Received: 26 November 2018 Accepted: 16 December 2018

DOI: 10.1002/col.22348

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Importance of the color of light for the illumination of urban

squares
Aleksandra Cabarkapa | Lidija Djokic

Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade,

Belgrade, Serbia Abstract
Correspondence The objective of this article was to establish the significance of parameters relevant
Lidija Djokic, Faculty of Architecture, University for urban square illumination, particularly those related with the color of light.
of Belgrade, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra
Performed using a questionnaire and with 154 architecture students as respondents,
73, Belgrade 11000, Serbia.
Email: lidija@arh.bg.ac.rs the survey showed that the 18 parameters can be divided into two groups. The first
Funding information group of 13 parameters refers to the overall impression, influencing the basic and
Ministry of Education, Science and Technological most important lighting aims like safety, security, orientation, visual comfort, and
Development of the Republic of Serbia, Grant/ amenity, whereas the second group includes parameters related to lighting features
Award Number: TR 36018
which may negatively influence the overall impression. The four parameters directly
linked to the color of light were evaluated lower than expected, indicating that archi-
tecture students were probably translating their attitude toward color in architecture
to color of light, thus underestimating this lighting parameter. The survey results
also showed that female respondents are more sensitive to parameters, which affect
safety and security.

KEYWORDS

architecture students, color of light, questionnaire, square lighting, survey

1 | INTRODUCTION Experienced lighting designers know very well that the

While safety of drivers and other traffic participants is the
dominant issue when illuminating roads and streets intended
for motorized or mixed traffic, in pedestrian areas safety,
security, well-being, and amenity issues deserve equal atten-
tion.1 This particularly refers to ambient lighting––lighting
of urban spaces (squares, parks and other pedestrian areas
intended for gathering, lingering, walking, or resting). Loe2
claimed that in ambient lighting efficient use of energy is
equally important as visual function and amenity. Not wish-
ing to oppose to the importance of policies on reducing
energy use and other global environment issues, we consider
energy efficiency less important in ambient lighting, particu-
larly since it does not dominantly participate in urban light-
ing. In ambient lighting, the designer should be focused on
lighting performance in order to create an attractive space
with an appealing atmosphere.
fulfillment of all objective requirements given in the relevant
lighting standards1,3,4 (illuminance level and uniformity,
glare limitation, and face recognition), which is necessary
for achieving good visibility, does not guarantee an appro-
priate ambient lighting solution. Its quality equally depends
on the subjective aspects of ambient lighting, dominated by
the color of light. With immediate emotional effects they
cause, both components of this single lighting parameter
(color appearance and color rendering) are extremely impor-
tant for visual comfort, well-being, ambience quality, and
spatial attractiveness. Figure 1 contains three photos show-
ing how adequate lighting (in this case produced by warm
white LEDs (with a correlated color temperature [CCT] of
3000 K and characterized by a very good color rendering
(with a color rendering index [CRI] of 80)) contribute to the
creation of an inviting and relaxing atmosphere and preser-
vation of architectural heritage.

446 © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/col Color Res Appl. 2019;44:446–453.
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CABARKAPA AND DJOKIC 447

FIGURE 1 Old town, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina (courtesy of Minel-Schréder, Belgrade)

The atmosphere in an environment at night is affected a
great deal by the light source color appearance. Figure 2
contains two photos showing the illumination of a square,
realized by neutral white LEDs (CCT = 4000 K), also with
a very good color rendering (CRI = 80). Although the warm
colors prevail in the natural materials applied on the square
surfaces and furniture, the use of neutral white light did not
have negative effects regarding the created atmosphere.
Hecht5 presented several reasons for the use of warm or neu-
tral (and not cool) white LEDs when illuminating urban
spaces, the most important being health issues, pleasant
atmosphere and the reduction of both glare and sky glow.
Therefore, general lighting of urban spaces is recommended
to be realized applying warm or neutral white light (of a

FIGURE 2 The Republic Square, Novi Sad, Serbia (courtesy of Minel-Schréder, Belgrade)

