energies
Article
Renovation of Public Lighting Systems in Cultural Landscapes:
Lighting and Energy Performance and Their Impact
on Nightscapes
Lodovica Valetti , Francesca Floris and Anna Pellegrino *






Citation: Valetti, L.; Floris, F.;
Pellegrino, A. Renovation of Public
Lighting Systems in Cultural
Landscapes: Lighting and Energy
Performance and Their Impact on
Nightscapes. Energies 2021, 14, 509.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en14020509
Received: 29 November 2020
Accepted: 15 January 2021
Published: 19 January 2021
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This article is an open access article
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Energies 2021, 14, 509. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14020509
Department of Energy “Galileo Ferraris”, Politecnico di Torino, 10129 Torino, Italy;
lodovica.valetti@polito.it (L.V.); francesca.floris@studenti.polito.it (F.F.)
* Correspondence: anna.pellegrino@polito.it
Abstract: The technological innovation in the field of lighting and the need to reduce energy con-
sumption connected to public lighting are leading many municipalities to undertake the renewal of
public lighting systems, by replacing the existing luminaires with LED technologies. This renovation
process is usually aimed at increasing energy efficiency and reducing maintenance costs, whist im-
proving the lighting performance. To achieve these results, the new luminaires are often characterised
by a luminous flux distribution much more downward oriented, which may remarkably influence
and alter the perception of the night image of the sites. In this study the implications of the renovation
of public lighting systems in terms of lighting and energy performance as well as the effects relating
to the alteration of the night image, in historical contexts characterized by significant landscape value,
are analysed. Results, along with demonstrating the positive effect that more sustainable and energy
efficient lighting systems may have on the lighting performance and energy consumptions of public
lighting systems, evidences the impact they may have on the alteration of the nocturnal image.
Keywords: public lighting; urban lighting; lighting retrofit; energy efficiency; nocturnal image;
lightscape; cultural landscape
1. Introduction
In the last few decades, the concept of smart cities has promoted as a system aimed
at increasing citizens’ quality of life, safety and energy savings [1]. From an analysis of
the literature it emerges that currently the meaning of a smart city is multi-faceted and
characterized by many elements and dimensions [2]. The application of new technologies
is one of the solutions adopted to obtain sustainable economic development, decrease
energy consumption and improve the quality of life [3]. Within this frame in public policies,
among the different contexts of intervention (buildings, mobility, etc.), the renewal of
lighting systems has assumed a fundamental role. In fact, public lighting is an important
service for cities and responds to specific needs: it has a key role for the security of citizens
and prevention of criminal actions [4], as well as for their well-being. Moreover, public
lighting has a fundamental role in defining the urban night-time panorama, improving the
appearance and increasing the attractiveness of a city [5]. In fact, light is an element able to
define the nocturnal image of urban spaces and to enhance monuments and architectures
in the cities. However, it also represents a significant item of recurrent expenditure in the
budget of municipal administrations [6], for energy and maintenance costs, and could have
a significant impact in terms of energy consumption and light pollution [7].
As reported by Cellucci et al. in 2015 [8] in Europe in most cases urban and street light-
ing current systems are obsolete, inefficient, and not fulfil the standard requirements [9].
Therefore, they represent an opportunity to improve energy efficiency and reduce CO2
emissions. A study conducted by the European Commission in 2004 [10] demonstrated that
a savings of approximately between 30% and 50% of the electricity used for lighting could
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Energies 2021, 14, 509 2 of 25

be achieved by investing in energy-efficient lighting systems. Such investments could be

economically sensible with a good return on investment and sustainability, as well as im-
prove lighting quality [11]. In Italy, the public lighting situation has been outlined in some
studies conducted by the Italian research institute ENEA [12,13]. These studies showed
that in 2015 street lighting was responsible for an energy consumption of 5.9 TWh/year
and that about 2 million light points were still characterized by luminous efficiencies below
70 Lm/W. Moreover, the lighting plants were mostly controlled by traditional switch sys-
tems. In general, results demonstrated that in Italy, on average, savings of approximately
30–40% could be achieved through public lighting renovation interventions.
The need of reducing costs and energy consumption connected to public lighting,
combined with the important technological innovation that occurred in the field of lighting
with the introduction of solid state lamps (SSL) and lighting control technologies, are
leading many municipalities to undertake the renovation of public lighting systems. One
of the most common measures is the substitution of luminaires using old light sources with
more efficient lighting technologies (e.g., light emitting diode (LED) luminaires) and/or
the introduction of smart lighting control systems. In fact, LED technology is currently a
satisfactory solution due to its high luminous efficiency, long life, decreasing investment
and maintenance costs and lower environmental impact [14–16].
Several studies have shown the effectiveness of interventions based on the renova-
tion of the current lighting systems with more efficient ones. In 2019 Islam et al. [17]
demonstrated the potential impact of the substitution of the energy-intensive lighting
technologies mostly used currently in Kazakhstan with LED technology. In particular, in
the study three subsectors were analysed: residential, commercial/industrial and outdoor
illumination. Results demonstrated that the replacement of the current lighting system
with lamps with LED sources could determine a significant increase in energy efficiency
and favor investments. Djuretic and Kostic [18] estimated in 2018 potential energy savings
of between 31% and 60% by using high-quality LED instead of high-quality high pressure
sodium (HPS) luminaires in street lighting. In particular, the study demonstrated that
significant savings could be achieved when applying multi-stage dimming scenarios and
intelligent street lighting systems. Similar results were obtained by Yoomak et al. [19]
who analysed the performance of LED luminaires and existing standard HPS luminaires
in a roadway lighting system in Thailand. The two systems were compared in terms
of lighting quality, energy savings, power quality, and investment. Results in terms of
lighting performance showed that with the LED luminaires, minimum illuminances were
maintained, while average illuminances were reduced, and uniformity was improved. The
study highlighted a potential energy savings of 40% provided by the use of LED luminaire
instead of the HPS luminaire. Moreover, in 2014 Escolar et al. [20] demonstrated the rele-
vance of the application of adaptive control system. They enabled multiphase light sources
to adapt their intensity based on the environment conditions to reach energy savings and
sustainable goals.
From an economic point of view, Beccali et al. [21] analysed in 2015 the effects of
the retrofit of a lighting system in Comiso, Italy. In the study a set of planning options
to improve energy efficiency in street lighting systems were presented and the payback
time considering three different scenarios was evaluated. The results demonstrated that
the introduction of high efficient light sources such as LED allows one to significantly
improve the lighting performance, as well as contain energy consumptions and expenditure.
Carli et al. [22,23] proposed a multi-criteria decision-making tool in order to support the
public decision maker in the selection of the optimal retrofit solutions in existing public
street lighting systems. The aim of the study was the introduction of an operative tool
designed to improve the energy and environment sustainability and maintain comfort,
while ensuring an efficient use of public funds. The proposed method was applied and
validated in a case study located in Bari, Italy. A comparison between different scenarios
was made by Pagden et al. [24]. They performed an economic analysis to compare the
feasibility for a case study located in UK of two different street lighting systems: LED lamps
Energies 2021, 14, 509 3 of 25

and ‘part-night’ lighting, assuming the return period of investment is twenty years. In fact,
some city councils in UK adopt a ‘part night’ lighting system in order to achieve short-term
energy savings. In particular, this solution is applied in residential areas, where lights of
relatively lower importance (considering traffic accidents and crime rates) are dimmed
or switched off at times during the night when they are least likely to be needed. The
comparison between LED lamps and part-night lighting systems showed that electricity
savings of 44% and 21%, respectively, could be achieved compared to current electricity
usage patterns. The authors concluded that the ‘part-night’ lighting system could be
beneficial in the short-term, however, the replacement of the existing lower efficiency lights
with LED lamps is more cost-effective.
The reported works demonstrate that the renovation of public lighting systems with
LED technologies can provide many benefits in terms of improvement of the lighting
performance together with large energy and economic saving. However, in most cases
different forms of financing support are needed, mainly because of the high investment
costs and budget constraints of the municipalities. In Europe there are different forms
of financing models and several organizations involved, such as European Union funds,
public or private banks, energy services companies (ESCo), manufacturers of innovative
lighting systems or institutional investors [25].
The renovation process of lighting systems is affecting both big cities and small
urban centres. As an example, Cellucci et al. [8] presented in 2015 a study of smart
lighting for a small town located on the Italian coast. The study analysed three different
approaches and investigated their effects on the territory. In particular, the first level
approach refers to the substitution of current luminaries with new ones selected for their
technological characteristics, while the geometry of the lighting system (distance and
height) remains unchanged. The second level involves the introduction of a new lighting
system, characterized by a different layout and by a dynamic road lighting system able
to adapt lighting conditions as needed. Finally, the third level approach adds to the
second one a complete remote control, transforming the lighting system in a smart grid
opportunity. The study demonstrated that the third approach achieves better results than
both the two other approaches from an economic, social and environmental point of view.
In general, results highlight a significant positive impact on annual energy costs and
suggest applications of smart grid planning not only for metropolis and big cities, but also
in smaller towns.
These kinds of interventions, based on the renewal of lighting systems, may reduce
energy consumption and maintenance costs, whilst improving the lighting performance.
Moreover, the new high efficient optics should avoid light pollution. On the other hand,
the more controlled light output of the new luminaires may remarkably influence and alter
the perception of the nocturnal image of single monuments, urban areas, and landscape in
general. The implications on the nocturnal visual perception are currently less analysed in
scientific research, but in fact play a fundamental role [26]. Indeed, valorisation strategies
that consider all the hours of life of infrastructure, sites and settings, and which also pay
attention to the nocturnal perception should be promoted [27]. Within this frame, artificial
light could become one of the tools of the valorisation project [28,29]. In fact, it could give a
significant contribution by enhancing a site and defining its nightscape, with positive effects
on the economy, on touristic visibility and on the promotion of the territory (Figure 1).
Some studies [30] demonstrated that projects based on nightscape strategies could increase
night activities and the touristic attractiveness of a site, improving the user satisfaction
and the cultural value of the territory. On the other hand, other studies focused on the
potential impact of the nocturnal environment and of light and dark from a social-cultural
perspective. In 2020 a study conducted by Kumar et al. [31] highlighted the importance of
considering light, but also dark, in countryside environments. The study analysed how
changes in lighting technologies and practices could affect different kinds of ordinary
countryside. Within this frame, the study and the design of the nocturnal image should not
only concern main cities or single buildings (historical buildings, monuments, etc.), but also
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 26

Energies 2021, 14, 509
al. [31] highlighted the importance of considering light, but also dark, in countryside en-
vironments. The study analysed how changes in lighting technologies and practices could 4 of 25
affect different kinds of ordinary countryside. Within this frame, the study and the design
of the nocturnal image should not only concern main cities or single buildings (historical
buildings, monuments, etc.), but also small villages and countrysides. In particular in
smallcontexts,
these villages and
it iscountrysides.
necessary to In particular
carefully in these
balance the contexts, it isand
use of light necessary to carefully
dark, in order to
balance the use of light and dark, in order to enhance the perception of cities and
enhance the perception of cities and territories, increasing the attractiveness of sites territories,
while
increasing the
preserving the attractiveness of sites
social and cultural while preserving the social and cultural values.
values.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure1.1.(a)
(a)Mont
MontSaint
SaintMichel,
Michel,France,
France,day
dayimage.
image.(Credits:
(Credits:Wikipedia—Luca
Wikipedia—LucaDeboli—originally
Deboli—originally
posted to Flickr as Lun de Miel 443, CC BY 2.0). (b) Mont Saint Michel,France,
posted to Flickr as Lun de Miel 443, CC BY 2.0). (b) Mont Saint Michel, France,night
nightimage.
image.Lighting
Light-
ing project: Light Cibles, Louis et Emmanuel Clair, 2006. (Credits: Wikipedia—Benh Lieu
project: Light Cibles, Louis et Emmanuel Clair, 2006. (Credits: Wikipedia—Benh Lieu Song—own Song—
own work, CC BY 2.5).
work, CC BY 2.5).

