in an occult group is
is more likely to
likely find hugs,
to find hugs, home cooking
cooking and new
age music.”*! AA recent
age trend is
is the
the development of of “family-positive” fes-
fes-
tivals, such
tivals, such as Awakening Isis, held between
Isis, Ottawa and
and Montreal,
Canada, as an alternative to
to other Pagan
Pagan events, which is
is designed to be
to be
inoffensive, safe
safe for
for children, and
and interfaith friendly.
friendly.
Identity
Identity conflicts within Pagan Pagan communities also also arise through
through per-
per-
sonal and
and local disagreement
disagreementss that can escalate into Witch wars. The The dis-
dis-
tinguishing features of of Witch wars are that
that the
the conflict isis publicly aired in in
the
the community, and the the effects of
of the
the conflict are so pervasive that practi-
practi-
tioners feel
feel compelled to to choose sides or withdraw from the the community
until the
the conflict isis resolved. Witch wars are largely
largely the
the result of of “com-
peting
peting visions of of Witchcraft, inin situations that are perceived to to involve au-
thority
thority or legitimacy.”*
legitimacy.”*? Structural, personal, and ideological differences
can all
all be
be factors inin the
the development of of Witch wars. The structural or-
ganization of
ganization of Witchcraft, with individual practice,
practice, covens, and
and network-
ing organizations,
ing organizations, leads toto different views of
of what Witchcraft practice is.
is.
The
The media tends to to contact larger
larger organizations
organizations and present their
their views
as representative
representative of
of all
all Witchcraft or Paganism, which can polarize
polarize com-
munities.*? Witch wars are often the
munities. the result ofof an escalation of of aa personal
conflict “triggered by by some perception that that an individual or group isis at- at-
tempting to to impose
impose their particular vision of the Craft hegemonicall
of the hegemonicallyy,” ,”
claiming
claiming to to speak
speak for
for all
all practitioners.
practitioners.““
Witch wars can develop
develop from interpersona
interpersonall issues of of ego, deception,
and rivalry,
and rivalry, as well as from disagreements
disagreements about what isis the the right
right way
to do
to do Witchcraft. Witch wars usually usually begin
begin with local gossip
gossip thatthat be-
be-
comes venomous, leading leading to to the
the label “Bitchcraft” or “Bicca.” Such con-
flicts can bebe sustained by by the
the desires of of individuals for
for power, money, or
sex.®
sex.*° Participants in in Witch wars often level accusations of of requirements
requirements
for for initiation, money for
for sex for for training, the obeisance of
training, or the of members to to
one another, or rumors are spread spread that
that other individuals in in the
the disagree-
ment require
require these.
AA long-running
long-running disagreement
disagreement that
that might
might be
be described as aa Witch war
exists between supporters and detractors of of Gavin and Yvonne Frost’s
Frost's
tradition of
of Witchcraft. The
The Frosts gave a workshop on “Heretical Witch-
craft” at
at the
the 2004 Starwood Festival, in in which they
they claimed that theythey
“were putput on trial” by by the
the community; that that Llewellyn, aa publisher of of
popular
popular Pagan books, refused to
Pagan books, to allow any mention of of them; and
and that
that
they
they were excluded from encyclopedias
encyclopedias on Witchcraft. Llewellyn did did ex-
clude them in the past for being
in the past for being too “controversial,” but
“controversial,” but current encyclo-
pedias
pedias mention them and and their Church of of Wicca. The
The initial conflict was
over their seeming monotheism (expressed as belief in in God)
God) and their at-
titudes toward sex. Particularly contentious were their recommendations
recommendations
194
194 Chapter 10
Chapter 10

the use of
regarding the of aa “Baton de
de Commandment” forfor sexually
sexually initiating
initiating
girls into
girls into Witchcraft at
at the
the age
age of
of fourteen, and
and other practices
practices related toto
removing the the “virgin”
“virgin” status of of children as early
early as possible,
possible, through
through cir-cir-
cumcision or breaking
breaking thé hymen. These recommendations initially
thé hymen. initially ap-
ap-
peared
peared in in the Frost’s 1972
the Frost’s book The
1972 book The Witch’s Bible, in
Witch's Bible, in the
the midst of sensa-
of sensa-
tionalist news coverage of of Satanic abuse. Some Pagans Pagans alsoalso found the the
Frosts’ advertisements in in tabloids for for the
the “Magic
“Magic Power of of Witchcraft”
distasteful. As As aa result ofof these
these differences, in in some cases PagansPagans havehave
been denied access to to groups ifif they
they were associated with the the Frosts.
While many peoplepeople concur that that the
the Frosts are “nice people”
people” andand person-
able, their
able, their attitudes toward sex and public relations continue to
and public to occasion
dissent.4
dissent.*¢ Reviews on Amazon.com indicate that all material on using
that not all using
dildos with young girls girls has
has been removed in in the
the new version of of the
the
Frosts’ book,
book, published as Good Good Witch’s Bible.
Bible.
Local disagreements are often often due to to personality conflicts, but but some
splits are caused by
splits by denominational or sectarian differences that that are the
the
result of
of differing ideologies. The The original
original conflict between Alex Sanders
and
and practitioners of of Gardnerian Wicca began began as aa personal
personal conflict but but
generated a new sect. The The Gardnerian priestess Patricia Crowther disliked
Sanders and
and refused to
to initiate him,4”
him,” and
and he in turn denounced Gardner-
he in
ian
ian Wicca as inauthentic and and created what came to to bebe known as the the
Alexandrian tradition. Later rivalries between Gardnerian and and eclectic
traditions are more the the result of of ideological differences. Traditional prac- prac-
titioners emphasize learning learning mysticism and esoteric teaching teaching from re-
ceived tradition, while eclectics focus on creativity and celebratory as-
pects of
pects of the
the religion.
religion. Eclectic practitioners tend to to see more traditional
practitioners as “hidebound, hierarchical, and slavishly adhering
and slavishly adhering to to re-
ceived
ceived material, while traditionals
material, while traditionals view eclectics as
view eclectics as fundamentally miss- miss-
ing the
ing the point
point of of the
the entire practice, diluting
diluting thethe mystery tradition to the
to the
point of
point of unrecognizability with ‘surface’ rituals.”48
Related ideologica
ideologicall difference
differencess that
that can contribute to the developm
to the development ent
of Witch wars are attitudes toward hierarchy
of hierarchy and initiation. Eclectic Pa- Pa-
ganism is is generally less less hierarchic al than traditiona
hierarchical traditionall initiatory Wicca.
Sometime
Sometimess aa hidden hierarchy
hierarchy exists in in eclectic groups, where some mem-
bers defer to
bers to one person, or a group of of people
people forming
forming an inner circle in in
the
the group, but but others express dislike of of covert leadership
leadership.. This hashas been aa
problem
problem in in the
the Reclaimin
Reclaimingg tradition, which is is intended to to run on consen-
sus, with equal
equal input
input from all all members, but but some perceive it to be
it to be con-
trolled by
by thethe reputation of of Starhawk.
Starhawk.? *? Such instances of of covert leader-
ship
ship can be be as much the the result ofof members deferring to to those in in aa
perceived position of of authority
authority as an attempt
attempt to to wield power on the part
the part
of those in
of in the
the inner circle. Disagreem
Disagreements
ents about hierarchy
hierarchy andand leadershi
leadershipp
can be intensified when money isis involved, as in
be intensified in the
the purchase of land for
of land for
 Current Issues
Issues 195
195

holding festivals. This

This was an issue for
for the
the EarthSpirit community, in in part
part
because of
of past
past conflicts in
in the
the purchase of
of land for
for Circle Sanctuary.°?
Sanctuary.*°
Belief
Belief in
in the
the necessity, or not,
not, of
of initiation is still an debated
is still issue
among Pagans.
Pagans. As As discussed in in PanGaia’s “Toe-to-Toe” column, some
practitioners feel
practitioners feel that
that initiation creates hierarchy hierarchy and breeds elitism, elitism,
while others argue that that hierarchy isis not necessarily elitist, elitist, saying
saying thatthat the
the
degree
degree system
system in in initiatory traditions is is merit based. Some support self-
initiation, while others argue argue thatthat it
it must be be conferred by by another. Some
feel
feel that
that self-initiation involves direct contact with the the Goddess and does
not require
require thethe sanctioning of of an organized group. Others would distin-
guish
guish between self-initiation and and divinity-originated transformative ex-
periences that
periences that do qualify as proper initiations. Some detractors of
do qualify of initia-
tion point
point toto the
the dangers
dangers of of power-hung
power-hungrry y practitioners in in positions of of
power over initiates, citing citing pressures to to have sex, give give money, and/or
idolize thethe high
high priest/ess. However, defenders of of initiation into into lineages
lineages
liken coven relations to to family
family relations, saying saying that they they are not authori-
tarian based, but but loving
loving relations. Some initiates regard regard noninitiates as
lazy
lazy or undiscipline d, or as uncommitted
uncommitted to to the
the religion,
religion, while others see
initiation as too often providingproviding nothing
nothing but but empty
empty titles,
titles, allowing
allowing initi-
ates toto elevate themselves over others.°!
Witch wars arisingarising from ideological differences seem to to particularly
Pagans, because practitioners espouse an ideal of
disturb Pagans, of tolerance for for dif-
dif-
ference. Practitioners can come into conflict when confronted with the ac-
the ac-
tual diversity of practice in
of practice in the Although Pagans idealize diver-
religion. Although
the religion.
sity, norms develop
sity, develop within groups, and and personalities come into into conflict
when people with different practices come together,
people with together, as at local commu-
at local
nity events and
nity and regional festivals.°*
festivals.°? Some PagansPagans see the “petty bickering”
the “petty
of Witch wars as an obstacle to
of to mainstream acceptance. They They criticize
practitioners’ tendency to
practitioners’ nitpick any
to nitpick any statements that that claim to speak for
to speak for
the Pagan community as a whole,
the Pagan whole, or statements that that seem to to try to do
try to this.
do this.
One practitioner, for for example, laments, “In public we present ourselves as
“In public
aa disorganized bunch of
disorganized bunch backbiters and
of backbiters and cranks, interested in
more interested
cranks, more in trading
trading
insults than in working for
in working the common good.”
for the might wonder
good.”°? Others might
who defines the good, since not all
the common good, Pagans are interested in
all Pagans in seek-
ing
ing mainstream acceptance.
Another source of of dissent about what Paganism is is and should become
arises from political views. According to to some practitioners,
practitioners, Paganism is is
a private matter and
and has
has nothing
nothing toto do
do with politics, but
with politics, but for
for some groups,
such as those in
such in the
the Reclaiming tradition, politics and spirituality are
closely
closely entwined. Some say say religion
religion should be be about personal spiritual
development,
development, but
but for
for others,
others, social justice is inherent to
justice is to religion.
religion. Conflict-
ing
ing views about topics
topics such as this
this are regularly aired in letters forums
in
in popular
in popular Pagan
Pagan and feminist spirituality magazines. Sage
Sage Woman, forfor
196
196 Chapter 10
Chapter 10

example, has
example, has aa regular
regular column, “The
“The Rattle: Our
Our Readers Speak,”
Speak,” for
for
practitioners to to express differing
differing views in in a respectful context. “The Rat- Rat-
tle” in
tle” in issue sixty-five of Sage Woman discusses mixing
of Sage mixing politics and spiri-
politics and spiri-
tuality or magic.
tuality magic. Issues around
atound mixing politics and
mixing politics and spirituality are not
new to to women’s spirituality and and Paganism. Academics and and practitioners
debated it extensively in
it extensively in the
the late
late 1970s andand into
into the
the 1980s.*4
1980s.°4 Researchers
have noted aa political/apolitical division between “radical” and and “tradi-
tionalist” practitioners.*>
practitioners. All All the
the letters inin “The Rattle” column in in Sage
Sage
Woman 65 65 support mixing
mixing politics and spirituality, but
politics and but different attitudes
about mixing
mixing politics
politics and
and spirituality continue in in Paganism. Some take of-
take of-
fense atat political
political content in in rituals, and and others are disappointed with aa
lack ofof political
political content, seeing such rituals as without substance, “airy-
seeing such “airy-
fairy,”
fairy,” out of of touch with real life,
with real life, and
and ungrounded. Some practitioners
who dislike political
political content point
point to to serious conflicts involving religion
religion
and politics
politics in in Ireland and
and thethe Middle East.5¢
Pagans also
Pagans have mixed opinions regarding
also have regarding thethe image
image ofof their religion
religion
that is being presented in
that is being presented in popularpopular media. Witches and
and other magical prac-
magical prac-
titioners are increasingly visible in in popular
popular culture, appearing as charac-
ters on television shows such as Buffy
Buffy the
the Vampire Slayer,
Slayer, Charmed, movies
such
such as The
The Craft,
Craft, and
and novels such
such as J.J. K.
K. Rowling’s Harry
Harry Potter series.
Some Pagans
Pagans see this
this trend as positive. InIn aa New Witch editorial, Dagonet
Dewr says, “When aa neat ‘underground’ thing thing becomes mainstream, it’sit’s
not aa defeat for
not for our side,
side, it’s
it’s aa victory.
victory. Yes,
Yes, it
it can be
be aa bummer toto lose
lose our
‘outsider’ status, but
but when the the causes and
and lifestyles
lifestyles we believe in
in and
and es-
pouse become mainstream they they can’t bebe persecuted, ignored,
ignored, and
and slan-
dered so easily.”*”
easily.”*” Others are displeased with people people adopting
adopting aa “Witch”
identity
identity because it it is trendy, and
is trendy, and feel
feel that
that the religion is
the religion is cheapened by by the
the
superficial adoption
adoption of of Witchcraft as a style. They suggest
style. They suggest that treating
that treating
Witchcraft and
and magic
magic as a style
style reduces it it to
to something thatthat can be
be bought
bought
and sold. Such practitioners are disturbed by
and by the
the commercialism and and con-
sumerism of
of “Witchcraft” as a commodity, but
but others embrace images
images of
of
Witchcraft in in popular
popular culture, and and some even construct pop pop culture altars.
Some Pagans
Pagans complain about practitione rs calling
practitioners calling non-Pagans
non-Pagans “mug- “mug-
gles,” after the
gles,” the use of
of the
the term forfor non-magic
non-magicalal practitione rs in
practitioners in the Harry
the Harry
Potter novels. In In a
a letter to
to New Witch,
Witch, Peter White sayssays that
that the
the adoption
adoption
of such trendy
of trendy slang
slang “cheapens our faith.” Other see it it as fun,
fun, or,
or, alterna-
tively,
tively, as juvenile.
juvenile. In
In the
the same column,
column, Paanntherr indicates that that “mug-
“mug-
gle” is
gle” is a fictional name for for the
the existing
existing term “cowan” for for non-magic
non-magical al
practitione rs.°° “Muggles” easily
practitioners. easily conflates with “mundanes,”
“mundanes,” another
term in in usage among Pagans Pagans in in overlap
overlap with the Society for
the Society for Creative
Anachroni
Anachronism community.
sm community.
Many Pagans
Many Pagans were angered by the recruitin
by the recruitingg of
of a Witch for
for the reality
the reality
television
television game show Mad, Mad, Mad House, and and by
by the
the agreemen
agreementt ofof the
the well-
well-
 Current Issues
Issues 197
197

known Australian Witch Fiona Horne to to appear on the

the show. Pagans
Pagans were
disturbed that
that the
the producers sought
sought someone who was aa “full
“full time witch,
witch,
not aa lawyer
lawyer byby day, by night.”
day, witch by night.” They
They were looking
looking for
for someone un-
usual,
usual, “alternative,” to
to create aa contrast between the
the “alts” and the
“alts” and the “nor-
mals,” who
mals,” who were the the contestants on the the show. It It was designed as aa game
show,
show, so that one person would be be voted out of of the
the house each episode. episode.
Critics of of Horne’s participation said she
said she treated Paganism as aa lifestylelifestyle
rather than as aa religion, even attributing those words to her. After view-
to her.
ing the
ing the edited show,show, Horne says says she
she has “no regrets”
has “no regarding her
regrets” regarding par-
her par-
ticipation, although
although laterlater episodes
episodes were “edited in in such aa way as to to not re-
flect the true nature of
flect the the individuals involved.”
of the
Paganism
Paganism started to to become commodified as it it emerged from the the se-
crecy of of initiatory traditions. Increased public public acceptance of of the
the religion
religion
led to
led to glossy magazines, Witch characters on television
glossy magazines, television shows,shows, and and train-
train-
ing courses that
ing that charge
charge fees.
fees. Participation in in Paganism
Paganism became more eas-
ily available through
ily through commercial channels than than through
through traditional coven
or apprenticeship
apprenticeship instruction, since itit isis easier to to buy
buy how-to books and and
accessories than toto find find aa teacher. Commodifie
Commodified teaching can be
d teaching be differen-
tiated from
from traditional teaching on the basis of
the basis fee payment, reflecting
of fee reflecting the the
belief that
belief that traditional teaching gift and
teaching isis aa gift and not for sale.
not for sale. Practitioners feel feel
that consumerism encourages superficial
that superficial participation in in the religion and
the religion and
self-indulgence
self-indulge rather than
nce rather personal growth
than personal growth or mature cultural criticism.
In addition,
In addition, consumerist varieties of
consumerist varieties of Paganism
Paganism cultivate sense of
cultivate aa sense of lack,
lack,
encouraging practitioners to to consume products
products in the hope
in the that they
hope that they can
become happy, happy, less less lonely
lonely or anxious, or better Pagans. As
better Pagans. As in in con-
sumerism in in general,
general, consumption creates the the desire
desire to to consume more. In In
addition, consumerist varieties of Paganism create the
of Paganism the illusion that that buy-
buy-
ing products or brands
ing certain products brands (or (or things
things associated with particular peo-
with particular peo-
ple, such as the
ple, such popular Australian figure
the popular figure Deborah Gray) Gray) isis the only
the only
means of of access to their tradition.
to their
Trendy spell
Trendy spell books also also play
playaa role
role in
in the
the popularizati
popularization and commodi-
on and
fication of of Witchcraft. Popular
Popular spellspell books
books encourage superficialsuperficial participa-
participa-
tion in
tion in Witchcraft, and and “the
“the wide distribution of of spell
spell books
books andand thethe pop-
pop-
ularity of
ularity of Witchcraft television shows and and movies suggests that that New New Age
Age
Witchcraft isis much much more common than than traditional Witchcraft.”°
Witchcraft.”6!! Some
practitioners see the the wide
wide availability
availability of of recent spell
spell books
books as as positive,
positive, be- be-
cause itit provides
provides aa safe safe environment for for experimentat
experimentation, ion, but but popular
popular
spell books do
spell do not
not encourage learning learning fromfrom other
other sources. Popular Popular spellspell
books such
books such as Athena Starwoman and and Deborah Gray’s Gray’s How How toto Turn
Turn Your
Your
Ex-Boyfriend into
Ex-Boyfriend into aa Toad
Toad and
and Other
Other Spells
Spells for
for Love,
Love, Wealth,
Wealth, Beauty
Beauty andand Revenge,
Revenge,
Titania Hardie’s Hocus Hocus Pocus:
Pocus: Titania’s Book Book ofof Spells,
Spells, andand Antonia Beattie’s
The Girl's
The Girl’s Handbook ofof Spells:
Spells: Charm
Charm your
your WayWay toto Popularity
Popularity and and Power
Power tendtend to to
be weak
be weak on ethics
ethics andand encourage practitioners to to hold
hold self-centered views. views.
198
198 Chapter 10
Chapter 10

