Facultad de Electrónica

BUAP

LCE404 COMUNICACIONES II

P.H.D. Josefina Castañeda Camacho

Contenido

1. Formatting and Baseband Transmission

Probability Concepts
1.1. Pulse Code Modulation
1.1.1. Uniform and Nonuniform Quantization
1.1.2. Baseband Transmission
1.2. Detection of Binary Signals in Gaussian Noise
1.2.1. Detection
1.2.2. Intersymbol Interference
1.3. Differential Pulse Code Modulation
1.3.1. Prediction
1.3.2. Delta Modulation
2. Bandpass Modulation and Demodulation
2.1. Signals and Noise
2.1.1. Noise in Radio Communication Systems
2.1.2. A Geometric View of Signals and Noise
Content
2.2. Representation of Bandpass Signals and Systems
2.2.1. Representation of Bandpass Signals
2.2.2. Representation of Linear Bandpass Systems
2.2.3. Response of Bandpass System to a Bandpass Signal
2.2.4. Representation of Bandpass Stationary Stochastic
Processes
2.3. Digital Bandpass Modulation Techniques
2.3.1. Phase Shift Keying
2.3.2. Frequency Shift Keying
2.3.3. Amplitud Shift Keying
2.4. Representation of Digitally Modulated Signals
2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods
2.5. Modulation Methods with Memory
2.5.1. Linear Modulation with Memory
2.5.2. Nonlinear Modulation Methods with Memory
Content
2.6. Spectral Characteristics of Digitally Modulated Signals
3. Optimum Receivers for the Additive White Gaussian
Noise Channel
3.1. Detection of Signals in Gaussian Noise
3.1.1. Correlation Receiver
3.1.2. Matched Filter Demodulator
3.2. Coherent Detection
3.2.1. Coherent Detection of PSK
3.2.2. Coherent Detection of FSK
3.3. Noncoherent Detection
3.3.1. Detection of Diferential PSK
3.3.2. Noncoherent detection of FSK
3.4. The Optimum Detector
3.4.1. The Maximum-Likelihood Sequence Detector
3.4.2. A Symbol-by-Symbol Detector for Signals with Memory
Content
3.5. Error Performance of the Optimum Receiver
3.5.1. Probability of Error of Binary Modulation
3.5.2. Probability of Error for M-ary Orthogonal Signals
3.5.3. Probability of Error for Simplex Signals
3.5.4. Probability of Error for M-ary Signals
3.6. Error Performance for Binary Systems
3.6.1. Probability of Bit Error for Coherently Detected BPSK
3.6.2. Probability of Bit Error for Coherently Differentially
Encoded PSK
3.6.3. Probability of Bit Error for Coherently Detected
FSK
3.6.4. Probability of Bit Error for Noncoherently Detected
FSK
3.6.5. Probability of Bit Error for DPSK
3.7. Comparison of Bit Error Performance for Various
Modulation Types
Content
3.7.1. Ideal Probability of Bit Error Performance
3.7.2. M-ary Signaling
3.7.3. Comparison of Digital Modulation Methods
4. Communications Link Analysis (Optative)
4.1. The Cannel
4.1.1. The Concept of Free Space
4.1.2. Signal to Noise Ratio Degradation
4.1.3. Source of Signal Loss and Noise
4.2. Received Signal Power and Noise Power
4.3. Link Budget Analysis
4.4. Noise Figure, Noise Temperature and System Temperatura
4.5. Sample Link Analysis
4.6. Satellite Repeaters
4.7. System Trade-Offs
References- Books

[1] J. D. Gibson, (1993), Principles of Digital and Analog

Communications, McMillan.
[2] Ziemer and Peterson, (1992), Introduction to Digital Communications,
McMillan.
[3] J. G. Proakis, (1995), Digital Communications, Mc-Graw Hill.
[4] B. Sklar, (1988), Digital Communications, Prentice Hall.
[5] J. G. Proakis and D. G. Manolakis, (1992), Digital Signal Processing:
Principles Algorithms and Applicattions, McMillan.
[6] S. Haykin, (1989), An Introduction to Analog and Digital
Communications, John Willey & Sons.
[7] K. S. Shanmugan, (1985), Digital and Analog Communications
Systems, John Willey & Sons.
References- Journals

[1] IEEE Transactions on Communications

[2] IEEE Communications Magazine

[3] Electronic Letters

Evaluation Process

Exams (2 a 3) 30%

Final Project 30%

Quizzes and Homeworks 10%

Laboratory and Homeworks 30%

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1. Formating and Baseband
Transmission

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1.1. Pulse Code Modulation
 Concept
PCM is the name given to the class of baseband signals obtained from the
quantized PAM signals by encoding each quantized signal into a digital
word.
Given: x(t) [-4V,+4V]

Note that x(t) has been represented by a 3-bit codeword. If this signal had
been quantized to 16 levels, a 4-bit codeword would be needed to
characterize each sample.