Within
Within this this framework,
framework, the the aim
aim of
of the
the study
study presented
presented in in this
this paper
paper is is to
to evaluate
evaluate the the
impact
impact of the renovation of the public lighting system on the night image of settlements
of the renovation of the public lighting system on the night image of settlements
from
from both
both internal
internal and and external
external observation
observation points.
points. InInparticular,
particular, the the implications
implications of of the
the
renovation
renovation of of public
public lighting
lighting systems
systems in in contexts
contexts characterized
characterized by by cultural
cultural landscape
landscape and and
widespread
widespread settlements
settlementswith with historical
historical values
valuesareare analysed.
analysed. A Acase
casestudy,
study, composed
composed of of aa
historical village located in the Tuscany area of Maremma Grossetana,
historical village located in the Tuscany area of Maremma Grossetana, in Italy, was selected. in Italy, was se-
lected.This kind of historical landscape strongly characterizes the European and the Italian
This kind
territory. of historical
It is well known that landscape strongly
the Italian identitycharacterizes the European
is built in great part around and the
the Italian
presence
territory.
of numerous It is small
well known
historicalthatsettlements.
the Italian identity is built
As reported in greatetpart
by Micelli around
al. [32], the the presence
international
of
andnumerous
the national small historical
cultural settlements.
debate, As reported
in the second part of bytheMicelli et al. [32],
XXth century, the interna-
focused on the
tional and the
country’s national
historic cultural
centres and on debate, in the second
the historical urban part of the XXth
landscape. The century,
aim was focused
to defineon
the country’s
guidelines andhistoric centres and
development on the
policies (forhistorical
a criticalurban
reviewlandscape.
on the notion The of aim was to define
historical urban
guidelines
landscapesand see development
[33]). However, policies (for1990s
from the a critical
up toreview
recenton the notion
years, of historical
their social urban
and economic
landscapes
attractiveness seehas
[33]). However, decreased,
progressively from the 1990s due toup to recentmutation
structural years, their socialsociety
in Italian and eco-
and
in the country’s
nomic attractiveness economy. This trend is partially
has progressively decreased, being
duereversed and, nowadays
to structural mutation in theItalian
small
urban centres
society and in the are becoming increasingly
country’s economy. Thisimportant from a cultural,
trend is partially social and
being reversed economic
and, nowa-
pointthe
days of view.
small urban centres are becoming increasingly important from a cultural, social
Like many
and economic other
point of Italian
view. villages, the municipality of the selected case study is con-
sidering the possibility
Like many other Italian to substitute
villages,the thecurrent urban lighting
municipality systemcase
of the selected withstudynew, isenergy
con-
efficient lighting technologies. Within this study, the current lighting
sidering the possibility to substitute the current urban lighting system with new, energy condition, produced
by traditional
efficient lighting lighting sourcesWithin
technologies. and luminaires,
this study,was thecompared,
current lightingthrough simulation,
condition, to the
produced
lighting
by condition
traditional lightingproduced
sourcesby andthe retrofit proposal
luminaires, of the current
was compared, through lighting systemtowith
simulation, the
LED luminaires
lighting conditiontypically
produced employed in street
by the retrofit and urban
proposal of thelighting
currentretrofit.
lightingThe systemeffects
within
terms of lighting and energy performance were taken into
LED luminaires typically employed in street and urban lighting retrofit. The effects inconsideration, as well as the
implications
terms of lightingrelating
andtoenergy
the alteration of the were
performance night taken
imageintoand consideration,
night perception, as considering
well as the
both internal and external observation points of the settlements.
implications relating to the alteration of the night image and night perception, considering
both internal and external observation points of the settlements.
2. Case Study
The case study consisted of a medieval village, named Montepescali, located in the
area of Maremma Grossetana, close to the city of Grosseto, in the Tuscany region of Italy.
The case study was selected because of its interesting characteristics from both the point of
view of the settlement, that is an historical village located in a prominent position, and the
value of the surrounding landscape context.
 2. Case Study
The case study consisted of a medieval village, named Montepescali, located in the
area of Maremma Grossetana, close to the city of Grosseto, in the Tuscany region of Italy.
Energies 2021, 14, 509 The case study was selected because of its interesting characteristics from both the 5 ofpoint
25
of view of the settlement, that is an historical village located in a prominent position, and
the value of the surrounding landscape context.
Initially, a multidisciplinary analysis of the case study was carried out considering
Initially, a multidisciplinary analysis of the case study was carried out considering
itsits
morphological,
morphological,perceptive,
perceptive, andand functional aspects.Data
functional aspects. Datarelated
related toto
thethe morphological
morphological
conformation
conformation of the site, historical development phases, the presence of buildingsofofhis-
of the site, historical development phases, the presence of buildings
torical and and
historical architectural
architecturalimportance,
importance, asaswell
wellasasfunctional aspectsand
functional aspects andmain
main access
access roads
roads
were
were analysed.
analysed.TheTheanalysis
analysiswaswas aimed
aimed at at acquiring
acquiringuseful
usefulinformation
information forfor
thethe evaluation
evaluation
of of
thethe
night
nightimage.
image.Furthermore,
Furthermore, it it was possible
possibleto toidentify
identifysignificant
significant observation
observation points
points
inside
insideand
andoutside
outsidethe
thesettlement
settlement from whichwhichto toevaluate
evaluatethe thenight
night image
image of of
thethe site.
site.
Montepescaliisislocated
Montepescali located in
in aa strategic
strategic area,
area,ononthe
thetop
topofofthe
thehilly
hillyregion
regionof of
Maremma
Maremma
Grossetana.The
Grossetana. Theprominent
prominentvillage
village position
position allows
allowsitittotodefine
defineprivileged
privileged visibility
visibilityandand
inter-relationship between the settlements, the viability system and the
inter-relationship between the settlements, the viability system and the landscape context. landscape context.
Moreover,the
Moreover, thearea
area enjoys
enjoys good
goodtourist
touristvisibility andand
visibility accessibility through
accessibility the most
through the impor-
most im-
tant trade routes of the region. In fact, Montepescali is built along the historical Roman road
portant trade routes of the region. In fact, Montepescali is built along the historical Roman
called Aurelia (nowadays an highway), which leads from Grosseto to important Tuscan
road called Aurelia (nowadays an highway), which leads from Grosseto to important Tus-
cities such as Livorno, Pisa and Siena (Figure 2a), and close to the Grosseto-Siena railway
can cities such as Livorno, Pisa and Siena (Figure 2a), and close to the Grosseto-Siena rail-
line, which is one of the main railway lines of the region (Figure 2b) [34].
way line, which is one of the main railway lines of the region (Figure 2b) [34].

(a) (b)
Figure 2. (a)
Figure 2. (a) View of Montepescali View
from the of Montepescali
highway fromofthe
1; (b) View highway 1;from
Montepescali (b) View of Montepescali
the Grosseto-Siena fromline.
railway the
Grosseto-Siena railway line. (Credits: Francesca Floris).
(Credits: Francesca Floris).

Montepescali is
Montepescali is surrounded
surroundedbyby towers
towersandand
fortified wallswalls
fortified and enjoys a well-preserved
and enjoys a well-pre-
historical heritage. The village was founded during the Middle Ages (11th
served historical heritage. The village was founded during the Middle Ages (11th century) century) and
its dimensions were expanded in several phases of construction during
and its dimensions were expanded in several phases of construction during the following the following cen-
turies [35]. Nowadays, the village plant has an ovoid shape divided in two levels, identified
centuries [35]. Nowadays, the village plant has an ovoid shape divided in two levels, iden-
as the upper plateau and the lower plateau. The upper plateau corresponds to the original
tified as the upper plateau and the lower plateau. The upper plateau corresponds to the origi-
medieval core of the settlement (first expansion ring on Figure 3a) and is characterized
nalbymedieval core of the settlement (first expansion ring on Figure 3a) and is characterized
the presence of historical buildings such as the ancient castle (called Cassero) and the
bySaint
the presence of historical
Niccolò Church (Figurebuildings suchplateau
3b). The lower as the corresponds
ancient castle (called
to the Cassero)
second and the
expansion
Saint Niccolò Church (Figure 3b). The lower plateau corresponds to the
ring (Figure 3a) and includes the residential and service buildings, the Saints Stefano esecond expansion
ring (Figure
Lorenzo 3a) and
Church andincludes thevillage
the historic residential
entranceand service
(called buildings,
Belvedere the restored
Tower), Saints Stefano
in the e
Lorenzo Church
Renaissance and (Figure
period the historic village
3b) [36]. Theentrance (called is
village mobility Belvedere Tower), restored
almost completely in the
constituted
Renaissance
by pedestrian period (Figure
streets except3b)for [36]. The village
a suburban road. mobility is almost
The driveway leadscompletely
to the main constituted
entrance
byofpedestrian
the village,streets
locatedexcept lower
on the for plateau, and
a suburban surrounds
road. Montepescali’s
The driveway leads toexternal perimeter,
the main entrance
allowing the access to the village from secondary entrances.
of the village, located on the lower plateau, and surrounds Montepescali’s external perim-
eter, allowing the access to the village from secondary entrances.
Energies 2021, 14, 509 6 of 25
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 26

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 3. 3.
(a)(a) Construction
Construction phases;
phases; (b)(b) Identification
Identification of of
thethe main
main historical
historical buildings.
buildings.

