2.

1 Ecological Reality In the Philippine Context

1. Deforestation. The Philippines has lost an estimated 46% of its forest cover between 1934 and
2003, making it one of the most deforested countries in the world. This has led to soil erosion,
biodiversity loss, and increased vulnerability to natural disasters. [Reference. Department of
Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) - Forest Management Bureau]
2. Biodiversity Loss. The Philippines is considered one of the world's biodiversity hotspots. but it
also has one of the highest rates of species extinction. The International Union for Conservation
of Nature (IUCN) has identified more than 500 threatened species in the Philippines, including
the Philippine eagle and the Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park. [Reference. Conservation
International - Biodiversity Hotspots]
3. Coral Reef Destruction. Over 95% of the country's coral reefs are at risk due to destructive
fishing practices, pollution, and climate change. Some estimates suggest that only 5% of the
country's reefs are in excellent condition, highlighting the urgent need for conservation efforts.
[Reference. Philippine Reef and Rainforest Conservation Foundation Inc.]
4. Water Pollution. Approximately 58% of the country's rivers are considered biologically dead
or heavily polluted, mainly due to untreated sewage, agricultural runoff, and industrial waste.
This pollution not only affects aquatic life but also poses risks to human health and freshwater
availability. [Reference. Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA)]
5. Climate Change Vulnerability. The Philippines is one of the most vulnerable countries to the
impacts of climate change. It experiences frequent typhoons, rising sea levels, and changing
weather patterns. The country ranked fourth in the Global Climate Risk Index 2021, highlighting
the need for climate adaptation and mitigation measures. [Reference. Germanwatch - Global
Climate Risk Index]
6. Waste Management. The Philippines generates over 40,000 tons of solid waste daily, but only
about 10% is properly managed, leading to pollution of land, water bodies, and coastal areas.
The lack of proper waste disposal and recycling facilities exacerbates the environmental and
health risks associated with solid waste. [Reference. National Solid Waste Management
Commission (NSWMC)]
All of these indicate widespread environmental destruction which environmentalists agree ay be
as irreversible as a nuclear holocaust. This danger that threatens Mother Earth gives an a rising
sense of uneasiness as he learns of the fragility and vulnerability of life support stems (land, air,
water), which sustain them. Humans suddenly realize the common organic nd with each other
and with their natural environment where their survival, health and undance depend.

To be assured of an ecological stable future, we must make crucial decisions now. Man cannot
continue responding in an ad hoc manner to short term environmental crisis. Developme people-
sentere de long-ange and comprehension toscoe and ecologiess sustainable, people-centered, and
community-based.

2.2 Ecosystem
Ecosystem is the environment around us. It is a place or region with a distinct and recognized
landscape type, such as forest, grassland, desert, wetland, or coastal area. An ecosystem contains
living and non-living things. If is a community of living things interacting with the nonliving
parts of their environment. If is connected through a network of interactions which allow energy
and nutrients to flow throughout. An ecosystem, in other words, is a series of interactions
between species and their surroundings.

Ecosystems comprise both blotic (living) and ablotic (non-iving) elements. Plants, animals, and
other species are examples of biotic factors. Rocks, temperature, and humidity are examples of
abiotic variables. It is composed of a systematic interaction between biotic factors and abiotic
factors. Every aspect in an ecosystem, whether directly or indirectly, is dependent on every other
factor. Biotic and abiotic factors work together to create a unique ecosystem.

Ecosystems cater to a wide range of species that interact with one another to form a community.
It is a community of living organisms along with their natural habitat. These organisms interact
with each other, but their survival is also influenced by the nonliving factors present in their
ecosystem. This network of living and nonliving components in each area is known as an
ecosystem.

Eugene Odum, an American ecologist, on his initial research on birds led to the discovery of how
animals and plants species interact with the biological and physical world (i.e., their niche or role
within the ecosystem). By his definition, an ecosystem is a unit that includes all organisms. An
ecosystem can be imagined and examined in a variety of habitats, such as one square meter of
grassland, a pool, a huge lake, a large tract of woodland, a balanced aquarium, a specific section
of river and ocean, and so on. It is a community that interacts with the physical environment in
such a way that the flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity, and
material cycles, for instance, the exchange of materials within the system between living and
nonliving organisms.

Ecosystem is the environment around us. The environment is vast, and it contains a variety of
living and nonliving species, as well as gasses and other organic and inorganic components, all
of which combine to form the ecosystem. It is an environment where both the living as well as
nonliving organism interact with each other. An ecosystem, in other words, is a series of
interactions between species and their surroundings.

The way creatures live, feed, and reproduce within a particular habitat are referred to as
ecosystems, plants, animals, rocks & minerals, and water are the four primary components of an
ecosystem.

2.3 Major components of the ecosystem

Blotic components reter to all ife in an ecosystem it consists of all the Iving organisms Iving in
the system, Ike plants, animals. fungi. miero orgarisms and even humans They interact in an
energy-dependent manner. Biotic factors are sorted into three groups. producers or autotrophs.
consumers or heterotrophs. and decomposers of detritivores,
Abiotic components are the non-living elements and chemical aspects of the system I includes
basic in-organic (soil, water, oxygen, calcium carbonates, phosphates ere. and organic
compounds. Physical elements such as moisture, wind currents, and sun radiation are also
considered. The sun's radiation is the sole important source of energy for any ecosystem. Abiotic
factors affect living organisms and the functioning of ecosystems,

Here are some exampies of abiotic factors.

a. Temperature - is a crucial abiotic factor that affects the metabolic processes, growth, and
reproduction of organisms. Different species have specific temperature ranges within which they
can thrive. Extreme temperature fluctuations can stress or even be fatal to organisms.
b. Light - its availability and intensity play a vital role in photosynthesis, which is the process by
which plants and some other organisms convert light energy into chemical energy. Light also
influences the behavior, reproductive cycles, and migration patterns of many organisms.
c. Water - The availability of water is critical for the survival of organisms. It affects various
physiological functions, including hydration, nutrient uptake, and waste removal. Organisms
have different adaptations to cope with different levels of water availability, such as desiccation
tolerance in desert plants or specialized water storage structures in certain animals.
d. Soll Composition - including factors like pH, nutrient content, and texture, influences the
growth and distribution of plants. It also impacts the availability of nutrients for organisms in
terrestrial ecosystems.
e. Air and Afmospheric Composition - The composition of the air and atmosphere, including
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pollutants, affects the respiration and gas exchange processes of
organisms. Changes in atmospheric composition, such as increased levels of greenhouse gases,
can have far-reaching impacts on ecosystems and climate patterns.
f. Topography and Geology - The physical features of the land, such as elevation, slope, and
geology, influence the distribution of species and the availability of resources. Theycan create
diverse habitats, affect water drainage patterns, and impact nutrient availability.
g.Wind - Wind speed and direction can shape the physical structure of organisms, influence seed
dispersal, and impact the flight patters of birds and insects. These abiotic factors interact with
each other and with the living organisms in an ecosystem, creating a complex web of
relationships and adaptations. Understanding and studying these factors are crucial for
comprehending ecosystem dynamics and the distribution of species.

2.4 Structure of Ecosystem

Producer - These are the autotrophic, chlorophyll-bearing organisms, which produce their own
food.
Consumers - Refers to an organism within an ecosystem that obtains its energy and nutrients by
consuming other organisms or organic matter.
Consumers can be broadly classified into three main categories based on their feeding habits;
a. Primary Consumers (Herbivores) - are consumers that primarily feed on plants and plant
material. They obtain energy by consuming leaves, stems, fruits, or other plant parts. Examples
of herbivores include rabbits, cows, and caterpillars.
b. Secondary Consumers
• Carnivores -are consumers that primarily feed on other animals. They obtain energy by
consuming the flesh of other animals. Carnivores can be further classified into different
categories based on their hunting strategies. For example, predators actively hunt and kill their
prey, while scavengers feed on carrion or already dead animals. Examples of carnivores include
lions, wolves, and vultures.
• Omnivores -are consumers that have a mixed diet and consume both plants and animals. They
obtain energy by consuming a combination of plant matter and other organisms. Examples of
omnivores include humans, bears, and raccoons.