Spell
Spell books aimed at girls can encourage aa positive
at teenage girls positive self-image and and
healthy
healthy self-esteem and and can contribute to to the
the reenchantment of of everyday
everyday
life. However, some reinforce
life. reinforce idealistic images
images of of female beauty,
beauty, and they
and they
generally assume aa posture of
generally of heterosexism. These books do not encour-
do not
age
age cultural change
change through
through countercultural living, but they
living, but they can foster itit
through personal empowerment.®
empowerment.
Not only scholars and
Not only and Pagan
Pagan elders are critical of popular spell
of popular spell books
and other aspects
and other aspects of of commodified practice; youth are also
practice; youth also “frustrated by by
the rabid marketing
the rabid marketing of of diluted
diluted andand sugar-coated
sugar-coated versions
versions ofof [their]
[their] reli-
reli-
gion to
gion to teens.”® Mattel’s attempt to to cash
cash in the popularity
in on the popularity of magic
of magic
with “Secret SpellsSpells Barbie” backfired. They They removed the the product
product from
shelves in the United States due
in the due toto Christian protests against the market-
against the
ing of
ing of Witchcraft to to children. ItIt was not only only Christians who were dis- dis-
turbed by by the
the marketing of of Secret Spells Barbie; Pagans
Spells Barbie; Pagans were also also trou-
bled by
bled the presentation of
by the of spell crafting to
spell crafting to young children in in the
the
commercials promoting the the doll.
doll. The advertisements presented love love
spells as successful, but
spells but without any any sense of of ethics.6!
ethics. TheThe product
product re-
mains available in in Canada, and and demand for for itit may increase from collec-
tors because of its being
of its being withdrawn from from thethe American market.
While some Pagans Pagans express chagrin chagrin at at those who find find such toystoys ap- ap-
pealing,
pealing, more often practitioners express embarrassment over people people
who buybuy such products or consumerist spell spell books and and treat them like like au-
thoritative sources in in Paganism. Some Pagans Pagans see consumerist Paganism
as “flaky”
“flaky” and disdain itit as “New Age.” Age.” TheyThey express embarrassment
with “newbie,” “New Agey,” Agey,” or uninformed coreligionists who express express
beliefs such as the the idea thatthat having
having a blue blue tattoo of of a crescent moon be- be-
tween one’s eyebrows isis an ancient practicepractice of
of Goddess practitioners,
when itit isis derived from Marion Zimmer Bradley’s novel The The Mists ofof
Avalon. Some are embarrassed by by SCA-inspired clothing
clothing or ostentatious
accessories andand ritual tools, but others identify
tools, but such pursuit of
identify such of intellectual
seriousness with “holier than thou” attitudes.©
attitudes.
Some practitioners
practitioners react to to the
the perceived flakiness of of consumerist
consumerist
trends with avowals of of “Dark Paganism.”
Paganism.” Dark
Dark Paganism
Paganism includes those
who identify
identify with the
the “Left Hand Path” and the
the practice of
of “magick” ina
ina
nonconformist manner to
nonconformist to “light”
“light” or “white” Witchcraft
Witchcraft.. They
They indicate
that
that they
they do
do not practice black magic
magic inin the
the sense of malevolence or evil,
of malevolence evil,
but they feel
but they feel that
that a dark version ofof Paganism isis aa necessary balance to to the
the
“whitewa shed” and “sugarcoa
“whitewashed” ted” practices of
“sugarcoated” of mainstre
mainstreamam Wicca. OneOne
form of of Dark Paganism is is Goth Paganism, such as that that espoused byby John
John
J.J. Coughlin in in his
his book Out
Out of
of The
The Shadows: An An Exploratio
Explorationn of
of Dark Pagan-
Pagan-
ism
ism and Magick, which was one of
and Magick, of the
the first meldings of
first meldings of Goth and Pagan
and Pagan
culture. Goth subcultur
subculturee started with
with ambient, industrial,
industrial, and
and some poppop
music of
of the
the early
early 1980s that
that explored themes of
of taboo emotions, such as
as
 Current Issues 199
199

feelings
feelings about death and and tragic
tragic love.
love.% Some practitioner s see Goth or
Dark Paganism as simply simply another species of flakiness, equally
species of equally embarrass-
ing
ing as the
the “fluffy-bunny,” “sweetness and and light”
light” variety
variety espoused by by New
Agey Pagans
Agey Pagans and and marketed to to teens.
While some practitioners
practitioners want Paganism to to be
be aa creative alternative toto
the mainstream,, and
the mainstream enjoy disrupting
and enjoy disrupting expectations
expectations of of normal behavior,
others feel
feel that
that mainstream acceptance isis important for for protecting their
rights to
rights religious freedom. One
to religious One tactic for
for preserving the the alternative na-
ture of
of Paganism while seeking seeking tolerance and equality
equality in in mainstream in-in-
stitutions is is to
to seek
seek “respect,
“respect, not respectability .”°” Practitioners
respectability.”°” Practitioners of
of contem-
porary Paganism are diverse in in their
their attitudes, beliefs, and and practices,
practices, as
well as in
well in their
their feelings
feelings about how,
how, or if,
if, Paganism
Paganism should become an or-
ganized
ganized religion. As As the
the religion
religion matures, practitioner
practitionerss are seeking equal
seeking equal
rights
rights to
to practice
practice their religion
religion freely,
freely, without discriminati on, harassment,
discrimination,
or persecution,
persecution, while struggling to to preserve the impulses that
the impulses that led to
led them to
the
the religion. Although
Although they
they remain a minority religion,
religion, and
and practitioners
practitioners
differ in
differ in their methods, andand sometimes their goalsgoals regarding mainstream
acceptance, they
they are claiming
claiming aa place
place among the the world’s religions.
religions.

FURTHER READING

Eilers,
Eilers, Dana D. D. Pagans
Pagans and
and the
the Law: Understand Your Rights. Lakes, NJ:
Rights. Franklin Lakes, NJ: New Page
Page
Books, 2003.
Lady
Lady Liberty League. Circle Sanctuary. www.circlesanctuary.
Liberty League. www.circlesanctuary.orgorg / /liberty.
liberty.
New Witch. “Rant && Rave.” Regular
Regular column inin New Witch magazine.
magazine.
Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance. www.religioustolerance.com.
www.religioustolerance.com.
Pagan Federation/
Pagan Federation/Fédération
Fédération Paienne Canada. www.pfpc.ca.
www.pfpce.ca.
Pagan Pride. www.paganpride.org.
Pagan
PanGaia. “Feedback Loop:
Loop: Letters
Letters from
from our Readers,” and
and “Toe-to-Toe: A Forum for
A Forum for Contro-
Contro-
versy and Opinion.”
Opinion.” Regular
Regular columns in in PanGaia magazine.
magazine.
Pike,
Pike, Sarah M.M. Earthly
Earthly Bodies, Magical Selves: Contemporary Pagans
Magical Selves: Pagans and
and the Search for
the Search for Commu-
Commu-
nity. Berkeley:
nity. Berkeley: University
University ofof California Press,
Press, 2001.
2001.
Sage
Sage Woman. “The Rattle: Our Our Readers Speak.”
Speak.” Regular
Regular column in in Sage
Sage Woman magazine.
The Witches’ Voice. www.witchvox.com.
The

NOTES

1.1. Council forfor aa Parliament of

of the
the World’s Religions,
Religions, 2002,
2002, www.cpwr.org (accessed Septem-
Septem-
ber 28,
ber 28, 2004).
2004).
2.2. Selena Fox, Fox, “Bridges:
“Bridges: Pagans
Pagans at at the
the Parliament,” Circle Magazine 91
91 (2004): 34.
34.
3.3. Sarah M. M. Pike,
Pike, Earthly Bodies, Magical
Earthly Bodies, Magical Selves: Contemporary Pagans
Pagans and
and the for Com-
the Search for
munity (Berkeley: University of
munity of California Press,
Press, 2001),
2001), 108-9.
4. Pike,
4. Pike, Earthly Bodies, Magical
Earthly Bodies, Magical Selves, 111.
Selves, 111.
5.
5. Washington Post,
Post, August
August 23,
23, 1993.
6. Pike, Earthly
6. Pike, Earthly Bodies,
Bodies, Magical
Magical Selves, 120.
Selves, 120.
200
200 Chapter 10
Chapter 10

7.7. Circle Magazine,

Magazine, “Lady
“Lady Liberty
Liberty League Report,” Circle Magazine 88,
League Report,” 88, 89
89 (2003),
(2003), www.cir-
clesanctuary.org /liberty /report (accessed September 24,
clesanctuary.org/liberty/report 24, 2004).
8.8. Quoted
Quoted in
in Pike, Earthly Bodies,
Pike, Earthly Bodies, Magical
Magical Selves, 99.
99.
9.9. Pike, Earthly Bodies,
Pike, Earthly Bodies, Magical
Magical Selves,
Selves, 99-100.
10. Pike, Earthly
10. Pike, Earthly Bodies,
Bodies, Magical
Magical Selves,
Selves, 102-3.
11.
11. Pike,
Pike, Earthly Bodies, Magical
Earthly Bodies, Selves, 100,
Magical Selves, 100, 104-6.
12. Circle Magazine,
12. Magazine, “Lady
“Lady Liberty
Liberty League
League Report,” Circle Magazine
Magazine 9090 (2003),
(2003), www.circle-
sanctuary.org/liberty/report
sanctuary.org/liberty /report (accessed September 24, 2004).
24, 2004).
13. Kevin Corcoran, “Judge:
13. Can’t Teach Pagan
“Judge: Parents Can’t Pagan Beliefs,”
Beliefs,” Indystar.com: the
the online
edition ofof the
the Indianapolis Star, May 26,
Star, May 26, 2005. This
This ruling
ruling was subsequently overturned. Bren- Bren-
dan Coyne, “Court Approves Wicca for
dan Coyne, for Kids,
Kids, Dodges
Dodges Constitutional Issue,” New New Standard, Au-
Au-
gust 19,
gust 19, 2005, http:/ /newstandardnews.net/content/?action=show_item&itemid=2250&x=x
2005, http:/ /newstandardnews.net/content/?action=show_itemé&itemid=2250&x=x
(accessed August 31, 2005.)
August 31,
14.
14. Pike,
Pike, Earthly
Earthly Bodies, Magical Selves, xi-xii.
Magical Selves,
15.
15. Circle Magazine, “Lady
“Lady Liberty
Liberty League
League Report,”
Report,” Circle Magazine 90.
90.
16.
16. Circle Magazine, “Lady
“Lady Liberty
Liberty League
League Report,”
Report,” Circle Magazine 90.
90.
17.
17. Michael Samhain, “Defending the
the Craft,” New
New Witch 66 (2004),
(2004), www
-newwitch.com/archives/06/read/defending.html
‘newwitch.com/archives/06/read / defending. html (accessed September 24,
24, 2004).
18. Dana
18. Dana D.
D. Eilers,
Eilers, Pagans and the
Pagans and Law: Understand Your
the Law: Your Rights
Rights (Franklin Lakes,
Lakes, NJ:
NJ: New
Page
Page Books, 2003).
19. Kerr Cuhulain, Law
19. Kerr to Wicca (Victoria, British Columbia: Horned
Law Enforcement Guide to
Owl
Owl Publishing, 1989).
1989).
20. Pagan
20. Pagan Unity
Unity Campaign,
Campaign, 2004,
2004, www.paganunitycampaign.org (accessed September 28,
28,
2004).
2004).
21. Chas S.S. Clifton, “Fort Hood’s Wiccans and
21. the Problem of
and the of Pacifism” (paper
(paper presented
at the annual meeting
at the meeting ofof the
the American Academy
Academy of Religion, Nashville, Tennessee,
of Religion, Novem-
ber 20,
ber 20, 2000).
2000).
22. Tom
22. Tom Doyle
Doyle Jr.,
Jr., “More
“More from Pagans in
from Pagans Prison,” letter
in Prison,” to the
letter to the editor published in
editor published in PanGaia
PanGaia
39 (2004): 9.9.
39
23.
23. Windwalker, “Lady
“Lady Liberty
Liberty League
League Report,”
Report,” Circle Magazine 91
91 (2004):
(2004): 54.
54.
24.
24. CNN (Time Warner), “Supreme Court: Prisons Must Accommodate Religions,” May
May
31, 2005,
31, 2005, www.cnn.com/2 005/LAW/05/31/scotus.prison.religion (accessed September 5,
www.cnn.com/2005/LAW/05/31/scotus.prison.religion 5,
2005).
25.
25. Chas S.S. Clifton, “Tents, Not Cathedrals: An
An Argument against Paid Clergy,”
Clergy,” The View
The View
from Hardscrabble Creek 22 (March
from 1993).
(March 1993).
26.
26. Frederic Lammond, “Memories
Frederic Lammond, “Memories of
of Gerald
Gerald Gardner,”
Gardner,” in
in Celebrating the Pagan
Celebrating the Pagan Soul:
Soul: Our
Our
Own Stories ofof Inspiration and
and Community, ed.
ed. Laura A.
A. Wildman (New York: Citadel Press,
Press,
2005), 94.
2005), 94.
27. Clifton, “Tents, Not
27. Clifton, Not Cathedrals.”
28.
28. Pike, Earthly Bodies,
Pike, Earthly Bodies, Magical Selves, 53,
Magical Selves, 53, 116.
116.
29. Pike,
29. Pike, Earthly
Earthly Bodies,
Bodies, Magical
Magical Selves, xix.
Selves, xix.
30.
30. Pike,
Pike, Earthly Bodies, Magical
Earthly Bodies, Magical Selves,
Selves, 116-18.
31.
31. Archer,
Archer, “Bumps
“Bumps along the Pagan
along the Pagan Path,” PanGaia 39
Path,” PanGaia 39 (2004):
(2004): 22.
22.
32. Pike, Earthly
32. Pike, Earthly Bodies,
Bodies, Magical Selves,
Selves, 53-54.
33.
33. Pike,
Pike, Earthly Bodies, Magical
Earthly Bodies, Magical Selves,
Selves, 213.
213.
34.
34. Quoted in in Pike, Earthly Bodies,
Pike, Earthly Bodies, Magical
Magical Selves, 212.
Selves, 212.
35.
35. Pike, Earthly Bodies, Magical
Pike, Earthly Magical Selves,
Selves, 118,
118, 101.
36.
36. See Pike,
See Pike, Earthly
Earthly Bodies,
Bodies, Magical
Magical Selves,
Selves, 119.
119.
37.
37. Pike, Earthly
Pike, Earthly Bodies,
Bodies, Magical
Magical Selves,
Selves, 209.
38. Chas Clifton, NatRel (electronic discussion group of
38. of the
the Nature Religions Scholars
2004.
Network), September 2004,
 Current
Current Issues
Issues 201
201

39. Pike,
39. Pike, Earthly
Earthly Bodies,
Bodies, Magical
Magical Selves,
Selves, 209,
209, 217.
217.
40. Pike,
40. Pike, Earthly
Earthly Bodies, Magical Selves,
Bodies, Magical Selves, 101.
101.
4].
41. Quoted
Quoted in Pike, Earthly
in Pike, Earthly Bodies,
Bodies, Magical Selves, 102.
Magical Selves, 102.
42. Sian Reid,
42. Reid, “Witch Wars: Factors Contributin
Contributingg to
to Conflict in
in Canadian Neopagan
Neopagan Com-
munities,” The
The Pomegranate: AA New Journal of
of Neopagan Thought
Thought 11 (2000): 11.
11 (2000): 11.
43. Reid,
43. Reid, “Witch Wars,”
Wars,” 12.
12.
44. Reid,
44. Reid, “Witch
“Witch Wars,” 17.
Wars,” 17.
45.
45. Fritz
Fritz Jung,
Jung, “What Is Is aa Witch War?” The Witches’ Voice,
The January 4,
Voice, January 4, 1998,
1998,
www.witchvo x.com/wars/
www.witchvox.com/w ww_whatis.h
ars/ww_wh tml (accessed
atis.html September 20,
(accessed September 20, 2004).
2004),
46. NatRel, 2004.
46. 2004.
47.
47. Ronald Hutton, The
The Triumph
Triumph of
of the
the Moon: AA History of Modern Pagan
History of Pagan Witchcraft (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1999), 320.
Press, 1999), 320.
48. Reid, “Witch Wars,”
48. Reid, Wars,” 18.
18.
49.
49. See
See Jone
Jone Salomonsen, Enchanted Feminism: The Reclaiming Witches of
The Reclaiming of San
San Francisco
(London: 2002).
Routledge, 2002).
(London: Routledge,
50.
50. Helen Berger,
Berger, AA Community of
of Witches (Columbia: University of
of South Carolina Press,
Press,
1999), 110.
1999), 110.
51.
51. PanGaia, “Toe-to-Toe: AA Forum for
for Controversy
Controversy and
and Opinion,”
Opinion,” PanGaia 39
39 (2004):
(2004):
13-16. |
13-16.
52. Reid,
52. Reid, “Witch Wars,” 13.
“Witch Wars,” 13.
53.
53. Lauryl
Lauryl Stone, and Rave,”
Stone, “Rant and Rave,” New Witch 55 (2004):
New Witch (2004): 5.5.
54. See,
94. See, in
in particular, Charlene Spretnak, ed.,
ed., The
The Politics of
of Women’s Spirituality (Garden
City, NY: Anchor Books [Doubleday]
City, NY: , 1982).
[Doubleday], 1982).
55.
55. See, for example,
See, for example, Kevin Marron,
Marron, Witches, Pagans
Pagans && Magic in the
Magic in the New Age
Age (Toronto: Seal
Seal
Books [McClelland-Banta
[McClelland 1989).
m], 1989).
-Bantam],
56.
56. Archer, “Bumps
Archer, “Bumps along
along the
the Path,”
Path,” 22,
22, 25.
25.
57.
57. Dagonet Dewr, “The
Dagonet Dewr, “The Vibe,”
Vibe,” (editorial) New Witch 77 (2004):
(2004): 1.1.
58.
58. New Witch,
New and Rave,”
Witch, “Rant and Rave,” New
New Witch
Witch 77 (2004):
(2004): 5-13.
5-13.
59.
59. See New
See Witch, “Rant and
New Witch, Rave,” New Witch
and Rave,” Witch 77 (2004):
(2004): 7-9.
7-9.
60. This
60. This analysis
analysis isis drawn from Douglas Ezzy, “The Commodific
Douglas Ezzy, Commodification of Witchcraft,”
ation of
Religion Studies Review 14
Australian Religion (2001): 31-44.
14 (2001):
61. Douglas
61. Douglas Ezzy,Ezzy, “New“New Age Age Witchcraft? PopularPopular SpellSpell Books andand the
the Re-
Re-
enchantment
enchantmen of Everyday
t of Life,” Culture and
Everyday Life,” Religion 44 (2003):
and Religion 61.
(2003): 61.
62. This
62. This analysis
analysis isis drawn from
from Ezzy,
Ezzy, “New AgeAge Witchcraft?”
63. See “The
63. See “The Rattle: OurOur Readers Speak,”
Speak,” Sage
Sage Woman 65 65 (2004): 89.
(2004): 89.
64. Phil Brucato,
64. Phil Brucato, “Chalice && Keyboard,” New
New Witch
Witch 77 (2004):
(2004): 30.
30.
65. Archer,
65. Archer, “Bumps
“Bumps along
along the
the Path,”
Path,” 26.
26.
66. Jason
66. Jason Pitzl-Waters and Jacqueline
and Jacqueline Enstrom-Waters,
Enstrom-Wat ers, “Dark Paganism
Paganism with John
with John
Coughlin,” New Witch 66 (2004),
Coughlin,” (2004), www.newwitch.com/archives/06/read/dark.html
www.newwit ch.com/archives/06/read/dark.html (ac-
(ac-
cessed September
cessed 29, 2004).
September 29, 2004).
67. Macha Nightmare, NatRel (electronic discussion group
67. group of
of the
the Nature Religions
Religions Schol-
ars Network), September
September 2004.
2004.
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 1111
ost
ook
Kesea
Research in
in Pagan
Pagan Studies

Rese ee on Paganism was initially

initially conducted in in terms of studying aa
of studying
ew religious
religious movement, and and eventually it it developed into the the field
field of
of
Pagan studies as Paganism came to
Pagan to be
be recognized as a religion. Early
a religion. Early sen-
sationalist accounts in in the
the 1960s, most often reported
reported by by journalists rather
than
than academics, tended to to conflate Paganism with with Satanism. Shortly Shortly
thereafter, scholars began began to to study
study Paganism as aa cult cult (a(a new religious
religious
movement). More journalistic surveys appeared in in the
the following
following decades,
and
and scholarly analysis of
scholarly analysis of trial records began.
began. Other historical studies of of
the
the origins
origins ofof modern Witchcraft have now been conducted, as well as so-
ciological
ciological studies and and focused ethnographic studies. Pagan Pagan studies schol-
ars
ars frequently use interdisciplinary methods drawing drawing on folklore,
folklore, anthro-
pology, sociology, psychology, and
pology, fields, rather than restricting
and other fields,
their inquiries
their inquiries to to either text-based research or interviews and surveys. Re- Re-
searchers are developing new methodologies to to address the fact that
the fact that most
scholars who study study Paganism
Paganism are also also practitioners, elaborating on on the
the
method of of participant observation. Their work isis atat the leading edge
the leading edge of of
engaged, reflexive research in the study
in the study of of religion.
religion.
In
In addition to to giving
giving aa brief
brief discussion of the methods used to
of the to study
study Pa- Pa-
ganism,
ganism, this this section functions somewhat as aa review of of Pagan
Pagan studies and and
is
is intended to to give
give enough
enough information on sources for for instructors to to guide
guide
students in
students in further research, even ifif Pagan Pagan studies isis not their primary primary
area of of expertise. It It also
also illustrates the the maturation of of Pagan
Pagan studies be- be-
yond the
yond the study
study of of Paganism as aa new religiousreligious movement, to to a formal
area of study within the
of study study of
the study of religion,
religion, particularly evident in in the
the de-
de-
velopment of of advanced ethnographic and and historical studies.