2.1.
2.1. Ex-Ante
Ex-Ante Lighting
Lighting Systems
Systems
The
The existing
existing lighting
lighting system
system of of Montepescali
Montepescali village
village consisted
consisted of of
259259 luminaires.
luminaires. The The
entire
entire stock
stock of of luminaires
luminaires cancanbebe represented
represented byby thethe groups
groups showed
showed in in Table
Table 1. 1.
TheThe abacus
abacus
reports
reports quantities
quantities andand typology
typology ofof luminaires,
luminaires, their
their photometric
photometric diagrams,
diagrams, lamp
lamp type,
type, in-in-
stalled power,
stalled power, luminous
luminous flux
fluxand
andcorrelated
correlated colour
colour temperature
temperature (CCT).
(CCT). InInparticular,
particular, three
three
typologies
typologies of lighting
of lighting systems
systems are identified:
are identified: streetstreet
lighting system,
lighting squaresquare
system, lighting system system
lighting and
architectural lightinglighting
and architectural system. system.
The streetThe lighting
street system
lighting(driveways and pedestrian
system (driveways streets)
and pedestrian
were composed
streets) by 228 diffusing
were composed by 228globes
diffusing(88%globes
of the (88%total luminaires)
of the total equipped
luminaires) with 65 W
equipped
high-pressure sodium lampssodium
with 65 W high-pressure (HPS) and
lamps two semi-diffusing
(HPS) globes (1% of globes
and two semi-diffusing total luminaires)
(1% of total
equipped withequipped
luminaires) 50 W HPSwith lamps.50 WTheHPSstreet lighting
lamps. The systems were constituted,
street lighting systems were forconstituted,
all pedes-
trian streets, by one-sided disposition, with a constant inter-distance
for all pedestrian streets, by one-sided disposition, with a constant inter-distance of 15 metres between of 15
the lighting poles. The driveway presented both a one-side lighting
metres between the lighting poles. The driveway presented both a one-side lighting poles poles arrangements
(inter-distance:
arrangements14 m) with a single
(inter-distance: luminaire
14 m) per pole,
with a single and a one-side
luminaire per pole,disposition
and a one-side (inter-dis-
distance:
position23(inter-distance:
m) with two luminaires
23 m) with pertwo pole. The mostper
luminaires important
pole. The square
mostin Montepescali,
important square
named Cassero Square,
in Montepescali, namedhad Cassero
a different lighting
Square, had system
a different lighting system)
(squarelighting system composed
(square lightingby
10system)
luminaires equipped with 150 W metal halide floodlights, installed
composed by 10 luminaires equipped with 150 W metal halide floodlights, in- on the façades of the
surrounding
stalled on thebuildings.
façades of Finally, 19 floodlights
the surrounding (7% of the
buildings. total19
Finally, luminaires)
floodlightswith (7% different
of the total
powers and luminous fluxes were dedicated to the valorisation of
luminaires) with different powers and luminous fluxes were dedicated to the valorisation buildings with particular
historical and architectural
of buildings with particular value spreadand
historical throughout
architectural the settlement
value spread (architectural
throughout lighting
the set-
system). The current lighting system was automatically switched
tlement (architectural lighting system). The current lighting system was automatically on and off and kept at full
power for the
switched onwhole
and offnight.
and kept at full power for the whole night.
2.2. Ex-Post Lighting Systems
Table 1. Existing lighting system.
The existing street lighting system emitted light in almost all directions and, as a conse-
N. of quence, part
Luminaire Photometric
of the light flux Lamp surfaces of the surrounding
also reached the vertical Luminous buildings.
CCT
Description Power [W]
Luminaires Image Diagram Typology
However, the dispersion of light flux beyond the surfaces for which light is required[K]
Flux [lm] (i.e.,
the carriage for street lighting) generated light pollution. Moreover, from an energy point
228 of view, the flux dispersion and the adoption of traditional
HPS 65 Wlight sources
5300 lmdetermined
2000 Ka
waste of energy and high operating costs. In order to improve energy sustainability and
Street lighting lu- to address light pollution, in 2019 the administration of Montepescali commissioned the
minaires drafting of a new lighting plan for the municipality. The new lighting plan was drawn up
by a professional lighting design studio and involved the replacement of almost all the
2 HPS 50 W 4400 lm 2000 K
existing luminaires with new ones chosen for their technological characteristics.
The proposed retrofit solution for Montepescali involved the substitution of the
existing luminaires for street lighting and square lighting with LED technologies (Table 2).
The architectural lighting system was not involved in the retrofitting and the geometry of the
Square lighting
10 lighting system (distances and heights) remained MH the same.150LED
W luminaires
9370 lmwith shielded
3000 K
luminaires
street optics and safety glass were proposed in place of the HPS diffusing globes (street
 arrangements
arrangements
metres
metres (inter-distance:
between
between (inter-distance:
the the lighting
lighting 14 m)
14
poles.
poles. Thewith
m)Thewitha single
a single
driveway
driveway luminaire
luminaire
presented
presented per
bothbothpole,
per and
pole, and
a one-side
a one-side alighting
one-side
alighting
one-side dis-dis-
poles
poles
position
position(inter-distance:
arrangements
arrangements (inter-distance: 23 23
m)m)
(inter-distance:
(inter-distance: 14with
14
m) two
with
m) two
with luminaires
witha luminaires
a single
single per pole.
per
luminaire
luminaire pole.The
per The
per most
pole, most
pole,
andimportant
important
and square
a one-side
a one-side square
dis-dis-
in in
Montepescali,
Montepescali,
position
position named
named
(inter-distance:
(inter-distance: 23Cassero
Cassero
23
m) m)withSquare,
withSquare,
two two had hada different
a different
luminaires
luminaires perper lighting
lighting
pole.
pole. TheThe system
system
most
most (square
(square
important
important lighting
lighting
square
square
system)
system)
in in composed
composed
Montepescali,
Montepescali, by 10
by
named
named luminaires
10 luminaires
Cassero
Cassero equipped
equipped
Square,
Square, had had with
with150
a different
a different W
150 Wmetal
metal
lighting
lighting halide
halide
system
system floodlights,
floodlights,
(square
(square in-in-
lighting
lighting
stalled on
stalled
system)
system) the
on façades
the façades
composed
composed by byof the
10of10 surrounding
the surrounding
luminaires
luminaires buildings.
buildings.
equipped
equipped Finally,
with
with Finally,
150 150
WW 19 floodlights
19
metal floodlights
metal halide
halide (7% (7%of the total
of thein-
floodlights,
floodlights, total
in-
Energies 2021, 14, 509 7 of 25
luminaires)
luminaires)
stalled
stalled on on
thewith
with
the different
façades
façades ofpowers
different
of the thepowers andand
surrounding
surrounding luminous
luminous fluxes
fluxes
buildings.
buildings. werewere
Finally,
Finally, dedicated
19 dedicated
19 to the
floodlights
floodlights to
(7% valorisation
the
(7%ofvalorisation
of the
the total
total
of of
buildings
buildings
luminaires)
luminaires) with
with
with
with particular
particular
different
different historical
historical
powers
powers andandandandarchitectural
architectural
luminous
luminous fluxes
fluxes value
were value
were spread
spread
dedicated
dedicated throughout
tothroughout
to the
the thetheset-set-
valorisation
valorisation
tlement
of tlement (architectural
of buildings
buildings (architectural
with
with lighting
lighting
particular
particular system).
system).
historical
historical The
and The
and current
current lighting
architectural
architectural lighting
value
value system
system
spread
spread was was automatically
automatically
throughout
throughout thetheset-set-
switched
switched
tlement
tlement on(architectural
and
on andoffwhile
(architectural
lighting system), and
off kept
and at
kept
lighting
lighting
LED full
system).power
atsystem).
full
floodlights power
The for
The
with the
for whole
the
current
current whole night.
night.
lighting
lighting
asymmetric light system
system was
distribution was automatically
automatically
(mounted parallel
switched
switched
to theon on
and
square andoffoff
and
surface) and
keptkept
were at full
atproposed
full powerpower
to for for
thethe whole
whole
substitute night.
thenight.
MH floodlights (square lighting).
Table 1. Existing
Table 1. Existinglighting system.
lighting system.
Table
TableTable 1.1.Existing
1. Existing lighting
lighting
Existing system.
system.
lighting system.
N. N.
of of Luminaire
Luminaire Photometric
Photometric Lamp
Lamp Luminous
Luminous CCTCCT
Description
Description Power [W][W]
Power
Luminaires
Luminaires
N. ofof
N. ofN. Image
Image
Luminaire
Luminaire Diagram
Diagram
Photometric
Photometric Typology
Typology
Lamp
Lamp Flux [lm]
Flux [lm]
Luminous
Luminous [K]
CCT[K]
CCT
Description
Description Luminaire Photometric Lamp Power
Power [W][W] Luminous CCT
Description Luminaires
Luminaires Image
Image Diagram
Diagram Typology Power [W]
Typology FluxFlux
[lm][lm] [K]
[K][K]
Luminaires Image Diagram Typology Flux [lm]

228228 HPS
HPS 65 65
WW 5300 lm lm
5300 2000 K K
2000
228228
228 HPSHPS
HPS 65WW
6565W 5300
5300 lm
lmLm
5300 2000 K K
2000

Street lighting
Street lu-lu-
lighting
Street lighting
minaires
Street
Street minaires
lighting
lighting lu- lu-
luminaires
Energies 2021,
Energies 14, x14,
2021,
minaires
minaires FOR PEER
x FOR REVIEW
PEER REVIEW 7 of 726of 26
Energies
Energies
2021,
Energies 2021,
14,
2021, xx14,
14, 14, FOR
xxxFOR
FOR
PEER
PEER
REVIEW
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 7 of
of77726
26
of 26
of
Energies
Energies 2021,
Energies 2021,
2021, 14, x14,FOR
FOR PEER
FOR REVIEW
PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 77 of of 26
26 26
2 22 HPS
HPSHPS 505050
WWW 4400 lmLm
4400
4400 lm 2000 K K
2000
2 2 HPS
HPS 50 W50 W 4400
4400 lm lm 2000
2000 K K

Square lighting
Square lighting
Square
Square
Square
Square lighting
lighting
lighting
lighting 10 10 MHMH 150 150
W W 93709370
lm lm 30003000
K K
Square
luminaires
Square
Square lighting
luminaires
lighting
lighting 10 10
10 10 MH MH
MH
MH 150
150 150
W
150
WWWW 93709370
lm
9370
9370 lm
lm
lmLm 30003000
K
3000
3000 K KK
K
luminaires
luminaires
luminaires
luminaires 10 1010 MH
MHMH 150150
150W W 9370
9370 lm
9370 lm 3000 K
3000 K
luminaires
luminaires
luminaires

3 3 F F 85 W 85 W 17501750
lm lm 30003000
K K
3 3 F
F FFF 85 W
85 W 17501750
lm lm 30003000
K K
33 33 3 FF 85 85
85WW
8585W
W W 1750
1750
1750
1750
1750 lm lm
lmLm
lm 3000 K K
3000
3000 K K

Architectural
Architectural
Architectural 150 150
W 1W 1 13,500 lm lm
13,500
Architectural
Architectural
lighting
Architectural
Architectural 8 8 MHMH 150 150
W 1 1 11
1W 1 13,500
13,500
13,500lm lm 30003000
K K
Architectural
lighting lumi-
lighting
Architecturallumi- 8 8 MH MH
150
150
230
150 W
WW1W
150
150
W
230W W 13,500
25,000
13,500 lmLm
13,500
13,500
lm
25,000 lm
lm
lm 30003000
K K
lighting
lighting
lumi-
lighting
lighting
lighting
naires
lighting
lumi-
luminaires
lumi-
lumi-
lumi-
naires
lumi- 88 88 8 MH
MHMH
MH
MH 230 230
230W
230230W
WW W 25,000
25,000
25,000lm
25,000
25,000 lmLmlm
lm
3000
3000 K K
3000
3000
3000 K K
K
230 230
W W 25,000
25,000 lm lm
naires
naires
naires
naires
naires
naires

8 88 MHMH
MH 8383W83
WW 2500 lmLm
2500
2500 lm 3000 K KK
3000
3000
8 8 MH MH 83 W
83 W 2500
2500
lm lm 30003000
K K
88 88 MHMH
MH
MH 83 W
83 83
83 W
W W 2500
2500 lmlm
2500
2500 lm lm 3000
3000 K K
3000
3000 K K