Tertiary Consumers (Predators) - also known as top predators, are organisms at the highest
trophic level in a food chain or food web. Tertiary consumers are carnivores or omnivores that
occupy the highest trophic level in an ecosystem's food chain. They are responsible for
population control and maintaining ecosystem balance.

Consumers play a vital role in energy flow and nutrient cycling within ecosystems. They are an
integral part of food chains and food webs, transferring energy and nutrients from lower trophic
levels to higher trophic levels. By consuming other organisms, consumers regulate population
sizes, influence species interactions, and contribute to the overall dynamics and stability of
ecosystems.

3. Decomposers - it attacks the dead remains of producers and consumers and degrade the
complex organic substances into simpler compounds to derive their nutrients. The decomposers
play a very important role in maintaining the dynamic nature of the ecosystem.

The ecosystem provides services that are essential for human well-being, including health.
Services provided by ecosystems are the benefits that humans derive from ecosystems, such as
primary production (also known as resources) such as food and water; environmental services
like pest, disease, and pollution management; cultural services such as spiritual and recreational
benefits; and supporting processes, such as nutrient cycling, that that maintain the conditions for
life on Earth. While human beings are the ones protecting the ecosystem. Sometimes ecosystems
change because of climate change or a natural disaster. Sometimes, ecosystems are destroyed by
humans.

All the creatures in an ecosystem, as well as their habitat, can be highly dependent on one
another and have a significant impact on one another. The entire planet earth might be
considered as one large ecosystem, in which all creatures coexist and interact as part of a vast
global system. Understanding ecosystems enables us to understand the organisms that live within
them.
2.5 Types of Ecosystems
I. Terrestrial Ecosystem
II. Aquatics Ecosystem
a. Freshwater Ecosystem
b. Marine Ecosystem Artificial Ecosystem
III. artificial ecosystem

2.5.1 Terrestrial Ecosystem

Terrestrial ecosystem refers to an ecosystem that exists on land, encompassing various habitats
such as forests, grasslands, deserts, and tundra. In the Philippine setting, terrestrial ecosystems
hold significant importance due to their ecological, economic, and cultural value.

Importance of terrestrial ecosystems

1.Biodiversity. The Philippines is recognized as one of the world's biodiversity hotspots, hosting
a vast array of plant and animal species, many of which are endemic and found nowhere else.
Terrestrial ecosystems, such as tropical rainforests and unique montane forests, support high
levels of biodiversity, contributing to the overall global biodiversity.
2. Climate Regulation. Terrestrial ecosystems play a crucial role in regulating the climate.
Forests act as carbon sinks, absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through
photosynthesis and storing it in trees and soils. The preservation and conservation of terrestrial
ecosystems help mitigate climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and promoting
carbon sequestration.
3. Watershed Protection. Terrestrial ecosystems in the Philippines, especially forests, play a vital
role in protecting watersheds and maintaining water quality. Forests act as natural water filters,
preventing soil erosion and runoff, which helps regulate water flow, prevent floods, and ensure a
clean and stable water supply for communities.
4.Indigenous Cultures and Traditional Knowledge. Terrestrial ecosystems are intertwined with
the cultural identity and traditions of indigenous communities in the Philippines. Many
indigenous groups rely on forest resources for their livelihoods, subsistence agriculture, and
traditional practices. Preserving terrestrial ecosystems is essential for the continuation of
indigenous cultures and the transmission of traditional ecological knowledge.
5. Economic Value. Terrestrial ecosystems contribute significantly to the Philippine economy.
Forests provide timber, non-timber forest products, and ecotourism opportunifies, generating
income and employment for local communities. Terrestrial ecosystems also support agriculture,
providing fertile soils and favorable microclimates for crop production.
6. Ecotourism and Recreation. Terrestrial ecosystems, such as national parks, mountains, and
natural reserves, attract tourists and nature enthusiasts. These areas offer opportunities for
outdoor recreation, wildlife observation, hiking, and adventure tourism, contributing to the
tourism industry. and promoting environmental awareness.
 Preserving and managing terrestrial ecosystems in the Philippines is crucial for sustaining
biodiversity, mitigating climate change, ensuring water security, and supporting local
communities' livelihoods. Conservation efforts, sustainable land-use practices, and the
involvement of local communities and stakeholders are essential for the protection and
sustainable management of these valuable ecosystems.