203
203
204
204 Chapter
Chapter 11
11

“How-to” books by by practitioners of of Paganism beganbegan to to appear in in the

the
1960s,
1960s, following the the popularization of of Wicca inin Britain and and thethe United
States. Shortly
Shortly afterward, encyclopedic overviews of religion began
of religion began to in-
to in-
clude Paganism, listing
listing itit as a
a new religious
religious movement. For example,
For example,
Robert Ellwood’s Religious
Religious andand Spiritual Groups inin Modern America (1973)
Spiritual Groups (1973)
and
and Gordon Melton’s Encyclopedia of
of American Religions (2002), first
Religions (2002), first pub- pub-
lished inin the
the seventies, discuss Paganism as aa new religious religious movement.
Until the
the late
late 1980s and early 1990s, Paganism was almost exclusively
early 1990s,
treated together with “cults” and
together with and thethe New Age Age movement in in academic
writings. In his Encyclopedic Handbook of
In his of Cults inin America (1984),
(1984), Melton
treats Paganism as aa new “cult” in in nonprejudicial terms—evangelicals
tend toto regard
regard Melton as aa cult cult apologist.
apologist. More recent discussions of of Pa-
Pa-
ganism appeared in
ganism have appeared in chapters
chapters in in books on the the New Age Age movement
such as Paul Heelas’ The New Age
The New Age Movement (1996) and and Wouter J. J. Hane-
graaff’s
graaff’s New Age Age Religion
Religion andand Western Culture (1997). Michael York’s The The
Emerging Network: AA Sociology
Emerging Sociology of the New
of the New Age and Neo-Pagan Movements
Age and
(1995) and
(1995) and Sarah Pike’s New New Age Age andand Neopagan Religions
Religions in in America (2004)
(2004)
discuss Paganism and and the
the New Age Age together
together but
but differentiate them.
Before encyclopedic studies began began to to appear, discussions of of Paganism
surfaced inin popular
popular writings
writings by
by journalists. These accounts were gener-
ally and conflated Paganism
ally sensationalistic and Paganism with the
the New Age,
Age, “the
“the oc-
cult,”
cult,” or Satanism. InIn the
the United States,
States, such produced by
such books were produced by
Hans Holzer,
Holzer, Susan Roberts,
Roberts, and Brad Steiger.
and Brad In Britain,
Steiger. In Britain, Stewart Farrar
and June Johns
and June Johns wrote similar volumes, as as did
did Kevin Marron aa few few
decades later
later in
in Canada. Holzer produced aa number of of titles,
titles, including
The Witchcraft (1969),
The Truth about Witchcraft (1969), The
The New Pagans
Pagans (1972), The Witchcraft Re-
(1972), The Re-
port (1973), and
port (1973), and Confessions of of aa Witch (1975). Holzer was aa popular
popular writer
on parapsychology and and magical
magical religion
religion who
who “created a Gardnerian
Girl in
Cosmo Girl P.,’” the
in ‘Heather P.,’” the protagonist of of Confessions ofof aa Witch,
Witch, which
was presented as nonfiction but but isis unverified. Overviews by by outsiders,
such
such as Steiger’s
Steiger’s Sex
Sex and
and Satanism (1969),
(1969), Roberts’ Witches U.S.A. (1971),
(1971),
Martin Ebon’s Witchcraft
Witchcraft Today (1963), Marika Kriss’ Witchcraft: Past
Today (1963), Past and
and
Present (1970),
(1970), and
and Alan Landsburg’s In In Search ofof Magic
Magic and Witchcraft
and Witchcraft
(1977),
(1977), typically take a broad and shallow “cafeteria approach,” providing
aa sampling
sampling of magical religion. These texts follow aa basic pattern of
of magical of giv-
giv-
ing a
ing brief history
a brief history ofof Witchcraft andand then recounting the the experiences of of an
attractive young woman who who is is involved in in “the
“the occult,” rounded out by by
interviews with aa few few prominent personages, and and finishing
finishing by claiming to
by claiming to
know many witches and saying saying that they are everywhere. There appears
that they appears
toto have
have been
been something of of aa circuit of of people
people that
that journalists interviewed
for
for researching such texts. People People on the the circuit included Raymond and and
Rosemary Buckland,
Rosemary Buckland, who who brought
brought Gardnerian
Gardnerian Wicca
Wicca toto the
the United
United States,
States,
and
and Mary
Mary Nesnick, who founded the the “Algard” tradition; perhaps
perhaps some
some
 Research inin Pagan
Pagan Studies 205
205

other
other occult sources; and
and often
often Church of
of Satan founder Anton LaVey.
LaVey.
Most of
of the
the people
people on this
this circuit were published authors at
at the
the time.!
Kevin Marron produced aa similar general general account of of occult practices in in
Canada, with his his Witches, Pagans,
Pagans, && Magic Magic in in the
the New Age Age (1989). The The back
cover of the book
of the book claims that that itit isis both written with “a “a journalist'
journalist’s objec-
objec-
tivity”
tivity” and isis aa “fascinating exposé.” He He began
began his his research with the the in-
in-
tent ofof getting “a “a better perspecti
perspectivvee on Satanism,” and his expectationn of
his expectatio of
spectacle led led himhim toto express disappointment with the the rituals of of the
the Wic-
can Church of of Canada.’ Rather than than givinggiving a scholarly analysis analysis of of Pagan-
Pagan-
ism,
ism, Marron gives gives a mass of of generalized material without citing citing sources,
giving
giving the the impression that that what he he wrote isis justjust the
the lasting
lasting impression he he
had of the people he
of the people he talked with over a few few months or years, without any any
systemati
systematicc field field study.
study.
AA number of of overviews by by practitioner
practitionerss were also also produced in in the late
the late
1960s and early early 1970s. Sybil Sybil Leek authored several titles, titles, including Diary Diary
of
of aa Witch
Witch (1968)
(1968) and Complete Art Art of of Witchcraft
Witchcraft (1973). Leo Leo Louis Martello’s
Weird Ways Ways of of Witchcraft appeared in in 1969. Raymond Buckland produced
aa number of of such works, beginning with Ancient and and Modern Witchcraft
(1970) and Witchcraft from from the
the Inside (1971).3
(1971). Vivianne Crowley’sCrowley's Wicca: The The
Old
Old Religion
Religion in the New Age
in the Age (1989)
(1989) was similarly aimed at at practitioner
practitionerss but but
includes scholarly analysis analysis of of the
the religion.
religion. She She looks at at Wicca in in relation
to
to Jungian
Jungian psychology,
psychology, giving giving more theoretical
theoretical than liturgical content, but but
this text has
this has served as an introductio
introductionn for practitioner
for many practition s.
ers.
The first
first significant survey of Pagans was by
of Pagans by a journalist, but but one who who
knew Paganism from the the inside. Margot Margot Adler’s Drawing Drawing Down the the Moon
(1986), first first published in in 1979,
1979, gives
gives a detailed and and comprehensiv
comprehensivee
overview of of contemporary
contemporary Paganism in in North America. For For her
her initial
study, she
study, she traveled for for three months collecting information information from groves
and covens in in the
the United States and and Britain. She She conducted a survey dis-
tributed nationally in in the
the United States through through the the periodical Green Egg, Egg,
and she she taped
taped more than a hundred hours of of interviews.
interviews. The The survey for for
the
the second edition of of her book was distributed distributed in in 1985 through Panegyria
and at at three festivals. Her Her studystudy was also also enriched by by background
background re-
search from libraries and archives in in New York.‘ Although her research
was restricted largely
largely to
to the
the United States,
States, her
her book remains the
the most
comprehensiv
comprehensivee discussion of of the
the varieties of
of contemporary
contemporary Paganism in in
print
print and
and is
is notable for
for being
being the
the most commonly cited text among prac-
and scholars of
titioners and of Pagan
Pagan studies. Adler isis currently preparing a a re-
vised edition.
Text-based studies of
of Paganism did
did not have much to
to work with initially,
initially,
since there is
is no sacred text or scripture that
that is
is accepted
accepted as authoritative,
authoritative,
and scant theological
theological writing
writing was available in Paganism.’5 This lack of
in Paganism. of writ-
ten sources initially
initially led
led most scholars to
to regard
regard Paganism as “primitive,”
“primitive,”
206
206 Chapter
Chapter 11
11

because academic work focuses on written documents, and

and modern reli-
reli-
gions
gions that that do do not focus on texts were thought thought to be “uncivilized.”
to be “uncivilized.”° Some
book-length studies in theology
in theqlogy are beginning to
to appear, such as religion
religion
scholar Michael York’s ambitious Pagan Theology: Paganism
Pagan Theology: Paganism as aa World Reli-
Reli-
gion (2003),
gion (2003), in in which he he argues that that paganism isis atat once the the root of of all
all reli-
reli-
gion
gion and and is worthy of
is worthy of study
study as aa world religion.religion. Carol Christ’s Rebirth of of
the Goddess: Finding
the Finding Meaning
Meaning inin Feminist Spirituality (1997) (1997) is is aa systematic
thealogy, and
thealogy, and her her She
She WhoWho Changes:
Changes: Re-imagining the the Divine inin the the World
(2004) provides
(2004) provides a process thealogy, building building on the the work of of the
the Christian
theologians Alfred North Whitehead and and Charles Hartshorn. Melissa
Raphael also
Raphael also develops aa thealogythealogy in in her
her Thealogy
Thealogy and and Embodiment (1997). (1997).
Aiden Kelly’s
Kelly’s polemical
polemical denunciation of of Gerald Gardner and and celebration
of Wicca as aa new religion
of religion in in Crafting
Crafting the the Art
Art of Magic (1991)
of Magic (1991) andand Philip Hes-
Philip Hes-
elton’s counterresponses (2000, (2000, 2003)
2003) might
might be be considered to to constitute a
developing theological discourse in in Wicca.’
Some of the first
of the first scholarly
scholarly written sources relevant to to Pagan
Pagan studies are
analyses of
analyses of trial
trial records and and theories about why why the the witch hunts occurred.
Two of the earliest of
of the of these are EliotEliot Rose’s AA Razor for for aa Goat:
Goat: AA Discussion
of
of Certain Problems inin the the History
History of of Witchcraft and and Diabolism (1962) (1962) and and Nor-
Nor-
man Cohn’s Europe's Europe’s Inner Demons: An An Enquiry
Enquiry Inspired
Inspired by the Great Witch-
by the
(1975), which counter the
Hunt (1975), the theories of of witchcraft survivals supported
by
by Margaret Murray Murray and Jules Michelet. Cohn discusses the
and Jules the scapegoat-
ing of
ing of “witches” as a projection of of fantasies, noting
noting that that the
the same accusa-
tions were leveled at the early
at the early Christians. Christina Larner’s Enemies of of
God:
God: TheThe Witch-Hunt in in Scotland (1981) provides provides aa social history,history, explain-
explain-
ing the
ing the cultural context of how witchcraft was understood in
of how in the
the late
late Re-
Re-
naissance. Carlo Ginzburg’s Ecstasies: Deciphering the the Witches’ Sabbath
(1991) is
(1991) is aa meticulously researched microhistory, but but hishis conclusions
about the the connections between shamanism and and stories in in thethe Western
Alps
Alps of of attending witches’ Sabbath meetings meetings may may not apply apply more gener-
ally across Europe.
ally Europe.
AA number of of feminist studies of of the
the witch huntshunts have appeared,
appeared, some
to greater academic acceptance than
to than others. Barbara Ehrenreich and and Dei-
dre
dre English’s Witches, Midwives, and and Nurses (1973) (1973) argues that that most
witches were female healers or midwives, but but does
does not provide
provide a system-
atic
atic study
study of the witch hunts and
of the and isis instead based on anecdotal evidence
and
and aa few atypical trials. Donna Read’s film
few atypical film The Burning Times (1990)
The Burning (1990) de- de-
tails the
tails the erosion of of women’s power in in medieval Europe
Europe and and discusses sur-
vivals of of images of of female divinity
divinity in in the
the veneration of of Mary.
Mary. This docu-
mentary supports the the idea that the the church used used the the witch hunts to to
suppress women’s power, and includes reference to to the
the notoriously exag-
gerated
gerated number of of nine million women killed in in the
the witch hunts as aa
“high
“high estimate.” Anne Llewellyn Barstow’s “deeply “deeply flawed” Witchcraze: A A
 Research in Pagan Studies
in Pagan 207
207

New History
History of the European
of the European Witch Hunts (1994) is
is more often found inin Pa-
Pa-
gan bookstores than the
gan the more reputable Brian Levack’s The
The Witch Hunt inin
Early Modern Europe
Early Europe (1987).8 Barstow supports the
the theory that misogyny
theory that misogyny
was the the principle cause of of the
the witch hunts,hunts, but she ignores
but she ignores evidence that that
does not fit fit her
her theory.
theory. Diane Purkiss’ The The Witch inin History
History (1996)
(1996) explains
explains
that midwives may
that may have been more likely likely to help witch hunters and
to help and
blame witches than than themselve
themselvess become victims.
More recent textual studies in in Paganism offer offer analysis of of how-to texts
and
and other primaryprimary sources in in Paganism
Paganism. . Douglas Ezzy’s study
Douglas Ezzy’s study ofof the
the com-
modificati
modification on of of Witchcraft
Witchcraft in in popular
popular spell spell books (2001), (2001), andand Chris
Klassen’s study study of of thethe significanc
significancee of of speculati
speculativvee fiction for for feminist
Witches (2006) (2006) are two notable examples. AA whole other bibliograp bibliography hy
would be be necessary to to describe the the developme
development nt of of the
the study
study ofof feminist
spiritualittyy in
spirituali in textual and and sociologica
sociologicall studies. Wendy Wendy Griffin’s anthology,
Griffin's anthology ,
Daughters of of the
the Goddess (2000), is is aa good
good placeplace toto start.
Histories of of the
the developmen
developmentt of of Paganism and and subgroups
subgroups within it it be-
be-
gan
gan to to appear in in the
the latelate 1980s, firstfirst with Aiden Kelly’s Kelly’s Hippie
Hippie Commie
Beatnik Witches: AA History History of of the
the Craft
Craft inin California, 1967-197
1967-19777 (1993), which
is
is aa personal memoir of of the
the formation of of the
the New New Reformed Orthodox Or- Or-
der
der of of the
the Golden Dawn (commonly (commonly known as NROOGD NROOGD) ) and and other
groups in in California
California in in the
the 1960s. Doreen Valiente’s The The Rebirth of of Witch-
craft
craft (1989)
(1989) is is similarly valuable as a personal personal memoir of of her experiences
her experienc es
in the early
in the early developmen
developmentt of of Wicca in in Britain, since she she recounts first-hand
knowledge
knowledge of of Gerald Gardner and and was a member of of hishis coven. She She also
also
discusses other important figures figures in in the
the genesis of of contempora
contemporary ry Pagan-
Pagan-
ism in in Britain. It It would be be hard to to find
find aa more respected figure figure in in Pagan
Pagan
studies than historian Ronald Hutton, who produced aa comprehens comprehensive ive
history
history of of the
the developmen
developmentt of of modern Witchcraft
Witchcraft and Paganism Paganism in in Britain
out ofof folklore and and literary
literary sources, published as The The Triumph
Triumph of of the
the Moon
(1999). He He combines thorough research and and scholarly
scholarly methods with a
sympatheti
sympatheticc attitude toward his his subject
subject matter. Hutton’s British history history is is
rounded out by by Chas Clifton’s history history of of Paganism
Paganism in in America, Her Hid-
den
den Children (2006), (2006), which describes the the convergenc
convergencee of of multiple strands
of
of magical religion into
magical religion into thethe Gardneri
Gardnerian template, along
an template, along with with the
the influ-
ences of of American environmenenvironmentalism talism on the religion.
the religion.
The field
The field of of Pagan
Pagan studies emerged emerged through through the the developm
development ent of of these
histories, as well well as through anthologies
through anthologi es of
of conference
conference papers, and and the the so-
ciological and and ethnographic
ethnographic studies that began to
that began to appear following Amer-
ican anthropologist
anthropologist Tanya Tanya Luhrmann
Luhrmann’s ’s studystudy on the the practice of of magic
magic in in
contemporary British occultism
contemporary occultism,, Persuasions
Persuasions of the Witch’s Craft
of the (1989). AA
Craft (1989).
few years after Luhrmann’s
few years Luhrmann’s study study appeared, two conferences conferences on contem-
porary Paganism
Paganism in in the
the United Kingdom produced anthologies of
anthologies of aca-
demic papers. The first international
The first international conference conference on contempo contemporary rary PaganPagan
208
208 Chapter 11
Chapter 11

in 1993,
studies was in 1993, at
at the
the University of
of Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, which re-
sulted in
in the
the publication of
of Paganism Today (1996), edited by
Paganism Today by Charlotte
Hardman and and Graham Harvey.
Harvey. AA 1996 international conference at at the
the Uni-
versity of
versity of Lancaster resulted in in the anthology Nature Religion
the anthology Religion Today
Today (1998),
edited by
edited by Joanne Pearson, Richard
Joanne Pearson, Richard H. H. Roberts,
Roberts, and Geoffrey Samuel.
and Geoffrey Samuel.
These conferences included presentations by by a number of of people
people who
who
then conducting studies on Pagans
were then Pagans as part
part of their doctoral degrees.
of their degrees.
Over the
the same period,
period, the
the Nature Religion
Religion Scholars Network formed, ini- ini-
tially as an e-mail discussion group in
tially in 1996, and has
1996, and has grown into an inter-
national community of of scholars engaged in in Pagan
Pagan studies, to to become aa
program unit of the American Academy of
of the of Religion
Religion in in 2005. James
James Lewis’
Magical Religion
anthology Magical and Modern Witchcraft
Religion and Witchcraft (1996)
(1996) also appeared in
also appeared in
the 1990s, collecting a mix
the of scholarly
mix of scholarly andand practitioner-authored essays.
Belief beyond
Belief Wicca, Celtic Spirituality
beyond Boundaries: Wicca, Spirituality and
and the
the New Age (2002), an-
Age (2002),
other anthology, edited by by Joanne
Joanne Pearson, which was designed designed as aa text-
book for
book for aa course on alternative spiritualities at the Open
at the Open University, Mil- Mil-
ton Keynes,
ton Keynes, England,
England, would
would make
make aa good
good companion text to
companion text to this
this one,
one,
although itit can be
although be expensive and difficult to
to obtain outside Britain. An-
other notable development isis The
The Pomegranate, initially
initially edited by
by Fritz
Muntean, and
and now aarefereed
refereed journal
journal edited by
by Chas
Chas Clifton.
Sociological and
and anthropological studies of
of Pagan
Pagan practitioners have
been markedly
markedly interdisciplinary. Researchers approach
approach Pagan
Pagan studies
from aa variety
variety of
of disciplinary backgrounds, not
not just
just sociology
sociology and an-
thropology, but
thropology, but also
also religious
religious studies,
studies, women’s studies, studies,
studies, cultural studies,
history, nature writing,
history, writing, political theology, folklore,
political studies, philosophy, theology,
archaeology, and
and psychology. In addition,
In each
each researcher reads back-
ground
ground sources authored by
by other scholars as well
well as practitioners, in-
in-
cluding such
cluding such diverse research sources as overviews, histories, how-to
books,
books, theological works,
works, web
web pages, and and listserv postings, while also also col-
col-
lecting additional data directly
lecting from
directly from current practitioners. The The growth
growth of of
the Internet has
the has increased thethe ease ofof collecting data and distributing sur-
data and sur-
veys through
veys through electronic discussion lists lists and
and websites. However, itit also also
creates a new source of of bias
bias because electronically distributed surveys can
favor the
the computer-literate portion
portion of of the
the population and and possibly
possibly over-
represent practitioners with higherhigher incomes and and education levels. Data Data
analysis can bebe simplified with new technologies, but the trend in
but the in Pagan
Pagan
studies research is is as much toward the the collection of of focused ethnogra-
ethnogra-
phies
phies through
through self-reflexive studies of of small groups as it it is
is toward thethe sort
of quantitative research facilitated by
of by new technologies.
Research on religious
religious groups is is usually
usually conducted through through some form form
of
of participant observation. The The aim of of this
this method isis to
to study
study a population
population
“horizontally,” in
“horizontally,” in solidarity with
with indigenous points points of of view,
view, rather thanthan
“vertically,” from externally generated categories. In In practice, this method
practice, this method
 Research inin Pagan
Pagan Studies 209
209

often generates conflict between inductive empirical approaches and a

fear
fear of
of “going
“going native” and losing
losing one’s objectivity.? The
The participation of
of re-
searchers in
in religious
religious activities of
of Pagan
Pagan practitioners varies from striving
striving
to
to maintain scholarly distance to to engaging in in reflective insider scholar-
ship.
ship. AA tension between participation and observation is is evident in in most
studies of of Paganism, regardless of of where the the scholar beginsbegins in in relation to
to
practitioners. Religion
Religion scholar Graham Harvey, Harvey, for for example, did did field-
field-
work in in preparation for for his
his overview of of Paganism, Contempo Contemporrary ary Pagan-
Pagan-
ism: Listening
Listening People,
People, Speaking Earth (1997), (1997), including
including interviews and and par- par-
ticipant
ticipant observati on,’ but
observation,’° but this
this methodology isis not transparent. Despite Despite his his
intent toto describe what Pagans Pagans do do rather than what they they ought
ought to to do,"
do," he he
appears to to describe Paganism more as he he would like like itit to
to be
be than as it it ac-
tually
tually is,is, glossing
glossing over troubling aspects like like racism in in Heathenryy and and
making
making Paganism appear more uniforml uniformlyy environmentalist than than itit is.!2
is.!2
Anthropolo
Anthropologist gist Lynn Lynn Hume’s Witchcraft Witchcraft and and Paganism in in Australia
(1997), produced in
(1997), in the
the same year Harvey’s work,
year as Harvey’s work, is unfortunate
is unfortunately ly now
out of print. Sociologist
of print. Sociologist Helen Berger’s Berger’s AA Communit
Community y of of Witches (1999)
(1999) is is
the
the result of of ten years of of participant
participant observation
observation in in a community
community of of
Witches in in the
the eastern United States. She She also
also conducted
conducted aa national survey
of
of Pagans
Pagans for for Voices fromfrom thethe Pagan
Pagan Census: AA National Survey Survey ofof Witches and
Neo-Pagans
Neo-Pagans in in the
the United States (2003), (2003), with Evan A. A. Leach and Leigh Leigh S. S.
Shaffer. The The latter
latter text,
text, in particular,, maintains scholarly distance from
in particular from Pa- Pa-
ganism through
ganism sociological
through sociologi cal analysis.
analysis. Sian Reid has has alsoalso produced aa na-
tional sociological
sociological survey of of Pagans
Pagans in in Canada with her her doctoral thesis
Disorganize
Disorgani zedd Religion:
Religion: An An Exploration
Exploration of the Neopagan
of the Neopagan Craft Craft inin Canada (2001).
She
She distributed
distributed her her survey through through aa national Pagan Pagan magazine,
magazine, Hecate’s
Loom (now(now defunct), and conducted conducted interviews
interviews with some respondents respondents..
She
She compares demographidemographics cs of of the
the Pagan
Pagan population
population with with the general
the general
Canadian population,
population, examines contempora contemporary ry Paganism in in the
the context of of
religion
religion in in Canada, and explores explores how practitio
practitioner
nerss construct their their identi-
ties
ties and communitie
and communit iess in late modernity.
in late modernity.
Ethnographic
Ethnogra phic studies of
of Pagans
Pagans include those of of Sarah Pike, Jone Sa-
Pike, Jone Sa-
lomonsen
lomonsen,, Kathryn
Kathryn Rountree, Sabina Magliocco,
Magliocco, Jenny
Jenny Blain,
Blain, and
and Robert
Wallis. Religion
Religion scholar Sarah Pike’s Earthly Earthly Bodies, Magical Selves: Con-
Bodies, Magical
temporary Pagans
Pagans and
and the
the Search for
for Community (2001), a five-year
Community (2001), five-year ethno-
graphic study
graphic of Pagan
study of Pagan festival participa
participants,
nts, is sympathetic
is sympathe tic yetyet critical.
Theologian
Theologian JoneJone Salomonsen’s study of
Salomonsen’s study of Reclaiming
Reclaiming Witches in in San
San Fran-
cisco,
cisco, Enchanted Feminism (2002),
(2002), is
is aa ten-year ethnographic
ethnographic and and theolog-
theolog-
ical study conducte
ical study conductedd between 1984 1984 and
and 1994 on the the original
original Reclaiming
Reclaiming
Community.
Community. Salomonsen
Salomonsen became initiated as part part of
of her
her research but but did
did
not become Pagan. Anthropologist Kathryn
Pagan. Anthropologist Kathryn Rountree produced an
ethnographic
ethnogra study of
phic study of feminist Witches in in New Zealand, Embracing the the
Witch
Witch and the Goddess (2004).
and the (2004). She gathered primary research for
She gathered for the
the study
study
210
210 Chapter 11
Chapter 11