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1.1.1. Uniform and Nonuniform Quantization
 Statistics of Speech Amplitudes
Speech communication is very important and specialized area of digital
communications. Human speech is characterized by unique statistical
properties. Distribución estadística de las magnitudes
1.0 de la señal de voz.
0.9

Probability that abscissa value is exceeded

It is observed that: 0.8

0.7

0.6
- Very slow speech volumes
0.5
predominate 50% of the time
0.4
(voltage<1/4 rms value). 0.3
- Large amplitudes values are 0.2

relatively rare; only 15% of the 0.1

Time voltage exceed rms value. 0

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3 3.5 4
Speech signal magnitudes relative
to the rms of such magnitudes.

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1.1.1. Uniform and Nonuniform Quantization
 When the steps are uniform in size the quantization is known as uniform.
Such type of quantization would be wasteful for speech signals due to
many of the quantization steps rarely be used.
 Also, for the uniform quantization the Signal-to-Noise ratio, SNR, is
worse for low-level signals than for high-level signals due to the
quantization noise is the same for all signal magnitudes.
 Nonuniform quantization can provide fine quantization of the weak
signals and coarse quantization of the strong signals. Additionally, its effect
is to improve the overall SNR by reducing the noise for the predominant
weak signals, at the expense of an increase in noise for rarely ocurring
strong signals.
 To do independent the input signal form the output SNR it had been
proposed the use of nonuniform compresors.

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1.1.1. Uniform and Nonuniform Quantization

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1.1.1. Uniform and Nonuniform Quantization
 Nonuniform Quantization

One way to achieving nonuniform quantization is by first distorting the

original signal with a logarithmic compression characteristics.
For small magnitude signals the compression characteristics has a much
steeper slope than for large magnitude signals.
Output Output of the
Compressed Signal

Compression
No compression

Input Input

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1.1.1. Uniform and Nonuniform Quantization

Output of the
Non-Compressed Signal

Input

 Companding Characteristics

The early PCM systems implemented a smooth logarithmic compression

function. Today, most PCM systems use piecewise linear approximation to
the logarithmic compression characteristic. In North America a -law
compression characteristic is used

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1.1.1. Uniform and Nonuniform Quantization

log e 1    x xmax 
y  ymax sgn x
log e 1   
where
 1 x  0
sgn x  
 1 x  0

And  is a positive constant, x an y are the input and output voltages and
xmax and ymax are the maximum positive excursions of the input and output
voltages, respectively.

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1.1.1. Uniform and Nonuniform Quantization

Another compression characteristic, used mainly in Europe is the A-law

characteristic defined as
 A x xmax  x 1
 y sgn x 0  
 1  log e A
max
xmax A
y
 y 1  log e A x xmax  sgn x 1  x  1
 max 1  log e A xmax
where
 1 x  0
sgn x  
 1 x  0
and A a constant value.

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1.1.1. Uniform and Nonuniform Quantization
Quantizing Error

The difference between the input and output is called the quantizing error.
In the next figure we demonstrate the process of mapping the input
sequence X(t) to the quantized output sequence X̂ t . We can visualize
forming X̂ t  by adding to each X(t) an error sequence e(t)

Xˆ t   X t   et 

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1.1.1. Uniform and Nonuniform Quantization
The error sequence is deterministically defined by the input amplitude
through the instantaneous error versus amplitude characteristic. The
error sequence exhibits two distinct characteristics over different input
operating regions

1. Granular Error Region: Within this interval the quantizer errors are
confined by the size of the nearby staircase risers. The input interval
for which the quantizing errors are granular defines the dynamic range
of the quantizer. This interval is sometimes called the region of linear
operation.
2. Nongranular Error Region: This interval is corresponding to the
linearly increasing or decreasing error characteristic. The errors that
occur in this interval are called saturation or overload errors. When
the quantizer operates in this region, we say that the quantizer is
saturated.

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1.1.1. Uniform and Nonuniform Quantization

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1.1.1. Uniform and Nonuniform Quantization
The quantization error corresponding to each amplitude represents an error
or noise term associated with that input amplitude. Under the assumptions
that the quantization interval is small compared to the dynamic range of the
input signal, and that the input signal has a smooth probability density
function over the quantization interval, we can assume that the
quantization errors are uniformly distributed over that interval.

Where the pdf with zero mean corresponds to a rounding quantizer, while
the pdf with mean -q/2 corresponds to a truncation quantizer. If the number
of steps sizes is N=2b and the range is defined as ±Emax, the size of the
quantization step is
Emax
q b
2
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1.1.1. Uniform and Nonuniform Quantization
A useful figure of merit for the uniform quantizer is the quantizer output
variance. If we assume that the quantization error is uniformly distributed
over a single quantizing step interval q-wide, the quantizer variance
assuming zero-mean error is
q 2 q 2
q2
   e pede   e de 
2 2 1 2

q 2 q 2
q 12

Where p(e) is the probability density function of the quantization error.