448
FIGURE 3 The Basilica Cathedral of Lima, Peru
CCT approximately ranging from 2750 K to 4250 K),
emphasizing that the simultaneous use of warm and neutral
white lights in an urban space does not always produce
pleasant effects. For ambient lighting only light sources pos-
sessing a very good or excellent color rendering (with a
CRI ≥ 80) are considered appropriate (usually ceramic
metal halide lamps or LEDs). In addition, such light sources
help users better identify colors of the clothes of potential
perpetrators, which “may be a potential deterrent to criminal
activity and provide pedestrians with a sense of security.”6
For over a decade lighting practitioners have been faced
with a proliferation of energy efficient, long-lasting, versatile
and flexible LED technology, enabling the creation of col-
ored, and dynamic lighting effects. However, Gardner7
noticed that colored lighting may create a lot of problems in
an urban space, although ordinary people would claim that
all forms of colored lighting are acceptable, providing
excitement to our dull cities. He mentioned arbitrary applica-
tion of color to buildings (degrading their architectural
form), planting and landscapes (distorting them), as well as
visually disturbing lighting schemes based on the use of
extensive color and dynamic effects. In addition, he rightly
pointed out that what is effective as a temporary scheme is
usually totally inappropriate as a permanent setting. Some
positive effects of the application of colored lighting were
also emphasized (e.g., those achieved by a successful part-
nership between colored lighting and water, gentle color
washes and small, attractive color details).
The application of monochromatic light requires addi-
tional analyses and tryouts on-site in the process of lighting
design, especially in case of a permanent setting. Figure 3
shows simultaneously two examples of the application of
colored light. The first refers to the illumination of the
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CABARKAPA AND DJOKIC
building façade, which was done by using warm light
(intended for both general lighting and discreet accentuation
of the valuable details), as well as by applying purple light
for the illumination of the roof, which is very well combined
with the façade lighting. This subtle lighting aesthetically
contributes to the surroundings and is acceptable as a perma-
nent lighting solution. Nevertheless, the quality of the build-
ing illumination cannot compensate for the lack of light in
the main square space, where the pedestrians are left to wan-
der in the dark. The building draws attention, but the dark-
ness reduces the possibility of orientation and recognition of
people's faces, primarily decreasing safety and security. The
second example of the application of colored light relates to
the lines of monochromatic light on the trunks of the palm
trees. However, the treetops are dark and the purpose of the
light lines is not clear.
Appropriately illuminated squares, parks, pedestrian
zones and landscapes induce feelings of security and pleas-
antness, significantly affected by the color of light. In addi-
tion to city landmarks, illuminated spaces can represent
highlights of the urban night image. Besides good visibility
and visual comfort, as well as creation of a pleasant atmo-
sphere and aesthetically pleasing environment, quality ambi-
ent lighting should stimulate emotions, which requires the
lighting designers to be imaginative and innovative. For
example, Loe and others8 reported that in addition to visual
lightness of an environment the observers liked to see an ele-
ment of “visual interest.”
Illumination of urban spaces is considerably more com-
plex than that of streets or façades because ambient lighting
involves not only the principles related to both street and
architectural (decorative) lighting, but also the appearance of
the whole space as an urban entity and, most of all, the

CABARKAPA AND DJOKIC
appearance of people. In this sense, harmony, one of its most
important aspects being the color of light, is necessary
between square elements and the surrounding buildings. Dif-
ferent effects than those experienced in daylight are often
interesting and visually attractive. However, the surround-
ings as elements belonging to the square should be consid-
ered in order to prevent solutions which break the spatial
unity, degrading the atmosphere.
Kostic and Djokic9 presented a number of recommenda-
tions intended for urban lighting designers that result from
user needs. They refer to color appearance and color render-
ing, avoidance of dark areas in order to increase security,
minimization of obtrusive light and the position, size, and
design of luminaires and poles.
Why is adequate perception of colors so important in
urban spaces? The answer is simple: representing one of the
most influential factors in recognition of objects and spaces,
color is an extremely significant urban feature.10 Hue con-
trast enables understanding of shapes in a way which is
usually more effective than brightness contrast. Color in
man-made environments serves various purposes, “such as
identification, symbolism, semiotics, emotional control, psy-
chosomatic comfort, and communication.”11
Color is particularly important in historical areas,
because it can affect heritage values and collective iden-
tity.12 Therefore, as a heritage value, the chromatic structure
of an urban space, being one of the basic characteristics of
its spatial structure, should be incorporated into each urban
restoration process (in other words, color of buildings and
spaces cannot be changed without destroying their previous
visual logic, which should be remembered when reconstruct-
ing historical parts of the city).13
Besides structure and form, ornaments and colors played a
prominent role through the history of architecture.14 Modern
architecture, however, rarely considers color as a quality feature.
Due to the need to express architecture solely through form and
structure, absence of ornament affected absence of color.
Throughout the world there are urban spaces that are
poorly lit. In many cases inappropriate lighting solutions
resulted from limited budgets or the fact that important light-
ing principles, frequently connected with the color of light,
were not appropriately addressed. There are ambient lighting
solutions that degrade the appearance of urban spaces due to
inappropriate use of modern (usually LED) technologies,
again predominantly regarding the color of light. Since
architects usually represent leaders in urban lighting design,
the main objective of this research was to evaluate the
awareness of students of architecture about the importance
of the color of light when illuminating urban squares.
2 | SURVEY
A survey was conducted aiming to establish the significance
of single parameters the researchers considered relevant for
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449
subjective evaluation of the lighting quality of city squares
in general, and particularly to what extent participants assess
the color of light important for square lighting. It was based
on a questionnaire containing 18 influencing parameters pre-
sented in Table 1. The respondents were asked to rate each
of these parameters using ratings 1-5 (1 for very small sig-
nificance of the parameter, 2 for its small significance, 3 for
its average significance, 4 for its large significance, and 5 for
its very large significance). The subjects, who took part in
the survey on a voluntary basis, were students of the final
year of the Bachelor program at the Faculty of Architecture,
University of Belgrade. They were chosen because their edu-
cation enabled an understanding of the purpose of urban
squares and their importance for the overall city impression,
as well as the meaning of all considered parameters for sub-
jective evaluation of square lighting. Through their urban
planning and design courses the students became very famil-
iar with the structure of an urban square (including its open
space, surrounding buildings, directions of approach, etc.),
visibility within the square and its visibility from a distance,
as well as the square elements (monuments, fountains, land-
scape elements, and other focal points). It should be empha-
sized that the students did not attend lighting courses at the
University, meaning that their answers were not affected by
the attitudes of their professors. Out of 154 respondents,
104 were female and 50 male. All of them were 21-23 years
of age.
It should be emphasized that the respondents were not
told to pay special attention to issues related with the color
of light. The four parameters directly associated with the
color of light (parameters 6, 7, 14, and 15) were not grouped
in the questionnaire.
Since the number of questions was 18, the survey orga-
nizers could not find a more appropriate way to compare the
significance of single aspects relevant for square lighting
(establish their relative importance) than to compare the
average marks corresponding to these questions.
According to the well-known procedures,15,16 the final
version of the questionnaire was made with the help of a
focus group, which consisted of experienced architects and
urban lighting designers. Each parameter was analyzed
through discussion of its necessity, clarity, and terms which
might be confusing. Numerous refinements were made (for
instance, in the fourth parameter “intensity of the illumina-
tion” was replaced by “visibility,” the previous version of
the fifth parameter was “glare experience,” the present
parameter 10 represents the combination of two parameters
from the initial questionnaire, and the fifteenth parameter
received an explanation [put in the brackets]).
The parameters were referring to urban squares in gen-
eral and, as explained above, the students were familiar with
all aspects of urban squares and their purposes. Besides theo-
retical knowledge, the students have experience with urban
squares, because, as young people, they spend a lot of time
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450 CABARKAPA AND DJOKIC

TABLE 1 Parameters for subjective evaluation of square lighting

1. Intensity of lighting of the square area on which people are moving 1 2 3 4 5

2. Uniformity of lighting of the square area 1 2 3 4 5
3. Achieved contrasts of brightness and shadows 1 2 3 4 5
4. Visibility of human faces 1 2 3 4 5
5. Minimization of glare 1 2 3 4 5
6. Adequacy of color of light used for the illumination of the square 1 2 3 4 5
area
7. Authentic reproduction of colors in the square space 1 2 3 4 5
8. Limitation of light pollution (light directed toward the sky and light 1 2 3 4 5
trespass)
9. Contribution of lighting to orientation 1 2 3 4 5
10. Day appearance of luminaires and poles and their compatibility 1 2 3 4 5
with the surroundings
11. Lighting quality of the illuminated buildings surrounding the square 1 2 3 4 5
12. Lighting quality of the illuminated square elements, such as 1 2 3 4 5
monuments, fountains, benches, trees, …
13. Harmony between the illuminated buildings surrounding the square 1 2 3 4 5
and the illuminated square elements
14. Application of monochromatic light on appropriate surfaces 1 2 3 4 5
15. Adequate application of dynamic lighting (which assumes adequate 1 2 3 4 5
changes of light color and intensity over time)
16. Presence of artistic light installations 1 2 3 4 5
17. Energy efficiency of the square lighting installation 1 2 3 4 5
18. Economic aspect of the square lighting installation 1 2 3 4 5

outside both day and night.17 Therefore, the focus group
decided that visiting particular squares or showing their two-
or three-dimensional images should not be done, because it
would possibly draw the students' attention toward specific
square characteristics, unnecessarily suggesting their impor-
tance. Instead, it was decided to organize the survey in a
large classroom where a short reminder on the structure, ele-
ments and purpose of urban squares would be given to all
participants (as a group), followed by the explanation of
each parameter from the questionnaire, because the orga-
nizers did not take any knowledge for granted.
The introductory session lasted for half an hour, after
which the students were asked to fill out the questionnaire.
Even though terms like intensity and uniformity of lighting,
contrasts, visibility of human faces, glare and contribution of
lighting to orientation are probably well-known to the stu-
dents, they were explained. Some terms, like authentic
reproduction of colors and light pollution, needed more
explanation. Adequate time was devoted to the explanation
of monochromatic light. It was explained to the respondents
that colorful surfaces (spaces) cannot be adequately pre-
sented if illuminated by monochromatic light because then
the colors are not appropriately reproduced. Sufficient time
was spent to explain the meaning of adequate application of
dynamic lighting, stating that quick changes of light color
and intensity may only be appropriate if they are of short
duration. The meaning of both energy efficiency in the field
of square lighting and the economic aspect of the square
lighting installation (in the sense of what constitutes invest-
ment and exploitation costs) was also explained. The session
leader was careful not to expose her opinion toward the
importance of any of the 18 parameters. The subjects were
asked to concentrate and give honest answers. They did not
communicate with each other when filling out the
questionnaire.
3 | R E S U L T S AN D D IS C US S IO N
Figure 4, containing the average mark the respondents gave
to each parameter, shows an obvious difference in signifi-
cance between the two parameters ranked as first and the
parameter ranked as last (the width of the overall range is
1.19). According to their average marks, the parameters can
be divided into two groups. Small evaluation differences
exist between the adjacent parameters from the first group,
ranked as the first thirteen, while a noticeable drop (0.19)
exists between the first and second group, as well as between
some adjacent parameters belonging to the second group.
The parameters from the first group predominantly con-
tribute to the overall visual impression, influencing the basic
and most important lighting aims devoted to safety, security,
visual comfort, and amenity. These parameters show that the
students understood the meaning and significance of the spa-
tial aspect of a square. The subjects recognized the impor-
tance of visual comfort (parameters 1, 5, 9, and 13) and
amenity (parameters 10-13). Regarding the latter, the respon-
dents' appreciation for the compatibility of the illumination
of the buildings surrounding a square with the illumination
of the square elements shows their consciousness of the link

CABARKAPA AND DJOKIC
FIGURE 4 Average marks for all of the considered parameters
between lighting quality and ambient quality, which was
expected from architecture students. It is interesting that the
seven parameters devoted to visual comfort and amenity
were ranked among the top eight. Adequately illuminated
human faces, limited light pollution and attractive contrasts
and shadows (parameters 4, 8, and 3, respectively) were well
appreciated, probably due to their positive effect on the over-
all lighting performance.
It should be emphasized that it was expected that ade-
quacy of the color of light (parameter 6), significantly con-
tributing to the overall visual impression, would be better
ranked. Energy efficiency of the square lighting installation
(parameter 17) was unexpectedly highly ranked, since archi-
tecture students are expected to be more devoted to perfor-
mance than to energy efficiency. However, this can be
explained by the constant propaganda regarding the impor-
tance of energy efficiency to which the students were
exposed during their studies and all through their education,
starting from elementary school. Even though the respon-
dents were architecture students, the fact that the economic
aspect of the square lighting installation (parameter 18) was
evaluated as to belong to the first group shows their aware-
ness regarding the necessity to achieve economically justi-
fied solutions. The parameter devoted to contrasts of
brightness and shadows (parameter 3) was evaluated as the
last in the first group, which might need explanation. Con-
trast and shadows usually result in dramatic effects, but are
more welcome in interior spaces than outdoors, where they
can be scary, cause insecurity or produce unpleasant effects.
The parameters ranked in the second group (average
grades 3.48-2.97) mostly determine lighting features which
have positive effects, although the majority of them (all
except parameter 7) can negatively affect the overall visual
impression. Illuminance uniformity (parameter 2) is certainly
not the key issue on surfaces intended for pedestrians, which
was recognized by students of architecture. To them, unifor-
mity is often associated with dull spaces. Even though
monochromatic and dynamic lighting (parameters 14 and
15) can contribute to the liveliness of an ambient, numerous
bad examples all over the world can be the reason for
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451
judging these parameters less important. As for artistic light
installations (parameter 16), their low grade is possibly
caused by the fact that the students had very little experience
with them.
The fact that the reproduction of colors (color rendering)
belongs to the second group requires a broader elaboration,
since spaces in which people gather need good color render-
ing in order to be visually comfortable. Underestimated sig-
nificance of color rendering in this survey is probably
originating in the attitude presented in schools of architec-
ture and urban design (dominant in the modern era), which
keeps color secondary to form, function and structure. Color
is rarely discussed, most often regarded as subjective,
reflecting personal views, and therefore inconsequential.18 It
seems that efforts invested to re-establish the importance of
color in architectural design in order to overcome the above
stated general attitude did not significantly affect the archi-
tecture students participating in this research.
The questionnaire included four questions directly linked
to the color of light. While question 6 was positioned in the
first group, questions 7, 14, and 15 received average marks
which positioned them in the second group. It can, therefore,
be concluded that the students of architecture participating in
this survey did not evaluate the color of light as important in
square lighting as it should be considered by lighting
designers. This confirms the findings of Janssens and
Mikellides,19 made at the end of the twentieth century, that
students of architecture lack knowledge about color. This is
why the opinion that the use of color in urban design should
rely on a close cooperation between scientists and
designers20 is also valid for urban lighting design.
A large number of respondents enabled the researchers
to compare the evaluations given by the female and male
respondents (see Table 2). It was interesting to see that the
importance of all parameters, parameter 7 being a single
exception, received higher grades from female than from
male respondents, which implies that the female population
values lighting of public spaces more than the male popula-
tion does. The differences between the results gained from
female vs male respondents were mostly below 0.25. How-
ever, there are seven parameters for which the differences
were larger than 0.25, and this finding can be considered sig-
nificant and interesting. The differences regarding orienta-
tion (0.54), visibility of people's faces (0.50), illuminance
level (0.48), and uniformity (0.35), as well as minimization
of glare (0.28), show that female respondents are more sensi-
tive to the lighting parameters that affect safety and security.
The same was reported in previous studies.17,21–23 The
female respondents also showed greater awareness regarding
issues of common value like energy efficiency and limitation
of light pollution, the differences being 0.43 and 0.28,
respectively.
In order to check the statistical significance of the results
obtained, an appropriate statistical analysis was done for the

452
TABLE 2 Average marks for all of the 18 considered parameters given by female (F) and male (M) respondents
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
F 4.32 3.59 3.67 3.93 4.08 3.87 3.27 3.78
M 3.84 3.24 3.66 3.43 3.80 3.70 3.32 3.50
whole group of respondents, as well as for the female and
male groups. The statistical analysis based on multiple com-
parisons was carried out using Excel Data Analysis––
Analysis of Variance (which compares the average marks
for all of the considered parameters). It showed that the sur-
vey results are statistically significant, because for each of
the considered groups the F-statistic was greater than the
corresponding F-critical value:
• F = 18.91 > Fcrit = 1.63 for the whole group,
• F = 15.64 > Fcrit = 1.63 for the female group, and
• F = 4.67 > Fcrit = 1.63 for the male group.
This analysis was followed by the t test (Excel Data
Analysis––Two Sample Assuming Unequal Variances),
used to compare the two parameters with the maximum and
minimum means (average marks). It confirmed that the sur-
vey results are statistically significant, since the t-statistic
was larger than the corresponding critical value in all three
cases:
• t = 10.42 > tcrit = 1.97 for the whole group,
• t = 9.87 > tcrit = 1.97 for the female group, and
• t = 5.23 > tcrit = 1.98 for the male group.
4 | CON CLU SION S
One of the most rapid and inexpensive ways to restructure
the built environment is by illumination, which can contrib-
ute to its spatial values, but also degrade the spatial structure
or some of its elements. Lighting seems to be one of the best
means for preserving “identity and poeticness where inevita-
ble mobility leaves its traces.”11
A questionnaire survey aimed to establish how students
of architecture evaluate the significance of single parame-
ters relevant for square lighting, and particularly the impor-
tance given to issues related with the color of light was
performed. The analysis of 154 architecture students,
responses showed that the 18 parameters can be divided
into two groups according to the grade eash student
assigned. The first group consists of 13 parameters refer-
ring to the overall impression and influencing the basic and
most important lighting aims devoted to safety, security,
orientation, visual comfort, and amenity. The second group
includes parameters related to lighting features which can
have positive effects, but frequently negatively affect the
overall impression. All of the four questions related to
parameters directly linked to the color of light were
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CABARKAPA AND DJOKIC
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
4.26 4.07 4.03 4.20 3.94 2.99 3.36 3.42 4.23 3.79
3.72 3.90 3.92 4.06 3.86 2.92 3.16 3.18 3.80 3.56
evaluated lower than expected. The results of the survey
indicated that architecture students were probably translat-
ing their attitude toward color in architecture to color of
light, and therefore underestimating the significance of this
lighting parameter, although it considerably influences
ambient quality. A possible explanation lies in the fact that
in modern architecture color is secondary to form and struc-
ture. This is a general stand accepted in the process of
architectural education, obviously influencing the students.
The survey results also showed that female respondents are
more sensitive to lighting parameters which affect safety
and security, as well as more responsible regarding issues
of common value like energy efficiency and restriction of
light pollution.
The statistical analysis based on both the multiple com-
parisons and the t test showed that the survey results are sta-
tistically significant for the whole group of respondents, as
well as for the female and male groups of respondents.
It would be interesting to carry out a survey with two
other groups of respondents. One would consist of artists
with a solid appreciation of color (they could use the ques-
tionnaire applied in this research), and the other of more
diversified respondents whose educational background was
not in any way influenced by color (obviously, the question-
naire would have to be significantly modified in order to
make the questions and their terms comprehensible to the
ordinary people). It would also be worth to conduct a similar
survey focused on the illumination of parks, where the land-
scaped areas dominate over the built urban elements. The
intention would be to see if the presence of vegetation
changes the attitude toward the significance of the color of
light.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was partially supported by the Ministry of
Education, Science and Technological Development of the
Republic of Serbia (grant number: TR 36018). The authors
thank Bojana Lj. Mihailovic from the University of Belgrade
for her help regarding the statistical analysis.
Figure 3 represents the photo “Cathedral de Lima at
night” (https://www.flickr.com/photos/eye1/3177814876/in/
album-72157612253163106/) by Ivan Mlinaric (https://
www.flickr.com/photos/eye1/), licensed under CC BY 2.0
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/).
OR CID
Lidija Djokic https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2405-0670
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CABARKAPA AND DJOKIC 453

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