during
during three years ofof doctoral research and continued herher studies over
the
the next ten years. Following feminist scholar Mary
Mary Daly,
Daly, Rountree aims
to give “a
to give “a hag-identified vision” of
of feminist witchcraft. While she
she was
not aa practitioner when she began her
she began her studies, and
and found its ritual trap-
its ritual trap-
pings “rather outlandish at
pings at first,” she discovered that
first,” she the worldview of
that the of
feminist witchcraft was not far
far from her
her own.!9
own.!3
In Witching
In Witching Culture: Folklore andand Neo-Paganism in in America (2004),
(2004), Sabina
Magliocco presents an ethnography of of one of the oldest Pagan
of the Pagan communi-
ties in North America, in
ties in in Northern California. Magliocco conducted re-
search inin Berkeley andand around thethe Bay
Bay Area ofof San
San Francisco in in the
the mid-
mid-
to late
to 1990s, and her
late 1990s, her ethnography focuses on the the role
role of
of anthropology
and
and folklore in the development of
in the of Paganism. Although
Although she she became initi-
ated into aa Gardnerian group, the the Coven Trismegiston, and and into
into the Re-
the Re-
claiming
claiming tradition, she regards herself as “neither and
she regards and both” an insider
and an outsider. She
and She compares the the question
question ofof emic versus etic etic (insider
versus outsider) perspectives to to people
people asking
asking her
her if she is
if she is really
really Ameri-
or Italian,
can or Italian, indicating
indicating that
that there is
is aa problem
problem with essentialist cate-
gories that
gories that insist on an either/or dichotomy and and reduce actual differences
and ambiguities to to fit
fit the
the categories of of study.'4
study.
Jenny Blain
Jenny Blain and Robert Wallis have have produced critical self-reflexive
ethnographies of of Pagan
Pagan groups. These ethnographies are politically politically con-
scious works in in experiential anthropology written from insider perspec-
tives. Blain’s Nine Worlds of of Seid-Magic: Ecstasy and Neo-Shamanism inin
Ecstasy and
North European Paganism (2002) (2002) isis an insightfully autobiographical
ethnography of of reconstructionist practices of of oracular seidr. Wallis’
Shamans/Neo-Shamans: Ecstasy, Ecstasy, Alternative Archaeologies and and Contemporary
Contemporary
Pagans (2003) is
Pagans (2003) is what he he calls
calls “autoarchaeology,” ethnography that that is self-
is self-
reflexive andand politically
politically aware. His work isis particularly postmodern; and, and,
being
being complex,
complex, nuanced,
nuanced, and intentionally nonnormative,
and intentionally nonnormative, itit is is suitable
suitable
only for
only for advanced-level study. study.
Blain,
Blain, Ezzy,
Ezzy, and Harvey’s
Harvey’s Researching Paganisms (2004) (2004) isis an excellent
collection of of writings
writings on the the developmen
developmentt of of methods rooted in, in, but going
going
beyond, participant observation
beyond, observation.. AA number of of the
the contributor
contributorss build on
what anthropologists
anthropologists David Young Young and
and Jean-Guy Goulet (1994) (1994) call
call expe-
riential ethnograph y—research that
ethnography—research that treats one’s own experiences as data.
Experientia
Experientiall ethnograph
ethnographyy developed to to deal
deal with
with the
the need to to take
take in-in-
formants seriously
seriously when they they talk
talk about what Young
Young andand Goulet call call “ex-
“ex-
traordinary experiences.”
experiences.” Experientia
Experientiall anthropology
anthropology develops
develops the the
method of of participant observation
observation,, adding
adding specificatio
specificationsns of the level and
of the and
type of
type of participatio
participationn necessary for for study
study ofof religious
religious groups, and and recog-
nizes the
the importance of
of interpretati on in
interpretation in all observation. The
all observation. The contributors
contributors
to
to Researching Paganisms are academics and practitioners, which are not
and practitioners, not
necessarily exclusive categories, and
and their essays discuss insider // outsider
outsider
 Research inin Pagan
Pagan Studies 211
211

complications in in research, such as accusations and and fears

fears about “going
“going na-
tive” and how conducting fieldwork can influence those researched and and
also change
also change the the researcher.
Serious participatio
participationn in in religious
religious activities by by researchers can change change
their perceptions
perceptions despite despite their desires to to retain objectivity, and can help help
them appreciate practitioner
practitioners’ s’ experience
experiencess more deeply. deeply. Sarah Pike re-
lates, “At
lates, “At times duringduring my my fieldwork, II ‘went native’ and and felt
felt like
like II was
truly
truly a Pagan
Pagan too,too, butbut II always
always returned to to my
my intellectual roots and my my
desire as aa scholar to to tell
tell others’ stories. In In some sense II was a Pagan Pagan and and
still
still am, because there is is no going back to
going back who II was before my
to who my research
began.”'°
began.” Magliocco had had an extraordin
extraordinaary ry experience during during ritual,
ritual, which
led
led herher toto study
study the role of
the role of ecstasy
ecstasy in in depth.'* Both Pike
depth.!6 Both Pike and
and Magliocco
Magliocco
note thethe importance of bodily experiences
of bodily experiences in in ritual. Pike
Pike says she gained
says she gained
knowledge of
knowledge of emotional, sensual, erotic, erotic, and
and embodied aspects aspects of of Pagan
Pagan
through participatio
ritual through participation, n, and
and learned things things sheshe would not have by by
simply asking questions about itit and
simply asking observing.””
and observing.1
Serious participation
participation can help help researchers enter more deeply deeply into the the
worldview of of practitione
practitioners, rs, butbut there are complications
complications with being being one’s
own informant. Sian Sian Reid found itit untenable to to do
do ethnographic
ethnographic research
because she she was already
already embedded in in the
the population she she wished to to study
study
for her
for her doctorate. The The experience of of socializati
socialization into the
on into the group could not not
be freshly
be freshly approached
approached as a a researcher, because she she was already
already socialized.
As an insider in
As in the
the religion,
religion, one needs to to avoid assuming that that one un-
derstands the the meaning of things
of things in in the
the same way way other practitione
practitioners rs do,
do,
and one cannot assume that
and that one’s own practices are normative.!8 normative.!8 Since
Reid could not not see aa way way to to sufficiently problemati
problematize ze herher worldview and and
become aware of of her
her preconcept
preconception ions, she chose to
s, she to conduct sociologica
sociologicall re-
search exclusively through through surveys and and interviews rather than than participant
observation,
observation, withdrawing
withdrawing from community practice practice during
during the the course of of
her research.!9
her research.!?
Jenny Blain
Jenny Blain chose another path path inin addressing
addressing the the need
need to to problemati
problematize ze
one’s worldview as aa researcher practitioner,
researcher// practitione seeking to
r, seeking to “render the the fa-
fa-
unfamiliar”” in
miliar unfamiliar in autoethno
autoethnography through considerin
graphy through consideringg the the process of of
becoming conscious of
becoming of her
her involveme
involvement.” nt.” Blain’s work work isis somewhat au-
tobiographical,
tobiographical, but reflectivelyy and
but reflectivel and insightfully
insightfully so. She She describes how how sheshe
participatess in
participate in ritual butbut never completely belongs as an academic, aa prac-
completely belongs prac-
titioner, and one who
titioner, and in other
who walks in other worlds.2! She her work
She sees her as aa
work as
of brokering, enabling
process of conversation
enabling conversati the academic world
on between the
and the
and world, and
practitionerr world,
the practitione she notes that
and she that such
such work requires the de-
requires the de-
velopment of specialized research ethics. She
velopment of She feels
feels obligated toto ensure
that
that her
her research findings
findings are accessible to
to other
other practitione rs, and
practitioners, and aa sense
of responsibility
of responsibil ity regarding the effects
regarding the of her
effects of practitioners
her research on practitione and
rs and
the sites they
the sites they regard sacred.”
regard as sacred.”
212
212 Chapter 11
Chapter 11

Some researchers regard regard autoethnography as inauthentic, believing believing

that
that outsider research is
is “objective” in
in contrast to
to biased insider research.
Insider researchers are faulted faulted for lacking
for lacking critical reflection and for being
and for being
too close to to practitioners and the topics of
and the topics of study. study. Scholar practitioners
point
point out out that
that no research position position isis without bias, bias, and and indicate that that de- de-
sires forfor unbiased objectivity are “remnants of of positivism.”?3
positivism.” Robert Wal- Wal-
lis regards
lis regards his position as
his position as aa researcher
researcher as as aa “double
“double insider,” both aa scholar
insider,” both scholar
and
and aa practitioner. Even researchers who attempt attempt to scholarly
to maintain scholarly
status as outsiders often find find themselves implicated in in their
their research on
Pagans,
Pagans, as Pike Pike found. In In retrospect, she she regards
regards herself as being being as much
a “Pagan”
“Pagan” as anyone she she studied.*4
studied. Sylvie
Sylvie Shaw responds responds to to criticisms of of
insider research positions by embracing aa partisan
by embracing partisan stance. She She finds
finds thatthat
to
to be partisan isis to
be partisan to be
be accountable, and and responsible to to informants. Shaw
notes thatthat allall approaches have drawbacks and and that
that researchers just just need
to be
to be aware of of what they they are.”°
are.”
Scholars of of Pagan
Pagan studies are very very much aware of of the
the issue
issue ofof “going
“going na-
tive” in in conducting their research. Some scholar practitioners see criticisms
of
of insider research as delegitimizing of of theology
theology as an academic discipline.
In
In theology,
theology, it it isis assumed that scholars are “native” or insiders in the tra-
in the tra-
ditions they they study.”°
study.*° Graham Harvey explains explains that that those who who continue toto
participate deeply deeply in in the
the communities they they study
study afterafter completing field- field-
work are accused of becoming “advocates” and of
of becoming of being incapable of
being incapable of re-
flecting
flecting critically on the the religion they they study.
study. The The perception in religious
in religious
studies when when itit was created as as aa discipline, he he says, was that that religious
religious
studies aims to to describe religion religion phenomenologically as “‘lived realities,
‘as they
‘as they are’
are’ rather than ‘as ‘as they ought to
they ought to be,”
be,” while theologytheology describes the the
ideals of of the
the religion
religion according to to sources regarded
regarded as authentic within the the
religion.” Pike notes that
religion.”” that religious
religious studies has has distinguished itself itself from
theology
theology throughthrough claims to to undertake the the objective study study of of religion,
religion, in in
contrast toto research motivated by by faith. She She remarks, “Perhaps “Perhaps my my more
critical readings
readings of of festival experience came out out ofof the
the need to to distance my- my-
self from that
self that world and and fromfrom thethe changes
changes the the festivals wrought in me.”28
in me.”
While Harvey
Harvey feels feels that religious studies should not become theologi-
that religious theologi-
cal,
cal, hehe objects
objects to to the
the “pervasive view of of many of of our academic colleagues
that we have in in fact gone native and lost
fact gone lost our ability
ability to to think and and talk
talk crit-
ically.”*”
ically.”*? Marina Warner criticized Ronald Hutton for “going
for “going native” in
in
her
her review of of Triumph
Triumph of of the
the Moon,
Moon, published in in The
The Times,
Times, suggesting that
that
scholars should not participate in the religions
in the religions they study. The
they study. The idea of of
“going
“going native” is is colonialist, a a remnant of of the
the idea that that religion
religion isis some-
thing that
thing that “other” people people do do and that
that Westerners study. study. Hutton remarks
that anthropologists have been participating in in thethe cultures they they study
study
since at at least the the 1930s,
1930s, beginning with Evans-Pritchard’s study study of of the
the
Nuer in in Sudan. Until the the advent of of experiential ethnography, the the as- as-
 Research in Pagan Studies
in Pagan BAS
213

sumption was that that researchers should immerse themselves in in the

the culture
studied during
during fieldwork, but but not “stay “stay native.”3! Hutton suggests that that
participation is is crucial in in studying
studying Wicca, Wicca, since “only “only somebody who has has
got
got inside it it can write about it it with authority.”22 Hutton isis not aa convert
to
to Paganism,
Paganism; he he was
was raised Pagan,*° and
raised Pagan,* and waswas known
known beforebefore the the publica-
publica-
tion
tion of of The
The Triumph
Triumph of the Moon for
of the for rejecting the the “traditional historiogra-
phy of
phy of pagan witchcraft.” He He wanted to to write an accurate history history thatthat
would not abuse the the dignity
dignity of of the religion or violate any
the religion any initiatory oaths.
Despite
Despite Warner’s review, Hutton suggests that that accusations of of “going
“going na-
tive” are more often imagined than substantive, and and he he indicates that that crit-
ics such
ics such as Warner are likely likely to to construe any any sympathetic presentation as
conversion and and advocacy.
advocacy.* Perhaps Perhaps critical views are more often often ex-
pressed through
pressed through the teasing of
the teasing colleagues than
of colleagues than in in print,
print, similar to petty
to petty
workplace
workplace harassment of Pagans in
of Pagans in some office
office settings.
settings.
Salomonsen developed what what she she calls
calls aa “method of of compassion” to to
deal with the
deal with the fear
fear ofof “going
“going native.” She She was dissatisfied with with thethe schol-
arly assumption that
arly that “anthropolog
“anthropologists permitted to
ists are permitted to ‘go
‘go native’ behav-
iorally
iorally (‘participant observation’),, even emotionally (‘empathy’), but
(‘participant observation’) but not
cognitively.
cognitively.”*> ” SheShe felt that ifif itit isis not acceptable to
felt that to believe what inform-
ants say, then itit isis not
say, then possible to
not possible to take
take their seriously. Salomonsen
their beliefs seriously.
stresses the the need
need to to engage with with practice,
practice, not just just toto pretend
pretend to to partici-
partici-
pate, but
pate, also the
but also need to
the need to maintain enough enough distance toto make observations
about rituals and
about and participants’ social interactions.*° interactions. This This isis similar to to the
the
methodology of of scholar practitioners
practitioners,, but but Salomonsen expresses aa need need toto
return toto the the perspective of of an outsider as an academic researcher upon
completion of study to
of study to maintain her her scholarly integrity. She
scholarly integrity. says that
She says that her
her
“method of of compassion’ demands that that we never forget forget that
that we are schol-
ars,” and
ars,” and that
that one should “not “not end end up up asas scholarly
scholarly converts and and prosely-
prosely-
tizers.”°” However, one might might suppose that taking beliefs seriously
that taking seriously in in
terms of of cognition
cognition should entail entail the the possibility
possibility (not necessity) of
(not necessity) of conver-
sion. Study of
sion. Study religious beliefs should
of religious should entail aa certain willingness willingness toto
change,
change, as Salomonsen says,** which might entail
says,** which might entail taking the risk taking the that one
risk that
change one’s
could change one’s religious perspective.
religious perspective.
Scholar practitioners take take thethe risk risk ofof becoming
becoming disillusioned in in study-
study-
ing their
ing their own religious
religious tradition. Andy
Andy Letcher experienced aa process of
of
“straightening
“straighteni out,” in
ng out,” in aa reverse procedure procedure of of “going
“going native” into into the
the
academy.*? During
academy. During graduate
graduate studies,
studies, he he cut
cut his
his hair,
hair, shaved
shaved his his beard,
beard,
stopped wearing
stopped wearing outlandish clothing, clothing, and and found
found thatthat hishis studies pre- pre-
vented him
vented him from
from staying
staying up up playing
playing music music all all night
night as as he
he had
had previously
previously
done as
done as part
part of of his
his involvement with with hippy/protes
hippy/protest t culture. LetcherLetcher
found that that his
his understandi
understanding ng of of Druidry
Druidry was challenged
challenged by by his
his readings
readings
in religious
in religious studies
studies and and the the general
general academic assumption that that religious
religious
belief needs
belief needs explanation
explanation.” .”
 214
214 Chapter 11
Chapter 11

Figure 22a &&b.b.

Figure Andy Letcher,
Andy Letcher, before and after entering
and after entering academia (photos
(photos provided
provided by Andy
by Andy
Letcher; latter isis by
Letcher; latter by Chris Holland)
Chris Holland)

Douglas EzzyEzzy refers to to the

the assumption that that religious
religious belief needs ex-
planation in in terms of of the
the “methodological atheism” of of sociological and and
anthropological studies of of religion.
religion. However, as Ezzy Ezzy says, it it is
is “bad so-
cial science to
cial to assume prima prima facie thatthat spiritual experiences are not gen-
uine or real.” To explain magical
To explain magical experiences in in terms that
that attempt to to de-
de-
mystify
mystify them is is to
to misunderstand them. The The phenomenological method
in
in religious
religious studies tries tries not to to make prior
prior assumptions about the the truth of of
religious beliefs and and experiences, and to to accept
accept thethe reality
reality of
of religious ex-
periences forfor practitioners. AA hermeneutical approach recognizes the the im-
im-
portance of of language
language in in interpretation and and that
that all
all experience is is already
already
interpretive. EzzyEzzy explains
explains that that extraordinary experiences do do not need
special
special treatment in in interpretation, because all all experiences are shaped shaped
through
through language
language and social context. The focus of of research on extraordi-
nary experience, he he says,
says, should be be on how people
people make sense of of them,
them,
not the
the accuracy of accounts.*!
of their accounts.*!
 Research inin Pagan
Pagan Studies 215
215

Academic studystudy ofof Paganism by by scholar practitioners can undermine

the
the beliefs of of other practitioners. Hutton’s work presents aa challenge challenge to to
some practitioners’
practitioners’ beliefs about the history of
the history of their traditions, as might might
this
this text. Publishing research about Pagans Pagans commonly influences how how they
they
understand themselves and and their religion.
religion. In
In the
the social sciences, this this isis
called “reactivity,” “the“the effect produced
produced on aa social group by by the
the scholar
who is
who is studying it.”
it.”# It
It can have
have effects other than directly directly challenging
practitioners’ beliefs. Even superficial
superficial participation of of aa researcher changes
changes
how practitioners behave. Wendy Wendy Griffin worried about “data contamina-
tion” in in her
her experiences with participant observation, finding finding that
that the
the
questions one asksasks have
have an impact
impact on practitioners, and and one’s reactions in in
interviews influence outcomes.’
outcomes.* Letcher suggests that that he may have inad-
he may
vertently
vertently created the the categories he he intended to study. Robert Wallis indi-
to study. indi-
cates that
that research on Paganism often influences Pagan Pagan practice. He He finds
finds
that
that neoshamanic practitioners are quite quite familiar with
with academic writings writings
on various forms of of shamanism and and have addressed criticisms of of cultural
appropriationn and
appropriatio and developed political
political awareness of of the issue.
the issue.*5
A
A lasting
lasting issue in in methodology in in Pagan
Pagan studies isis thatthat ofof the
the ethics of of
the
the relationships between researchers and the communities researched.
and the
Participant
Participant observation research always always entails issues of of informed con-
sent,
sent, and
and more recently,
recently, researchers have
have been dealing
dealing with the
the issue of
of
ownership of of the knowledge generated by
the knowledge by research. There can be be addi-
tional issues to
tional to consider in that maintain secret
in researching communities that
traditions, or when practitioners become scholars subsequent to their in-
to their in-
volvement with Reid chose not to
with Paganism. Reid in participant obser-
to engage in
and to
vation, and be open
to be and honest with interviewees about her
open and identity as
her identity
and practitioner,
aa researcher and because of
practitioner, because research sub-
her experience as aa research
of her sub-
ject in
ject in aa previous
previous study. The events discussed in
study. The the work resulting
in the from
resulting from
that research project
that project took place as much as three
took place three years before thethe person
started to identify as a researcher in
to identify in the
the community. In In addition, thethe re-
sults of
sults of the study were not
the study not made available to after sub-
until after
to participants until sub-
mission and and evaluation of of the study. Consequently,
the study. the participants felt
Consequently, the felt
“exploited and betrayed”
“exploited and betrayed” by the by the researcher’s perceived violations of per-
of per-
sonal confidences. They They were dissatisfied with with how they were repre-
how they
sented in the work,
in the and resented strategic omissions in
work, and in the data to
the data to make
them fit the
them fit the researcher’s interpretative paradigm.”
interpretative paradigm.*°
Participants in in Tanya
Tanya Luhrmann’s 1989 1989 study
study also expressed anger
also expressed
and feelings of betrayal at her representation of them. Pagans
and feelings of betrayal at her representation of them. Pagans were in- in-
censed by by what
what they
they saw as Luhrmann’s infiltration of of their groups un-
der false
der false pretences. Luhrmann felt felt itit necessary to
to misrepresent herself to to
her subjects in
her research subjects in participant observation to to maintain herher aca-
credibility, but
demic credibility, but practitioners felt felt harmed byby her
her discussions ofof the
the
secrets ofof their
their traditions in in her
her published work. Her research methods methods
216
216 Chapter 11
Chapter 11

would probably not be be acceptable under current ethics review

due to
processes, due to changes in methodology in
changes in in anthropology since the
the
1980s. At
1980s. At that
that time,
time, it
it was.commonplace
was,commonplace to immerse oneself
to immerse in the
oneself in the cul-
cul-
ture one studied but
but to
to reaffirm aa distanced and
and neutral academic stance
upon completion
completion ofof the
the research.*”
Hutton relates that he had
that he to deal
had to the “legacy
deal with the “legacy of
of distrust” in
in his-
his-
torians of in conducting his
of Witchcraft in his research.*8
research.*® This led him
This experience led him
to
to conclude,
conclude,

II believe firmly that aa scholar should enter into

firmly that into an area of
of research not merelymerely
with thethe ambition of extracting as much as possible
of extracting possible from it, for
from it, the benefit of
for the of
oneself, one’s colleagues and and one’s public, but with
public, but that of
with that of leaving
leaving itit in
in the
the
best possible
best possible condition for for the
the next researcher: much as aa good good guest
guest leaves
a bedroom or hotelhotel room as tidy possible on departing. This
tidy as possible This means deal-deal-
ing
ing with documents as delicately as is is practicable, providing all all references as
clearly
clearly as may
may bebe done that they
done so that they can bebe followed up,up, and
and treating peoplepeople
who are the the subjects
subjects of of research or custodians of of archives in in such aa manner
as toto encourage them to to take
take aa good
good view of and inclined to
of scholars and to wel-
wel-
come the the next to
to come their way.”way.”

In aa similar attitude, Harvey

In Harvey advocates “guesthood” as aa responsible al-
al-
ternative to
to the insider
the insider/outsider
/outsider dichotomy. He
He indicates that
that scholars ofof
religion are
religion guests and should treat their hosts
guests and with respect.
respect. The
The goal
goal of
of
interaction should be to develop
be to develop responsible relationships between re-
searchers and
and practitioners. The researcher should not not be
be afraid ofof chang-
chang-
ing the
ing the religion
religion byby participating in in itit (although s/he
s/he should not telltell prac-
their religious practice
titioners what their practice should be) be) but
but should engage in in
responsible dialogue. Harvey
Harvey suggests a metaphor not not of trying to
of trying to ““walk
in the
in the shoes’ of the ‘other,’”
of the ‘other/” but
but to
to sit
sit across the
the campfire
campfire and
and converse.»
converse.5°
Robert Wallis espouses aa similar view, seeing himself as aa culture bro-
view, seeing
ker between
ker between practitioners and
and academics, and
and the
the work
work of research as
of research as aa
collaborative construction of of meaning between researcher and and inform-
ants. He
He suggests thatthat insider research is is not better but
but can be
be at
at least as
good as standard participant observation. In
good In his
his position as aa “double in-in-
sider,” Wallis does
sider,” does not “go “go native” but
but retains aa critical academic stance.
Wallis concludes, “It “It does not matter how close researchers get
how close get to their
to their
‘subjects’ so long
long as their findings
findings express the the level of
of insight
insight and
and con-
structive, critical evaluation which one’s academic peers require require for
for ac-
ceptable scholarship.”>!
ceptable scholarship.”°!
Research in in Pagan
Pagan studies is is at
at the
the leading
leading edgeedge of
of methodologi
methodologies es inin
participant observation, developing methods that that respect practitioners
beliefs and
and that
that are politically aware. The The emergence of of Pagan
Pagan studies as
aa new field of study has
of study has resulted inin the
the newly
newly formed PaganPagan studies re-
search group in the American Academy of
in the of Religion. The academic com-
Religion. The com-
 Research in Pagan Studies
in Pagan 217,
217

munity is
munity is coming
coming toto recognize Paganism asa a full-fledged religion
religion among
the world’s religions.
the religions. After sixty
sixty years, contemporary Paganism is is no
longer a new religious movement, but
longer but a world religion.
religion.

FURTHER READING
Blain, Jenny, Douglas
Blain, Jenny, Ezzy, and
Douglas Ezzy, and Graham Harvey.
Harvey. Researching Paganisms: Religious Experiences
Religious Experiences
and Academic Methodologies. Walnut Creek,
and Creek, CA:
CA: AltaMira Press,
Press, 2004.

NOTES

1.
1. This
This historical information isis drawn from Chas S.
S. Clifton, Her Hidden Children (Lan-
Clifton, Her
ham, MD:
ham, 2006), 103-5.
MD: AltaMira, 2006),
2.2. Kevin Marron, Witches, Pagans
Pagans && Magic
Magic inin the
the New Age
Age (Toronto: Seal
Seal Books [McClel-
1989), 4,
land-Bantam], 1989), 4, 71.
71.
3.
3. Referenced in Her Hidden Children,
in Clifton, Her 104.
Children, 104.
4.4. Margot Adler,
Adler, Drawing Down the
the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers,
Goddess-Worshippers, and
and Other
Pagans in
Pagans in America Today,
Today, revised and
and expanded ed. (Boston: Beacon Press,
expanded ed. Press, 1986),
1986), xii—xiii.
xii-xiii.
5. This is
5. This is less
less true ofof some reconstructionist and revivalist Pagan Pagan traditions in in Eastern
Europe. Pagans
Europe. Pagans in in Ukraine, for
for example, regard
regard the
the Book
Book of
of Veles
Veles as holy
holy scripture (see
(see Adrian
Adrian
Ivakhiv, “In
“In Search of of Deeper
Deeper Identities: Neopaganism and Native Faith in in Contemporary
Ukraine,” Nova Religio:
Religio: The
The Journal
Journal of
of Alternative and
and Emergent Religions
Religions 8,
8, no. 33 [March 2005]:
[March 2005]:
7-38).
6.
6. Naomi R. R. Goldenberg, Changing
Changing of the Gods
of the Gods (Boston: Beacon Press, 1979), 113.
Press, 1979), 113.
7.
7. Aiden Kelly
Kelly first
first aired his
his ideas about Gardnerian history history in the Llewellyn magazine
in the
Gnostica and in in Chas Clifton’s journal
journal Iron Mountain: AA Journal of of Magical
Magical Religion in the
Religion in the mid-
1980s.
8.8. Jenny
Jenny Gibbons, “Recent Developments in in the
the Study
Study ofof the
the Great European Witch
Hunt,”
Hunt,” The The Pomegranate: AA New Journal
Journal of Neopagan Thought
of Neopagan Thought 55 (1998): 16.
16.
9. Jone Salomonsen, “Methods of
9. Jone of Compassion or Pretension? The The Challenges of of Con-
ducting
ducting Fieldwork in in Modern Magical
Magical Communities,” in in Researching Paganisms: Religious Ex-
Religious Ex-
periences andand Academic Methodologies, ed. ed. Jenny
Jenny Blain,
Blain, Douglas Ezzy,
Ezzy, and Graham Harvey Harvey
(Walnut Creek,
Creek, CA:
CA: AltaMira Press,
Press, 2004),
2004), 43.
43.
10. Graham Harvey,
10. “Pagan Studies or the Study
Harvey, “Pagan Study of of Paganisms? AA Case Study
Study in
in the
the
Study
Study of of Religions,” in
in Researching Paganisms: Religious
Religious Experiences and
and Academic Methodolo-
gies,
gies, ed.
ed. Jenny
Jenny Blain,
Blain, Douglas
Douglas Ezzy,
Ezzy, and Graham Harvey
Harvey (Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press,
2004),
2004), 243.
11.
11. Graham Harvey, Contemporary Paganism: Listening People, People, Speaking Earth (New York:
New York
York University
University Press,
Press, 1997),
1997), vii.
vii.
12.
12. This isis surely
surely evident to
to me because it it is the problem that
is the that is
is most likely
likely to
to be in
be found in
my
my own research and writings in Pagan studies. As
in Pagan As aa practitioner, it it is
is deeply
deeply tempting to to
describe one’s religion
religion as one would like it it to
to be.
be. It
It is
is also difficult not to to overcompensate
for
for this
this desire by
by becoming overly
overly critical of
of one’s fellow practitioners.
13.
13. Kathryn Rountree, Embracing the the Witch and the Goddess: Feminist Ritual-Makers in
and the in New
Zealand (London: Routledge, 2004),
2004), 11.
11.
14.
14. Sabina Magliocco, Witching Culture: Folklore and Neo-Paganism in
in America (Philadel-
phia:
phia: University of
of Pennsylvania Press,
Press, 2004),
2004), 15.
15.
218
218 Chapter 11
Chapter 11

15. Sarah M.
15. M. Pike, “Gleanings from
Pike, “Gleanings from the
the Field:
Field: Leftover Tales
Tales of
of Grief and
and Desire,” in Re-
Desire,” in Re-
searching Paganisms: Religious
searching Religious Experiences and
and Academic Methodologies, ed. Jenny Blain,
ed. Jenny Dou-
Blain, Dou-
glas Ezzy, and
glas Ezzy, and Graham Harvey (Walnut Creek,
Creek, CA: Press, 2004),
CA: AltaMira Press, 2004), 111.
111.
16. Magliocco,
16. Witching Culture,
Magliocco, Witching Culture, 10.
10.
17. Pike
17. Pike “Gleanings from
from the
the Field,”
Field,” 105.
105.
18. Sian Lee
18. Lee MacDonald Reid,
Reid, “Disorganized Religion:
Religion: An Exploration of
of the
the Neopagan
Craft in
Craft in Canada” (Doctoral thesis,
thesis, Carleton University,
University, Ottawa, 2001),
2001), 37-38. Sylvie
Sylvie Shaw
also notes this
also this point,
point, “At the
the Water’s Edge: An Ecologically Inspired
Edge: An Inspired Methodology,” in Re-
in Re-
searching Paganisms: Religious
searching Religious Experiences and
and Academic Methodologies, ed.
ed. Jenny
Jenny Blain,
Blain, Dou-
glas Ezzy,
glas Ezzy, and
and Graham Harvey
Harvey (Walnut Creek, CA: Press, 2004),
CA: AltaMira Press, 2004), 136.
136.
19.
19. Reid, “Disorganized Religion,”
Reid, “Disorganized Religion,” 36, 39-40.
36, 39-40.
20. Jenny
20. Jenny Blain,
Blain, “Tracing
“Tracing the
the In/
In/ Authentic Seeress: From Seid-Magic to Stone Circles,”
to Stone in
Circles,” in
Researching Paganisms: Religious
Religious Experiences and
and Academic Methodologies, ed.
ed. Jenny
Jenny Blain,
Blain, Dou-
glas Ezzy,
glas and Graham Harvey
Ezzy, and Harvey (Walnut Creek, CA:
(Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press,
Press, 2004),
2004), 219-20.
21. Blain, “Tracing
21. Blain, “Tracing the
the In/
In/ Authentic Seeress,” 230.
230.
22. Blain,
22. Blain, “Tracing
“Tracing the
the In/
In/ Authentic Seeress,”
Seeress,” 233-34.
23. Jenny Blain,
23. Jenny Blain, Douglas
Douglas Ezzy,
Ezzy, and
and Graham Harvey,
Harvey, introduction toto Researching Pagan-
Pagan-
isms: Religious
isms: Religious Experiences and
and Academic Methodologies, ed.
ed. Jenny Blain, Douglas
Jenny Blain, Ezzy, and
Douglas Ezzy, and
Graham Harvey
Harvey (Walnut Creek,
Creek, CA:
CA: AltaMira Press,
Press, 2004),
2004), 4.
4.
24.
24. Blain, Ezzy, and
Blain, Ezzy, and Harvey,
Harvey, “introduction,” 9.
9.
25. Shaw,
25. Shaw, “At the Water’s Edge,”
“At the Edge,” 136.
136.
26. Salomonsen, “Methods of
26. of Compassion or Pretension?” 48.
48.
27. Harvey,
27. Harvey, “Pagan
“Pagan Studies or the
the Study of Paganisms?” 241.
Study of 241.
28. Pike
28. Pike inin Blain
Blain et
et al.
al. 2004,
2004, 136.
136.
29.
29. Harvey, “Pagan
Harvey, “Pagan Studies or the
the Study
Study ofof Paganisms?” 252,
252, 247.
247.
30.
30. Ronald Hutton, “Living
“Living with
with Witchcraft,” in
in Researching Paganisms: Religious
Religious Experi-
Experi-
ences and Academic Methodologies, ed.
ed. Jenny
Jenny Blain, Douglas Ezzy,
Blain, Douglas Ezzy, and Graham Harvey
Harvey (Wal-
nut Creek,
nut AltaMira Press,
CA:
Creek, CA: 2004), 176-77.
Press, 2004),
31. Hutton,
31. Hutton,
“Living with
“Living with Witchcraft,” 177, 178.
177, 178.
32. Hutton,
32. Hutton,
“Living with Witchcraft,” 176.
“Living 176.
33. Hutton,
33, Hutton, “Living
“Living with Witchcraft,” 173.
with Witchcraft,” 173.
34. Hutton,
34. Hutton, “Living
“Living with
with Witchcraft,” 183.
183.
35. Salomonsen,
35. Salomonsen, “Methods
“Methods of Compassion or
of Compassion or Pretension?”
Pretension?” 47.
47.
36. Salomonsen, “Methods of
36. of Compassion or Pretension?” 51.51.
37.
37. Salomonsen, “Methods of of Compassion or Pretension?” 52-53.
38.
38. Salomonsen, “Methods of of Compassion or Pretension?” 53.53.
39. Andy
39. Andy Letcher, “Bardism and the the Performance of
of Paganism: Implications for the Per-
for the Per-
formance of of Research,” in
in Researching Paganisms: Religious Experiences and Academic Method-
ologies,
ologies, ed.
ed. Jenny
Jenny Blain, Douglas
Douglas Ezzy,
Ezzy, and
and Graham Harvey
Harvey (Walnut Creek, CA:CA: AltaMira
Press, 2004), 33. Jo Pearson has
33. Jo has also
also written about thethe process of “Going Native in
of “Going in Reverse”
in
in Jo
Jo Pearson,
Pearson, “Going Native in
“‘Going Native in Reverse’:
Reverse’: The Insider as
The Insider as Research
Research in in British Wicca,” in
British Wicca,” in The-
The-
orizing Faith: The
orizing The Insider/Outside
Insider/Outsiderr Problem in in the
the Study
Study ofof Ritual, ed.
ed. E.
E. Arweck and M. M. D.
D.
Stringer (Birmingham, UK: University of
Stringer of Birmingham Press,
Press, 2002).
40. Letcher, “Bardism and
40. and the
the Performance of
of Paganism,” 28.
28.
41.
41. Douglas Ezzy,
Ezzy, “Religious Ethnography
Ethnography:: Practicing the
the Witch’s Craft,” in
in Researching
Researching
Paganisms: Religious Experiences and
and Academic Methodologies,
Methodologies, ed. Jenny Blain, Douglas
ed. Jenny Douglas Ezzy,
Ezzy,
and Graham Harvey
and Harvey (Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press,
Creek, CA: Press, 2004),
2004), 113,
113, 116,
116, 121,
121, 123.
123.
42. Hutton, “Living
42. Hutton, “Living with Witchcraft,”
Witchcraft,” 171.
171.
43. Wendy Griffin, “The Deosil Dance,” in
43. in Researching Paganisms: Religious Experiences and
and
Academic Methodologies, ed.
ed. Jenny
Jenny Blain,
Blain, Douglas
Douglas Ezzy,
Ezzy, and
and Graham Harvey
Harvey (Walnut Creek,
Creek,
CA: AltaMira Press,
CA: 2004), 65-66.
Press, 2004), 65-66.
 Research inin Pagan
Pagan Studies 219
219

44, Letcher,
44, Letcher, “Bardism
“Bardism and
and the Performance of
the Performance of Paganism,”
Paganism,” 33.
33.
45, Robert J.
45. J. Wallis “Between thethe Worlds: Autoarchae
Autoarchaeoology and Neo-Shamans,” in
logy and in Re-
Re-
searching Paganisms: Religious Experiences and and Academic Methodologies, ed.
ed. Jenny
Jenny Blain,
Blain, Dou-
glas Ezzy,
glas Ezzy, and Graham Harvey Harvey (Walnut Creek,
Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 2004), 201-2.
Press, 2004),
46. Reid,
46. Reid, “Disorganized Religion,”
Religion,” 38-39.
47.
47. Hutton, “Living with
Hutton, “Living with Witchcraft,” 178.
Witchcraft,” 178.
48.
48. Hutton, “Living
“Living with
with Witchcraft,” 173.
173.
49.
49. Hutton, “Living
“Living with Witchcraft,” 185-86.
50. Harvey,
50. Harvey, “Living
“Living with Witchcraft,” 252-54.
Bute
51. Wallis,
Wallis, “Between the 207, 196-97,
the Worlds,” 207, 196-97, 206-7.
206-7.
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 Glossary
Glossary

ADF.
ADE. Short for
Short for Ar Ar nDrafocht
nDraiocht Féin,
Féin, or AA Druid
Druid Fellowship (more literally,literally, “our own
Druidism,” from Gaelic). A A contemporary Druid organization founded in in the
the United
by Isaac Bonewits.
States by
altar. An altar
altar. altar isis aa structure for usually with a a flat
for ritual use, usually flat surface on which are placed rit- rit-
ual items such as candles and incense, and
ual and possibly images
images of of aa deity
deity or deities. Pagans
Pagans
often have
have a permanent altar
altar somewhere in
in or around their
their house, such
such as aa shelf
shelf or small
table, and may also
table, and also construct temporary altars for specific rituals.
for specific
anarchist. AA supporter of of the political orientation of
the political of anarchism. Rather thanthan believing that
that
all forms of
all of social control should be be eliminated, anarchists usually
usually support the
the idea
idea of
of di-
di-
rect democracy and consensus decision making making andand hold toto the
the ideal of
of living harmo-
living harmo-
niously in
niously relatively small groups.
in relatively
animism/animistic. The The belief that
that all
all things
things inin the
the world are alive,
alive, or that
that all
all things
things might
might
be or become persons. Animism was initially
be initially aa category developed by by scholars forfor the
the
study of
study religion that
they saw as “primitive” religion
of what they less evolved than monotheism
that was less
and modern secularism, but
and but “animist” has has been adopted as aa self-descriptive term.
been adopted
antidefamation. To To defame isis to
to say
say inflammatory and untrue things things about a person or
group of
of people.
people. Antidefamation work counters such mean statements through through public
public ed-
ed-
ucation and
and media relations. People
People doing
doing such work provide
provide support for for those who have
been maligned, and
been and present aa public
public face
face of
of the
the group as theythey counter stereotypes.
archetype/archetypal. “Archetypal” means of of or relating
relating to
to an archetype or archetypes. “Ar-
chetype” isis a term introduced to
chetype” to psychology by by Carl
Carl Jung, for persistent figures
Jung, for figures or struc-
tures in
in what
what he called the
he called the collective unconscious, such
such as the
the Mother, the
the Father,
Father, the
the
Child, the
Child, the Hero,
Hero, and the Trickster.
and the Trickster. These
These figures
figures occur
occur cross-culturally
cross-culturally and
and are
are sometimes
sometimes
regarded as deities or mythic
regarded figures in
mythic figures in various cultures.
Asatru/Asatruar. Asatru is is aa denomination of of Paganism thatthat draws on the
the culture and
and
mythology of of northern Europe,
Europe, particularly Iceland and Norse or Nordic mythology.
Practitioners
Practitioners are
are known
known as as Asatruar,
Asatruar, although
although some
some prefer the term
prefer the term Heathen
Heathen and
and refer
refer to
to
their tradition as Heathenry.
barrows. Artificial
barrows. Artificial hills
hills found
found in in Britain
Britain and
and northwestern Europe, which
northwestern Europe, which are
are burial
burial
mounds. According to to English
English folklore, thethe faeries live
live in
in these mounds.

22]
221
222
222 Glossary
Glossary

BDSM (bondage, discipline/domination, and and sadomasochism). Consensual sexual practices

that involve bondage or the
that the use of of restraints, in in which the the participants enjoyenjoy inflicting
inflicting/ /
receiving pain.
pain.
bitheism/bitheistic. Refers to to belief
belief in
in two divinities. This isis sometimes called duotheism. In In
the context of
the of Paganism, the the two divinities are generally
generally the the Goddess and the God.
and the God.
ceremonial magic.magic. AA tradition based on Western esoteric practices derived from Jewish Jewish mys-
ticism and a number of of Neoplatonic sources such as Hermes Trismegistus. Originally Originally
these traditions were practiced within the the context of of Christianity and Judaism, but practi-
but practi-
tioners began
began to to move outside these these traditions in in the
the late
late nineteenth century.
century. Ceremonial
magicians tend tend to to conduct rituals in in strict accordance with set set recipes and scripts.
recipes and scripts.
chant. AA short song used inin ritual.
clergy.
clergy. AA class
class ofof religious
religious professionals, such such as priestesses and and priests,
priests, variously
variously called
rabbis, imams, pastors, reverends, and
rabbis, and ministers in in other religions.
religions.
Co-Mason. See See Freemasonry.
cosmology. Worldview, what someone or a group of of people
people thinks about how how the
the world isis
structured and and how humans and divinity divinity fit it.
fit into it.
countercultural. Alternative to to mainstream culture. The The term “countercultural” came into into
use inin the
the 1960s to to describe the the rebellion of of youth against social conventions and
youth against and author-
that they
ities that they found overly overly restrictive. It also describes political
It also political activity
activity against
against estab-
lished institutions, such as antiwar and and global
global justice
justice demonstrations.
coven.
coven. AA group
group of of Witches or other Pagans Pagans who regularly conduct ritual together. together.
Craft. This
This isis aa term used by by some practitioners in in preference to to calling
calling what they
they do reli-
do reli-
gion. Some use itit in
gion. place of
in place the terms “Witchcraft” or “Wicca.” Initially
of the Initially “Craft” referred
to the
to the practices of of the
the Masons, and practitioners derive their use of of the
the term from the in-
the in-
fluence of of Masonry and and Co-Masonry on early early Wicca.
Craft lineage. Line of of descent of of who initiated whom in in Witchcraft traditions, which forms
something like like aa family
family tree.
creed. An
An institutionally sanctioned statement of belief, which
of belief, which often unifies members of
of aa
denomination and differentiates them from other denominations. Pagan Pagan denominations
generally
generally do do not have standardized creeds.
not have
crone/croning. “Crone” is is aa term ofof respect
respect in in Paganism and and indicates aa woman valued for for
her age and experience. AA croning
her age croning isis aa ritual that
that recognizes the the passage of of a a woman from
her fertile
her fertile years intointo menopause, and celebrates her her new status as aa crone.
borrowing/appropriation. Borrowing or stealing
cultural borrowing/appropriation. stealing ideas, symbols, and
ideas, symbols, and practices
from a culture to to which one does not belong; belong; sometimes discussed in in nonjudgmenta
nonjudgmentall
terms as globalism or bricolage. bricolage.
dedicant. AA term used in in the
the Druid group Ar Ar nDrafocht
nDraiocht Féin for for those who are beginning
study
study in in their clergy training
their clergy training program. More generally, a dedicant isis one who has has ex-
pressed an interest in
pressed in learning
learning about aa tradition and has has made an oath dedicating dedicating
her/himself to to growing
growing in in aa particular tradition.
deity.
deity. AA generic term for for goddesses and gods, God and/or Goddess. Practitioner
and gods, Practitionerss of of other
religions
religions might refer to
might refer to these beings
beings as “supernatura
“supernatural,” l,” but
but Pagans often do do not think of of
deities in this way.
in this way.
divination. The practicepractice of of trying to gain
trying to insight into
gain insight into the past, present, or future by
the past, by means
of
of consulting aa seemingly random system, such as as dice
dice or cards. Practitioners
Practitioners believe that that
the
the results of of such castings
castings are not random but but reveal hidden knowledge
knowledge,, and they have
they have
developed elaborate systems such as Tarot card readings. readings.
divinity. AA generic term for for goddesses and gods, gods, God and/or Goddess, and and any
any other form
of deity;
of deity; whatever is is considered sacred or holy. holy.
dogma.
dogma. Religious
Religious teaching,
teaching, especially teachings that
especially teachings have been passed down
that have been passed down through
through thethe
ages and are regarded as unquestio
ages and nable.
unquestionable.
 Glossary
Glossary 223
223

eclectic. Inspired
Inspired by
by diverse sources; drawing
drawing together
together different ideas, symbols,
symbols, and
and prac-
tices into
into new forms, sometimes insensitive to to charges
charges ofof cultural appropriation.
ecofeminism. Combines the the politics
politics ofof the
the ecological movement and feminism. Ecofemi-
nists note that the subordination of
that the of women and and of the natural world often go
of the go hand in
in
hand, using similar metaphors and
hand, using and symbols.
Enlightenment. “The Enlightenment” refers to to what is is often thought of of as the
the dawning ofof
the age of
the age of reason in in Western culture, which entailed a critique of the
critique of the established institu-
tions of the Roman Catholic Church and
of the and rule
rule by
by monarchy. In In the
the Enlightenment, indi-
vidual capacity for rational thought
capacity for thought came to to be
be valued more than loyaltyloyalty to
to received tra-
ditions. The
The Enlightenment also
also coincided with the
the industrial revolution, urbanization,
colonial expansion, and the the erosion of of peasant and and indigenous cultures.
ethnography/eth nographers. An
ethnography/ethnographers. An ethnography is is aa focused studystudy ofof aa specific
specific group of peo-
of peo-
ple
ple in
in their cultural context, usually usually conducted through through the the method of of participant obser-
vation. Ethnographic studies often produce more qualitative than statistical data, data, reporting
reporting
on what people
people saysay and
and do do inin narrative terms rather than collecting data data through counting
and
and numbering. People People who conduct ethnographic studies are known as ethnographers.
folklore. Culturally specificspecific beliefs and practices that may may or may not be be perceived as part part
of the
of the religion
religion with which people people identify.
identify.
Freemasonry/Free
Freemasonry/Freemason. mason. Freemasons are members of of an international secret society. society. Mem-
bership
bership is is exclusive to to those who who have been initiated and and know the the secret signs signs ofof the
the or-
ganization. Initially membership in in the
the Masons was restricted to to men, but women have
been allowed to to join,
join, atat least in in some groups, which are called Freemasonry groups, or
sometimes Co-Masonry. Freemasonry is is characterized by by certain metaphysical beliefs, rit- rit-
uals,
uals, and
and a a hierarchical organization. Originally the the Masons were actual masons, builders
in stone, but
in but current members are upper-middle-class
upper-middle-class professionals in in a variety of of fields.
Gaia/Gaea. The Greek goddess of of nature; aa name given given to the the Earth in in some pantheist
cosmologies.
Gardnerian. A A denomination of of Wicca based on the the teachings of of Gerald Gardner, the the British
British
civil servant who first first popularized Witchcraft as a religious religious tradition in in Britain
Britain in in the
the
1940s andand 1950s.
globalism. See See cultural borrowing /appropriation.
gnostic. This term sometimes refers to to occult or esoteric knowledge. It It isis a label applied
applied to to the
the
belief that
that the
the world was created by by God but but left in the
left in the care ofof a demiurge or lesser being, being,
who controls matter and isis opposed opposed to to spiritual
spiritual concerns. When capitalized, Gnostic refers
to
to Christian heretics of of the
the first to to third centuries who held this this and
and similar views.
handfasting. AA Pagan Pagan ritual solemnizing a loving loving commitment, similar in in social function
function to to
marriage, but but not necessarily legally legally recognized as such.
Heathen/Heathentry.
Heathen/Heath enry. See See Asatru.
hereditary witch. Someone who learned magic magic from older members of of her/his family.
family. Of-Of-
ten these magical
magical practices are not identified with Witchcraft until later-generation practi-
tioners cease to identify with mainstream religious practices. Usually the
to identify the magical prac-
tices are part
part of
of a folklore tradition that that may have some pre-Christian content but that has has
been long
long incorporated in the folk
in the folk practices of people who identify
of people identify as Christian.
immanent/immanence.
immanent/immanence. “Immanent” means within or inside. Belief in in immanence refers to to
belief that
that divinity is is inherent to to or dwells within the the material or natural world.
laity. Nonprofessional
laity. Nonprofessiona l members of of religious groups, or practitioners of of religious
religious traditions.
landwights. AA general general term for for local nature spirits spirits used by by some Asatru and Heathen
practitioners.
late modernity. AA term describing contemporary mainstream Western culture in
late in contrast to to
postmodern and traditional culture. It It indicates that most people people in in Western culture live live inin
a culture that is is no longer
longer bound by by tradition and that has has aspects of of postmodernity but but has
has
224
224 Glossary
Glossary

not entirely
entirely rejected the modern values of
rejected the of the Enlightenment. Late
the Late modernity is
is character-
ized by
ized by modern values suchsuch as democracy,
democracy, equality, and
equality, and individualism; social trends of eth-
of eth-
nic diversity; and
nic and cultural trends toward cultural mixing.
mixing. Postmodernity embraces rela-rela-
tivism more fully, fully, moving
moving from ¢olerance
tolerance of of diversity toto doubts about the reality of
the reality of truth.
lifeways.
lifeways. The The things
things people
people do do in
in their
their daily
daily lives that that distinguish them them as belonging to to aa
particular cultural or religious religious tradition, such as asking asking permission and/or giving giving thanks
before harvesting and and consuming plants. plants.
liturgy. Ritual script.
liturgy. script. Sometimes formulaic words said during religious
said during religious functions. Liturgies
can bebe inin poetry or prose and and can be be repeated
repeated from from traditional sources or created for for spe-
spe-
cific events.
cific
Masonry. See
Masonry. See Freemasonry
mystery religion.
religion. A religion that
A religion that is
is structured through through initiation into into “the
“the mysteries,” often often
through aa series of
through degrees. After prolonged
of degrees. prolonged instruction, initiates receive knowledge of the
of the
mysteries of of the
the tradition. These mysteries
mysteries might might include things things such as secret names of the
of the
deities or hidden meanings meanings in in ritual
ritual practices.
occult. Esoteric or little-known knowledge and/or practices. practices. “Occult” isis often used synony-
mously with “New Age”
mously Age” butbut means “hidden,” and often implies implies secret knowledge.
pantheism. Belief that that everything is is God or part part ofof God,
God, or the the belief that that God or divinity
divinity isis
immanent in in the world, sometimes in
the world, in conjunction with with the the belief that that the
the world
world isis thethe
body of
body of thethe Goddess or God.
participant observation. A A common anthropological method in in the
the study
study of of religion
religion in in
which the the researcher does not merely merely observe research subjects subjects but does what they
but does they do do
in an effort to
in to more fully fully understand what the the people
people are doing,doing, why,why, and what itit means
for
for them.
polyamorist/polya
polyamorist/polyamory. mory. AA polyamorist is is one who maintains multiple multiple loving relationships
loving relationships
and
and isis committed to to more than one other person. Polyamory describes the the practice in in gen-
gen-
eral. Polyamorous relationships take
eral. take aa variety
variety of forms, including
of forms, including group marriage, mar-
riage with additional partners who do
riage do not cohabit with the the married partners but but maintain
relationships with one or both of the married partners, as well
of the well as various configurations
of cohabitation and affiliation.
of
polytheism/poly
polytheism/polytheistic. theistic. Refers to to belief in in multiple divinities or deities.
reconstructionist. Religious practices that
reconstructionist. that are based on historical or archaeological evidence
and
and are designed to to re-create past
past practices ina in a historically accurate fashion. The The term also
refers to to denominations that that favor such practices.
reincarnation. The rebirth of of one’s essential being being or soul in in another earthly
earthly life
life after one’s
body dies.
body dies.
romanticism. AA nostalgic nostalgic idealization of the past.
of the past. Cultural trends that that idealize the the past
past are
identified as German Romanticism or English Romanticism Romanticism,, for for example.
example.
routinization. The
routinization. The process of of creating institutions and and standardized religious practices. This This
process
Process is is often associated with the the second generation of of aa new religious
religious movement, as
adherents harmonize the the statements and practices of of early
early leaders of of the
the movement and
these practices to
teach these to children and new members of of the
the religion.
religion.
sabbat. Any Any of of the eight major
the eight major seasonal festivals in in the
the Wiccan wheel of the year. They
of the They are
called “sabbats” following the the name used for for secret witchcraft meetings in in accusations
during
during the the medieval witch hunts. The The term “sabbat” is is derived from the the Jewish sabbath,
which is is celebrated weekly weekly on Saturdays. Heretics were accused of of also
also holding
holding secret re-
ligious
ligious meetings on days days other than Sunday,Sunday, which isis regarded as the the proper Christian
day to
day hold religious service.
to hold
scrying. Scrying
scrying. Scrying is is aa form
form of divination in
of divination in which
which aa practitioner
practitioner looks looks intointo aa pan
pan of water, aa
of water,
polished stone, or some other reflective surface to to see thethe future, events happening happening at at aa
distance, or images images answering aa question about the the past,
past, present, or future. future.
 Glossary
Glossary 225
225

seidr. AA Heathen ritual practice

practice derived fromfrom aa passage from the Saga
from the Saga of
of Erik the
the Red. In
In
seidr, the
seidr, the practitioner goes into trance with the the help
help of
of other ritual participants and
and an-
swers questions fromfrom the
the other participants.
shamanisnvVsha manistic. AA type
shamanism/shamanistic. type of
of religious
religious practice
practice or beliefs that entail communication
with aa nonempirical realm or aspect of of reality,
reality, sometimes conceived as interaction with
spirits. Shamanism was initially
spirits. initially a category developed by by anthropologists and
and scholars of
of
religion
religion for
for the
the study
study of
of “shamans” or religious specialists in in indigenous cultures who
contacted nonhuman entities on behalf of
of their communities or,
or, in
in some cases, to
to do
do harm
to
to certain individuals. ItIt has
has subsequently been adopted as a a self-descriptive term in in con-
texts outside of
of indigenous culture and in in reconstructionist traditions.
shrine. Technically, aa shrine is is dedicated to to a specific deity, but many Pagans
specific deity, Pagans use the the term
interchangeably with with altar.
solitaries. Solitary practitioners of of Paganism; those who do do ritual work alone rather than in in
aa group setting.
spell
spell casting. Using
Using magic
magic toto effect change
change or bring
bring about a desired state of of events. Spell
Spell
casting
casting can bebe aa simple
simple practice
practice ofof something likelike making
making a hand gesture for for luck,
luck, or itit can
be
be integrated into a more elaborate ritual, ritual, such as one designed
designed toto heal
heal a friend, family
family
member, or
or oneself.
spiritualism. AA religious
religious movement beginning in in the
the latter part
part of
of the
the nineteenth century,
century,
which prominently featured communication with the the dead.
Tarot cards. The
The Tarot isis a special
special deck of
of seventy-eight cards used for for divination. They
They are
similar to
to playing
playing cards inin having
having four suits, but these are called cups, wands, swords, and
suits, but and
pentacles. In
In addition to
to these suited cards,
cards, called the
the minor arcana, the
the Tarot includes
twenty-two other cards called the the major
major arcana.
teleological. Oriented toward, or proceeding toward, aa final final end.
end.
thealogy. A parallel
parallel term to to theology, which means study
study of
of God or the gods; this
the gods; this term
term refers
refers
to
to study of female deity,
study of deity, the
the Goddess or goddesses.
theoilogy. Study
Study ofof deity
deity inin a polytheistic sense, including goddesses and and gods.
gods. Some
Some peo-
peo-
ple
ple prefer
prefer the
the term polytheology, although
although neither ofof these terms is
is in
in common use.
theodicy. AA theological explanation of of why
why suffering and death exist.
trance work. The use of of altered states of of consciousness to
to pursue ritual work. Practitioners
may conceive of
may of this as journeying to to the
the dream world,
world, or alternate realms such as thethe un-
derworld, the
the astral plane,
plane, or the
the land of the
land of the dead.
transcendence. Going beyond. In
Going beyond. In some religious
religious traditions, this
this is
is envisioned as an as-
cension beyond
beyond the
the mundane world into the supernatural, but Pagans
into the Pagans are more likely
likely to
to
speak
speak ofof transcending their own limits than thethe limits of
of nature, or toto speak
speak of
of the
the tran-
scendence of divinity in
of divinity in terms ofof aa transcendence of of the ordinary. See also
the ordinary.
immanent
immanent/imm /immanence.
anence.
Umbanda. An Afro-Amerindian
Afro-Amerindian initiatory tradition that developed in in Brazil beginning in in
the
the late
late nineteenth or early
early twentieth century, which combines elements of of indigenous
culture, African traditions, and Catholicism.
Wiccaning. A A ritual celebration for
for welcoming children into
into Wicca, usually
usually done when the
the
child is
is an infant.
world religion. One of of the
the religions typically studied in
in introductory courses on religion.
religion.
These traditionally include Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Buddhism, and
and Hinduism, which
are globally dominant or have been perceived to to be
be so, but sometimes include traditions
such as Bahai, Sikhism, and
and indigenous religion.
religion. There isis no accepted rationale for
for what
religions
religions should be religions.
be regarded as world religions.
 ee ee roar.
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 Bibliography

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 Index
Index

adherents, numbers of, of, 3-4

3-4 Aquarian Tabernacle Church, 47
Church, 47
Adler, Margot,
Margot, 23, 23, 35, 141, 205
35, 141, 205 22, 77,
Aradia, 22, 77, 98,
98, 109-110, 128, 143,
128, 133-34, 143,
ZAEsir, 158-59
Assir, 155
Se
aesthetics, 140, 169
140, 169 Artemis, 22, 154
Artemis, 22, 154
afterlife, 8585 Arthen, Andras Corban,
Corban, 47
47
Alan, Jim,
Alan, Jim, 46
46 Asatru,
Asatru, 9, 11, 34,
9, 11, 34, 38,
38, 117,
117, 140,
140, 158
158
Albanese, Catherine, 40-41, 40-41, 49,
49, 179
179 14, 16,
Asatruar, 14, 16, 23
23
Alexandrian, 49, 49, 131, 151-52, 176
131, 151-52, 176 aspect, 43,
aspect, 43, 148
148
Algard tradition, 131,
Algard tradition, 131, 151,
151, 204
204 athame, 63,
63, 108
108
altar, 55, 59-60,
altar, 55, 59-60, 62-64 3-4, 11,
Australia, 3-4, 11, 46, 98, 158,
46, 98, 169, 197,
158, 169, 201
197, 201
America, 2,
2, 4,
4, 28,
28, 32, 43, 46,
32, 43, 46, 48,
48, 91,
91, 102,
102, 104,
104, Ayn Rand,
Ayn Rand, 146
146
109-110, 132-33,
132-33, 141-42, 168,
168, 171-72,
171-72,
176,
176, 185, 198, 207
185, 187-89, 198, 207 Bachofen, J. J., 100
J. J., 100
American Paganism,
Paganism, 4, 4, 48,
48, 137,
137, 141
141 Baker, Diana,
Baker, Diana, 46, 46, 85,
85, 87, 136
87, 136
anarchist, 1, 1, 137,
137, 154,
154, 191
191 Baltic reconstructionists, 160-61
ancestor worship,
worship, 100 100 Bardism, 218-19
ancestors, 54,54, 57, 61, 84-85,
57, 61, 84-85, 156,
156, 160
160 Barstow, Anne Llewellyn,
Llewellyn, 206-7
ancient, 6,6, 27,
ancient, 90-94, 117,
27, 90-94, 117, 155-57,
155-57, 161,
161, 198
198 basic ritual
basic ritual designs,
designs, 69 69
Anderson, Cora, 126, 136,
Cora, 126, 136, 141-42, 152,152, 154
154 BDSM, 1, 10, 192
1, 10, 192
Victor, 85,
Anderson, Victor, 85, 152-53 Beattie, Antonia, 197
Beattie, 197
androcentrism, 101 101 (Beltane), 58,
Beltain (Beltane), 72-73, 81,
58, 72-73, 81, 112
112
de
de Angeles, Ly, 92,
Angeles, Ly, 92, 172
172 Berger, Helen,
Berger, 44, 209
Helen, 44, 209
animism, 8,8, 16
16 biomagic, 178
biomagic, 178
anthropologists, 9-10,
9-10, 16,
16, 34, 36, 91,
34, 36, 100,
91, 100, magic, 198
black magic, 198
106-7,
106-7, 212-13 Blain, Jenny,
Blain, Jenny, 118, 148, 209-11
118, 148,
anthropology, 78,78, 91, 102, 105,
91, 102, 105, 109, 122,
109, 122, blessings, 54, 62,
blessings, 54, 78, 82,
62, 78, 82, 85-87, 178
85-87, 178
126-28, 136
136 boggarts, 15-16,
boggarts, 15-16, 31 31
Apollo, 113, 118,
Apollo, 113, 156
118, 156 Bonewits, Isaac, 31, 50,
Isaac, 31, 50, 128,
128, 137-39, 157
137-39, 157
appropriation, 96,
96, 149-50, 167-71 Briffault, Robert,
Robert, 100 100
Apuleius,
Apuleius, Lucius,
Lucius, 119
119 Brigid,
Brigid, 22, 58, 72,
22, 58, 72, 146
146