In general the quantiles (quantizing steps) are not equally sized over the
range of the input variables. We can account for this amplitude-dependent
error by averaging the squared error over the amplitude variable and
weighting by the probability amplitude

  Ex  qx    e x  px dx
 
2 2 2
q


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1.1.1. Uniform and Nonuniform Quantization
Where x is the input, q(x) is the quantized version and p(x) is the amplitude
probability density function.
We can partition the interval of integration in two intervals, one accounting
for errors in the granular region (0, Emax) and the second accounting for
errors in the saturation region (Emax,).
The noise power can be divided into subintervals corresponding to the
successive discrete quantizer output levels. If we assume N quantile
intervals
N xn1
 q2    e x 2
px dx
n 1 xn

If we know assume that the density function is approximately uniform over

each interval, we have
N n1 x

 q2   xn1  xn   px dx

1
12 n1 xn

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1.1.1. Uniform and Nonuniform Quantization
Noise power alone will not fully describe the noise performance of the
quantizer. A more meaningful measure of quality is the ratio of output
quantizinf noise variance to the input signal variance. Assuming that the
input signal has zero mean the signal variance is


 X2   x 2 px dx


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1.1.2. Baseband Transmission
 Waveform Representation of Binary Digits
We need to represent binary pulses in order to transmit them through a
baseband channel.
At the receiver a determination must be made as to presence or absence of
a pulse in each bit time slot.

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1.1.2. Baseband Transmission
 PCM Waveform Types
The various waveforms are classified into the following groups
1. Nonreturn-to-zero (NRZ): It can be partitioned between the following
groups
NRZ-L: 1 is represented by a level, 0 by another level.
NRZ-M: 1 is represented by a change in level.
NRZ-S: 0 is represented by a change in level.
2. Return-to-zero (RZ): The RZ waveforms consist of
Unipolar-RZ: 1 is represented by a half-bit-wide pulse, 0 by absence
of a pulse.
Bipolar-RZ: 1 an 0 by opposite level pulses that are one- half-bit-wide.
RZ-AMI: 1 represented by equal amplitude alternating pulses, 0
absence of pulses.
3. Phase Encoded: Better known as Manchester coding consists of
bi--L (bi-phase-level): 1 is represented by a half-bit-wide pulse
positioned during the first half of the bit interval. 0 by a half-bit
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1.1.2. Baseband Transmission
wide pulse during the second half of the bit interval.
bi--M (bi-phase-mark): Transition occurs at the beginning of every
bit interval. 1 is represented by a second transition one-half bit interval
later, 0 by no second transition.
bi--S (bi-phase-space): Transition occurs at the beginning of every bit
interval. 1 is represented by no second transition and 0 by a second
transition one-half bit interval later.
Delay Modulation: 1 is represented by a transition at the midpoint of
the bit interval. 0 by no transition, unless it is followed by another
zero.
4. Multilevel Binary: Bipolar RZ and RZ-AMI belong to this group, also
Dicode-NRZ: one-to-zero or zero-to-one data transition change the
pulse polarity, without a data transition the zero level is sent.
Dicode-RZ: one-to-zero or zero-to-one transition produces a half-
duration polarity change, other wise a zero level is sent.

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1.1.2. Baseband Transmission

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1.1.2. Baseband Transmission
The reason for the large selection of PCM waveforms relates to the
difference in performance that characterize each one. For a particular
application, some of the parameters we should examine are

1. DC component: Eliminating the DC energy from the signal’s power

spectrum enables the system to be ac coupled, having little sensitivity
to very low frequency signal components.
2. Self-Clocking: Symbol or bit sincronization is required for any digital
communication system. Some PCM codes schemes have inherent
synchronizing or clock features as the Manchester code, which has a
transition in the middle bit interval that provides a clocking signal.
3. Error detection: Dicode or doubinary schemes provide the means of
detecting data errors without introducing additional error detection
bits.
4. Bandwidth compression: Multilevel codes increase the efficiency of
bandwidth utilization by allowing a reduction in required bandwidth
for a given data rate.
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1.1.2. Baseband Transmission
5. Differential encoding: It allows the polarity of differentially encoded
waveforms to be inverted without affecting the data detection.
6. Noise Inmunity: Some PCM codes are more immune than others to the
noise. For example, the NRZ waveforms have better error
performance than does the unipolar RZ waveform.

 Spectral Attributes of PCM Waveforms

One of the most common criteria used for comparing or selecting one
waveform are spectral characteristics.

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1.1.2. Baseband Transmission
From previous figure we can note that:
*NRZ and duobinary schemes have large spectral components at low
frequency.
*Bi-phase schemes have no energy at dc, although it requires large
bandwidth.
*The methods that are particularly efficient are duobinary and delay
modulation.

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