1 1 66lamps
lamps with an
16 lamps withwith an absorbed
an absorbed
absorbed power
power ofof150
power 150
of WWand
150 Wandaaluminous
and luminous flux of
of13,500
fluxflux
a luminous 13,500 Lm
lmand
of 13,500 lm 2and
and 2lamps
lamps with
with
2 lamps an absorbed
an
with power
absorbed of
power
an absorbed 230
of W
power ofand
230 230a
W666 and
1lamps
666lamps
lampswith with
an absorbed
an absorbed power
power
of 150
of 150
W and
W and
a luminous
aaaluminous
luminous
fluxflux
of 13,500
of 13,500
lm and
lmand
and
2 lamps
222lamps
lamps
withwith
an absorbed
anabsorbed
absorbed
power
power
of 230
of 230
1 1luminous flux
11 1lamps
W
lamps and
lamps withwith
a luminous anofan
a luminous
with with
an an 25,000
absorbed
flux
absorbed ofLm.
absorbed
flux
absorbed25,000
of power
power
power lm.
25,000
power
of of
of 150
oflm.
150
150 150
W WW and
W and
and aa luminous
and luminous
luminous flux
flux
flux
flux of of
of 13,500
of 13,500
13,500 lmlm
13,500
lm and
lm
andand22 lamps
lamps with
lamps
withwith
an an
with
an absorbed
an absorbed
absorbed power
power
power
power of of
of 230
of 230
230 230
W and
W W and a luminous
aaaluminous
luminous flux flux
of 25,000
of 25,000
lm. lm.
W and
W W and
and aa luminous
and luminous
luminous flux
fluxflux of
of 25,000
of 25,000
flux
of 25,000 lm.lm.
25,000
lm. lm.
2.2.2.2.Ex-Post Furthermore,
Ex-Post Lighting
Lighting the
Systems retrofit proposal included a step dimming during night-time: the
Systems
2.2. 2.2.
Ex-Post
street
2.2.2.2. Ex-Post
Ex-Post Lighting
lighting
Ex-Post Lighting
system
Lighting
Lighting Systems
Systems
and the square lighting system will be kept full power from the switching-
Systems
Systems
2.2. Ex-Post
TheThe Lighting
existing
existingstreet Systems
lighting
street lighting systemsystem emitted
emitted light in almost
light in almost all directions
all directions and, as aas
and, con-
a con-
onThe toThe
The 10 p.m.
existing
existing
existing and
street 30%
street dimming
lighting
lighting system (70%
system of
emitted nominal
emitted light light
inlight
almost flux)all
inalmost
almost from 10 p.m.and,
directions
all directions until asswitch-off.
and,
as aaascon-
acon-
con-
sequence, The
The
sequence, existing
existing
part of the
part ofstreet
street
street light
the lighting
lighting
lighting
fluxflux
light also system
system
systemreached
also reachedemitted
emitted
emittedthe the light
lightlight
vertical in
in
vertical in
almost
almost
surfaces ofall
all
all
surfaces ofdirections
directions
directions
the and,
and,
surrounding
the and,
surrounding as aas
build- abuild-
con-
con-
Instead,
sequence,
sequence,
sequence,
sequence, part
partthe
part
of
part
ofarchitectural
the
ofof
the the
light
the light
light
light lighting
flux
flux flux
also
flux also
also
also system
reached
reached
reached
reached (not
the object
the
thevertical
thebeyond of
vertical
vertical
vertical substitution)
surfaces
surfaces
surfaces
surfaces of the
of
of will
thethe
of for the be kept
surrounding
surrounding
surrounding
surrounding at full
build-
build- power
build-
build-
sequence,
ings. However,
ings. part
However, of
thethe the light
dispersion flux
dispersion also
of ofreached
light fluxflux
light the
beyond vertical
the the surfaces
surfaces
surfaces of
for the
which surrounding
which light isbuild-
is required
light required
ings. and
ings.
ings.
ings. switched-off
However,
However,
However,
However, the
the the
the at midnight.
dispersion
dispersion
dispersion
dispersion of
of light
oflight
of
light lightflux
flux flux
beyond
flux beyond
beyond
beyond the
the the
thesurfaces
surfaces
surfaces
surfaces for
for for
which
for which
which
which lightlight
light
light is
is required
isrequired
is
requiredrequired
ings.
(i.e., However,
the
(i.e., carriage
the the
carriage fordispersion
street
for street of light
lighting)
lighting) flux
generated beyond
generated light the surfaces
pollution.
light pollution. forMoreover,
which light
Moreover, from isanrequired
from energy
an energy
(i.e.,
(i.e.,
the Thecarriage
the
carriageretrofit
for proposal
for
streetstreet for
lighting) Montepescali
lighting) generated
generated was
light designed
light
pollution.
pollution. by aMoreover,
lightingfrom
Moreover, design
from an studio
an
energy energy but
point(i.e.,
(i.e.,
(i.e., the
the
of
point the
view,
of carriage
carriage
carriage
view,the for
for
flux
the for street
street
street
dispersion
flux lighting)
lighting)
lighting)
dispersion and the
and generated
generated
generated adoption
the light
light
adoption light
of pollution.
pollution.
pollution.
traditional
of traditional Moreover,
Moreover,
Moreover,
light sources
light from
from from
sources an an
andetermined
energy
energy
determined energy
point has
point of not
view,
ofview,yet
view,thebeen
the
flux carried
flux
dispersion out.
dispersion Therefore,
and and
the the
adoption in
adoption the of present
traditional
oftraditional study
traditional light the
light comparison
sources
sources determined between
determined
point
point
apoint
waste ofof
of
aex-ante
waste of
view,
view,
energy
of thethe
the
energy flux
flux
and fluxhigh
and dispersion
dispersion
dispersion
highoperating and
and
operating and thethe
the
costs. adoption
adoption
adoption
In
costs. order of
Inperformed
order of
oftotraditional
traditional
improve
to improve light
light
energylight sources
sources
sources
energy determined
determined
determined
sustainability
sustainability andand
aa waste
a waste of and
energy
of ex-post
energy and and lighting
high high conditions
operating
operating costs.costs.was
In order
In orderto improve
to by means
improve energy of
energy simulations.
sustainability
sustainability and and
atowaste
waste
a waste
to address of
of of energy
energy
energy
light and
and and
pollution, high
highhigh
in operating
operating
operating
2019 the costs.
costs.costs.In
In
administration In
order
order
address light pollution, in 2019 the administration of Montepescali commissioned order to
to ofto improve
improve
improve
Montepescali energy
energy
energy sustainability
sustainability
sustainability
commissioned and
and
the and
the
to address
to
to to address
address light light
lightpollution,
pollution,
pollution, in 2019
in
in 2019
2019 the
thethethe
administration
administration
administration of Montepescali
of
of Montepescali
Montepescali commissioned
commissioned
commissioned the the
to address
address
drafting
drafting alight
of light
ofnew pollution,
pollution,
a new lighting
lighting in plan
in
plan 2019
2019
for the
the
for administration
administration
municipality.
the municipality. The ofThe
of Montepescali
Montepescali
new lighting
new lighting commissioned
commissioned
plan waswas
plan drawndrawn upthe
the
the up
drafting
drafting
drafting of
of aaof
aofnew
new
aanew
newlighting
lighting
lighting plan plan
planfor for
forforthe
thethethe
municipality.
municipality.
municipality. The The
The new new
newlighting
lighting
lighting plan plan
plan was wasdrawndrawn up up
bydrafting
drafting of
a professional
by new
a professional lighting
lighting
lighting
lightingplan
plan
design for
design the
studio municipality.
municipality.
studio andand involved The
The
involved thenew
new lighting
lighting
replacement
the replacement plan
planof wasofwas
was
almost drawn
drawn
almost drawn
all the upup
up
all the
by
bybyby
a professional
aa professional
professional lighting
lighting
lighting designdesign
design studio studio
studio and and
and involved
involved
involved the
thethe the
replacement
replacement
replacement of almost
of almost
of of almost all
allall all
the the
thethe
by aa professional
existing professional
existing luminaires
luminaires lighting
lighting
with new
with design
design
newones studio
studio
oneschosenchosen and
and
for involved
involved
their
for the
technological
their replacement
replacement
technological of
characteristics. almost
almost
characteristics. all the
existing
existing
existing
existing luminaires
luminaires
luminaires
luminaires with
with with
with new
new new
new ones
ones ones
ones chosenchosen
chosen
chosen for
for for
their
for
their their
theirtechnological
technological
technological
technological characteristics.
characteristics.
characteristics.
characteristics.
existingTheThe luminaires
proposed
proposed with
retrofit new
retrofit ones
solution
solutionchosen
for for
Montepescali
for their
Montepescali technological
involved
involved thecharacteristics.
substitution
the substitution of theof the ex- ex-
The
The The
The proposed
proposed
proposed
proposed retrofit
retrofit
retrofit
retrofit solution
solution
solution
solution for
for for
Montepescali
for Montepescali
Montepescali
Montepescali involved
involved
involved
involved the
the the
thesubstitution
substitution
substitution
substitution of
of the
of the
of
the the
ex- ex-
ex-
ex-The
isting The proposed
luminaires for retrofit
street solution
lighting and for Montepescali
square lighting
isting luminaires for street lighting and square lighting with LED technologies (Table 2). involved
with LED the substitution
technologies (Table of the
2). ex-
The
isting
isting
isting luminaires
luminaires
luminaires for
forfor for
street
street
lighting
street lighting
lighting and and
and squaresquare
square lighting
lighting with with LED LEDtechnologies
technologies (Table (Table2). The
2). The
isting
isting
architecturalluminaires
luminaires
architectural lightingfor
lighting street
street
system lighting
lighting
system was not
was and
and square
square
involved
not involved inlighting
lighting
lighting the with
with
in the with LED
LED
retrofitting LED
retrofitting technologies
technologies
technologies
and the the
and (Table
geometry (Table
(Table
geometry of2).
2).
2). The
TheofThe
the the
architectural
architectural
architectural
architectural lighting
lighting
lighting
lighting systemsystem
system
system was
was was
wasnot
not not
involved
not involved
involved
involved in
in the
in the
in
the theretrofitting
retrofitting
retrofitting
retrofitting and
and and
andthe
the the
geometry
the geometry
geometry
geometry of
of the
ofof the
the the
architectural
lighting
lighting system lighting
system (distancessystemand
(distances was
and not
heights) involved
heights) remained
remainedin the the retrofitting
same. same. LED andluminaires
luminaires
LED the geometry
with of
shielded
with the
shielded
lighting
lighting
lighting systemsystem
system (distances
(distances
(distances and and
and heights)
heights)
heights) remained
remained
remained the the
thesame. same. LED LEDluminaires
luminaires with with
shieldedshielded
lighting
lighting
street street system
system
opticsoptics (distances
and(distances
safety
and safety and
and
glass heights)
heights)
were
glass were proposedremained
remained
proposed in placetheplace
the
in ofsame.
same.
same. the LED
ofLED LED
HPS
the HPS luminaires
luminaires
luminaires
diffusing
diffusing with
with with
globes shielded
shielded
shielded
globes (street (street
street
street
street
street opticsoptics
optics
optics and
and and
andsafety safety
safety
safety glass glass
glass
glass were
were were
were proposed
proposed
proposed
proposed in place
in
in place
place
inasymmetric
place of the
of
of
thethe
oflight the
HPS
HPS HPS
HPS diffusing
diffusing
diffusing
diffusing globesglobes
globes
globes (street(street
(street
(street
street
lighting optics
lighting system), and
system), safety
while while LEDglass
LED were
floodlights proposed
floodlights with in place
asymmetric
with of the HPS diffusing
distribution
light distribution globes
(mounted
(mounted (street
par- par-
lighting
lighting
lighting
lighting system),
system),
system),
system), while
while while
while LED
LED LED
LED floodlights
floodlights
floodlights
floodlights with
with with
withasymmetric
asymmetric
asymmetric
asymmetric light
light light
distribution
light distribution
distribution
distribution (mounted
(mounted
(mounted
(mounted par-
par- par-
par-
lighting
allel to system),
the square whilesurface)LED floodlights
were proposed with toasymmetric
substitute
allel to the square surface) were proposed to substitute the MH floodlights (square light- light
the MHdistribution
floodlights (mounted
(square par-
light-
allelallel
allel
allel to
to tothe
to the
the the
square
square
square
square surface)
surface)
surface)
surface) were
were were
were proposed
proposed
proposed
proposed to
to tosubstitute
to substitute
substitute
substitute the
thethe the
MH
MH MH
MH floodlights
floodlights
floodlights
floodlights (square
(square
(square
(square light-light-
light-
light-
allel
ing). to
ing). the square surface) were proposed to substitute the MH floodlights (square light-
Energies 2021, 14, 509 8 of 25
Energies 2021,
Energies 14, x14,
2021, FOR PEER
x FOR REVIEW
PEER REVIEW 8 of 826of 26
Energies
Energies 2021,
2021, 14, x14, x FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 8 of826
of 26
Energies
Energies 2021,
2021, 14,
Energies 2021,
Energies 14,
x x
FORFOR PEER
PEER
14, x FOR REVIEW
REVIEW
PEER REVIEW 8
8 of 26
88 of of
26 26
Energies 2021,
2021, 14,
14, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW Table 2. Ex-post lighting luminaires. 8 of
of 26
26
Energies 2021,
Energies 14,14,
2021, x FOR PEER
x FOR REVIEW
PEER REVIEW 8 of 26 26
8 of

N. of Luminaire Photometric Lamp Luminous CCT

Description Power [W]
Luminaires
228 228 Image Diagram Typology
LEDLED 21 W21 W Flux
2500 [lm]
lm
2500 lm [K]
3000 K K
3000
228228 LEDLED 21 W W
21 2500
2500 lm lm 3000 K K
3000
228
228
228 LED
LED
LED 21
21 21
WW 2500
2500 lm lm 3000
3000 K K
Street lighting
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lighting system
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3.1. A 3D model
Identification of of the settlement
Significant Observation withPointsthe ex-ante lighting system was initially cre-
ated.
ated.
ulations.
to Then
simulate Then
AA the
3D
the the model
model
ex-ante was
of was
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and calibrated
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ex-post by by
with
lighting comparing
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ex-ante
condition the results
results
lighting
inresults
order of
to of
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system the lighting
lighting
was simulation
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withwith
ated.
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the 3D
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and settlement
measured
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in
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with the
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were
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TheThe in
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of the lighting
case study condition
(morphological,in order to assess
perceptive, theand impact
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to two
simulate
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image
two solutions
solutions
simulate
image of the
the on
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of the settlement.onthe
ex-ante the
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photometric
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lighting energy
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condition in order
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nocturnal
of the
of the
two solutions
solutions
aspects), two
on
on the
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photometric
(E1 andObservation
and
and
E2Observation
inand
Figure
energy
energy performance
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4)Points
and one internal
as
as well
well as
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nocturnal
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3.1.
two
image of of
solutionsthe
Identification
3.1. the
Identification
solutions
of the settlement.
settlement.
on ofthe
on
settlement. photometric
Significant
of
the Significant
photometric and energy
Points
energy performance
performance as(I1
aswell in Figure
well asas onon 4)the
the significant
nocturnal
nocturnal
image
observation of the settlement.
points were selected. In particular,
image
3.1.3.1. of the
Identification
image of the settlement.
Identification of Significant
of Significant
settlement. Observation
Observation PointsPoints the E1 viewpoint was located on the
Highway
3.1.
3.1. 1 and the
Identification
Identification E2Significant
of viewpoint
of Significant in a neighbouring
Observation
Observation Points village. The internal viewpoint I1 was
Points
3.1.
3.1. Identification
Identification of of Significant
Significant Observation
Observation Points Points
3.1. Identification
3.1. Identification of ofSignificant
Significant Observation
Observation Points
Points
Energies 2021, 14, 509 9 of 25

Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 26

located
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW in the Cassero Square. Figures 5 and 6 show the diurnal and nocturnal9photographs
of 26
taken from the selected observation points.

Figure 4. Significant internal and external observation points.

Figure Significant
4. 4.
Figure internal
Significant and
internal external
and observation
external points.
observation points.

(a) (b)

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 5. (a) day and (b) night photographs taken from the external point of view E1. (c) day and (d) night photographs
taken from the external point of view E2. (Credits: Francesca Floris).
(c) (d)
Figure
Figure 5.
5. (a)
(a) day
day and
and (b) night photographs
(b) night photographs taken
taken from
from the
the external
external point
point of view E1.
of view E1. (c)
(c) day
day and
and (d) night photographs
(d) night photographs
taken from the external point of view E2. (Credits: Francesca Floris).
taken from the external point of view E2. (Credits: Francesca Floris).
Energies 2021, 14, 509 10 of 25
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 26

(a) (b)
Figure 6.
Figure 6. (a) day and
(a) day and (b)
(b) night
night photographs
photographs taken
taken from
from the
the internal
internal point
point of
of view
view I1.
I1. (Credits:
(Credits: Francesca
Francesca Floris).
Floris).

3.2.
3.2. Definition
Definition of of the
the 3D
3D Model,
Model, Measurement Campaing and
Measurement Campaing and Calibration
Calibration of of the
the Model
Model
A
A 3D3D model
modelofofthe thecase
casestudy
study waswas used
used forfor
thethe
lighting simulation
lighting simulation of bothof boththe ex-ante
the ex-
and ex-post condition, carried out with the software DIALux
ante and ex-post condition, carried out with the software DIALux Evo 8.2 (DIAL GmbH, Evo 8.2 (DIAL GmbH, Lü-
denscheid, Germany). Based on the territorial and historical
Lüdenscheid, Germany). Based on the territorial and historical analysis, a 3D model analysis, a 3D model includ-
ing a significative
including portion
a significative of Montepascali
portion of Montepascali village was was
village created. The The
created. modelled
modelled areaarea in-
cluded parts of both the upper and the lower plateau, incorporating
included parts of both the upper and the lower plateau, incorporating the parts of the the parts of the village
that arethat
village visible
are from
visiblethe selected
from significant
the selected observation
significant points. points.
observation Moreover, the 3D the
Moreover, model3D
included all the different
model included types oftypes
all the different luminaires. In the 3D
of luminaires. In model
the 3Dthe modelsurfaces were charac-
the surfaces were
terized by attributing
characterized the corresponding
by attributing the corresponding reflection factors
reflection that that
factors wereweredefined
defined through
through an
in-field survey.
an in-field survey.
In order to analyse the settlement image during night-time and to calibrate the model
for the lighting
lighting simulations,
simulations, an an in
insitu
situmeasurement
measurementcampaign campaignwas wasconducted.
conducted.The Themeas-
mea-
urement
surementcampaign
campaignwas wasaimedaimed measuring
measuring thethe
luminance
luminance of the settlement’s
of the settlement’s parts thatthat
parts are
perceived
are perceived from the the
from selected
selectedinternal andand
internal external
externalpoints of view.
points Luminance
of view. Luminance is inisfact the
in fact
most representative
the most representative photometric
photometric measurement
measurement of theofbrightness perceived
the brightness when when
perceived an object an
or a set of illuminated objects are observed [37]. The in situ
object or a set of illuminated objects are observed [37]. The in situ measurement cam- measurement campaign was
conducted by one of the
paign was conducted authors
by one of theduring
authorstheduring
monththe of September 2019. In this
month of September 2019.study, an
In this
study, an
“LMK “LMK videophotometer
Mobile” Mobile” videophotometer (TechnoTeam (TechnoTeam Bildverarbeitung
Bildverarbeitung GmbH, GmbH,
Ilmenau, Ilmenau,Ger-
Germany)
many) based basedon aon EOSa EOS digital
digital cameracamera
(Canon(CanonInc.,Inc.,
Ōta,Ōta, Tokyo,
Tokyo, Japan) Japan) positioned
positioned at eyeat
eye level
level on aon a tripod
tripod was wasusedused to capture
to capture the luminance
the luminance distribution
distribution of theofconsidered
the considered areas
areas the
from from the different
different points points
of view. of During
view. During the measurement
the measurement campaign, campaign,
the validthe valid
calibra-
calibration ranges of the instrument were respected. All
tion ranges of the instrument were respected. All images were captured in RAW format. images were captured in RAW
format. Different
Different kinds ofkinds camera of lens
camera lens
(focal (focalfrom
length length from
17 to 17 toand
50 mm 50 mmfromand 70 mm fromto70 200 mm mm) to
200 mm)
were usedwere usedto
in order intake
order to takeofimages
images the entireof the entire settlement
settlement and detailed and detailed
images ofimages selected of
selected
areas or areas
relevantor relevant
buildings. buildings. The associated
The associated TechnoTeamTechnoTeam“LMK“LMK LabSoft”LabSoft”softwaresoftwarewas
was
usedused to elaborate
to elaborate the captured
the captured images.
images. Results
Results werewere expressed
expressed as false
as false colourcolour images.
images.
For the model calibration, the luminance values measured
For the model calibration, the luminance values measured in-situ were compared in-situ were compared
with
with those
those obtained
obtained from from the the ex-ante
ex-ante lighting
lighting simulation.
simulation. The The calibration
calibration was was donedone by by
comparing the measured luminance values and the simulated ones from both the external
comparing the measured luminance values and the simulated ones from both the external
(Figure 7)
(Figure 7) and
and internal
internal (Figure
(Figure 8) 8) observation
observation points.points. Several
Several elementary
elementary surfaces surfaces of of the
the
building façades with greater visibility from the viewpoints were
building façades with greater visibility from the viewpoints were selected for the compar- selected for the compari-
son. For
ison. For each
each elementary
elementary building’s
building’s surface,
surface, thethe average luminance value
average luminance value was was calculated,
calculated,
and the measured values were compared with the simulated ones (Tables 3 and 4).
and the measured values were compared with the simulated ones (Tables 3 and Fur-
4). Fur-
thermore, the relative differences (RD) between the ex-ante
thermore, the relative differences (RD) between the ex-ante measured luminance values measured luminance values
and simulated
and simulated ones ones were
were calculated.
calculated. The The RD,
RD, expressed
expressed as as aa percentage,
percentage, is is calculated
calculated as: as:
( )
 
𝑅𝐷 = x − xre f (1)
RD = (1)
xre f
 where xref, in this study, corresponds to the values of the ex-ante condition. For the model
calibration x is the simulated luminance value and xref is the ex-ante measured luminance
value. The RD values obtained for all viewpoints were below 8%, a value that is acceptable
for this study.
Energies 2021, 14, 509 11 of 25
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 26

where xxref
where ref,,in
inthis
thisstudy,
study, corresponds
corresponds toto the
the values
values of
of the
the ex-ante
ex-ante condition.
condition. For
For the
the model
model
calibration x is the simulated luminance value
calibration x is the simulated luminance value and xref and x is the ex-ante measured luminance
refis the ex-ante measured luminance
value. The
value. TheRD RDvalues
valuesobtained
obtainedfor
forall
allviewpoints
viewpoints were
were below
below 8%,
8%, aavalue
value that
thatisisacceptable
acceptable
for this study.
for this study.

(a) (b)
Figure 7. Comparison of the measured and simulated average luminance values from the external
viewpoint E1. (a) Measured luminance distribution; (b) simulation output.

Table 3. Comparison of the measured and simulated average luminance values from the external viewpoint E1. (1) Bell
tower (2) residential building (3) residential building (4) Historic wall.

Lav (1) [cd/m2] Lav (2) [cd/m2] Lav (3) [cd/m2] Lav (4) [cd/m2]
Ex-ante 1.26 0.65 0.61 0.78
(a) (b)
Ex-post 1.25 0.70 0.65 0.77
RD Figure 7.7.Comparison
Figure−0.79%Comparisonof ofthe
themeasured
measured and
andsimulated
7.69% simulatedaverage
average luminance
luminancevalues
6.56% valuesfrom the
theexternal
−1.28%
from external
viewpoint E1. (a) Measured luminance distribution; (b) simulation
viewpoint E1. (a) Measured luminance distribution; (b) simulation output. output.

Table 3. Comparison of the measured and simulated average luminance values from the external viewpoint E1. (1) Bell
tower (2) residential building (3) residential building (4) Historic wall.

Lav (1) [cd/m2] Lav (2) [cd/m2] Lav (3) [cd/m2] Lav (4) [cd/m2]
Ex-ante 1.26 0.65 0.61 0.78
Ex-post 1.25 0.70 0.65 0.77
RD −0.79% 7.69% 6.56% −1.28%

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure8.8.Comparison
Comparisonofofthe
themeasured
measuredand
andsimulated
simulatedaverage
averageluminance
luminancevalues
valuesfrom
fromthe
theinternal
internal
viewpoint I1. (a) Measured luminance distribution; (b) simulation output.
viewpoint I1. (a) Measured luminance distribution; (b) simulation output.

Table
Table 4.
3. Comparison
Comparisonof ofthe
themeasured
measuredand
andsimulated
simulatedaverage
averageluminance
luminance values
valuesfrom the
from internal
the external
viewpoint I1. (1) building façade.
viewpoint E1. (1) Bell tower (2) residential building (3) residential building (4) Historic wall.
Ex-Ante Ex-Post
Lav (1) [cd/m2 ] Lav (2) [cd/m2 ] Lav (3) [cd/m2 ] Lav (4) [cd/m2 ]
Lav (1) [cd/m2] 5.32 5.72
Ex-ante (a) 1.26 0.65 0.61 (b) 0.78
RD 7.52%
Ex-post 1.25 0.70 0.65
Figure 8. Comparison of the measured and simulated average luminance values from the internal 0.77
viewpoint
3.3.
RD
(a) Measured−
I1. Simulations
Lighting
0.79%
luminance
and
7.69%
Analysisdistribution;
6.56%
(b) simulation output.
of the Results
−1.28%

The calibrated model was used to carry out the lighting simulations and results of
Table
Table 4.
4. Comparison
Comparisonof ofthe
themeasured
measuredand
andsimulated
simulatedaverage
averageluminance values
luminance from
values fromthethe
internal
internal
the ex-ante
viewpoint I1.and
(1) ex-post condition
building façade. were compared. In order to simulate the lighting condi-
viewpoint I1. (1) building façade.
tion and to assess the lighting performance determined by the ex-ante lighting plants and
the ex-post lighting design, an analysis Ex-Ante
ofEx-Ante
the roads’ typologies and ofEx-Post
the corresponding
Ex-Post
L av (1) [cd/m2]
lighting L classes was performed.
2
5.32
According to the Standard UNI 5.72 Road Light-
11248:2016
av (1) [cd/m ] 5.32 5.72
RD
ing—Selection of lighting classes [38], the roads were7.52%
organized
RD 7.52% into categories based on
their geometry and speed limit. The roads’ typologies and the corresponding road lighting
3.3. Lighting Simulations and Analysis of the Results
3.3. Lighting Simulations and Analysis of the Results
The calibrated model was used to carry out the lighting simulations and results of
The calibrated model was used to carry out the lighting simulations and results of the
the ex-ante and ex-post condition were compared. In order to simulate the lighting condi-
ex-ante and ex-post condition were compared. In order to simulate the lighting condition
tion and to assess the lighting performance determined by the ex-ante lighting plants and
and to assess the lighting performance determined by the ex-ante lighting plants and the
the ex-post lighting design, an analysis of the roads’ typologies and of the corresponding
ex-post lighting design, an analysis of the roads’ typologies and of the corresponding
lighting classes was performed. According to the Standard UNI 11248:2016 Road Light-
lighting classes was performed. According to the Standard UNI 11248:2016 Road Lighting—
ing—Selection of lighting classes [38], the roads were organized into categories based on
Selection of lighting classes [38], the roads were organized into categories based on their
their geometry and speed limit. The roads’ typologies and the corresponding road lighting
 lighting design. This involves the evaluation of the influence parameters in order to guar-
antee maximum efficiency of the lighting systems contribution to the safety of road users,
while reducing energy consumption, installation and management costs, environmental
impact and light pollution. According to the Standard, the project lighting category is de-
Energies 2021, 14, 509 fined by modifying the entrance lighting class (that depends on the type of road and the
12 of 25
analysed area before any improvement) according to the risk analysis [39].
In this case, based on the risk analysis, the project lighting classes (ex-post) were in-
creased by one class with respect to the entrance lighting class (ex-ante), decreasing the
geometry and speed
corresponding limit. The
performance roads’ typologies
requirements. The P1 and
classthe corresponding
was changed to P2road lighting
and the M3 to
classes (defined according to the Standard) are shown in Figure 9. In particular, local urban
M4. The definition of the ex-post lighting classes allowed to establish the corresponding
pedestrian roads were identified with the P1 lighting class and the secondary suburban
lighting requirements, according to the Standard EN 13201-2:2015 Road lighting—Part 2:
road (50 km/h speed limit) was identified with the M3 lighting class.
Performance requirements [40].

Figure 9. Road lighting classes (ex-ante and ex-post).

Figure 9. Road lighting classes (ex-ante and ex-post).

In this
The study,
ex-ante a limited
lighting number
classes wereofmodified
road sections,
in the which
designwere
phase assumed to bebyrepre-
conducted the
designers as a result of the risk analysis. The risk analysis, introduced by the Standardin
sentative of the totality of the road typologies of Montepescali village, were considered
the 11248:2016
UNI analysis of Road
plantsLighting—Selection
lighting performances and energy
of lighting performances.
classes In particular,
[38] is a mandatory phase inthe
driveway
road lighting(M3 lighting
design. Thisclass) was characterized
involves the evaluationby oftwo types of road
the influence sections:insection
parameters order toM-
S1 that was
guarantee a one-way
maximum street and
efficiency the lighting
of the carriage systems
was 4 m contribution
wide, and section
to theM-S2
safetythat was a
of road
two-way
users, whiletraffic streetenergy
reducing and theconsumption,
carriage was installation
6 m wide. Instead, pedestrian costs,
and management roads environ-
(P1 light-
ing class) were characterized by three types of road sections: section P-S1
mental impact and light pollution. According to the Standard, the project lighting category 2.5 m wide; sec-
tion P-S2 4 m wide and section P-S3 8 m wide.
is defined by modifying the entrance lighting class (that depends on the type of road and
Subsequently
the analysed the ex-ante
area before and ex-post according
any improvement) condition were
to thecompared
risk analysisand[39].
results in terms
of lighting
In this performances,
case, based onenergy the risk consumption
analysis, theand alteration
project of the
lighting night image
classes andwere
(ex-post) night
perception
increased by were analysed.
one class Concerning
with respect to the the lighting
entrance performances,
lighting the main
class (ex-ante), metricsthe
decreasing de-
fined in the Standards
corresponding performance as performance
requirements. parameters for street
The P1 class lightingtosystems
was changed P2 andwere
the M3calcu-
to
lated.
M4. TheThe energy performances
definition of the ex-post and the environmental
lighting classes allowedimpacts generated
to establish by the retrofit
the corresponding
proposal
lighting were evaluated
requirements, by comparing
according the energy
to the Standard demand of the
EN 13201-2:2015 Road ex-ante and ex-post
lighting—Part 2:
Performance requirements [40].
In this study, a limited number of road sections, which were assumed to be represen-
tative of the totality of the road typologies of Montepescali village, were considered in
the analysis of plants lighting performances and energy performances. In particular, the
driveway (M3 lighting class) was characterized by two types of road sections: section M-S1
that was a one-way street and the carriage was 4 m wide, and section M-S2 that was a
two-way traffic street and the carriage was 6 m wide. Instead, pedestrian roads (P1 lighting
class) were characterized by three types of road sections: section P-S1 2.5 m wide; section
P-S2 4 m wide and section P-S3 8 m wide.
Subsequently the ex-ante and ex-post condition were compared and results in terms
of lighting performances, energy consumption and alteration of the night image and night
perception were analysed. Concerning the lighting performances, the main metrics defined
in the Standards as performance parameters for street lighting systems were calculated.
Energies 2021, 14, 509 13 of 25

The energy performances and the environmental impacts generated by the retrofit proposal
were evaluated by comparing the energy demand of the ex-ante and ex-post systems.
Moreover, some energy indexed were calculated, as requested by the European and Italian
Standards. In particular, the power density indicator (DP ) and annual energy consumption
indicator (DE ), introduced by the Standard EN 13201-5:2015 [41] as energy performance
indicators for road lighting, were calculated. These indicators may be used to compare the
energy performance of different road lighting solutions and technologies for the same road
lighting project. In particular, the power density indicator (DP ) demonstrates the energy
needed for a road lighting installation. The DP of a lighting installation in a given state
of operation is the value of the system power divided by the value of the product of the
surface area to be lit and the calculated maintained average illuminance value on this area.
According to the Standard [41], the DP is calculated as:

P
DP = (2)
∑in=1 Ei · Ai

where DP is the power density indicator [W·lx−1 ·m−2 ]; P is the system power of the lighting
installation used to light the relevant areas [W]; Ei is the maintained average horizontal
illuminance of the sub-area “i” [lx]; Ai is the size of the sub-area “i” lit by the lighting
installation [m2 ] and n is the number of sub-areas to be lit.
The annual energy consumption indicator (DE ) determines the energy consumption dur-
ing the year and is calculated as the total electrical energy consumed by a lighting installation
day and night throughout a specific year in proportion to the total area to be illuminated by
the lighting installation. According to the Standard [41], the DE is calculated as:

∑m


j=1 Pj · t j
DE = (3)
A
where DE is the annual energy consumption indicator for a road lighting installation
[Wh·m−2 ]; Pj is the operational power associated with the j-th period of operation [W];
tj is the duration of j-th period of operation profile when the power Pj is consumed, over
a year [h]; A is the size of the area lit by the same lighting arrangement [m2 ] and m is the
number of periods with different operational power Pj .
Moreover, the parameterized index of lighting system efficiency (IPEI) for both the
current and LED installations was calculated, as defined in the Italian Minimum En-
vironmental Criteria [42], to define the corresponding energy class. According to the
Standard [42] the IPEI index is calculated as:

DP
IPEI = (4)
DPr

where IPEI is the annual energy consumption indicator for a road lighting installation [-];
DP is the calculated power density indicator [W·lx−1 ·m−2 ] and is DPr is the reference power
density indicator. The reference values are defined in the Italian Minimum Environmental
Criteria [42], according to the road lighting class [W·lx−1 ·m−2 ].
Finally, the assessment of the nightscape was made by comparing the ex-ante and
ex-post condition in terms of luminance values and luminance distributions on vertical sur-
faces (building façades). In addition, the luminance contrasts from the selected significant
observation points were calculated. The luminance contrast is calculated as [43]:

Lt − Lb
C= (5)
Lb

where C is the luminance contrast; Lb is the luminance of the background and Lt is the
luminance of the target
Energies 2021, 14, 509 14 of 25

4. Results
In this section, results relative to the comparation between the ex-ante and ex-post
lighting system, in terms of lighting performances, energy consumption and alteration of
the night image and night perception are presented.

4.1. Lighting Performance

For both the ex-ante and ex-post lighting systems, the lighting performances were
calculated and compared to the requirements of the Standard EN 13201-2:2015 Road
lighting—Part 2: Performance requirements [40], according to corresponding lighting
classes. The lighting performances were evaluated considering the representative road
areas (M-S1, M-S2 for driveways and P-S1, P-S2, P-S3 for pedestrian roads) and the main
pedestrian square of Montepescali (Cassero square).
The quantities calculated for the driveways (M-S1, M-S2) were: the average luminance
(Lav ), the overall uniformity (Uo ), the Threshold Increment (TI) and the Edge Illuminance
Ratio (EIR). Furthermore, the Relative Differences (RD) between the ex-ante and the ex-post
performances were calculated.
In particular, according to the definitions of the Standard [40]:
• The average luminance (Lav ) is the average value of the luminance calculated on the
roadway.
• The overall uniformity (Uo ) of the road surface luminance is the ratio between the
minimum and the average value.
• the Threshold Increment (TI) is the parameter which expresses the disability glare as
percentage increase in luminance contrast threshold (between object and background)
that is required to make it visible in presence of disability glare generated by road
lighting luminaires.
• the Edge Illuminance Ratio (EIR) is the ratio between the average horizontal illumi-
nance on a strip nearby the carriageway and the average horizontal illuminance inside
the carriageway, on a strip that have the width of one driving lane.
The results for the selected driveway areas are reported in Table 5.

Table 5. Lighting performances of the ex-ante and ex-post installations for the representative drive-
way areas.

Lav [cd/m2 ] Uo TI EIR

Standard Requirement 1 >0.75 >0.40 <15% >0.30
Ex-ante 0.43 0.40 74% 0.70
M-S1 Ex-post 0.88 0.54 12% 0.39
RD +52% +26% −83% −45%
Ex-ante 0.68 0.30 96% 0.56
M-S2 Ex-post 1.16 0.46 13% 0.37
RD +42 +35% −87% −34%
1 EN 13201-2:2016 Standard (M4 class).

The quantities calculated for the three characteristic portions of the pedestrian streets
(P-S1, P-S2, P-S3) and for the pedestrian Cassero square were: average illuminance (Eav ),
minimum illuminance (Emin ), minimum semi-cylindrical illuminance (Esc,min ) and the
minimum vertical illuminance (Ev,min ). Furthermore, the Relative Differences (RD) between
the ex-ante performance and ex-post performance were calculated.
In particular, according to the definitions of the Standard [40]:
• The average illuminance (Eav ) is the horizontal illuminance averaged over a road area.
• The minimum illuminance (Emin ) is the lowest illuminance on a road area.
• The minimum semi-cylindrical illuminance (Esc,min ) in a plane above a road area is
the lowest semi-cylindrical illuminance on a plane at a specified height (in this case
1.50 m) above a road area.
Energies 2021, 14, 509 15 of 25

• The minimum vertical illuminance (Ev,min ) on a plane above a road area is the lowest
vertical plane illuminance on a plane at a specified height (in this case 1.50 m) above
the road area.
The results for the selected pedestrian areas are reported in Table 6 (pedestrian streets)
and in Table 7 (Cassero square).

Table 6. Lighting performances of the ex-ante and ex-post installations for the pedestrian sections.

Eav [lx] Emin [lx] Esc, min [lx] Ev, min [lx]
Standard Requirement 1 10 < Eav < 15 >2 >2 >3
Ex-ante 6.19 3.57 1.25 1.71
P-S1 Ex-post 14.26 8.53 1.42 0.70
RD +56% +58% +11% −59%
Ex-ante 5.70 3.24 1.37 1.67
P-S2 Ex-post 13.70 8.70 1.80 1.72
RD +58% +62% +23% +2%
Ex-ante 4.36 2.00 1.37 1.44
P-S3 Ex-post 10.41 3.60 0.95 1.09
RD +58% +44% −30% −24%
1 EN 13201-2:2016 Standard (P2 class).

Table 7. Lighting performances of the ex-ante and ex-post installations for the pedestrian square area
(Cassero square).

Eav [lx] Emin [lx] Esc, min [lx] Ev, min [lx]
Standard Requirement 1 10 < Eav < 15 >2 >2 >3
Ex-ante 94.35 60.89 11.41 4.77
P-S4 Ex-post 96.95 90.03 46.85 30.10
RD +3% +33% +76% +75%
1 EN 13201-2:2016 Standard (P2 class).

4.2. Energy Performance

The energy analyses allowed evaluation of the annual energy savings and the en-
vironmental impacts generated by the retrofit proposal. The evaluation of the energy
performance was performed by considering the total absorbed power due to lamps, bal-
lasts, and grid losses, and the equivalent hours of use. The equivalent hours of use resulted
from the step dimming program planned for the new plants: the street lighting system
and the square lighting system was kept full power from the switching-on to 10 p.m. and
dimmed to 70% from 10 p.m. until switch-off. The architectural lighting system (not object
of the substitution scheme) was kept at full power and switched-off at midnight. In Table 8
the input data for the energy analysis are reported.

Table 8. Total installed power and equivalent hours of use of the ex-ante and ex-post installations for
the street lighting system and the square lighting system and for the architectural lighting system.

Street and Square Lighting Arch. Lighting

Total Power [W] Equivalent Hours [h] Total Power [W] Equivalent Hours [h]
Ex-ante 17,560 4200 2439 4200
Ex-post 6714 3351 2439 2100
RD −62% 0%

The energy demand of the ex-ante and ex-post systems were calculated. Two scenarios
in particular were considered in the analysis. Initially the energy demand of the ex-ante
and ex-post systems considering only the substitution of the luminaires, without the intro-
duction of dimming strategies during night-time, was calculated (Table 9). Subsequently,
Energies 2021, 14, 509 16 of 25

the energy demand of the ex-ante and ex-post systems also considering the step-dimming
scenario was calculated (Table 10).

Table 9. Energy demand of the ex-ante and ex-post installations considering only the substitution
of luminaires.

Energy Demand (No Step-Dimming) [kWh]

Street Lighting Square Lighting Arch. Lighting Total
Ex-ante 81,448 7607 12,446 101,501
Ex-post 27,051 2558 10,756 38,475
RD −66.8% −66.4% −28.8% −62.1%

Table 10. Energy demand of the ex-ante and ex-post installations.

Energy Demands (with Step-Dimming) [kWh]

Street Lighting Square Lighting Arch. Lighting Total
Ex-ante 81,448 7607 12,446 101,501
Ex-post 21,583 2041 6223 29,847
RD −73.5% −73.2% −50% −70.6%

Moreover, the environmental impacts generated by the retrofit of the lighting system
were calculated in terms of tons of oil equivalent (TOE) and tons of annual carbon dioxide
(CO2 ). The relative differences (RD), corresponding to the energy savings, between the
current system and the LED system were calculated and results are reported in Table 11.

Table 11. Tons of oil equivalent (TOE) and tons of annual carbon dioxide (CO2 ) of the ex-ante and
ex-post installations.

TOE CO2
Ex-ante 18.98 32.88
Ex-post 5.58 9.67
RD −70% −70%

In order to assess the lighting installations energy performance, as defined by the Eu-
ropean Standard EN 13201-5: 2015 Road lighting—Part 5: Energy performance indicators [41],
the Power Density Indicator (DP ) and Annual Energy Consumption Indicator (DE ) were
calculated for both the ex-ante and ex-post installations. Table 12 shows the calculated val-
ues for the driveway’s areas (M-S1 and M-S2), Table 13 for the pedestrian areas (P-S1, P-S2
and P-S3) and Table 14 the pedestrian Cassero square area. Moreover, the Parameterized
index of lighting system efficiency (IPEI) for both the current and LED installations was
calculated, as defined in the Italian Minimum Environmental Criteria [42], to define the
corresponding energy class.

Table 12. Energy performance indicators for ex-ante and ex-post installations of driveway areas.

DPr DP DE IPEI Energy Class

Ex-ante 0.040 0.28 11.26 7.00 G
M-S1 Ex-post 0.042 0.02 1.40 0.54 A3+
RD - −92% −88% −92% -
Ex-ante 0.040 0.06 2.13 1.37 D
M-S2 Ex-post 0.042 0.01 0.50 0.19 A6+
RD - −85% −77% −86% -
Energies 2021, 14, 509 17 of 25

Table 13. Energy performance indicators for ex-ante and ex-post installations of pedestrian areas.

DPr DP DE IPEI Energy Class

Ex-ante 0.048 0.53 21.13 11.04 G
P-S1 Ex-post 0.051 0.04 2.63 0.86 B
RD - −92% −88% −92% -
Ex-ante 0.048 0.20 4.90 4.26 G
P-S2 Ex-post 0.051 0.027 1.17 0.50 A3+
RD - −86% −76% −88% -
Ex-ante 0.048 0.13 2.45 2.78 F
P-S3 Ex-post 0.051 0.02 0.58 0.32 A5+
RD - −88% −76% −88% -

Table 14. Energy performance indicators for ex-ante and ex-post installations of the pedestrian square
area (Cassero square).

DPr DP DE IPEI Energy Class

Ex-ante 0.048 0.09 42.22 1.82 E
P-S4 Ex-post 0.051 0.01 4.06 0.19 A6+
RD - −89% −90% −90% -

4.3. Visual Perception (Nightscape)

In this study, in addition to the lighting and energy analysis, the ex-ante and ex-post
lighting solutions were also evaluated for the nightscape they determine for external and
internal observation points.
The assessment of the nightscape of Montepescali was made through the calibrated
model by comparing the ex-ante and ex-post condition in terms of luminance values,
luminance distributions on vertical surfaces (building façades) and luminance contrasts
from the selected external (E1 and E2) and internal (IM1) significant observation points.
As previously reported, the calibrated model included parts of both the upper and
the lower plateau, incorporating the parts of the village that are visible from the selected
observation points. In the study, the luminance values of the vertical façades in large
part or completely visible from the selected points of view were analysed, including
both the main historical landmarks (identified in the preliminary territorial analysis) and
the residential buildings. The luminance distribution on the visible buildings’ façades
was evaluated and results relative to the ex-ante and ex-post conditions were compared.
Figure 10 reports, for the observation point E1, the lighting condition (rendered image) and
the luminance distribution (false colour image) obtained from the simulation for both the
ex-ante and the ex-post installations. In this case, in particular, the visible portion of the
lower plateau (residential buildings), the bell tower of the Santo Stefano and San Lorenzo
Church and the Belvedere tower (historical landmarks) were analysed. Figure 11 shows the
lighting condition (rendered image) and the luminance distribution (false colour image)
from the E2 external point of view. In this case the visible façades of the upper plateau
(residential buildings), the Cassero tower and the Belvedere tower (historical landmarks)
were analysed. Figure 12 reports the lighting simulation results relative to the internal
viewpoint I1 (Cassero Square).
Energies 2021, 14, 509 18 of 25
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 26

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 10. Observation
Figure point E1 (simulation
10. Observation point E1 performed
(simulation using Dialux EVO
performed software):
using Dialux(a)EVO
render of the ex-ante
software): condition;
(a) render of
(b) false colour render of the ex-ante luminance distribution. In evidence the analysed vertical surfaces and the corre-
the ex-ante condition; (b) false colour render of the ex-ante luminance distribution. In evidence
sponding average luminance values; (c) render of the ex-post condition; (d) false colour render of the ex-post luminance the
analysed
distribution. verticalthe
In evidence surfaces and
analysed the corresponding
vertical average luminance
surfaces, the corresponding average values;
luminance(c) values
renderand
of the
theex-post
Relative
Differences (RD) between
condition; the average
(d) false colour luminance
render of of theex-post
the ex-ante luminance
and the ex-post installations.In evidence the analysed
distribution.
vertical surfaces, the corresponding average luminance values and the Relative Differences (RD)
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Table 15. Observation point E1: (a) Bell tower, (b) Belvedere tower, (c) residential building, 19
(d)of 26
between the average luminance
residential of the
building, ex-ante and
(e) residential the ex-post
building, installations.
(f) Historic wall.

Lav [cd/m2]
(a) 1 (b) 1 (c) (d) (e) (f)
Ex-ante 1.25 1.56 0.14 0.70 0.65 0.62
Ex-post 0.96 1.24 0.03 0.32 0.24 0.36
RD −23% −21% −79% −54% −63% −42%
1 Historic building illuminated by architectural lighting floodlights (not involved in the retrofit

proposal).

Table 16. Observation point E1. Luminance contrasts.

Luminance Contrast [–]

Bell Tower | Context Belvedere Tower | Context
(a) Ex-ante 1.37 (b) 1.96
Ex-post 3.04 4.22

(c) (d)

Figure
Figure 11. 11. Observation
Observation point E2 performed
point E2 (simulation (simulation performed
using using
Dialux EVO Dialux(a)EVO
software): software):
render (a) render
of the ex-ante of
condition;
(b) falsethe
colour render
ex-ante of the ex-ante
condition; luminance
(b) false colourdistribution.
render of theIn evidence the analyseddistribution.
ex-ante luminance vertical surfaces and the corre-
In evidence the
sponding average luminance values; (c) render of the ex-post condition; (d) false colour render of the ex-post luminance
analysed vertical surfaces and the corresponding average luminance values; (c) render of the ex-post
distribution. In evidence the analysed vertical surfaces, the corresponding average luminance values and the Relative
condition;
Differences (d) false
(RD) between colour render
the average luminanceof of
thetheex-post
ex-anteluminance distribution.
and the ex-post installations.In evidence the analysed
vertical surfaces, the corresponding average luminance values and the Relative Differences (RD)
Table
between the average 17. Observation
luminance of thepoint E2: (a)
ex-ante andCassero tower, (b)
the ex-post Belvedere tower, (c) residential building, (d)
installations.
residential building, (e) residential building, (f) Historic wall.

Lav [cd/m2]
(a) 1 (b) 1 (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)
Ex-ante 1.47 1.56 0.30 0.64 0.40 0.68 0.62
Ex-post 1.41 1.24 0.09 0.21 0.09 0.29 0.36
Energies 2021, 14, 509 19 of 25
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 2

(a) (b)

(c)
(d)
Figure 12. Observation
Figure point I1 (simulation
12. Observation performed using
point I1 (simulation Dialuxusing
performed EVO software):
Dialux EVO (a) render of the(a)
software): ex-ante condition;
render of
(b) false colour render of the ex-ante luminance distribution. In evidence the analysed vertical surfaces and the corre-
the ex-ante condition; (b) false colour render of the ex-ante luminance distribution. In evidence the
sponding average luminance values; (c) render of the ex-post condition; (d) false colour render of the ex-post luminance
analysed
distribution. vertical the
In evidence surfaces andvertical
analysed the corresponding
surfaces, theaverage luminance
corresponding values;
average (c) render
luminance of the
values andex-post
the Relative
condition;
Differences (d) false
(RD) between thecolour
averagerender of the
luminance of ex-post luminance
the ex-ante distribution.
and the ex-post In evidence the analysed
installations.
vertical surfaces, the corresponding average luminance values and the Relative Differences (RD)
between the average Table 19. Observation
luminance point I1:and
of the ex-ante (a) Cassero Façade,
the ex-post (b) Cassero tower, (c) residential building, (d)
installations.
horizontal floor.
For each observation point, the average luminance values (Lav Lav) [cd/m
of the2] vertical surfaces
corresponding to the façades of the visible building
(a) 1 or monuments
(b) 1 were calculated.
(c) Further- (d)
more, the RD between the average luminance
Ex-ante of the ex-ante4.88
4.95 and the ex-post 6.08installations 5.92
Ex-post
were calculated (Tables 15–19). 5.09 4.81 9.46 5.97
RD 3% −1% 56% 1%
Historic
1 building illuminated by architectural lighting floodlights (not involved
Table 15. Observation point E1: (a) Bell tower, (b) Belvedere tower, (c) residential building, (d) in the retrofit
proposal).
residential building, (e) residential building, (f) Historic wall.
Table 20. Observation point I1. Luminance contrasts.
2
Lav [cd/m ]
(a) 1 (b) 1 (c) (d)Luminance Contrast
(e) [–] (f)
Cassero Tower | Cassero Façade Cassero Tower | Façade (c)
Ex-ante 1.25 1.56 0.14 0.70 0.65 0.62
Ex-ante −0.01 −0.20
Ex-post 0.96 1.24 0.03 0.32 0.24 0.36
Ex-post −0.06 −0.49
RD −23% −21% −79% −54% −63% −42%
1 Historic building illuminated by architectural lighting floodlights (not involved in the retrofit proposal).
5. Discussion
This study was aimed at assessing the impact of different lighting systems and con
Table 16. Observation point E1. Luminance contrasts.
trol systems on the photometric and energy performances and on the nocturnal image o
a small settlement located in a landscape
Luminancecontext. In [–]
Contrast the paper, data and results relatin
to the case study of Montepescali were reported. Comparable results were obtained from
Bell Tower
an analogous study | Context
conducted by the same Belvedere
authors onTower | Context
the neighbouring village o
Ex-ante Batignano. 1.37 1.96
Ex-post 3.04 4.22
Energies 2021, 14, 509 20 of 25

Table 17. Observation point E2: (a) Cassero tower, (b) Belvedere tower, (c) residential building, (d)
residential building, (e) residential building, (f) Historic wall.

Lav [cd/m2 ]
(a) 1 (b) 1 (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)
Ex-ante 1.47 1.56 0.30 0.64 0.40 0.68 0.62
Ex-post 1.41 1.24 0.09 0.21 0.09 0.29 0.36
RD −4% −21% −70% −67% −78% −57% −42%
1 Historic building illuminated by architectural lighting floodlights (not involved in the retrofit proposal).

Table 18. Observation point E2. Luminance contrasts.