237
237
238
238 Index

broom, 1,1, 60,

broom, 60, 62,
62, 76,
76, 81, 146, 187
81, 146, 187 crescent moon, 63,
63, 198
198
Raymond, 9,
Buckland, Raymond, 9, 125,
125, 131-32,
131-32, 205
205 Cretan goddess,
goddess, 145
145
Buckland, Rosemary,
Buckland, Rosemary, 204 204 18, 77,
crone, 18, 83, 87,
77, 83, 87, 117,
117, 153
153
Budapest, Zsuzsanna, 133
Budapest, 133 croning, 9,
croning, 9, 69,
69, 82-83
Burning
Burning Times,
Times, 9, 9, 89-90,
89-90, 94,
94, 96, 185, 206
96, 185, 206 Crowley, Aleister,
Crowley, Aleister, 9,
9, 21,
21, 115-16,
115-16, 127-28,
166
166
Campanelli, Pauline, 53-54,
Campanelli, Pauline, 67
53-54, 67 Crowley, Vivianne, 205
Crowley, 205
Canada, 3,3, 46-47, 56-59, 70,
46-47, 56-59, 70, 71, 84, 103,
71, 84, 131,
103, 131, 131, 194
Crowther, Patricia, 131, 194
151, 204-5,
151, 204-5, 209
209 Scott, 29-30,
Cunningham, Scott, 32, 66,
29-30, 32, 66, 139-40
candles, 30,
candles, 30, 38, 63, 71-71,
38, 58-59, 63, 112, 176,
71-71, 112, 176,
188, 193,
188, 198
193, 198 Dafo, 127
Dafo, 127
Carter,
Carter, Orrell Alexander, 131
131 Daly, Mary, 148,
Daly, Mary, 148, 210
210
cathedrals, 112, 190, 200
112, 190, 200 Dark Paganism,
Dark 198-99, 201
Paganism, 198-99, 201
22, 62-64,
cauldron, 22, 62-64, 99-100 death,
death, 9,9, 14,
14, 19,
19, 21-22, 69, 77,
21-22, 28-29, 69, 77, 80,
80,
Celtic, 20, 57,
Celtic, 20, 57, 58,
58, 96-98, 149, 167,
96-98, 149, 208
167, 208 83-85, 94-95, 99,
83-85, 99, 116,
116, 150,
150, 187, 199
187, 199
Celts, 47, 96-97,
Celts, 47, 96-97, 103, 157
103, 157 Deep Self, 65,
Deep Self, 65, 84-85,
84-85, 153
153
census,
census, 3-4,
3-4, 11
11 deity: female aspect, 18,
deity: 18, 45;
45; female deities,
deities,
Ceres,
Ceres, 156
156 14, 100,
14, 191; male
100, 191; male aspect,
aspect, 45;
45; male deity,
deity,
Ceridwen, 22,
22, 98-100, 104, 117, 152
104, 117, Will, 153,
111, Tey, 191
Ceridwen’s Cauldron, 9,
9, 90,
90, 98-99 defenses, 134,
134, 167-68,
167-68, 175
175
Cernunnos, 20, 98, 111,
20, 98, 111, 152
152 de
de Lint,
Lint, Charles, 16-17,
16-17, 31
31
chalice, 63,
chalice, 63, 108, 201
108, 201 Demeter, 55,
55, 71, 99-100, 117
71, 99-100, 117
chaos magician,
magician, 191191 devil worship,
worship, 9292
chaplains, 43,
43, 188-89 Diana, 21-22, 98,
Diana, 21-22, 98, 108-9,
108-9, 133,
133, 156
156
charms,
charms, 22-23, 53-54,
53-54, 99,99, 110,
110, 197
197 Dianic,
Dianic, 133-34, 134-35, 147, 153
147, 153
chat groups, 185
185 Dievs, 161
Dievs, 161
children, 43,
children, 67, 86-87,
43, 67, 103
86-87, 103 161
Dievturi, 161
Christ, 31,
Christ, 31, 173-74, 181
173-74, 181 Digambaras,
Digambaras, 166
166
Christ,
Christ, Carol,
Carol, 18,
18, 173,
173, 178,
178, 206
206 directions (cardinal), 61
61
Christianity, 2,2, 5-6,
5-6, 20, 34, 42,
20, 34, 42, 96,
96, 98, 107,
98, 107, 121
Discworld, 121
115, 121,
115, 121, 147,
147, 149-50, 157, 185, 190
157, 185, 190 31, 67,
Diskus, 31, 122, 124,
67, 122, 124, 181
181
Christie, Richard Lance, 100
Lance, 100 Dragon Environmental Group,
Dragon Group, 19, 173
19, 173
circle, 38-39, 41,
circle, 41, 56,
56, 69-70,
69-70, 74-76,
74-76, 81, 108,
81, 108, dragons, 75,
dragons, 75, 113, 120, 178
113, 120, 178
148, 171, 194.
148, 171, 194. See
See also
also coven drawing down the
drawing the moon, 76-77
circle,
circle, ritual, 24, 61,
ritual, 24, 61, 63, 111, 151-52, 168
63, 111, 168 dreams, 25,
dreams, 36, 55,
25, 36, 55, 136,
136, 186
186
Circle Sanctuary,
Circle Sanctuary, 37,
37, 46-47,
46-47, 184, 186, 195
184, 186, 195 Drew, A.
Drew, A. J.,
J., 172
172
classes, 14,
classes, 46-47, 91,
14, 46-47, 91, 109,
109, 136-137, 158158 Druidry, 34,
Druidry, 34, 38, 121, 148,
38, 121, 148, 156-58, 213
213
clergy, 8,8, 15,
clergy, 15, 33-38,
33-38, 40,
40, 42-47,
42-47, 188,
188, 190
190 drum, 62,
drum, 62, 66, 192
66, 192
Clifton, Chas S.,
Clifton, S., 141,
141, 190,
190, 207-8 61, 65-66,
drumming, 61, 65-66, 75,
75, 149,
149, 179,
179, 191
191
Cohn, Norman,
Cohn, Norman, 95, 95, 206
206 Durkeim, Emile, 51
Emile, 51
co-mason, 176176
consciousness, 25, 25, 65-66,
65-66, 107,
107, 149,
149, 174,
174, 178
178 Earth First!, 178
Earth First!, 178
cord, 78-79,
cord, 78-79, 118118 Earth Mother, 5454
cosmology, 4, 4, 8,
8, 23-24,
23-24, 29,
29, 99,
99, 137
137 EarthSpirit Community, 47,
EarthSpirit 74, 184,
47, 74, 195
184, 195
Coughlin, John
John J., 198
J., 198 Eastern European Paganism, 169
169
coven, 6,6, 38-39, 47, 62, 76-77, 80,
47, 62, 80, 92, 112,
92, 112, Ebon, Martin,
Ebon, Martin, 204 204
117,
117, 125-26, 129,
129, 131-32, 136-37, 140,
136-37, 140, eclectic, 9,9, 34,
eclectic, 34, 140, 145, 147,
140, 145, 147, 167;
167; eclectic
151-54, 193,
193, 205,
205, 207;
207; coven leaders,
leaders, 152;
152; Paganism, 5, 194; eclectic practitioners,
5, 194; practitioners,
coven members, 39,39, 46-47, 112;
46-47, 112; 27, 194
27,194
daughter covens, 151-52 eco-drama, 179 179
Craft, the,
Craft, the, 1, 52, 93,
1, 52, 128, 131-32, 135,
93, 128, 135, 150,
150, 87, 104,
ecofeminism, 87, 104, 176,
176, 179-80
190, 193,
190, 193, 196,
196, 207
207 eco-magic,
eco-magic, 178
178
 Index 239
239

ecstasy, 22~23,
ecstasy, 22—23, 25, 123, 144,
25, 123, 162, 210-11
144, 162, Gardnerian Wicca,
Wicca, 6,6, 34,
34, 36, 77, 125-26,
36, 77, 129,
125-26, 129,
Eddas, 117,
Eddas, 117, 160
160 131-32, 141,
141, 147,
147, 151-52, 154-55,
154-55, 172,
172,
Ehrenreich, Barbara, 206
206 194, 204
194, 204
Eliade, Mircea,
Eliade, Mircea, 23,
23, 25
25 Gibbons, 102-3
Gibbons,
elements, 59,
59, 61-64,
61-64, 78, 81
78, 81 gifts, 14,
gifts, 62, 65,
14, 62, 65, 78-79,
78-79, 81,
81, 197
197
Ellwood, Robert, 204
Robert, 204 Ginzburg, Carlo,
Ginzburg, Carlo, 206
206
emergent religions, 11, 49,
religions, 11, 163, 217
49, 163, 217 gnostic, 139
gnostic, 139
energy, 24, 26, 29,
24, 26, 29, 60-62, 84-85,
84-85, 150, 190
150, 190 gods, 6,
gods, 6, 14, 16, 19-20,
14, 16, 23, 26,
19-20, 23, 26, 28,
28, 29,
29, 111;
111;
ethics, 165,
environmental ethics, 165, 172-73, 179
179 dying god,
dying god, 54,
54, 74, 107-9, 113,
74, 107-9, 117; of
113, 117; of the
the
environmentalism, 55-56, 165, 172,
55-56, 165, 179
172, 179 forest, 19-21,
forest, 19-21, 28,
28, 113-14; sky-god, 101;
113-14; sky-god, 101;
equinoxes, 56,
56, 58-59, 74, 112
58-59, 74, 112 vegetation god, 113. See
god, 113. See also
also individual
esbat,
esbat, 76, 92, 112,
76, 92, 112, 152
152 god names
god
ethical action,
ethical action, 172-73 Goddess, 6,6, 14,
14, 18-19,
18-19, 22-24, 26, 26, 28, 55, 58,
28, 55, 58,
Ezzy, Douglas, 207,
Ezzy, 207, 210, 214
210, 214 62,
62, 64-65, 74, 76-77, 80-81,
64265, 74, 80-81, 83, 90, 101,
83, 90, 101,
108-11, 115-17, 119,
108-11, 119, 121,
121, 135-36,
135-36, 147,
147,
faeries, 1,
faeries, 15-16, 22,
1, 15-16, 22, 57, 84, 90,
57, 84, 90, 97,
97, 112-14, 152-54, 168,
168, 171-74, 179,
179, 195.
195. See
See also
also
120-21, 126,
120-21, 126, 152
152 individual goddess
goddess names
Faery tradition, 125-26,
Faery 125-26, 152-55 religion, 34,
Goddess religion, 34, 93, 100, 117,
93, 100, 117, 121, 133,
121, 133,
Farrar, Janet,
Farrar, Janet, 131
131 135, 145, 147-48, 172-74
135, 145, 172-74
Farrar, Stewart, 131
Farrar, 131 Goddess spirituality,
Goddess 4, 7,7, 10,
spirituality, 4, 10, 154
154
female divinity, 14, 134,
divinity, 14, 134, 206
206 67, 86-87,
Goddess traditions, 67, 86-87, 103103
female ritual
ritual partners, 152152 godmother, 52
52
feminism, 9-10,
9-10, 55-56,
55-56, 137,
137, 165, 171, 176,
165, 171, 176, Goth Paganism, 206
Goth 206
179
179 Grahame, Kenneth, 9, 21, 113,
9, 21, 123
113, 123
feminist spirituality,
spirituality, 1,
1, 42, 83, 95,
42, 83, 100, 134,
95, 100, 134, Graves, Robert, 9,
9, 116, 139, 153
116, 139, 153
145, 147-48, 172,
145, 147-48, 172, 181,
181, 206-7 Gray, Deborah, 197
Gray, Deborah, 197
feminist Witches, 7, 52, 70,
7, 52, 70, 207, 209
207, 209 Green Man,
Green Man, 19,
19, 21,
21, 111
111
Feri tradition. See
Feri See Faery
Faery tradition Grimassi, Raven,
Raven, 94-95, 155, 167
94-95, 155, 167
fertility religion,
fertility religion, 92,
92, 111, 127
111, 127 54, 61
grounding, 54, 61
festivals, 19,
19, 25,
25, 39,
39, 44-45, 56, 58-59, 70-71,
56, 58-59, 70-71, marriage, 82,
group marriage, 82, 119
119
83, 112,
74-76, 83, 112, 140,
140, 153, 160, 183,
153, 160, 186,
183, 186, G’Zell, Otter,
G’Zell, Otter, 19.
19. See also Zell-Ravenheart,
See also
191-92, 195, 205. See
195, 205. also individual
See also Oberon
festivals
festivals
Firth, Mary, 116
Firth, Violet Mary, 116 Hallowell, A.A. Irving,
Irving, 16 16
folk religion,
folk religion, 2727 Hallowe’en, 57, 70, 187.
57, 70, 187. See also Samhain
See also
folk
folk traditions, 91, 91, 94,
94, 106-7,
106-7, 110,
110, 115,
115, 121,
121, handfasting, 9, 9, 44,
44, 62, 69, 81-82
62, 69, 81-82
125.155
125) HSS Hanegraaff,
Hanegraaff, Wouter J., J., 204
204
folklore, 11,
folklore, 20, 22,
11, 20, 91, 98,
22, 91, 98, 105-6, 109, 112,
105-6, 109, 112, Hardie,
Hardie, Titania,
Titania, 197197
115, 120,
115, 122, 126-28, 134,
120, 122, 134, 142,
142, 155,
155, 160,
160, Hardman, Charlotte, 208 208
163,
163, 180,
180, 203,
203, 207-8, 210, 217
207-8, 210, 217 Michael, 66-67,
Harner, Michael, 66-67, 149149
food, 37, 53-55,
food, 37, 53-55, 61,61, 85, 95, 153,
85, 95, 174-75, 177
153, 174-75, 177 Harrison, Jane
Harrison, Ellen, 134
Jane Ellen, 134
Fortune, Dion,
Dion, 9, 116
9, 116 Harry Potter,
Harry Potter, 121,
121, 196
196
Fox,
Fox, Selena, 46, 184
Selena, 46, 184 Harvey,
Harvey, Graham, 208-9, 208-9, 212212
Frazer, James,
Frazer, James, 107-8, 111-12, 117,
117, 122
122 Heartha, 54
54
Frew, Don,
Frew, Don, 153
153 Heathenry,
Heathenry, 5,5, 47,
47, 54, 56, 61,
54, 56, 61, 69,
69, 117, 140-41,
117, 140-41,
Frost, Gavin and
Frost, and Yvonne, 193-94 148, 158-60,
148, 169, 209.
158-60, 169, See also
209. See Asatru,
also Asatru,
Asatruar
Gage,
Gage, Matilda Joslyn,
Joslyn, 94
94 hearths, 159
hearths, 159
Gaea,
Gaea, 19, 24-25
19, 24-25 Hecate, 83,
Hecate, 83, 85, 146
85, 146
galdr, 160
galdr, 160 Heelas, Paul,
Heelas, 204
Paul, 204
Gardner, Gerald,
Gardner, 6, 92,
Gerald, 6, 110, 112,
92, 110, 112, 114-115, Heinlein, Robert, 9,
Heinlein, 9, 48,
48, 119
119
125-129, 131-132, 142,
142, 153,
153, 190
190 High Rede, 48
High Rede, 48
240
240 Index
Index

high seat, 118,

high seat, 118, 141
141 knife,
knife, 54, 61-63,
54, 79. See
61-63, 79. also athame
See also
Holly
Holly King,
King, 74, 113
74, 113 Kore,
Kore, 71
71
Holzer, Hans, 204
Holzer, Hans, 204 Kriss,
Kriss, Marika, 204
Marika, 204
Horne, Fiona,
Horne, Fiona, 44,
44, 197
197 ‘:
Horned God, 19-21, 74,
God, 19-21, 74, 98, 108, 110-11,
98, 108, 110-11, 113,
113, Lady Liberty
Lady League, 187-89,
Liberty League, 187-89, 199-200
152
152 Laima, 161
Laima, 161
Hrafnar,
Hrafnar, 159
159 laity, 34-38,
laity, 34-38, 44, 69, 152,
44, 69, 190
152, 190
Hume,
Hume, Lynn,
Lynn, 209
209 Lammas (Lughnasadh), 56, 56, 58-59, 74, 112
58-59, 74, 112
Hutton, Ronald, 32,32, 49, 102-3, 122-23,
49, 102-3, 122-23, Landsburg, Alan,
Alan, 204204
141-43, 212-13, 218~19
218-19 16, 159
landveettir, 16, 159
landwights, 15-16,
15-16, 54,
54, 175
175
Iceland, 3,
Iceland, 3, 11, 95, 117,
11, 95, 117, 158,
158, 160
160 Larner, Christina, 206
Larner, 206
Eddas and
Icelandic Eddas and Sagas, 117, 150
Sagas, 117, 150 LaVey,
LaVey, Anton,
Anton, 205205
Imbolc, 58,
Imbolc, 58, 71-72 Leach, Evan A.,
Leach, 209
A., 209
immanence, 8, 8, 24,
24, 29,
29, 30, 119, 173,
30, 119, 175, 178
173, 175, 178 Leek,
Leek, Sybil, 141, 205
Sybil, 141, 205
implicit religion, 41
implicit religion, 41 le Guin,
le K., 121,
Guin, Ursula K., 121, 166
166
indigenous, 2,2, 6,6, 11,
11, 35-37,
35-37, 41,
41, 53,
53, 90, 96, 98,
90, 96, 98, Leland,
Leland, Charles Godfrey, 9, 22,
Godfrey, 9, 22, 91-92,
91-92,
109, 111-12, 139,
109, 139, 148-49, 156, 158, 161,
156, 158, 161, 109-10,
109-10, 112, 115, 127-28, 133,
112, 115, 133, 155
155
167, 169, 171
167, 169, 171 Letcher, Andy,
Andy, 31,
31, 181,
181, 213-14, 218
213-14, 218
47
Indo-European groups, 47 libation, 55,
libation, 85
55, 85
initiations, 9, 46, 69,
9, 46, 69, 80-81,
80-81, 195.
195. See also self-
See also self- listservs, 146,
146, 185
185
initiation Litha, 58
Litha, 58
initiatory traditions, 36,
initiatory 38, 140,
36, 38, 140, 147,
147, 176,
176, Lovelock, James,
James, 19,
19, 172
172
190, 195,
190, 195, 197
197 Lucina, 9090
Inquisition, 95,95, 185
185 Lucinde, 90 90
institutional structures, 190 190 Lugh, 59, 152,
Lugh, 59, 152, 154
154
institutionalized religion, 40, 40, 44-45 Lughnasadh. See
See Lammas
invasions, 90, 101
90, 101 Tanya, 205,
Luhrmann, Tanya, 205, 207, 215
207, 215
Irish practitioners, 167
Irish 167
Iseum, 37
Iseum, 37 Mabon, 59
Mabon, 59
Isis, 37,
Isis, 37, 119,
119, 147,
147, 156, 176, 179,
156, 176, 193
179, 193 Maddelena, 22,22, 109-10
Italian American Witchcraft, 154, 154, 167
167 Maddog, 191
Maddog, 191
Italian Witches,
Witches, 2222 magic, magick, 29,
magic, magick, 29, 115-16,
115-16, 119,
119, 121,
121, 126-28,
131, 135,
131, 138-39, 148,
135, 138-39, 152, 154-55,
148, 152, 154-55,
jewelry, 75,
jewelry, 80, 96-97
75, 80, 165-66,
165-66, 178, 196, 198;
178, 196, 198; magical
magical names,
Johns, June,
Johns, June, 204
204 79-80, 96, 116,
79-80, 96, 116, 131; magical practices,
131; magical practices, 91,
91 ,
journals,
journals, 141,
141, 208
208 94-95,
94-95, 105, 107, 127,
105, 107, 127, 160;
160; magical
magical
journalists, 203-5 practitioners, 64, 95, 110,
64, 95, 166, 196
110, 166, 196
Juno, 156
Juno, 156 Magliocco, Sabina,
Magliocco, Sabina, 210-11
Jupiter, 156
Jupiter, 156 maiden, 18,
maiden, 18, 77, 117, 153
77, 117, 153
justice, 10,
justice, 28, 165,
10, 28, 165, 169,
169, 174,
174, 177,
177, 184,
184, 195 male divinity,
divinity, 21,21, 171
171
Malinowski, Bronislaw, 51 51
Keats, John,
Keats, John, 21,
21, 112,
112, 114
114 Mara, 161
Mara, 161
Kelly, Aidan,
Kelly, Aidan, 93, 141, 153,
93, 141, 206-7, 217
153, 206-7, 217 Mare-goddess, 171 171
Kemeticism, 156 156 Margulis, Lynn,
Margulis, Lynn, 19
19
kindreds, 159159 Marion Zimmer Bradley,
Bradley, 9,
9, 73,
73, 119,
119, 121,
121,
King Arthur,
King Arthur, 121121 140, 198
140, 198
King of
King the Witches, 131.
of the 131. See
See also
also Sanders,
Sanders, marriage,
marriage, 43-44,
43-44, 46,
46, 81-82, 116, 119,
81-82, 116, 119, 185,
185,
Alex
Alex 188-89
King of the
King of the Wood,
Wood, 108
108 Marron, Kevin,
Kevin, 204
204
Kipling, Rudyard, 9,
Kipling, 9, 114, 127
114, 127 Mars, 156
Mars, 156
 Index
Index 241
241

Leo Louis,
Martello, Leo Louis, 154,
154, 205
205 New Reformed Orthodox Order of of the
the
matriarchy, 9,
matriarchy, 9, 89, 139
89, 100-101, 139 Golden Dawn (NROOGD), 105, 139-40,
105, 139-40,
maypole, 72-73
maypole, 72-73 153; 207
153, 207:
Medea, 131
Medea, 131 New Zealand, 3-4,
3-4, 11, 70, 74,
74, 98,
11, 70, 98, 168
168
medicine wheel, 169
wheel, 169 newsgroups,
newsgroups, 185
185
meditation, 25, 51-52, 58,
25, 51-52, 58, 60-61,
60-61, 65-66,
65-66, 78,
78, Nightmare, M.M. Macha,
Macha, 73, 84, 170
73, 84, 170
178, 191
178, 191 Norse deities,
deities, 23,
23, 117,
117, 158
158
Melton,
Melton, Gordon,
Gordon, 204204 Norse mythology,
Norse mythology, 6,6, 23-24,
23-24, 27,
27, 48, 99, 117
48, 99, 117
menopause, 18, 82
18, 82 Norse pantheon,
pantheon, 23, 23, 48, 117
48, 117
menstruation, 18,18, 77-79,
77-79, 82: and cycles
82; and cycles of
of Norse reconstructionists, 117, 158
117, 158
the
the moon, 7777 Norse runes, 6464
Mercury, 156
156 novels,
novels, 105,
105, 112,
112, 116, 119, 121,
116, 119, 121, 136, 140-41,
136, 140-41,
Mesopaganism, 139
139 146, 166,
146, 196
166, 196
methodology, 209,
209, 213,
213, 215-16 NROOGD. See See New Reformed Orthodox
Jules, 91,
Michelet, Jules, 91, 94,
94, 109,
109, 206
206 Order ofof the
the Golden Dawn
midwives, 55,
55, 95,
95, 206-7 nymphs, 113
nymphs, 113
military, 43,
military, 174, 185,
43, 174, 185, 188-89
44
mimetic, 44 Oak King,
Oak King, 19,
19, 113, 133
113, 133
156
Minerva, 156 occult, 7,
occult, 99, 105,
7, 99, 115, 126-28, 131-32,
105, 115, 131-32,
money, 30,
money, 38, 60,
30, 38, 63, 135,
60, 63, 135, 190,
190, 193-95 134-35, 187, 192-93, 204-5,
134-35, 187, 207
204-5, 207
monism, 2626 Odin, 9,9, 23,
Odin, 71, 90,
23, 71, 90, 98-99,
98-99, 117, 159
117, 159
monotheism, 2, 2, 6-7,
6-7, 14,
14, 24-25,
24-25, 33-34,
33-34, 44,
44, Oestara, 5858
ISIAIS3
139, 57 A161,
153, 157, 161, 371
171 offerings,
offerings, 8, 14, 40,
8, 14, 40, 51, 54-55, 71,
51, 54-55, 71, 85, 156,
85, 156,
Monty Python, 121
Monty Python, 121 160,
160, 175-76
22, 29,
moon, 22, 29, 39, 52, 55,
39, 52, 55, 69,
69, 76-78, 90, 108,
76-78, 90, 108, Ogham, 64
Ogham, 64
175;
175; crescent, 63, 198; full,
63, 198; full, 55,
55, 76-77, 110,
76-77, 110, Oimelg.
Oimelg. SeeSee Imbolc
Imboic
112,
112, 152; rituals, 8;
152; rituals, waning, 77;
8; waning, waxing
77; waxing Old Europe,
Old Europe, 27,
27, 90, 93, 101
90, 93, 101
(new), 77
(new), 77 old religion,
old religion, 2,2, 9,9, 27, 89, 90-93,
27, 89, 90-93, 98, 107, 155,
98, 107, 155,
Brandon, 186
Morrison, Brandon, 186 205
205
mother goddess,
goddess, 100,
100, 108
108 online communities, 185 185
muggles, 196
muggles, 196 Order of of the
the Temple
Temple of of the
the Orient,
Orient, 115, 139
115, 139
Murray, Margaret, 9,
Murray, Margaret, 9, 19,
19, 34,
34, 91,
91, 93, 107, 110,
93, 107, 110, other than
other human, 15-17,
than human, 15-17, 25,25, 113,
113, 119,
119, 121,
121,
126-28, 133, 139,
126-28, 133, 139, 206
206 159
159
mystery religion, 38, 43,
religion, 38, 43, 183,
183, 191
191 otherland, 25,25, 84-85,
84-85, 117117
otherworld, 25, 25, 148-49
36
Nabesna, 36 outdoor rituals,
rituals, 1,1, 171
171
Native American, 16, 96, 167-71
16, 96,
natural world,
world, 6,6, 13,
13, 24-28,
24-28, 53, 78, 101,
53, 78, 101, 119,
119, Pagan: belief,
Pagan: 8, 13,
belief, 8, 13, 24,
24, 29,
29, 109;
109; circles, 38-39,
circles, 38-39,
150, 166,
150, 166, 173,
173, 177-78 76; communities, 10,
76; 10, 85,
85, 140,
140, 193,
193, 210;
210;
nature religion, 3, 7,
religion, 3, 7, 40-41,
40-41, 90, 120, 139,
90, 120, 139, 141,
141, ethics, 10,
ethics, 10, 165-66, 171,
171, 173-74;
173-74; events, 70, 70,
171-72,
171-72, 186, 208
186, 208 150, 193;
150, 193; federation, 45-46, 184,
federation, 45-46, 184, 188;
188;
nature spirits, 15-17, 54
spirits, 15-17, 54 groups, 2, 8, 34,
2, 8, 34, 37-39, 41, 44,
37-39, 41, 44, 56,
56, 69,
69, 74,
74,
Nazi, 98,
Nazi, 98, 159, 176
159, 176 76, 78,
76, 78, 121,
121, 137, 141, 148-49, 153,
137, 141, 161,
153, 161,
Neo-Paganism, 2, 2, 90, 139
90, 139 170, 177, 184,
170, 177, 184, 210; identity, 76,
210; identity, 76, 191;
191;
neo-shamanism. See See shamanism organizations, 8,8, 38,
38, 44-47, 158-59, 184,
44-47, 158-59, 184,
Neptune, 156
Neptune, 156 189, 193; politics,
189, 193; politics, 175; practice, 52-53,
175; practice, 52-53, 58,
58,
Neumann, Erich,
Erich, 191
191 60,
60, 121, 145, 165,
121, 145, 171, 184,
165, 171, 184, 187,
187, 215;
215;
New
New Age,
Age, 7,7, 10,
10, 41, 90, 97,
41, 90, 97, 145,
145, 147,
147, 149-50, practitioners, 8,
8, 13,
13, 36-37,
36-37, 97, 149, 151,
97, 149, 151,
155, 169,
155, 171, 193,
169, 171, 193, 197-99, 204
204 165, 169,
165, 169, 186,
186, 208-9;
208-9; studies,
studies, 2,
2, 4,4, 6-7,
6-7, 10,
10,
New Forest
Forest coven, 6,
6, 10,
10, 110, 115, 126-27,
110, 115, 126-27, 27, 40, 141,
27,40, 141, 203, 205-8, 212,
203, 205-8, 212, 215-16;
176
176 worldview, 13-14,13-14, 24,
24, 27-29,
27-29, 52,
52, 56 56
242
242 Index
Index

Pan, 20-21,
Pan, 92, 111,
20-21, 92, 111, 113
113 54, 61-63, 79;
54, 61-63, 79; practices,
practices, 4, 4, 27,
27, 48,
48, 105,
105,
pathworking, 65 65 167; public
167; public rituals,
rituals, 46-47,
46-47, 69;69;
Paxson,
Paxson, Diana, 23, 54,
Diana, 23, 54, 125,
125, 140-41,
140-41, 148,
148, 153,
153, recognition, 81,81, 119; scripts, 69-70,
119; scripts, 69-70,
159
159 84-85, 128; space,
84-85, 128; space, 37, 61, 76,
37, 61, 191; tools,
76, 191; tools,
peasant, 95, 106, 109-11,
95, 106, 109-11, 113,
113, 134
134 59, 62-63, 66,
59, 62-63, 66, 81, 97, 198
81, 97, 198
pentacle, 62-65,
pentacle, 62-65, 150,
150, 189
189 Roberts, Susan,
Roberts, 204
Susan, 204
Persephone, 71,
71, 99-100, 153
153 Roman goddesses, 54,54, 90,
90, 133.
133. See also
See also
Pike, Sarah, 75,
Pike, Sarah, 204, 209,
75, 204, 211
209, 211 individual Goddess names
plants,
plants, 53, 59, 91,
53, 59, 91, 108,
108, 173
173 Celts,
romanticism, Celts, 97-98
plastic medicine men, 149
plastic 149 English,
romantics, English, 21, 34,
21, 34, 112-13
poetry, 17, 21,
poetry, 17, 21, 23,
23, 90, 105, 112-17, 153
90, 105, 153 romantics, German, 90-91
politics, 10,
10, 37,
37, 41,
41, 55-56, 93,93, 100, 134,
100, 134, Rose, Eliot,
Rose, Eliot, 206
206
136-37, 148,
136-37, 154, 159,
148, 154, 159, 161, 165, 171-72,
161, 165, Rowling, J.
Rowling, J. K.,
K., 119,
121, 196
119,
121, 196
175, 191,
175, 191, 195-96 Rountree, Kathryn,
Kathryn, 209-10
polyamory, 1,1, 2,2, 82
82 runes, 23,
23, 60,
60, 63-65, 99, 160
63-65, 99, 160
polytheism, 8,8, 160
160
polytheistic, 6-7,
6-7, 13,13, 139,
139, 146,
146, 153,
153, 159,
159, 161
161 Sabbaths, 92,
Sabbaths, 206. See
92, 206. also sabbats
See also
practitioners: ofof the
the Craft, 150; female
Craft, 150; sabbats, 56,
sabbats, 56, 69, 71, 74,
69, 71, 76, 112,
74, 76, 112, 134,
134, 152-53.
practitioners, 18,18, 21;
21; male
male practitioners, See also
See also Sabbaths
160, 171-72, 176
160, 176 Sagas, 117-18, 160
Sagas, 160
Terry, 14,
Pratchett, Terry, 14, 119,
119, 121-22 Salomonsen, Jone, 209,
Jone, 209, 213
213
Pravoslavia, 161161 salt,
salt, 62-63
62-63
prayer, 85,
85, 108, 156, 187
108, 156, Samhain, 43,43, 57, 70, 112,
57, 70, 112, 137,
137, 154, 170
154, 170
pre-Christian pagan, 58, 90, 105,
58, 90, 121, 128
105, 121, 128 Sanders, Alex,
Alex, 129,
129, 131,
131, 194
194
priest, 74, 90,
priest, 74, 90, 110,
110, 119, 128, 152-53, 158,
119, 128, 158, 171,
171, Satanism, 7,
7, 185-87,
185-87, 203-5. See also devil
See also devil
195
195 worship
worship
priestess, 23,
priestess, 35-36, 38,
23, 35-36, 38, 74, 76-77, 90,
74, 76-77, 90, 129,
129, Schlegel, Friedrich, 90-91,
Schlegel, 90-91, 102
133,
133, 136,
136, 152-53, 171, 171, 187,
187, 194
194 scripture,
scripture, 8,
8, 35, 105, 139,
35, 105, 139, 161,
161, 205
205
priestesses, high,
high, 38, 74, 129,
38, 74, 136, 152,
129, 136, 187
152, 187 scrying,
scrying, 51, 64
51, 64
priests, high, 74,
priests, high, 74, 128,
128, 152,
152, 158, 195
158, 195 seasonal fertility rites, 106
fertility rites, 106
profane, 24, 53,
profane, 24, 53, 174
174 seasonal festivals,
festivals, 69,
69, 74, 76, 109,
74, 76, 109, 151-52
Secret Spells 198
Spells Barbie, 198
Shelly, 166
Rabinovitch, Shelly, 166 sects,
sects, 34,
34, 91, 96, 115,
91, 96, 115, 166, 194
166, 194
Raphael,
Raphael, Melissa, 206 206 seidr, 117-18,
seidr, 117-18, 141,
141, 160,
160, 210
210
RDNA. SeeSee Reformed Druids of of North
North self-initiation, 132-33,
132-33, 152, 195
152, 195
America sex, 152, 159, 173,
152, 159, 173, 191-95
rebirth, 74,
74, 80,
80, 84-85,
84-85, 99-100 sexuality, 10,
sexuality, 10, 21, 43, 83,
21, 43, 165, 174,
83, 165, 174, 192
192
Reclaiming,
Reclaiming, 135-37, 147, 147, 153-54, 170,
170, 184,
184, Shaffer, Leigh
Shaffer, Leigh S.,
S., 209
209
194-95, 209-10
194-95, Shaian, Volodymyr,
Shaian, Volodymyr, 161 161
Rede, 115, 166
Rede, 115, 166 shamanism, 8, 8, 23,
23, 27,
27, 33,
33, 35-37,
35-37, 41,
41, 66,
66, 117
117 ,
Reformed Druids of
of North America 129, 145,
129, 145, 147-49,
147-49, 152,
152, 206,
206, 215;
215; neo-
(RDNA), 137-38 shamanism, 140,140, 148-49, 215;
215; urban
Reid, Sian, 209,
Reid, Sian, 209, 211, 215
211, 215 shamanism, 149 149
reincarnation, 14, 29, 84,
14, 29, 170
84, 170 shrine,
shrine, 8,
8, 37,
37, 52, 60
52, 60
reverence, 25, 25, 55,
55, 160,
160, 175-76 Sigrblot. See
Sigrblot. See Yule
revival myth,
revival myth, 139 139 Simos, Mariam. See
Simos, See Starhawk
ridnovirs, 161 161 Simpson, Cynthia, 187
Simpson, Cynthia, 187
Ring
Ring of Troth, 4,
of Troth, 4, 159
159 sky-clad,
sky-clad, 126,
126, 135
135
rites of
rites of passage, 9, 9, 60,
60, 69,
69, 77, 79, 81-84
77, 79, 81-84 2, 26,
solitaries, 2, 26, 34,
34, 37-38, 51, 53,
37-38, 51, 53, 56, 69, 75,
56, 69, 75,
ritual, 1,1, 4,
ritual, 4, 7-11, 16; activities, 8,
7-11, 16; 8, 51,
51, 63,
63, 169;
169; ' 139,
139, 146-47,
146-47, 171,
171, 184
184
events, 159;159; formal
formal rituals,
rituals, 37,
37, 61; knife,
61; knife, spell
spell books,
books, 165, 197-98, 207
165, 197-98, 207
 Index
Index 243
243

spell
spell casting,
casting, 14, 51, 60,
14, 51, 60, 63, 191; love
63, 191; spells,
love spells, Vesta, 156
Vesta, 156
198
198 Vulcan, 156
Vulcan, 156
Spiral Dance,
Spiral Dance, 170
170 volva,
volva, 118
118
Spretnak, Charlene, 31-32,
Spretnak, 78, 87,
31-32, 78, 87, 104,
104,
180-81, 201
201 Wallis, Robert,
Wallis, Robert, 148, 209-10, 212,
148, 209-10, 212, 215-16
Starhawk, 79,
Starhawk, 84, 86,
79, 84, 86, 93-94, 99-100, 102,
93-94, 99-100, 102, wands, 52, 61,
wands, 52, 61, 63-64
125,
125, 133-37, 153-54, 166-67, 170-73, web rings,
web 185
rings, 185
177-78, 194
177-78, 194 Welsh Stories,
Welsh Stories, 99,
99, 115, 117
115, 117
Starwoman, Athena,
Athena, 197
197 Western Europe,
Europe, 92,92, 98,
98, 110, 112, 153,
110, 112, 153, 157
157
Steiger, Brad,
Steiger, 204
Brad, 204 wheel of of the year, 53,
the year, 53, 56,
56, 5757
Storosta, Wilhelm, 160 160 witch hunts, 6,
witch hunts, 6, 9,
9, 89,
89, 94
94
Sun
Sun God,
God, 19, 116
19, 116 witch trials,
trials, 95
95
sun, 56,
56, 58, 60, 74,
58, 60, 81, 116
74, 81, 116 White Witchcult, 139 139
sunwise, 53 53 issues, 186-88, 190,
Wicca: current issues, 190, 193-94,
Sylvian Hearth, 187
Sylvian 187 198;
198; definition of, of, 3, 19, 5-7,
3, 19, 5-7, 24,
24, 43-44,
43-44,
105, 151;
105, 151; denominations, 9, 9, 19,
19, 34, 36,
34, 36,
Taliesin, 98-99
Taliesin, 98~99 38, 146-48, 150-52, 154-55; ethics,
38, ethics, 10,10,
60-61, 160
talisman, 60-61, 160 28, 32,
28, 55-56, 100,
32, 55-56, 100, 165-67, 169, 171,
169, 171,
Tarot cards,
Tarot cards, 62,
62, 64-65, 94, 97,
64-65, 94, 97, 110
110 173-75, 177,177, 179-81,
179-81, 197-98, 215; 215;
taufr, 160
taufr, 160 identity, 7,7, 39,
identity, 39, 76,
76, 97,
97, 151, 155, 159,
151, 155, 159, 183,
183,
thealogy,
thealogy, 8, 8, 14,
14, 28, 100, 173-74, 206
28, 100, 206 185, 191,
185, 191, 193,
193, 196;
196; initiations, 9, 9, 46,
46, 69,
69,
theology,
theology, 4, 4, 8,
8, 14, 16, 28,
14, 16, 206, 208,
28, 206, 212
208, 212 80-81, 195;
80-81, justice, 10,
195; justice, 10, 28, 165, 169,
28, 165, 174,
169, 174,
Thor, 23, 159
Thor, 23, 159 177,
177, 184,
184, 195;
195; practices, 56-57, 61-64,
56-57, 61-64,
Thorson, Edred,
Edred, 159 159 76-78; politics, 28,
76-78; 28, 55, 166, 171-73,
55, 166, 171-73,
Thoth, 154
Thoth, 154 180-81
Tolkien, John
Tolkien, John R. R. R.,
R., 119-20 Wild
Wild Hunt,
Hunt, 9, 9, 90, 98
90, 98
trance, 8,8, 25,
25, 30,
30, 51,
51, 62-63, 65-66, 77,
62-63, 65-66, 77, Winternights. See
See Yule
Yule
117-18,
117-18, 148-49, 160, 160, 168
168 witch hunts,
hunts, 6,6, 7,7, 9,9, 21,
21, 37,
37, 89, 91-96,
89, 91-96,
Trismegistus, Hermes,
Hermes, 64, 105-6
64, 105-6 110-11,
110-11, 139, 148, 206-7
139, 148,
Troth, 38, 47-48,
Troth, 38, 47-48, 159 159 witch trials,
trials, 92,
92, 95;
95; trial
trial records, 94-95, 111,
94-95, 111,
Trothmoot, 48 48 203,
203, 206
206
Turner, Victor,
Turner, Victor, 76
76 34, 193-95
witch wars, 34,
Witchcamps, 154 154
Ukrainian Paganism, 161
Paganism, 161 world tree. See
See Yggdrasil
Yggdrasil
underworld, 23, 71, 80,
23, 71, 80, 90, 98-100, 117,
90, 98-100, 117, 153,
153, worldview. See
See cosmology
160
160 worship, 14,
worship, 14, 20,
20, 22,
22, 25,
25, 51, 101, 116-17,
51, 101, 116-17, 168
168
United Kingdom,
Kingdom, 4,4, 45-46,
45-46, 132, 176, 207
132, 176, 207
United States, 3-4, 11,
States, 3-4, 11, 43-48,
43-48, 57-69,
57-69, 75, 83,
75, 83, yazychnyks, 161
161
128-31, 134,
128-31, 134, 139-41, 147,147, 151-52,
151-52, 155,
155, Yeats,
Yeats, William Butler, 112, 114-15
Butler, 112,
159, 172,
159, 178, 185,
172, 178, 185, 188-89, 198,
198, 204-5, Yegegdrasil, 9,
Ygedrasil, 23, 90,
9, 23, 99, 159
90, 99, 159
209
209 York,
York, Michael, 7,7, 40,
40, 204,
204, 206
206
Unsworth, Calla,
Calla, 79
79 Yule,
Yule, 57-58, 70, 159
57-58, 70, 159

Valiente, Doreen, 9,9, 22, 77, 110,

22, 77, 110, 115, 123,
115, 123, Zell, Tim, 90,
Zell, Tim, 90, 93.
93. See also Zell-Ravenheart,
See also
125, 127-29, 131,
125, 142, 151,
131, 142, 151, 172,
172, 180,
180, 207
207 Oberon
Vecchia Religione,
Religione, 155
155 Zell-Ravenheart, Oberon,
Oberon, 48,
48, 119-20,
119-20, 141
141
Venus, 156
Venus, 156 Zodiac, 149
Zodiac, 149
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 About the
the Author

Barbara Jane
Jane Davy
Davy holds a Ph.D. in
in religion
religion from Concordia University,
University,
Montreal. She
She has
has been engaged
engaged in the academic study
in the study of
of Paganism for
for
more than
than ten
ten years, and
and has
has written articles on Paganism, shamanism,
and
and nature religion that have been published in
religion that in refereed journals
journals and
and en-
cyclopedias.
cyclopedias. She has taught
She has taught in
in the
the area of
of religion
religion and
and ecology
ecology atat Concor-
dia and Carleton University.
dia University and University.

245
245
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RELIGION ANTHROPOLOGY
* ANTHROPOLOGY

Pagan Studies isis maturing and

Pagan and moving beyond
beyond the
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of new religious
religious
movements to itself within the
to situate itself the study
study of religions. Introduction to
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Pagan
Studies is
Studies is the
the first and only
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designed to the study of contemporary
study of
Paganism as a world religion.
Paganism religion. ItIt examines the
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through common categories in
in the
the study
study of
of religion,
religion, which
include beliefs, practices,
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ss be Pe no a
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of eee:
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stu aoe
a

i M eres and Religion in

|

acad eile prsctioners of Paganism interested in curres

_ 4 be ; =
BARBARA JANE DAVY holds a Ph.D. in religiee?
University, Montreal.
University, Montreal. She has been
She has been engaged in the
engaged in the academic
academic study
study oof

for ten years,

for years, and
and has
has written articles published
published in
in journals
journals and
and eencye
i

on Paganism, shamanism, and nature religion ritual studies; entifell nell

tal
tal ethics;
ethics; and the philosophy
and the phil of Emmanuel Levinas. She currently serves as

president of
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the EMeementsl Studies Association of Canada and has been an
active memper of the Nature Religion Scholars Network within the American
Academy of JReligion since 19976

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