Origin of Soils and Rocks

Engr. John Christian L. Gaviola

Department of Civil Engineering
Visayas State University
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the unit, the student must be
able to discuss the formation of natural
soil deposits

GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS

 The term ‘Soil’ has different meanings in
Soil Defined different scientific fields. It has originated
from the Latin word Solum.

the loose unconsolidated inorganic

material on the earth’s crust produced by
the disintegration of rocks, overlying hard
rock with or without organic matter.

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Origin of Soil and Grain Size
In general, soils are formed by weathering of rocks. The physical
properties of soil are dictated primarily by the minerals that
constitute the soil particles and, hence, the rock from which it is
derived.

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 Weathering
Weathering breaks down and alters rocks and
minerals at or near the earth's surface and is
divided into physical/mechanical weathering and
chemical weathering.

The factors of weathering may be atmospheric, such

as changes in temperature and pressure; erosion and
transportation by wind, water and glaciers; chemical
action such as crystal growth, oxidation, hydration,
carbonation and leaching by water, especially
rainwater, with time.

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Mechanical Weathering
Also known as the physical weathering which is a processes that break a rock or
mineral into smaller pieces without altering its composition

Abrasion
When rocks collide one another or scrap
against each other, their exposed
surfaces can be chipped or fractured.

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Mechanical Weathering
Also known as the physical weathering which is a processes that break a rock or
mineral into smaller pieces without altering its composition

Exfoliation
Outer layers of rocks peel off like an
onion

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Mechanical Weathering
Also known as the physical weathering which is a processes that break a rock or
mineral into smaller pieces without altering its composition

Frost Action
when liquid water goes into cracks and
then freezes causing the cracks to get
wider

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Mechanical Weathering
Also known as the physical weathering which is a processes that break a rock or
mineral into smaller pieces without altering its composition

Organic Activity
These may include:
Root Pry (Plant Activities)
Burrowing (Animal Activities)
Mining/Construction (Human Activities)

GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS

Mechanical Weathering
Also known as the physical weathering which is a processes that break a rock or
mineral into smaller pieces without altering its composition

Organic Activity
These may include:
Root Pry (Plant Activities)
Burrowing (Animal Activities)
Mining/Construction (Human Activities)

GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS

Mechanical Weathering
Also known as the physical weathering which is a processes that break a rock or
mineral into smaller pieces without altering its composition

Hydraulic Action
Hydraulic action occurs when water
(generally from powerful waves) rushes
rapidly into cracks in the rock face, thus
trapping a layer of air at the bottom of the
crack, compressing it and weakening the
rock. When the wave retreats, the trapped
air is suddenly released with explosive
force.

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Mechanical Weathering
Also known as the physical weathering which is a processes that break a rock or
mineral into smaller pieces without altering its composition

Haloclasty
A process in which the growth of salt crystals
causes physical weathering when saline solution
seep into cracks and joints in the rocks and
evaporate, leaving salt crystals behind.
These salt crystals expand as they are heated up,
exerting pressure on the confining rock.

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Chemical Weathering
is the decomposition of materials by a series of chemical reactions that result in the
rust on cars or the corrosion or staining of building facades.

Hydrolysis
is a decomposition process in which
water is one of the reacting agents.
It can be illustrated by the hydrolysis
of orthoclase feldspar (potassium
aluminum silicate) by carbonic acid
and water to produce kaolinite, an
important clay mineral

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Chemical Weathering
is the decomposition of materials by a series of chemical reactions that result in the
rust on cars or the corrosion or staining of building facades.

Carbonation
may be illustrated by the decomposition of
calcite (calcium carbonate) to calcium
bicarbonate.

Calcium bicarbonate is highly soluble and

is readily leached from soils.

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Chemical Weathering
is the decomposition of materials by a series of chemical reactions that result in the
rust on cars or the corrosion or staining of building facades.

Oxidation
When oxygen combines with iron in rocks, it
changes into iron oxide (rust).
Occurs when oxygen in air assisted by water
combines with minerals to form oxides.
Oxidation normally occurs to rock or minerals
such as olivine pyroxene and amphibole that
contain high iron content and therefore produce
rusty, red, yellow and brown rocks and soils.

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Factors in Soil Formation

CLIMATE AND TIME BIOTA FACTOR PARENT MATERIAL TOPOGRAPHY

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 Soil Deposition is a geological process in which sediments,
soils, and rocks are added or to form a landform or land mass.

Soils Produced by Weathering and Deposition

1. Residual Soils – soils that remain where they were formed, simply
overlying the rock from which they came from

2. Transported Soils – soils formed when rock weathers at one site and
the particles are moved to one location

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Soil Deposits

Residual Soil Deposits

Deposited at the place of decomposition or
weathering.

a. Coarse- Grained Soils.

Depends on the size of the particle.

b. Fine- Grained Soils

Greatly influenced by mineral content, moisture
content, etc.