Luminance Contrast [–]

Cassero Tower | Context Belvedere Tower | Context
Ex-ante 1.78 1.95
Ex-post 5.78 4.96

Table 19. Observation point I1: (a) Cassero Façade, (b) Cassero tower, (c) residential building, (d)
horizontal floor.

Lav [cd/m2 ]
(a) 1 (b) 1 (c) (d)
Ex-ante 4.95 4.88 6.08 5.92
Ex-post 5.09 4.81 9.46 5.97
RD 3% −1% 56% 1%
1 Historic building illuminated by architectural lighting floodlights (not involved in the retrofit proposal).

Finally, for both ex-ante and ex-post solutions, luminance contrasts were calculated
in order to quantify the visibility of a target relative to its immediate background. In this
study the luminance contrasts between the average luminance values (Lav,t ) of the main
historical buildings that characterizes the village skyline (identified in the preliminary
multidisciplinary analysis) and the average luminance values (Lav,b ) of the background
built context (residential buildings) were calculated. The calculated luminance contrasts
are reported in the Tables 16–20.

Table 20. Observation point I1. Luminance contrasts.

Luminance Contrast [–]

Cassero Tower | Cassero Façade Cassero Tower | Façade (c)
Ex-ante −0.01 −0.20
Ex-post −0.06 −0.49

5. Discussion
This study was aimed at assessing the impact of different lighting systems and control
systems on the photometric and energy performances and on the nocturnal image of a
small settlement located in a landscape context. In the paper, data and results relating to
the case study of Montepescali were reported. Comparable results were obtained from an
analogous study conducted by the same authors on the neighbouring village of Batignano.
As expected from the analysis of the literature, results confirmed the effectiveness
of the retrofit proposal in terms of lighting and energy performances. In particular, the
presented study showed that, even in the case of intervention in a small village, significant
improvements in terms of lighting and energy performances could be achieved.
Concerning lighting performances, results confirmed the effectiveness of the diffusing
globes retrofit with LED luminaires equipped with asymmetric optical systems. In fact, the
Energies 2021, 14, 509 21 of 25

analysis of the ex-ante lighting system showed that, in the driveway areas, the lighting per-
formances did not comply with the Standard requirements in terms of average luminance
values and threshold increment (TI) (due to the uncontrolled emission of luminous flux of
the existing luminaires). The simulation of the ex-post solution showed that the average
luminance values were increased by more than 42%, and the minimum requirement im-
posed by the Standard reference was respected. Moreover, the threshold increment (TI)
was drastically reduced by more than 83%, solving the critical issue related to the disability
glare. A different result was obtained for the pedestrian roads. The ex-post solution showed
higher illuminance values on the horizontal surface with respect to the ex-ante condition,
increasing the average illuminance values by more than 56% and respecting the Standard
requirement. Instead, the semi-cylindrical and vertical illuminance values did not increase
significantly in the ex-post solution and did not reach the Standard requirements. The
reason for this result was that the new LED luminaires were characterized by high efficient
optics, designed to decrease the dispersion of light flux towards the vertical surfaces.
Also for energy performances the results were in agreement with previous studies and
demonstrated the positive potential of a retrofit intervention in terms of energy savings.
Indeed, the comparison of the energy demand of the ex-ante and ex-post systems and the
analysis of the environmental impacts generated by the retrofit of the lighting system (in
terms of tons of oil equivalent (TOE) and tons of annual carbon dioxide (CO2 )) showed in
both cases a reduction by more than 70%. Moreover, the calculation of energy performance
indicators showed a significant potential of energy savings. On each analysed areas, the
replacement of HPS lamps (70 W) with LED technologies (21 W) caused a reduction in
the power density indicator (DP ) greater than 85% and of the annual energy consumption
indicator (DE ) greater than 76%. Also the IPEI indexes of the different road areas were
reduced significantly (relative differences between 86% and 92%) causing an improvement
on the design energy classes.
The results of the study highlighted that with only the substitution of traditional light-
ing systems with LED luminaires, that is without the introduction of dimming strategies
during night-time with further effects in the same direction, allows one to decrease the
energy consumption of 62.1%. The introduction of lighting control systems, also in the case
of a simple step-dimming program, could implement further total energy savings of 8.5%
(from 62.1% to 70.6%). Within this frame, the introduction of an adaptive control system,
as pursued in the smart cities approach, could further increase energy savings. Moreover,
results demonstrate that the architectural lighting system, composed of metal halide lamps
not replaced in the retrofit proposal, could also generate an energy savings of 50%. This
result was only due to the efficiency of the power lines and the switch-off at midnight.
In this paper, in addition to the lighting and energy analysis, the ex-ante and the
ex-post lighting solutions were evaluated for the nightscape they determine. In fact, in
literature the implications on the alteration of the night image and night perception were
generally not taken into account. In the present study the variation on nightscape was
investigated and quantified. The nightscape was evaluated through simulations, analysing
the average luminance distributions on the building façades observed from one internal
and two external observation points and calculating luminance contrasts. Results showed
a remarkable difference between the simulation of the ex-ante and ex-post lighting systems
concerning the visual perception of the urban context.
From the external points of view, the simulation of the ex-post solution showed a
reduction in buildings’ average luminance values and a different luminance distribution
on vertical surfaces. A decrease between 41% and 79% of average luminance values was
obtained on the façades of common residential buildings, while a lower decrease (between
4% and 23%) was calculated on the façades of historical buildings (i.e., the bell tower, the
Belvedere tower, etc.). Different results for historical buildings and residential buildings
emerged. In fact, the ambient lighting of the settlement in the ex-ante condition was the
result of the diffusion of the light beam from street lighting luminaires. Instead, the historic
buildings were enlightened by the dedicated architectural lighting system, not included in
Energies 2021, 14, 509 22 of 25

the retrofit intervention, causing a lower alteration in their night perception. Moreover, the
analysis of the luminance contrasts showed that the calculated luminance contrasts between
the average luminance values of the historical buildings and the average luminance values
of the visible parts of the surrounding residential buildings was higher in ex-post solution.
In fact, the luminance contrasts increased respectively from 1.37 to 3.04 (bell tower) and
from 1.96 and 4.22 (Belvedere tower) from the E1 point of view and from 1.78 to 5.78
(Cassero tower) and from 1.95 to 4.96 (Belvedere tower) from the E2 point of view. Also,
in this case the reason was that the façades of the historic buildings, illuminated by the
not replaced architectural lighting system, preserved high luminance values also in the
retrofit solution. Instead, the replacement of the other lighting systems caused a significant
decrease of the luminance values on the façades of the surrounding urban context, due to
the more controlled light output of the new LED luminaires.
As a general comment, a significant variation in the luminance values and luminance
distributions comparing the ex-ante and ex-post conditions emerged. In fact, the current
lighting systems emits light in almost all directions and, as a consequence, part of the
light flux reaches also the vertical surfaces of the surrounding buildings. However, the
unnecessary dispersion of light flux generates energy waste and light pollution. The substi-
tution with LED luminaires with high efficient optics, allow to reduce energy consumption
and to minimize obtrusive light and light pollution. However, the limitation of the lu-
minous flux emitted towards the building façades, significantly modified the nocturnal
image and the perception of the urban context. In fact, results showed that the nocturnal
visibility of residential buildings was significantly reduced in the ex-post condition, and
consequently the luminance contrasts between the historical landmarks and the urban
context increased. Results demonstrated that this design strategy allow to increase the
visibility of the landmark elements. However, the excessive reduction of the visibility of
the urban context could define a lack in the overall perception of the settlements. As a
consequence, at night, only some elements, considered to be the most important, would be
perceived from external points of observation. Within this frame, another study conducted
by the authors [44] investigated the subjective perception of the nightscape perceived from
observation points located outside settlements in prominent position and characterised by
high historical and heritage value. The study demonstrated that when during night-time
large parts of a settlement are not illuminated, and therefore not recognizable, the sub-
jective pleasantness of the perceived nightscape is low. On the other hand, the subjective
pleasantness rises when the overall or larger parts of the settlement can be perceived. The
same study demonstrated that also excessive luminance contrasts could again reduce the
perceived pleasantness of the nightscape. Within this frame, innovative strategies could be
directed towards creating and controlling specific nocturnal lighting scenarios, considering
also the visual aspects of the nightscape as a design criteria.
Different results were obtained in the analysis of the visual perception from the
internal point of view. The replacement of existing luminaires (metal halide floodlights)
with LED technologies in the Cassero square did not significantly change the existing
visual perception. The reason is that the photometric diagrams of the current and new
LED luminaires were similar and the installation in the upper part of the building façades
allowed to homogenously illuminate the vertical surfaces in both ex-ante and ex-post
conditions. In fact, the calculated luminance contrasts between the average luminance
values of the vertical surfaces of the square were near-zero and without relevant differences
between the ex-ante and ex-post conditions. As a comment, in this case the total absence
of luminance contrasts could compromise the valorisation of the main buildings and the
creation of a visual hierarchy able to enhance the architectures and their cultural values.
From the simulation of a retrofit intervention of a lighting system it was possible
to demonstrate that the replacement of existing luminaires with LED technologies could
improve the energy efficiency and the lighting performances. On the other hand, it may
remarkably influence the perception of the nocturnal image of the monuments and of the
urban context. Within this frame, the absence of a design strategy able to connect the
Energies 2021, 14, 509 23 of 25

different elements of the settlement in a coordinate system could compromise the overall
perception of the settlements and of the context perceived from external points of view. On
the other hand, the absence of a luminance hierarchy and an excessive uniformity could
compromise the perception of the nocturnal image from internal observation points. For
these reasons, in order to enhance the nightscape from both internal and external points,
the introduction of new attentions and indications should be considered.

6. Conclusions
The renewal of public lighting systems, replacing the existing luminaires with LED
technologies, is a policy that many municipalities are adopting to reduce their expendi-
ture budget, as well as to increase the city environmental sustainability. Moreover, the
introduction of innovative and flexible systems could be a first step toward the smart cities
approach. In fact, the renovation of public lighting systems may increase the energy effi-
ciency, reduce the maintenance costs and the CO2 emissions, while improving the lighting
performance. On the other hand, it may remarkably influence and alter the night image
and night perception of the sites.
In this paper the possible implications of the retrofit of public lighting systems in
small villages characterized by prominent position, landscape context and widespread
heritage are analysed. The current lighting condition, produced by traditional luminaires,
and the lighting condition produced by a retrofit proposal with LED sources of a case
study located in the Tuscany area of Maremma Grossetana are evaluated. The ex-ante
and ex-post lighting solutions are compared through simulations. The effects in terms of
lighting and energy performance are analysed, as well as the implications on the alteration
of the nightscape, considering both internal and external significant observation points.
Results confirm the positive effect that more sustainable and energy efficient lighting
systems may have on the lighting performance and energy consumptions. On the other
hand, a significant variation in the nightscape emerges, in particular considering the
visual perception from external observation points. In fact, results demonstrate the high
impact that retrofit interventions could have on the perceived visual image of a site. As a
general comment, the need of introducing also the visual aspects as a design criteria of the
nightscape emerged. Within this frame, future research will be devoted to defining new
design indications. As an example, to allow a general perception of the settlement, design
strategies based on the definition of a coordinated nocturnal image, considering both the
main elements of the urban scene and the surrounding context should be developed. To
this end, the definition of luminance hierarchies considering the entire settlement should
be an effectiveness solution, as also recommended in [27]. Moreover, in order to avoid
excessive luminance contrasts or, in contrast, an excessive uniformity in the perceived
nocturnal image, design indications should be introduced in order to suggest specific range
of luminance contrasts.
In conclusion, the introduction of a new approach based on a systemic vision should
be considered. The definition of new design indications should be the premises to re-think
the public lighting of urban settlements with cultural heritage value and to enhance the
nightscape from both internal and external observation points. The final goal should be the
promotion of both energy saving policies (economic and environmental sustainability) and
valorisation of places and landscapes, respecting the socio-cultural values of the sites.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.P.; methodology, L.V., A.P.; investigation, F.F.; data
curation, L.V., F.F.; writing—original draft preparation, L.V., F.F.; writing—review and editing, L.V.,
A.P.; supervision, L.V, A.P.; project administration, A.P. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments: The authors acknowledge the Studio Associato GMS (Milan) for the provided
materials on the existing lighting systems and the new lighting plan for the municipality of Montepescali.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Energies 2021, 14, 509 24 of 25

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