Types of Terrestrial Ecosystems

a. Forest Ecosystems Tropical Rainforests. Found in equatorial regions with high rainfall, these
forests are known for their incredible biodiversity. Temperate Forests. Found in regions with
moderate climate, characterized by deciduous or coniferous trees. Boreal Forests. Also known as
taiga, these forests are found in high-latitude regions with cold climates, dominated by
coniferous trees.
b. Grassland Ecosystems. Savannas. Tropical grasslands with scattered trees and a seasonal
climate, typically found in Africa. Prairies. Temperate grasslands with fertile soils, primarily
found in North America.
c. Desert Ecosystems. Hot Deserts. Arid regions with high temperatures and low precipitation,
such as the Sahara Desert. Cold Deserts. Arid regions with low temperatures, such as the Gobi
Desert.
d. Tundra Ecosystems. Arctic Tundra. Found in the far north, characterized by low temperatures,
permafrost, and low-growing vegetation. Alpine Tundra. Found at high altitudes, characterized
by cold temperatures and sparse vegetation.

2.5.2 Aquatic Ecosystem

An aquatic ecosystem refers to an ecosystem that exists in water, including both freshwater and
on fisheries as a source of food and livelihood for coastal communities. Aquatic ecosystems,
such as coral reefs. mangroves, and seagrass beds, serve as important nursery grounds and
habitats for commercially important fish and shellfish species. Sustainable management of
aquatic ecosystems is crucial to ensure the sustainability of fisheries and food security for the
Filipino population.
3.Coastal Protection marine environments. In the Philippine setting, aquatic ecosystems are
abundant and play a crucial role in the country's biodiversity, economy, and livelihoods.

Importance of Aquatic Ecosystem

1. Marine Biodiversity. The Philippines is located within the Coral Triangle, known as the global
center of marine biodiversity. The country's coastal and marine waters are home to a vast array
of marine species, including colorful coral reefs, fish, turtles, sharks, and other marine
organisms. Preserving aquatic ecosystems is essential for protecting this rich biodiversity.
2. Fisheries and Food Security. The Philippines has a strong reliance. Aquatic ecosystems, such
as mangroves and coral reefs, provide natural coastal protection. Mangroves act as a buffer
against storms, waves, and erosion, while coral reefs serve as barriers, reducing the impact of
wave energy on the coastline. These ecosystems help protect coastal communities, infrastructure,
and valuable coastal resources from the impacts of natural disasters and climate change.
4. Tourism and Recreation. The Philippines is renowned for its picturesque beaches, crystal-clear
waters, and diverse marine life, attracting tourists from around the world. Aquatic ecosystems,
including coral reefs and pristine coastal areas, offer opportunities for snorkeling, diving,
swimming, and other water-related recreational activities. The tourism industry benefits from the
natural beauty and biodiversity of these aquatic ecosystems.
5. Climate Change Mitigation. Aquatic ecosystems play a significant role in mitigating climate
change. Healthy oceans and coastal ecosystems act as carbon sinks, absorbing and storing carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere. Protecting and restoring mangroves, seagrass beds, and other
coastal ecosystems contribute to carbon sequestration and help mitigate climate change.
6. Cultural and Traditional Importance. Aquatic ecosystems hold cultural and traditional
significance in the Philippines. Coastal communities, particularly indigenous peoples. have deep
connections to marine resources and depend on them for their cultural practices, livelihoods, and
identity. Preserving aquatic ecosystems ensures the continuation of these cultural traditions and
the sustainable use of marine resources.

Types of Aquafic Ecosysiem

1. Marine Ecosystem
Most marine communities depend on photosynthetic organisms to survive. Plants like
phytoplankton supports the marine food web. The photosynthetic activity in oceans appears to be
best near the coastlines, as presence of nitrogen, phosphorus, and other nutrients wash offshore
and fertilize primary producers. With the ocean currents, enables distribution o biological
productivity like transportation of nutrients.

The coral reefs are best-known marine ecosystems due to their extraordinary biological
productivity and their diverse types. The reefs are formation of coral polyps that live
symbiotically or together with photosynthetic algae. These provide shelter for one-fourth of all
marine species.

The mangroves are trees that grow in salt water. These organisms are usually existing in calm,
shallow and tropical coastlines. These helps stabilize the shorelines and are areas for nurseries
for fish, shrimp and other fishes. But as time goes by, mangroves become vulnerable to
development, sedimentation and overuse and cause direct effect to fishermen in their catch
count.

Estuaries are bodies of water where freshwater meets the saltwater. This body of water is usually
calm, warm, and nutrient-rich.

Tide pools are shallow pool of saltwater. At high tide, these are flooded while retain some water
at low tide. These areas are rocky because wave actions prevent the plant grow and mud
accumulation. Low, narrow, and sandy islands that creates a parallel to a coastline are barrier
islands. They appear where the continental shelf is shallow and steady source of sediments from
rivers or coastal currents. These protect brackish, inshore lagoons and salt marshes from currents,
waves, tides and even storms.

2. Freshwater ecosystem. Freshwater communities are less extensive than marine

environments. In terrestrial communities, they tend to rely, to some extent, on freshwater
environments to survive.
Wetlands are shallow systems where the land surface is saturated or submerged. The
vegetation is adapted to grow under saturated conditions. Wetlands are home on major
breeding, nesting, and migration staging areas for waterfowl and shorebirds. Swamps are
wetlands with trees, while marshes are wetlands without trees. Both swamps and marshes
have high biological productivity. The water in these areas is usually shallow enough to
allow full penetration of sunlight.

Bogs are areas of saturated ground, whereas the ground consists of deep layers of peat (those
are undecayed vegetation). Fens are similar to bogs but fens are mainly fed by groundwater,
while bogs are fed by precipitation. Bogs and fens, unlike swamps and marshes, have low
biological productivity.

Lakes are natural freshwater ecosystem created when precipitation, runoff or groundwater
fills depressions (landform sunken) in the earth's surface. Causes of depressions include
glaciations, crustal displacement, and even volcanic activity.

Types of Notural Ecosystems in the Philippines

Natural ecosystem definition is that it is an ecosystem found in nature where organisms

freely interact with other components of that environment. One of the main characteristics of
this ecosystem is that it is a self-sufficient system. Among the natural ecosystems are forest,
grassland, and coastal zone ecosystems.

Forests
Forests are inherently diverse ecosystems, as conditions found within them are ideal for
supporting symbiotic ecological relationships. This is especially so in the Philippines, where
the tropical climate allows forests to receive, absorb, and redistribute rainwater to support life
not only within themselves, but also to other nearby and adjacent ecosystems where the water
reserves are released. Primarily, forests serve as the country's most important source of water,
thus allowing all other forms of natural resources to flourish and become productive. Forest
ecosystems naturally provide clean air and food in the process. In addition, these resources
also contribute through power (electricity) generation, and by providing protection as a raw
material for houses and other forms of shelter. They also offer indirect benefits, such as by
functioning as buffer zones from storms and prevention of soil erosion. Forests support
humanlivelihood, although proper management and conscious conservation efforts are
emphatically required in this sense.
 In the Philippines, the primary forests in the lowlands include mangrove forests,
dipterocarp forests and molave forests. In the highlands, they include pine forests such as
those found in the mountains of the Central Cordillera, Zambales and Mindoro and mossy
forests. Freshwater swamp forests, such as Liguasan Marsh and Bulusan March in Cotabato
are a special type of primary forest. Because of our climate, our forest are classified as
tropical rain forests, characterized by high temperature and high rainfall practically
throughout the year. The richest type of tropical rain forest is the dipterocarp forest. It has the
biggest number of plant and animal species. The think canopy is the richest habitat for
leeches, millipedes, centipedes and land snails. The untouched dipterocarp forest abounds in
mammals, birds, reptiles and insects that live on the trees, on the ground and in the soil.

Grasslands

Grassland in the Philippines have been reduced from 11% of the total land area to 6% over
the past few decades, mainly due to the conversion of these ecosystems into cropland,
including pasturage. Because the soils are poor in nutrients, the introduction of legumes has
been used for pasture improvement. The liveweight gains of cattle and buffaloes are different
in various regions of the Philippines and depend on both the rainfall of the region and the
introduced legume. In some areas gains of livestock on improved pastures were up to 3 times
that on native pastures.
Grasslands refers to land with natural grass cover without trees or very few widely
scattered trees. Most of the grasslands in the Philippines are the result of the destruction of
forests. Some, like the grasslands on top of Mt, Pulag in Mt. Province are natural formations.
In the Philippines the dominant vegetations in many grasslands are cogon along hillsides and
talahib in the lowlands where is more water. The grass species need abundant sunlight. The
animal species in grasslands include snakes, lizards, rats, birds and insects.

Coastal Zones
The Philippine coastal zone is typical of tropical coasts, with five major resource units
occurring along its shallow coastlines. coral reefs, mangrove ecosystems, beach systems,
estuaries and lagoons, and seagrass beds. It is important to note, however, that 'coastal
resource management' cannot be limited to the coastal zone, because there are tight linkages
between upland and coastal ecosystems and what occurs in one ecosystem inevitably affects
the other ecosystems.

Coral Reefs
The Philippines lies in the Indo-West Pacific Region, reputedly the world's highest
biodiversity marine area, and is part of what is known as the "coral triangle," the center of the
most diverse habitat in the marine tropics. Reports say the country's coral reefs host about
400 species of corals, 971 species of benthic algae, and a third of the 2,300 fish species
known to of them inhabit Philippine waters. There are 27,000 sq km of coral reef areas in the
Philippines, with 60% of them occurring in Palawan
Mangroves
In 1920, the Philippine mangrove forest area was estimated to be around 450.000
hectares. Largely because of conversion to fishponds and salt beds, the clear-cutting of trees for
firewood and other domestic uses, and reclamation for industrial or other development purposes,
this area has shrunk to less than 150,000 hectares, of which 22% are in Palawan, 32% in
Mindanao, and 23% in Eastern Visayas and Bohol. From 1980 to 1991, mangrove areas were
depleted at a rate of about 3,700 hectares per year, mostly due to conversion to fishponds.

Beach systems.
Most small Philippine islands have coral sand beaches, i.e., beaches formed by coral reef
growth and erosion. Forming an integral part of the reef communities, these beaches depend on
healthy coral reets for continued supplies of sand, at the same time supporting crustaceans,
mollusks and some worms. Undisturbed beaches also serve as nesting places for sea turtles.
Unregulated and unplanned development of beaches for tourism and the quarrying of sand for
construction and other purposes are two of the most common threats to beaches in the
Philippines.
Seagrasses
According to seagrass expert Miguel D. Fortes, the Philippines has 16 known species of
seagrasses, the highest number in the Indo-Pacific region. These species are valued mainly for
their role as fish nursery areas and as foraging grounds for food fish, dugong, turtles and wading
birds. The depletion of seagrass beds is known to result in high water turbidity and lower
production of seagrasses and their associated fauna. Like the other coastal ecosystems, seagrass
ecosystems in the Philippines are under threat from arious natural and man-made forces -
typhoons, tidal waves, and volcanic activity as well as mining, aquaculture, deforestation, and
blast fishing.

2.5.3 Artificial Ecosystem

This type of artificial ecosystem is the most common one. Artificial terrestrial ecosystems
contribute largely to human survival considering the fact that this is where agricultural and
ivestock farms, poultry farms, greenhouses, etc., can be cultivated and preserved. Artificial
ecosystems refer to human-created or modified environments that mimic natural ecosystems.
These ecosystems are typically designed for specific purposes and can be found in various
settings such as urban areas, agricultural landscapes, and controlled environments.

Examples of artificial ecosystems in the Philippines and their importance.

1. Urban Parks and Gardens. Urban parks and gardens, such as Rizal Park in Manila and Ayala
Triangle Gardens in Makati, are examples of artificial ecosystems in urban settings. These green
spaces provide recreational areas, promote biodiversity in urban environments, and contribute to
the well-being and quality of life of city residents. They serve as oases of nature within concrete
jungles, allowing people to connect with nature, relax, and enjoy outdoor activities.
2.Rooftop Gardens and Green Roofs. With the increasing urbanization in the Philippines, the
concept of rooftop gardens and green roofs is gaining popularity. These artificial ecosystems
involve the cultivation of plants on rooftops, providing numerous benefits. They help reduce
urban heat island effect, improve air quality, conserve energy by insulating buildings, and
promote urban agriculture in limited spaces. Rooftop gardens also contribute to stormwater
management by reducing runoff and promoting water absorption.
3. Aquaponies Systems. Aquaponics is a method of agriculture that combines hydroponics
(cultivating plants in water) with aquaculture (cultivating aquatic animals). This artificial
ecosystem is gaining attention in the Philippines as a sustainable and resource-efficient farming
method. Aquaponics systems allow the production of both fish and crops in a symbiotic
relationship, minimizing water usage and nutrient wastage. They offer opportunities for year-
round food production and can be implemented in urban and rural areas, contributing to food
security and sustainable agriculture practices.

3. Controlied Environment Agriculture. In areas with limited arable land or unfavorable

growing conditions, controlled environment agriculture (CEA) provides a solution. CEA
involves the cultivation of crops in controlled environments such as greenhouses vertical
farming systems. These artificial ecosystems allow precise control of temperature,
humidity, light, and nutrient levels, optimizing plant growth and reducing reliance on
external factors. CEA contributes to year-round crop production, higher yields, and
efficient resource utilization, especially for high-value crops and urban farming
initiatives.
The importance of artificial ecosystems in the Philippine setting lies in their potential: to
address environmental challenges, promote sustainable practices, and enhance the quality of
life for communities. They offer opportunities for greening urban spaces, conserving natural
resources, improving food production, and adapting to changing environmental conditions.
Incorporating artificial ecosystems into urban planning and agricultural strategies can
contribute to the country's sustainability goals, resilience to climate change, and overall
wellbeing of its people.

2.6 Mdjor and Minor Ecological Disturbances

Ecological disturbances are events or processes that disrupt the normal functioning of an
ecosystem. They can have varying levels of intensity and duration, resulting in different
degrees of impact on the environment. In the Philippine setting, the country experiences
various ecological disturbances, both major and minor

Major Ecological Disturbances.

Typhoons and Tropical Storms. The Philippines is prone to frequent typhoons and
tropical storms due to its geographical location. These weather events can cause extensive
damage to forests, coastal areas, and agricultural lands. They result in flooding, landslides,
wind damage, and loss of vegetation, affecting both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
 Volcanic Eruptions. The Philippines is home to numerous active volcanoes, such as
Mount Mayon and Mount Pinatubo. Volcanic eruptions can have catastrophic impacts on
ecosystems, including the destruction of habitats, deposition of volcanic ash and debris, and
alteration of soil composition. They can lead to the loss of biodiversity and long-term
ecological changes in affected areas.

Mining Activities. The Philippines is known for its rich mineral resources, and mining
activities are prevalent in the country. Large-scale mining operations can cause significant
ecological disturbances, including habitat destruction, soil erosion, water pollution, and
displacement of indigenous communities. The extraction of minerals can result in the loss of
biodiversity and long-term ecological degradation in mining-affected areas.
Minor Ecological Disturbances

Deforestation. The Philippines has experienced significant deforestation, primarily due

to logging, conversion of forests for agriculture, and illegal logging practices. Deforestation
disrupts ecosystems by reducing habitat availability, contributing to soil erosion, and
affectingwater cycles. If leads to the loss of biodiversity, disruption of ecological processes,
and increased vulnerability to other disturbances.
Coastal Pollution. Coastal areas in the Philippines are vulnerable to pollution from
various sources, including industrial waste, sewage discharge, and improper solid waste
management. Pollution negatively impacts marine ecosystems, causing the degradation of
coral reefs. contamination of water bodies, and harm to marine organisms. It disrupts the
ecological balance and compromises the health of coastal ecosystems.
Overfishing. Overfishing is a significant ecological disturbance in the Philippine setting,
particularly in coastal and marine environments. Unsustainable fishing practices, including
dynamite fishing and the use of fine-mesh nets, result in the depletion of fish populations,
damage to coral reefs, and disruption of food webs. Overfishing threatens the long-term
sustainability of fisheries and the health of aquatic ecosystems. These examples highlight the
range of ecological disturbances occurring in the Philippines. Understanding and addressing
these disturbances are crucial for sustainable resource management, conservation efforts, and
the protection of the country's rich biodiversity.

2.7 Ecological succession

Ecological succession
refers to the gradual and predictable process of change in the structure and composition of an
ecosystem over time. It involves the replacement of one community of organisms with another in
a particular area. Ecological succession can occur in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. In
the Philippine setting, several examples of ecological succession can be observed.

2. 7.1 Primary Succession.

 Volcanic Succession. After a volcanic eruption, barren volcanic landscapes are gradually
colonized by pioneer plant species such as mosses and lichens. Over time, these pioneer species
help in soil formation and create conditions for the establishment of other plants. This process
can be observed in areas affected by volcanic eruptions, such as Mount Pinatubo.

Island Succession. The formation of new islands, such as volcanic islands or newly formed
landmasses, undergoes primary succession. As the island emerges from the sea, pioneer plant
species, seabirds, and marine organisms begin to colonize the bare rocks. Over time, soil
accumulates, and larger plants start to grow, leading to the establishment of a diverse ecosystem.
This process can be observed in newly formed islands in the Philippines, such as those in the
Batanes and Camiguin provinces.

2.7,2 Secondary Succession.

Forest Succession. In areas where forests have been disturbed or cleared, secondary succession takes
place. For example, abandoned agricultural lands or logged forests go through secondary succession
as new vegetation establishes. Initially, fast-growing grasses and shrubs dominate the area, followed
by the establishment of pioneer tree species. Over time, more shade-tolerant and long-lived free
species become dominant, leading to the restoration of a mature forest ecosystem.

Mangrove Succession. Mangrove ecosystems are dynamic and undergo succession following
natural disturbances such as typhoons or human activities such as the removal of mangrove
vegetation. In such cases, pioneer mangrove species quickly recolonize the area, followed by other
mangrove species. Over time, a diverse and mature mangrove forest is restored, providing vital
coastal protection and habitat for numerous species.
Ecological succession plays a critical role in the development and regeneration of
ecosystems. It allows for the colonization of new habitats, recovery from disturbances, and the
establishment of complex and diverse communities. Understanding the process of ecological
succession is essential for effective ecosystem management, conservation, and restoration efforts in
the Philippines.

2.8 Ecological resilience and Adaptation

These are concepts that play a crucial role in understanding how ecosystems respond to disturbances.
Here are their definitions, along with examples supported by references.

Ecological resilience refers to the capacity of an ecosystem to absorb disturbances, adapt to

changes, and maintain its structure, function, and identity. It allows ecosystems to recover and
continue providing essential services in the face of disturbances.
Adaptation in ecology refers to the process by which organisms or ecosystems adjust to
changing environmental conditions or disturbances. It involves genetic, behavioral, and physiological
responses that enhance their ability to survive and thrive in new circumstances. Example. The
peppered moth (Biston betularia) in the United Kingdom is a classic example of adaptation in
response to industrial pollution. Initially, light-colored moths were prevalent, but as industrialization
caused pollution and darkened tree trunks, a genetic variant for dark coloration became
advantageous, resulting in an increase in the population of dark-colored moths.
These concepts of ecological resilience and adaptation are fundamental in understanding how
ecosystems persist and adapt to disturbances. By studying and applying these concepts, we can
develop effective strategies for the conservation and management of ecosystems, helping them better
withstand and recover from disturbances.