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 Types of transported soils with regards to
the agents

1. Gravity deposits – soil deposits transported by

the effect of gravity. (ex. Landslide)
2. Alluvial deposits – soils carried and deposited by
flowing water
3. Glacier deposits – result from the action of
Common transporting
glaciers
agents for particles:
4. Wind deposits (aeolian deposits) – deposits that
1. Gravity have wind as the transporting agent (ex. Dunes)
2. Running water
3. Glaciers
4. Wind

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 Soil profile is a natural succession of zones or
strata below the ground surface and represents the
alterations in the original soil material which have
been brought about by weathering processes. It
may extend to different depths at different places
and each stratum may have varying thickness.

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 Typical Soil Profile

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 O Horizon
The top, organic layer of soil, made up
E mostly of leaf litter and humus

A Horizon
The layer called topsoil; is made up of humus
mixed with mineral particles. (black soil)

E Horizon
This layer is light in color; It is made up mostly
of sand and silt, having lost most of its minerals
and clay as water drips through the soil called
leaching.
Also called as Leaching or Eluviation Layer.

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 B Horizon
Also called the subsoil. It contains clay
and mineral deposits (like iron, aluminum
oxides, and calcium carbonate)
SOLUM
Also named as the Illuviation Layer.

C Horizon
The slightly broken-up bedrock. The regolith.

R Horizon
The unweathered rock (bedrock) layer that is
beneath all the other layers.

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References
Venkatramaiah, C. (1993). Geotechnical Engineering (3rd ed.). New
Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers. ISBN (10) : 81-224-2338-8

Reading Assignment
SOME COMMONLY USED SOIL DESIGNATIONS
Venkatramaiah, C. (1993). Geotechnical Engineering (3rd ed.). New Age International (P)
Ltd., Publishers. ISBN (10) : 81-224-2338-8. Page 7-8

SOME SPECIAL SOIL CATEGORIES

Mc Carthy, David F. 2001. Essentials of Soil Mechanics and Foundations: Basic
Geotechnics, 6th Edition. New Jersey, USA : Prentice Hall. Page 53-59

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Soil Structure and Composition
Engr. John Christian L. Gaviola
Department of Civil Engineering
Visayas State University
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the unit, the student must be
able to identify different types of soil structure
and discuss composition of soils.

GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS

Soil Structure
refers to the arrangement of particles in soils (sand, silt, clay, and organic matter)
commonly called aggregates into porous compounds which are separated by
pores and cracks. Soil structure will also influence water movement.

Structural composition of sedimented soils influences, many of

their important engineering properties such as permeability,
compressibility and shear strength. Hence, a study of the
structure of soils is important.

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Soil Structure
the behavior of the individual soil particle and their interaction with another
particle is influenced by the following forces:

1. Weight of the particle due to gravitational force, Fg

2. Particle surface forces, due to surface electrical forces, Fs

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Soil Types
The major engineering categories of soil are gravel, sand, silt, and clay.

There is not unanimous agreement on the exact division between each of these
major soil types, but gravel and sand are universally considered coarse-grained
soil, for the individual particles are large enough to be distinguished without
magnification. Silts and clays are considered fine-grained soil because of their
small particles—too small, for the most part, to be seen unaided.

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Particle Size Classification

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The Unified Soil Classification System is now almost universally accepted and
has been adopted by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).

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Soil Structure
can be described in terms of the following:
1. Grade – degree of aggregation
2. Class – average size
3. Type of aggregates – forms

Single particles when assembled appear as larger

particles. These are called aggregates .

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Soil Structure
Grade of structure – expresses the difference on cohesion
within aggregates and adhesion between aggregates.

Four major grades of structure:

• Structureless – no observable aggregation
• Weak – poorly formed
• Moderate – formed from aggregates that are moderately durable
• Strong – formed from aggregates that are durable

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Soil Structure
Class of structure – describes the average size of individual aggregate.

Five classes of structure

• Very fine or very thin
• Fine or thin
• Medium
• Coarse or thick
• Very coarse or very thick

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Soil Structure
Type of structure – describes the form or shape of individual
aggregates
Types of soil structure
• Granular – found in A horizon
• Blocky – found in B horizon
• Prismatic – found in B horizon
• Platy – found in A horizon, greatly found on forest soils
• Columnar – found in B horizon, found in compacted soils
• Single-grained – found in sandy soil

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 Type of Structure

Source: http://www.cst.cmich.edu/users/Franc1M/esc334/lectures/physical.htm

GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS

 Type of Structure

Source: http://www.cst.cmich.edu/users/Franc1M/esc334/lectures/physical.htm

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Soil Composition
Mixture of mineral matter, organic matter,
water, and air.

• Weathered rock particles (minerals) is

the main ingredients (about 45%)
• Organic Matter (about 5%)
• Water (about 20% to 30%)
• Air (about 20% to 30%)

the combinations of these determine the soil’s properties such

as texture, structure, porosity, and color.

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Soil Element and its Phases

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References
Das, Braja. 2020. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 7th Edition.
USA: Cengage Learning.
Venkatramaiah, C. (1993). Geotechnical Engineering (3rd ed.). New
Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers. ISBN (10) : 81-224-2338-8

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING I