Professional Documents
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CONCRETE – composite material, consists of binding medium, combination of fine & coarse aggregate
Invented By ROMANS (“Pozzolana” – Quicklime, Water, Sand, Gravel)
Cement (Portland / Hydraulic)
Fine Aggregate (Sand)
Coarse Aggregate (Gravel)
Water (Potable)
Reinforcement (Steel)
Admixture (Optional; Special Treatment)
HYDRAULIC CEMENT – cement that sets & hardens by chemical interaction w/ Water
Incapable underwater (example: Portland Cement & Ground Granulated Blast–Furnace Slag)
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BUILDING TECH
BLENDED CEMENTS (ACI 595) Req. Less energy to manufacture; made w/ By-Product Mat’ls
a) Fly Ash – from Coal Plants; material from combustion of ground or powdered coal;
Strengthens concrete, long-term
b) (GGBFS) Ground Granulated Blast–Furnace Slag – from Steel Plants; Same elements of
Portland cement but w/ different proportions
c) Portland –Pozzolan Cement
d) Pozzolan –Modified Portland Cement
e) Slag Cement
f) Slag – Modified Portland
WHITE CEMENT – Low Iron Content (Gray color from iron); for AR’l purposes, stucco, terrazzo,
décor surfaces; recommended for colored concrete or mortar
PLACING CONCRETE
CONSOLIDATION – process of arranging freshly mixed concrete during placement by the reduction of
voids usually by Vibration, Centrifugation, Rodding, Tamping, or some combination of these actions
CURING CONCRETE – Purpose is to slow the loss of moisture from the slab and reduce early carbonation
of the surface. Longer period moisture retention permits more complete hydration of the cement, resulting
in greater strength
CURING METHODS
1) Water Curing 3) Moisture–Retaining Coverings
2) Wet Coverings 4) Curing Compounds
EFFLORESCENCE – Deposit of Salts on surface having emerged in solution from within either concrete or
masonry and subsequently been precipitated by reaction, such as carbonation or evaporation
HONEYCOMB DEFECT – Unintended Voids left in concrete due to failure of the mortar to effectively fill the
spaces among coarse aggregate particles
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BUILDING TECH
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BUILDING TECH
Suspended Slab – Floor Framing; One Way & Two-Way Solid Slab System
One–Way Slab –Main reinforcement bars runs on one direction (the shorter span);
has supporting transverse reinforcements called Temperature Bars to stabilize
a) Solid Slab System – Monolithic Concrete Structure; “Beam & Slab Method”
Spans across lines of support furnished by walls or beams
b) Joist System / RIBBED SLAB – has small connectors / joists; Support long spans
Has Broadened Joist Ends at lower edges; little concrete is "non-working"; the
bottom steel is concentrated in spaced ribs or joists. The thin slab that spans
across the top of the joists is reinforced only by shrinkage-temperature bars
b) Waffle Slab – Metal or plastic pans called domes are used as formwork
To eliminate non-working concrete from the slab, allowing longer spans
c) Flat Slab System– occasionally used for very heavily loaded industrial floors;
the slab is supported by a grid of beams running in both directions over the columns
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BUILDING TECH
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BUILDING TECH
b) PILES – Pile Driver hammers a Precast Concrete Pile into the ground; used where
non–cohesive soils, subsurface water, or excessive depth of bearing strata make caissons
impractical; Piles are later joined at top by a reinforced PILE CAP w/c distributes load of
column/wall above
Pile Materials:
⮚ Timber Pile
⮚ Steel
▪ H–Pile
▪ Steel Pipe
▪ Minipile
▪ Helical / Screw Pile
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BUILDING TECH
⮚ Compaction Type
Pressure–Injected footing; Rammed Aggregate Piers / Stoned Columns
Floating / Compensated Foundation – Variation of Mat Flooring; Bldg. weighs approx. The same
as soil excavated for the substructure
1–Storey of Excavated Soil weighs approx. 5–Stories of Superstructure
* Ex.) 30–Storey Building would require 4–6 stories deep
Above–Slab Drainage – used in Bldgs w/ Mat Foundation; and/or with Sump Pit & Pump
Below–Slab Drainage – Perforated Pipe in Crushed Stone; and/or with Sump Pit & Pump
Radon Gas Control – Minimize Gas Infiltration; prevents gas seeping through cracks & unsealed
penetrations in the foundation; Radon is a cancer causing gas occurs naturally within soil
FOUNDATION LOADS
1) Dead Load –
2) Live Load – Occupants, Cars, Moving Equipment
3) Rain & Snow Loads –
4) Wind Loads –
5) Horizontal Pressures – Of Earth & Water Against Basement Walls
6) Inclined Thrusts – From Arches, Rigid Frames, Domes, Vaults, or Tensile Struc.
7) Buoyant Uplift Forces – From Underground Water
8) Horizontal & Vertical Forces – Caused By Motion from Ground during Earthquakes
SOILS
⮚ Rock – Continuous mass of solid mineral; can only be removed by drilling & blasting
⮚ Soil – Earth material that is particulate
⮚ Boulder – Individual soil particle; requires two hands to lift / carry
⮚ Cobble – Individual soil particle; requires whole hand to lift / carry
⮚ Gravel – Individual soil particle; requires only thumb & forefinger to pick-up
⮚ Sand – Visible soil particle; too small to individually pick-up
⮚ Silt – Non–visible soil particle; equidimensional
⮚ Clay – Non–visible particle; plate–shaped
⮚ Peat – Topsoil & other organic soils
TEST PITS – investigation of soil conditions at the site; dug when foundation
Will not extend deeper than 16 feet or 3 meters
The maximum practical reach of small excavating machines
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BUILDING TECH
TEST BORING – standard penetration tests can give an indication of the soil’s bearing capacity
by number of blows of a Standard Driving Hammer required to advance a sampling tube
into the soil by a fixed amount
a) Portable Cathead Drilling Rig
b) Trailer–Mounted Hydraulic Feed Core Drill
c) Truck–Mounted Hydraulic Drilling Rig w/ Core Augers
SLOPE SUPPORT
⮚ SHEETING
▪ Soldier Beams & Lagging – Sheet H–Pile & Wooden Planks (Lagging) inserted between
the piles to retain the soil as excavation progresses
▪ Sheet Pile
▪ Timber Sheet Piling
▪ Steel Sheet Piling (Common; inserted w/ a Vibratory Driver)
o Vibratory Driver – rapid up & down motion to sheets to descend under soil
o Impact Hammers or Hydraulic Presses can also be used
▪ Precast Concrete Sheet Piling (w/ Grout Key)
▪ Shotcrete – Pneumatically Placed Concrete is sprayed into place from the nozzle of a hose
By a stream of compressed air
▪ Slurry Wall – more complex & expensive; excavated trench w/ viscous mix of
Water & Bentonite Clay called a “Slurry” to prevent earth walls collapsing
A welded cage of steel reinforcing bars is lowered into the slurry
The trench is concreted from the bottom up with the aid of a Tremie
The displaced slurry is pumped from the trench, filtered, and stored for reuse
⮚ SOIL MIXING – Technique of adding a modifying substance of soil and blending it in place
By means of paddles rotating on the end of a shaft; Used if site has unbuildable soil
Options:
▪ Remediate soil contaminated w/ a chemical or biological substance
By blending it w/ a chemical that renders it harmless
▪ Mix Portland cement & water w/ a soil to create a cylinder
Of low strength concrete in the ground
EXCAVATION WORKS
DEWATERING
a) Well Points – Pumps out water to keep an Excavation Dry
b) Watertight Barrier – With Impermeable layer under; Another Method of Keeping an Excavation Dry
c) Waterproofing & Drainage
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BUILDING TECH
METALS – Strongest bldg mat’ls commonly used ⮚ Hardened by cold-working; heat-treated for
increased strength; self-protecting from corrosion
EIFFEL TOWER – WROUGHT IRON ⮚ Used for roofing, flashing sheet, ductwork, curtain
CRYSTAL PALACE – CAST IRON wall, window & Door Frames, grills, ornamental
failing, siding, hardware, electrical wiring, &
PROPERTIES OF METALS protective coating for other metals
1) Plastic / Melting – can be liquefied by heating & ⮚ Aluminum Powder is used in Metallic Paints
will solidify as they cool ⮚ Aluminum Oxide is used as an abrasive in
2) Ductile – can be hammered thin / drawn into wires sandpaper & grinding Wheels
3) Conductive – most metals are prone to conduct
heat & electricity COPPER – also widely used in const’n; bright
4) Corrosive – most metals corrode by oxidation orange-red in color; changes color when it oxidizes
⮚ Can me made stronger through cold-working; not
Classification of Metals amenable to heat-treatment; ductile & easy to
Classified as Ferrous (consists primarily of Iron) & fabricate
Nonferrous (all other metals) ⮚ Has the highest thermal & electrical conductivity;
May be formed by casting, drawing, & extrusion
⮚ Ferrous Metals – less expensive then nonferrous;
also the strongest; more tendency to rust BRONZE – reddish-gold metal; 90% Copper, 10% Tin;
Used in statuary, bells, ornamental metalwork, door &
⮚ Nonferrous Metals – more expensive; form thin cabinet hardware, & weather-stripping
tenacious oxide layers that protect from further
BRASS – (Copper & Zinc & other metals) lighter in
corrosion; valuable for finish bldg components;
color than Bronze; straw yellow color
easy to work & attractive
⮚ Corrosion-resistant; can be polished to a high luster
⮚ Used in hinges & doorknobs, weather-stripping,
ALLOYS – Metal mixed w/ other elements or metals to
ornamental metalwork, screws, bolts, nuts,
modify its properties for a particular purpose
& plumbing faucets (plated w/ Chromium)
Example: BRONZE = COPPER + Small Amount of TIN
ZINC – blue-white metal; low in strength, relatively
STEEL = IRON + Controlled Amount of Carbon
brittle, moderate in strength
⮚ Zinc Alloy Sheet is used for Roofing & Flashing; &
Common Metals Used in Building Construction
for small Hardware parts, Cabinet pulls & hinges,
bath accessories & electrical fixture components
CAST IRON – contains relatively large amounts of
⮚ Most important use of Zinc is for Galvanizing; zinc
carbon & impurities; most brittle ferrous metal
coat prevents steel from rusting
WROUGHT IRON – produced by hammering GALVANIZED STEEL – steel coated w/ zinc to protect
semi-molten iron to produce a metal w/ long fibers of against corrosion
iron interleaved w/ long fibers of slag; very
low iron content; making it stringer in tension & less
ELECTROPLATING – widely used to coat metals such
brittle then cast iron
as chromium & cadmium onto steel to improve its
STAINLESS STEEL – made by alloying steel w/ other appearance & to protect it from oxidation
metals (Chromium & Nickel); forms a self-protecting
oxide coating; highly resistant to corrosion; harder to ANODIZED ALUMINUM – electrolytic process is used,
form & machine than mild steel & is more costly adding a thin oxide layer of controlled color &
▪ Available in attractive finishes from matte texture to consistency to the surface of the metal
mirror polish
▪ Frequently used in the manufacture of fasteners, NONMETALLIC COATINGS – Metals that are finished
roofing, & flashing sheet, hardware, railings,
& other ornamental metal items w/ paints, lacquers, organic coatings, porcelain enamel,
& thermosetting powders; to protect & enhance
1) Type 304 Stainless Steel – or Type 18–8 appearance
(Percentage of Chromium & Nickel)
Commonly specified; adequate corrosion resistance Heat Treatment of Metals
Properties of Metal can be changed by heat treatment
2) Type 316 Stainless Steel – higher nickel content
w/ Molybdenum; More corrosion resistant than 1) QUENCHED – steel that is heated red–hot then
Type 304; Specified for Marine Environments
plunged in cold water; harder but brittle
3) Type 410 Stainless Steel – lower chromium; less 2) TEMPERED – heating to a moderate degree &
corrosion resistant than the 300 series of alloys; cooling it slowly; both hard & strong
hardened through heat treatment; For Self-Drilling, 3) ANNEALING – steel brought to a very high
Self-Tapping Stainless Steel Fasteners, temperature & then cooled very slowly;
whose threads must be tough enough to cut Becomes softer, easier to work, & less brittle
through structural steel of concrete
ALUMINUM – Nonferrous; Most Used In Const’n
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BUILDING TECH
COLD WORKING – Another way of changing metal
properties; steel is beaten & rolled thinner at room STAMPING – process of squeezing sheet metal
temperature, where its crystalline structure is altered in between two matching dies To give it a desired shape
a way that makes it much stronger, though somewhat or texture
more brittle; and can be easily reversed by annealing
MACHINING – process of cutting unwanted material
⮚ COLD ROLLING – used to produce small-section from a piece of metal to produce the desired shape
steel rods & steel components for open-web joists
MILLING – machining operation in w/c a rotating cutting
⮚ STEEL SHEET STOCK – also rolled into wheel is used to cut metal from a workpiece
corrugated config.; utilized as floor & roof decking in
steel framed struc To Produce Cylindrical Shapes – metal piece is
rotated against a stationary cutting tool in a LATHE
⮚ COLD–WORKED STEEL – Steel can be
cold-worked or cold-formed (rolled or bent) in a cold FLAME CUTTING TORCH – slender, high temperature
state (at room temperature). This causes steel to gas flam w/ a jet of pure oxygen to burn away the
gain considerable strength through realignment of metal; economical
its crystalline structure method of cutting steel of almost any thickness
PLATE STOCK – Heavier sheet; may be cold-formed PLASMA CUTTING – tiny supersonic jet of
into square, rectangular, round, & elliptical hollow superheated gas that blows away the metal; Can give
shapes, welded to form Hollow Structural Sections more precise cuts at thicknesses up to 2 inches
(HSS) / Structural Tubing w/c are used for columns &
LASER CUTTING – gives high-quality results in thin
members of welded steel trusses & space trusses; their
metal plates
hollow shapes makes them suitable for torsional /
twisting stresses or to buckling from compressive loads
BRAKES – result of Brake Metal; sheet metal is
fabricated w/ its own set of tools; Shears are used to
FABRICATING METALS
cut metal sheets; & folds are made on large machines
called Brakes
DRAWING – produces wires by pulling a metal rod
through a series of progressively smaller orifices in
JOINING METAL COMPONENTS
hardened steel plates until the desired diameter is
may be joined mechanically or by fusion
reached; Cold Drawing & Cold Rolling will harden &
strengthen many metals WELDING – for high-temperature fusion connections;
Gas Flame or Electric Arc melts the metal
CASTING – process of pouring molten metal into a On both sides of the joint; additional molten metal from
shaped mold; tends to produce weaker metal than most a Welding Rod or Consumable Electrode
forming processes; useful for making elaborate shapes
like lavatory faucets BRAZING & SOLDERING – lower-temperature
processes; parent metal is not melted; instead, a
⮚ CAST STEEL – Vast majority of struc’l steel is different metal w/ a lower melting point
produced as rolled shapes; but struc’l shapes ca (Bronze or Brass for BRAZING; Tin Alloy for
also be produced as Cast Steel; by pouring molten SOLDERING) is melted into the joint & bonds to the
steel into molds & allowing it to cool. Well suited for pieces it connects
custom shaped connections
⮚ Soldered Connection is not as strong but easy to
ROLLING – hot or cold; forms metal by squeezing it make; works well for connecting copper plumbing
pipes & sheet metal roofing; as an alternative to
EXTRUSION – process of squeezing heated but not welding or soldering
molten metal through a shaped die to produce a long
metal piece w/ a shaped profile matching the cutout in ⮚ Adhesives are occasionally used to join metals in
the die certain nonstructural applications
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BUILDING TECH
OPEN–WEB STEEL JOISTS – also known as FLAT TRUSS; Made of hot & cold rolled shapes; mass-produced truss
used to support floor / roof decks; By Steel Joist Institute (SJI) Spec.s, OWSJ are produced in:
SJI Spec.s for OWSJ SPAN DEPTH
K Series Joists 60 ft (18 m) 8 – 30 inches (200 – 760 mm)
LH Series Joists 90 ft (29 m) 18 – 48 inches (460 – 1220 mm)
DLH Deep Longspan Series
144 ft (44m) 52 – 72 inch deep (1320 – 1830 mm)
(For ROOFS Only)
CJ Composite Joists Rated for composite floor construction
JOIST GIRDERS – prefabricated steel trusses; designed to carry heavy loads like bays of steel joists
⮚ Depth 20 – 72 inches (500 – 1800 mm). Can be used instead of wide flange beams & girders in roof & floor
structures where their greater depth is not objectionable
⮚ Open–Web Joists & Joist Girders are invariably made of high strength steel
⮚ SLIP / FRICTION –CRITICAL CONNECTION – Stressed in tension; preloaded / tightened during installation
that friction between members resist mo vement;For slip-crit.conn.,
Bolts must be tightened at least 70% Of Their Ultimate Tensile Strength
2) Load Indicator Washer – or Direct Tension Indicator – Placed under the head / nut of the bolt,
As it is tightened, protrusions on the washer are progressively flattened in proportion to the
tension in the bolt. Inserting a Feeler Gauge determines if the washer has flattened
sufficiently and the capsules squirt a highly visible dye onto the surface of the washer.
3) Calibrated Wrench Method– special torque control wrench is used to tighten the bolts
A washer under the turned end of the bolt minimizes friction
5) Lockpin & Collar Fastener / Swedge Bolt – Alternative to high-strength bolt; it is a bolt-like steel pin w/
annular rings that rely on a steel collar in lieu of a conventional nut to hold the pin.
The Swedge Bolt is installed using a special power tool to hold the pin under high tension while cold forming
(swaging, a crimping-like action) the collar around its end to complete the connection.
The tail of the lockpin breaks off
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BUILDING TECH
WELDING – can join the member of a steel frame as if they were a Monolithic Whole; welding and bolting are
often combined; can be used in fabricator’s shop or employed in field connections
Types of Welding
A) Pressure Welding
B) Friction Welding
C) Fusion Welding – General Construction; common
1) Homogeneous – Same Metal; For Structural Steel
a) Gas Welding
b) Electroslag
c) High Energy Beam
d) Electric Arc – Metal Electrode; heated to melt & merge both steel member & tip of electrode
i. MIG
ii. TIG – Tungsten Inert Gas
⮚ GTAW – Gas Tungsten Arc Welding – For Ornamental
⮚ GMAW – Gas Metal Arc Welding – For Ornamental
iii. Shielded Metal Arc – “Stick” Welding
2) Heterogeneous – Different Metal
a) Brazing
b) Soldering
Demand Critical Welds – welds subjected to high stresses during seismic event / critical to maintain struc’s stability
NDT / Non–Destructive Testing – Inspection of Struc’l Welding
by use of Magnetic Particle Dye Penetrant, Ultrasonic, or Radiographic Testing
1) SAW
Self-Shielded; Submerged
Arc Welding
2) ESW
Electroslag Welding
3) SMAW
Shielded Metal
Arc Welding
4) GMAW
Gas Metal Arc Welding
5) FCAW
Flux Cored Arc Welding
TYPICAL WELDS
2) Fillet Weld
⮚ Non–Structural
3) Groove Weld
⮚ Structural; stronger
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BUILDING TECH
FORMWORK MATERIALS
⮚ Wood – typical formwork, plywood, ply form, Phenolic Board (more water resistant & durable)
⮚ Metal – sheets, plates
⮚ Earth – for footings; excavation serves as a formwork
⮚ Fiber – for curved / rounded fittings; alternative to wood
FORMWORK CLASSIFICATION
1) Conventional – common; requires manpower
2) Industrialized – sample: for mass production, large scale
SHEAR CONNECTION – Joins only the web of the beam, but not the flanges, to the column
MOMENT CONNECTION – Beam flanges connect across the joint by Full Penetration Groove Welds
Capable of transmitting bending forces. Stiffener Plates are installed when
column flanges are insufficiently strong to carry force from beam flanges
AISC Types of Connection
Type 1 – Moment Connection – Rigid & Fully–Restrained
Type 2 – Shear / Simple Connection – Non–Rigid & Unrestrained
Type 3 – Semi–Rigid Connection – Partially Restrained
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BUILDING TECH
STRUC’L STEEL PRODUCTS – S & W: Nominal Depth x Weight ; L: Leg Length x THK
1 2 3 4
Simple Bolted Beam-To-Column-Flange Connection – Requires two angles and a number of bolts
▪ The angles are usually bolted to the web of the beam in the fabricator’s shop
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BUILDING TECH
▪ The size of the angles and the number and size of the bolts are determined by the magnitude of the load that
the connection must transmit from the beam to the column
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BUILDING TECH
▪
Welded Beam-To-Column-Web Moment
Framed / Bolted Beam–To–Column–Flange
AISC Fully-Restrained Connection
Shear Connection; AISC Simple Connection
▪ Vertical Shear Tab, welded to the web of the column
▪ Beam is connected to the column by angles, plates,
at its centerline w/ thicker horizontal stiffener
or tees fastened to the web of the beam
plates are welded inside the column flanges
BRACING ARRANGEMENTS
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BUILDING TECH
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BUILDING TECH
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BUILDING TECH
FLOOR & ROOF DECKING 3) ROOF DECK 1½–7
inch Depth ( 38 & 178 mm )
METAL DECKING – Thin sheet of steel that has Single corrugated sheets are
been corrugated to increase its stiffness commonly used for roof decking, where
concentrated loads are not expected to
Profiles of Corrugated Steel Decking be great & deflection criteria are not as
stringent as in floors
1) FORM DECK 1½–2½
inch Depth ( 13 – 64 mm )
Is used as permanent formwork
for concrete floor decks, with the
reinforced concrete slab supported by
the steel decking until the slab can
support itself and its live loads
4) CELLULAR DECKING – manufactured by
welding together two sheets, one corrugated &
one flat. It can be made sufficiently stiff to
support normal floor loads w/o struc’l assistance
from the concrete topping poured over it; can
offer spaces for electrical & communications
2) COMPOSITE DECK 1½–3 wiring
inch Depth ( 38 & 76 mm )
Designed to work together w/ the
concrete floor topping to make a stiff,
lightweight, economical deck. The metal
decking serves as tensile reinforcing for
the concrete, to w/c it bonds by special
rib patterns in the sheet metal or by
small steel rods or wire fabric welded to
the tops of the corrugations
STRUCTURAL STEEL FIREPROOFING &
LONG–SPAN STRUCTURES (From Left To Right)
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BUILDING TECH
⮚ CASTELLATED BEAMS – produced by flame cutting the web of a wide-flange section along a zigzag or arced
path, then reassembling the beam by welding its two halves point to point, thus increasing its depth without
increasing its weight. This greatly augments the spanning potential of the beam
⮚ PLATE GIRDERS – Custom-designed & fabricated. Steel plates & angles are assembled by bolting or welding in
such a way as to put the steel exactly where it is needed. The flanges made thicker in mid span where bending
forces are higher, more web stiffeners are provided near the ends where web stresses are high, & areas around
the supports are specially reinforced.
Light Gauge Steel Sheet – is formed into C–shaped Sections to make Short-span framing members
C–SECTIONS – For Wall, Floor, & Roof Framing, the Steel Is Formed Into Stud or Joist Sections
TRACK SECTIONS – Used for top & bottom plates;
Slightly oversized for stud or joist members can nest into them
CHANNEL SECTIONS & FURRING CHANNELS – used for lighter bracing & framing tasks
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BUILDING TECH
MASONRY ( Bricks; Stones; Concrete Blocks; Tiles; Glass Blocks )
⮚ Solid Masonry ⮚ Masonry Veneer ⮚ Reinforced Concrete Unit
⮚ Wythe Masonry ⮚ Cavity Walls Masonry
⮚ Grouted Masonry ⮚ Reinforced Grouted Masonry ⮚ Reinf. Brick Masonry (RBM)
MORTAR MaSoNwOrK
A substance used to join masonry units, consisting of cementitious mat’ls, fine aggregate, & water
Lime Mortar – Nonhydraulic Cement, mortars made w/ lime cure through a reaction w/ carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere, this process is called CARBONATION
BRICKS – today bricks are burned in either a Periodic Kiln or a Continuous Tunnel Kiln
⮚ ASTM C62 Building Brick used where appearance does not matter; Wythes masonry
⮚ ASTM C652 Hollow Brick 60% Void; insert grouting & Steel Reinf. Bars
⮚ ASTM C216 Facing Brick for both struc’l & non-Struc’l
⮚ ASTM C902 Paving Bricks paving walks, drives, patio
⮚ ASTM C64 Firebricks for furnaces; made from special fireclays
⮚ Custom–Made Bricks
c) Stiff Mud Process – least costly & widely used today; 12–15% water passed thru a
vacuum to remove air pockets then extruded through rectangular die; automatic cutter
wires slice it into bricks on cutting table
Laying Bricks
⮚ Rowlock – used for garden walls & sloping sills
⮚ Soldier – for visual emphasis such as tops of walls or openings
⮚ Sailor
⮚ Shiner – common placement
⮚ Stretcher & Header –
Joint Profiles – Joint Tooling profiles for brickwork; Concave Joint & V–Joint are the only
ones suitable for outdoor use in severe climates
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BUILDING TECH
Brick Patterns (Refer to book: Building Construction Illustrated &/or DK Ching Visual Dictionary)
⮚ Running Bond – consists entirely of stretchers
⮚ Common / American Bond – has header every 6th Course;
head joints aligned bet. header & stretcher courses
⮚ English Bond – alternate course (row) of headers & stretchers
⮚ Flemish Bond – alternating stretchers & headers in a course; Flemish diagonal bond, cross bond
Lintels
⮚ Double Angle Steel Lintel – Angle bars
⮚ Reinforced Lintel
⮚ Precast Reinforced Concrete Lintel
⮚ Wood is no longer used in Lintels; tendency to burn, decay, & shrink
Corbels – many uses in masonry
Arches – types
STONE – Building Stone; natural, diverse material; classified into how it was formed:
1) IGNEOUS – rock deposited from molten state; strongest / hardest rock
2) SEDIMENTARY – rock deposited by the action of water & wind
3) METAMORPHIC – formerly either igneous or sedimentary rock;
Properties transformed by heat & pressure
ASTM C119 Classifies Stone for Bldg. Const’n into Six (6) Groups
1) GRANITE – name means “granular” appearance; only igneous rock available
⮚ Strongest/densest of bldg stones; commonly used in exterior cladding
⮚ Made of mica, feldspar, & quartz (strongest mineral of the 3)
⮚ Black Granite – low in quartz; really not granite but a stone called Basalt
⮚ Quartzite – stone almost 100% quartz, extremely strong
3) QUARTZ–BASED Stone
a. Sandstone – 2nd Major Sedimentary Rock used in bldg const’n
i. Brownstone – used in wall construction
ii. Bluestone – highly durable stone; used for paving & wall copings
5) MARBLE – 2nd of the Metamorphic rock groups; it’s a recrystallized form of Limestone
⮚ Easily carved & polished; colors from white, black, etc.; w/ beautiful patterns of veining
⮚ Others can take high polish but ate not true marbles,
such as Limestone Marble, Onyx Marble, serpentine marble, etc.
6) Other Stones – less used; Alabaster; Greenstone; Schist; Serpentine; & Soapstone, etc.
a) TRAVERTINE – Sedimentary rock; closely related to limestone; from sediments of limestone dissolved
in hot springs/spring water; softer & porous stone; its slabs are pitted w/ voids; not durable for
exterior cladding; if used for flooring, pitted surface can collect dirt
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BUILDING TECH
FINISHES ON STONE SLABS & PANELS
1) THERMAL / FLAME–CUT FINISH – rough fin. By torching stone surface; used only on granite
Makes it ideal for floors, especially subjected to wetting
2) BUSH–HAMMERED FINISH – also a rough fin.; by hammering surface of stone w/ picks
3) SPLIT–FACE (CLEFT) FINISH – stone can be split by yielding two-faced slabs; splitting is easier in Slate
4) SAWN FINISH – if stone is not finished beyond sawing, surface is called a sawn finish; has visible saw marks
5) HONED FINISH – when sawn finish is ground smooth w/ abrasive material, honed finish is obtained; requires
repeated grinding w/ use of water to control dust; smooth but w matte appearance
6) POLISHED FINISH – no difference between honed & polished finish; grinding stone surface w/ finer abrasives
and buffing it w/ felt until surface develops a sheen. Clear penetrating sealer adds to sheen &
increases durability. Only dense stones can develop a polish (granite, marble, etc.)
Stone Application
⮚ Stone Masonry – Laid in Mortar, much like bricks &CHB to make walls, arches, & vaults
⮚ Stone Cladding – mechanically attached to struc’l frame or bldg walls as facing
CONCRETE MASONRY – Conc. Mas. Units (CMU) are manufactured in 3 Basic Forms
1) Large Hollow Units (Concrete Blocks) –
2) Solid Bricks –
3) Larger Solid Bricks –
⮚ CMUs are manufactured by vibrating a stiff conc. Mix into metal molds then quickly turning out the wet blocks or
bricks onto a rack so the mold can be reused at the rate of 1000 or more units per hour
⮚ Cured at an accelerated rate by steam at atmospheric pressure or higher pressure for faster curing
▪ 16 inches Nominal Length of CMU
▪ 8 inches Nominal Width of CMU
▪ Variable Nominal Width of CMU
▪ 4 Webs Typical CMU Webs (in the PH; 3 webs foreign country)
▪ 2 Face Shells Typical CMU Face Shells/ broad surface
Page 25 of 40
BUILDING TECH
GLASS MASONRY UNITS / GLASS BLOCKS (GMU)
⮚ Must be treated as a Non-loadbearing/nonstructural wall on the interior/exterior; laid in Stack Bond
⮚ Gen. hollow & Air Trapped w/in; 2.0 R-Value
⮚ Combination of masonry modularity & transparency of glass
⮚ Higher fire resistance rating than conventional glass walls
⮚ 6, 8, or 12 inches Typical Size; 3 – 4 in. THK
CRAZING – the devl’t of tiny cracks in tile surface during glazing process; causes premature deterioration
WARPAGE – warped tiles; if tiles are not uniformly flat
LIPPAGE – warped tiles that are slightly higher than those of adjoining tile, could cause people to trip/fall
CERAMIC TRIM SHAPES – >>>
No water contact
NONVITREOUS Above 7.0%
except maintenance
▪ Glazed / unglazed
Quarry Tile ▪ Extrusion method ✔ ✔ ✔
▪ Natural clay or Shale composition
▪ Glazed / unglazed
Paver Tile ▪ Dust pressed method ✔ ✔ ✔
▪ Porcelain or natural clay composition
STEP 2: Tile Is Set On Mortar Bed While Mortar Is Still Green / Not Cured
⮚ If The Tile Is Set After The Bed Has Cured, A Portland Cement Bond Coat Is Required
Between The Tile & the Mortar Bed
Page 27 of 40
BUILDING TECH
THICKNESS IN MORTAR BED MOVEMENT JOINTS – one of the most overlooked
a) Thin–Set / Thin–Bed – 1/8” inch thick mortar bed & aspects of tile install’n for large floor areas
consists of polymer–based adhesives ⮚ Movement joints are filled w/ pedestrian traffic
⮚ More popular than other methods; requires less grade urethane or silicone sealant over either a
material & labor foam backer rod or bond–breaking tape
⮚ Used where tiles are small, less than 12” x 12” ⮚ When tile adjoins other restraining struc’l members
⮚ No slope or floor drain is required such as columns, curbs, walls, and ceilings; also at
⮚ If tile thickness is relatively uniform
changes in floor elevation
⮚ If subfloor has no excessive surface irregularities
⮚ At subfloor const’n, contraction, & expansion joints
b) Thick–Set / Thick–Bed Method – 2 to 3 inch thick ⮚ The widths of joints should never be less than the
mortar bed joint in the subfloor below
⮚ When floor tiles are large (more than 12” x 12”),
floor slopes to floor drains Interior Installations
⮚ Excessive variation in thickness of tiles (ex. ⮚ 20 – 25 feet in each direction when
Natural stone panels) or surface irregularities not exposed to direct sunlight
⮚ 8 – 12 feet in each direction when
c) Medium–Set / Medium–Bed – 1/4" to 3/4" exposed to direct sunlight
thickness ⮚ Exterior Installations – 8 – 12 feet in each direction
⮚ Not officially recognized by several industry
standards
STONE PANEL FLOORING – or DIMENSION STONE
⮚ Gives extra setting space when subfloor is not
properly prepared ⮚ Are natural stones; selected & fabricated (cut &
⮚ Or when large format tiles (18 to 24 inch in one trimmed) to specific shape/size w/ or w/o mechanical
dimension) are used dressing of one or more surfaces
⮚ Granite, Marble, Limestone, Slate, & Other
Setting Materials: Mortars, Adhesives, & Epoxies Quartz–Based Stones
1) Organic Adhesives – ready-to-use liquid / powdered ⮚ Stone panels are uniformly dressed on five faces w/
water-emulsion latex products that cure by the backs being left ungauged (cut in a way that
evaporation; Light duty; interior use only; not suitable doesn’t allow for uniform thicknesses)
for high temperatures ⮚ Panels are slabs of stone; have large dimensions;
not uniformly thick, They must be installed over a
2) Cement Mortar – mix of Portland cement, sand,
water, & water-retentive additives; general-duty Thick–Set Mortar Bed
installations
Patterns & Finishes for Stone Panel Flooring
3) Water–Cleanable Epoxies – composed of epoxy 1) POLISHED – finished to reflective sheen;
resin & hardener; heavy-duty installations;
Resistant to wear; polished fin.; can be
High temperature conditions & specific functions
scratched & dulled by abrasive mat’ls
4) Furan Resin Mortars – consists of furan resin,
powder of carbon or silica fillers; An acid catalyst; 2) HONED – Finished to uniformly matte sheen;
formulated for resistance to chemicals Can be used to mask wear
Setting Materials – Grouts are used to fill the joints 3) THERMAL – exposure to open flame w/c burns off
between tile edges after tiles have been set & mortar is surface, leaving it slightly roughened w/
cured improved slip resistance
1) Sand–Portland Cement Grout – used for joints
OTHER TYPES OF MASONRY UNITS
greater than 1/8” wide; whereas unsanded cement
grouts contain water-retentive additives & are for ⮚ Hollow Tiles Of Cast Gypsum Or Fired Clay –
joints up to 18” wide used in the past for partition const’n
2) Polymer–Modified Cement Grouts – tend to ⮚ Structural Glazed Facing Tiles of Clay remain in
perform better than port.cem.grouts use; for partitions; durable, easy to clean surfaces
Possess increased color stability; good flexural &
bond strengths, Stain resistance, & lower moisture ⮚ Structural Terra Cotta – glazed /unglazed molded
absorption, so they resist frost damage decorative units of clay – used until Mid–20th Cen.
3) Water–Cleanable Epoxy & Furan Resin Grouts – ⮚ Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (AAC)
same as mortars; used w/ the appropriate mortar Used in Europe for years; limited application
Page 28 of 40
BUILDING TECH
WOOD – LOGS TO FINISHED LUMBER
Naturally grown mat’l; no uniformity as steel or concrete ⮚ In Lumber Mills (Modern Mills Are Automated;
Controlled By The Sawyer) > Debarking Of Logs >
⮚ Cellular Struc.; Hollow, Tubular Cells; w/ Cellulose Sawing Debarked Logs Into Lumber > Surfacing
⮚ Spring Wood – Early Wood; Lighter color/side Lumber Members Smooth after drying/seasoned
⮚ Summer Wood – Late Wood; Darker color/side ⮚ Strength of lumber increases as
MC (Moisture Content) decreases
⮚ Annual Ring – renamed Growth Ring
⮚ DRY / SEASONED LUMBER
Min. of 19% MC
⮚ Heart Wood – inner portion of tree trunk; dark, old
growth rings Not susceptible to fungal decay
▪ Relatively more decay resistant than sapwood ⮚ GREEN LUMBER
▪ Before Pressure-Treated Wood, Commonly 20% more MC
specified for lumber elements resting directly on ⮚ Ave. MC of Lumber at fsp (fiber saturation point) is
concrete or masonry foundations, sill plates & Approx. 30%
sleepers
▪ Redwood & Cedar – alternative to (2) Ways to Season or Dry Lumber
Pressure-Treated Wood
⮚ Sapwood –before bark; outer portion of tree trunk; 1) AIR SEASONING – Lumber Is Dried Naturally;
light, growth rings Slow & can take months
2) KILN SEASONING – Faster; high-temperature in kiln
⮚ Hardwood – not based on density; flowering tree; also kills fungus; KD (kiln-dried)
broad leaves
▪ Deciduous (means, “fall-off”), shed & regrow (2) METHODS OF SAWING LUMBER
leaves annually ex. NARRA TREE 1) PLAIN / FLAT–SAWN LUMBER –
▪ Longitudinal cells have small & large cavities; ⮚ Some growth rings run parallel, diagonal, &
rays more prominent; more interesting grain to edges of cross-sect. rings are perpendicular
▪ HARDWOOD LUMBER – Finished Flooring, ⮚ Less than 45 degrees, angle of growth ring
Paneling & Molding
2) RADIAL–SAWN LUMBER – or QUARTER SAWING
⮚ Softwood – also called Conifers; don’t bear flowers; ⮚ Typical Structural Lumber
single main stem ex. BENGUET PINE ⮚ Log is cut into 4 pieces thru center; growth rings
▪ Needle-like leaves; Evergreen trees (do not shed) are perpendicular to its wider faces
▪ Longitudinal cells of same type & size; rays less ⮚ more complex & wasteful; but more dimensionally
prominent; less interesting grain; matures faster stable; resists wear & abrasion more
▪ SOFTWOOD LUMBER – Framing Lumber (Studs, ⮚ commonly specified as High–Grade Finish
Floor & Ceil. Joists, Rafters, Headers, Etc.), Roof Floors
Shingles, Fencing, Finish Flooring Also; Doors, ⮚ more than 45 degrees, angle of growth ring
Windows & Cabinets
(4) Seasoning Distortion of Lumber from Shrinkage
LUMBER – Wood products from logs via sawing &
planning operations only w/ no further manufacturing
Page 29 of 40
BUILDING TECH
NOMINAL & ACTUAL DIMENSIONS OF LUMBER
⮚ Nominal dim. Correspond roughly to the wood in the ⮚ Wood has no uniformity unlike steel or concrete.
log before it is sawn, seasoned, & surfaced Two Lumber beams obtained from the same log can
⮚ Actual dimensions are accurate for const’n have different load-carrying capacities
purpose; has stated inch labels ⮚ Strength of lumber piece is affected by its species;
⮚ In calculating board feet, use NOMINAL & by its growth & manufacturing characteristics
dimensions of lumber ▪ Grain, Knots, Checks, Shakes, Splits, & Wane
⮚ Slope of Grain Affects Lumber’s Strength.
Nominal Dim. Actual Dimension Member w/ straight grain has maximum strength; As
slope of grain increases, strength of member
1 ¾ in (19 mm) decreases
DEFECTS OF LUMBER
1½ 1 ¼ in (25 mm)
1) KNOTS – occurs when branch emerges from tree
2 1 ½ in (38 mm)
trunk; presence of knot in a member reduces its
3 2 ½ in (64 mm) strength; especially if it’s close to member’s edge
⮚ Loose Knot – dead branch during growth
4 3 ½ in (89 mm) ⮚ Knot Hole – rotting occurs in the knot
5 4 ½ in (114 mm) ⮚ Encased Knot is a knot that isn’t loose but has
tightly intergrown w/ adjoining tissue
6 5 ½ in (140 mm)
2) CHECK
8 7 ¼ in (184 mm) Drying of wood at member ends & face; surface
dried faster than its interior; separation of wood
10 9 ¼ in (235 mm) fibers along the rays perpendicular to growth ring
Page 30 of 40
BUILDING TECH
▪ Machine–Stress Rated by flexing piece between ▪ Aldrin & Dieldrin; 0.5% in water emulsion
rollers & measuring its resistance to bending or by ⮚ Preservative–Treated Wood (decay resistant) or
▪ Scanning the wood electronically to determine Pressure–Treated Lumber
its density ▪ Preservative injected into Lumber
▪ 3 Types: Creosote, Oil-borne, or Waterborne
Preservative
▪ For outdoor decks, fences, & lumber
underground
⮚ Use Termite Shield – galvanized sheet steel profiled
w/ a drip edge bend
⮚ Inspection & Remediation
DIMENSION LUMBER – 2–4 in THK (Nom.)
OIL-BORNE & WATERBORNE PRESERVATIVES
1) Light Framing……………...2–4 inches Wide
CREOSOTE – Oldest & most effective preservative
⮚ Gen. specified for studs, top & bottom plates
against all wood-eating insects; distillate of coal tar,
blocking,
black to deep brown in color; used un utility poles, piles,
2) Struc’l Light Framing……..2–4 inches Wide
highway guardrail posts, marine bulkheads; human
⮚ Struc’l LF Grades have higher bending strength
contact should be frequent; not for struc’l framing,
than LF
also not for decks, patios, benches, etc.
3) Struc’l Joists & Planks……5 inches & Wider
⮚ Graded for members under high bending PENTACHLROPHENOL / PENTA
stresses; floor & ceiling joists, rafters, etc. Most common Oil-borne preservative; effective against
⮚ also for high wind & seismic areas Fungi & Land-based insects, but not Marine-borers;
4) Studs…………………………6 inches Wide used for bridge timbers & utility poles
⮚ Graded for straightness of member
WATERBORNE PRESERVATIVES
APPEARANCE GRADING Gen. Greenish color due to copper (CCA, ACQ, & CA)
⮚ Rank visual qualities of lumber intended for flooring,
(CCA) CHROMATED COPPER ARSENATE
trim, cabinetry, & other finish & nonstructural
⮚ Widely used until 2003; due to envi’t
uses
concerns, no longer allowed for resd’l bldgs;
⮚ Boards having fewest defects (knots, checks, only to industrial structures
splits, staining, etc.), receiving the highest grades Replaced by:
Page 32 of 40
BUILDING TECH
⮚ Finger jointer & glued into longer lengths; also ⮚ More stable & free of defects then solid lumber;
makes use of wood scraps mat’l typically finished w/ paint than clear coating
⮚ Competes w/ the same market as WPC trim;
alternative to conventional nonstruc’l finish lumber
⮚
Page 33 of 40
BUILDING TECH
WOOD TRUSSES (check: type of truss designs) Other Wood Panel Products
⮚ able to carry greater load over a given span using ⮚ Hardboard – thin, dense panel made of highly
less material compressed wood fibers; For residential siding or
⮚ Connected by Metal Nail Plate / Gusset Plate – 6, gen. purpose siding; weatherproof
18, 20 – gauge galvanized steel plate w/ 3/8” long
nails punched out of the sheet; machine applied in ⮚ Hardwood Plywood – made from birch, maple,
manufacturing plants; trusses are fabricated before poplar, or alder veneers; Popular in cabinetry & finish
brought to site carpentry; for higher quality arch’l woodwork, these
⮚ Gen. 2 x 4 lumber common for Resd’l & panels may be faced w/ fine hardwood face veneers
Commercial; Gen. spaced at 24 inches on center
⮚ LVL, PSL, or GluLam are used I trusses for heavy ⮚ Insulating Fiberboard Sheathing – nonstruc’l wall
comm’l & industrial applications sheathing; low-density panel; 1/2” or 3/4” THK
Made of wood / vegetable fibers & binders; coated w/
FLOOR / PARALLED CHORD TRUSS or asphalt for water resistance
TRUSSED JOISTS – top chord is horizontal-parallel to Low-cost; make use of recycled mat’ls; for acoustical
bottom chord; also called trussed joists (function as floor isolation, carpet underlayment
joists); also used as Lintel Beams over openings
Non–Wood Fiber Panels
WOOD PANELS
⮚ used structurally as Floor / Roof / Wall Sheathing ⮚ Agrifiber / Bio-Composite Panels – made from
⮚ nonstructurally as exterior siding & interior paneling agricultural waste products (wheat, rice, hemp, etc)
PLYWOOD – struc’l wood panel; a veneered panel & ⮚ Strawboard Panels – made of wheat or rice straw;
Oriented Strandboard (OSB) – a nonveneered panel; has natural resins to bind mat’l; faced sides w/ OSB,
Softwood Plywood is Graded A to D etc.
⮚ Bamboo – rapidly growing woody grass; for panels
Plywood Panels – nonstruc’l; thin layers of wood veneer & planks; alternative for int.wood panel or hardwood
glued together (1/8” THK) flooring
⮚ commonly used 4 ft x 8 ft, and 1/4” to 1” THK Performance–Rated Engineered Wood Panels
⮚ Grain on front & back face runs in the long direction ⮚ meant for struc’l applications
of the sheet; always an odd # in layers of plywood ⮚ has Rating that provides user w/ the panel’s struc’l
⮚ Grain direction in alternate perpendicular to each capability & performance data
other; Produced by a machine that debarks a log ⮚ can be used for 3 Situations: Sheathing,
Via Rotary Slicing (most economic method), Combination Floor Sheathing, & Exterior Siding
plainsliced or quartersliced for specific grain design
JOINERY METHODS – Interlocking Joints
Composite Panels – have 2 parallel face veneers Fasteners for Connecting Wood Members
bonded to a core of reconstituted wood fibers ⮚ Joints in Contemporary Wood Const’n are made
by simply nailing members, nailing through sheet
Non-Veneered Panels – made up of various metal connectors; some joints use adhesives in
formulations of reconstituted wood fiber mat’ls addition to nails, others screws & bolts when
necessary (Refer to DKC Visual Dictionary: Joinery)
a) (OSB) Oriented Strandboard – struc’l wood; made
up of long shreds / strands of wood compressed &
glued Strongest & stiffest type of nonveneered
panel For sheathing & subflooring of light frame
wood buildings; has greater shear strength then
plywood panel of same size & thickness
Page 34 of 40
BUILDING TECH
TYPES OF NAIL – Made of low or medium carbon steel wire,
heat treated to increase its stiffness; Nail Sizes in the US is
specified by a penny (abbreviated as “d”)
⮚ Sizes range from 2d (1” long) to 60d (6” long)
⮚ 6d (2”), 8d, 10d (3”),and 16 d are commonly used in wood frame const’n
⮚ Duplex Nail – double head for temporary nailing, used in scaffolding & concrete formwork
⮚ Box Nails – similar to common nail but have thinner shank w/c reduces wood splitting
Gen. used for attaching wood shingles
⮚ Casing Nails – used for finish carpentry; for wood trim, window frames,
Casing, & decks; Small head for countersinking
⮚ Finish Nails – also used for finish carpentry; for finer carpentry & finishing;
Small head also for countersinking
⮚ Shank Nails – Shank Nails are used for attaching wood flooring
⮚ Deformed Shank Nails – more resistant to withdrawal from wood than smooth shank nails
For attaching sheathing, subflooring, & floor underlayment
⮚ Ring Shank Nail – for attaching floor sheathing & gypsum wallboard;
Gives greater holding power
⮚ Roofing Nail – large head for attaching roof shingles;
⮚ Hardened Steel Concrete Nails –
Can be driven into masonry or concrete for attaching furring strips & sleepers
⮚ Cut Nails – long ago used for framing connections; still sometimes used for finish flooring
NAIL CONNECTIONS work best when subjected to shear; that is when load is perpendicular to the length of nails
⮚ Nail Subjected To Shear & Nail Subjected To Withdrawal
1) Face Nailing – strongest; highest withdrawal resistance
2) End Nailing – weakest connection; nail is parallel to grain in the
holding member; used member is not subjected to withdrawal
Page 35 of 40
BUILDING TECH
Power–Driven Nailing & Stapling
⮚ Use Pneumatic or Electric Nailing Guns
⮚ Power–Driven System; nailing by the pull of a trigger
⮚ Nailing Guns use thinner & smaller nails
⮚ Power Stapling also for fastening wood members;
used as an alternative to 8d or 6d nails
⮚ Nail Popping – nail sticking out of wood members; problem for floor sheathing;
Caused when floor joist dry & shrink in size – nails pop out
SCREWS & BOLTS – higher withdrawal resistance then nails; not often used in struc’l
wood; take longer to install & more expensive; commonly used in cabinet work, furniture, &
fastening door & window hardware such as hinges
Page 36 of 40
BUILDING TECH
ADHESIVES for Wood Construction
⮚ Formaldehyde – ingredient in some adhesives & binders
⮚ (PF) Phenol–Formaldehyde
– struc’l adhesive for full exterior exposure
PREFABRICATED PANELS
1) Framed Panels – simple sections of conventional dimension lumber framing; sheathed w/ plywood or OSB
2) (SIP) Struc’l Insulated Panels
⮚ Panels adhered to a stiff plastic foam core – EPS (Expanded Polystyrene) Core
⮚ Sandwich composition; Alternative to conventional WLF system (Wood Light Frame)
⮚ Used as wall & roof panels; reduces on-site const’n time, allows less skilled labor
⮚ Req.s hoisting equipment (cranes, fork lifts, booms, etc.)
⮚ 4-1/2” or 6-1/2” THK for walls
(WLF) WOOD LIGHT FRAME CONST’N – said to be a unique American Const’n System
(2) TYPES OF TIMBER FRAME SYSTEMS
1) Timber Frame w/ Exterior Masonry Walls
a) Mill Const’n – used Cast or Wrought Iron Hardware
b) Type IV Const’n – use Steel Hardware; use glulam & engineered lumber
BALLOON FRAME – what WLF was called; invented to replace Heavy Timber System w/ Lightweight Members
⮚ Early invention began from lack of skilled carpenters; Built by simple nails; can be built by unskilled people
⮚ Thin, closely spaced vertical members (studs) & similar roof & framing members (joists & rafters)
⮚ Studs run the full height of the building; Has Ribbands and Fire Stops at floor lines
⮚ Wall, Floor & Roof Framing Are Completed Before Struc’l Floor / Subfloor / Floor Sheathing
⮚ Continuity of studs became the major limitation of balloon frame
⮚ Long, straight members became expensive. Thus it was modified into a PLATFORM FRAME
⮚ Dimensionally more stable & greater struc’l stability than Platform Frame
PLATFORM FRAME – individual studs are only one storey high; Contemporary WLF
⮚ Struc’l frame is erected Storey by Storey – subfloor at 1st floor level is completed w/c provides a platform for
workers to stand on & build the next storey; Fire Stops at each floor level; Roof Frame same as Balloon framing
Page 37 of 40
BUILDING TECH
Essentials of Wall Framing
⮚ Doubling the Top Plate makes it stronger, joists or rafters can be placed anywhere on top and their gravity loads
can be transferred to the doubled top plate
▪ Provides struc’l continuity; can be Lap-Spliced
Bottom Plate in a Wall Assembly – Typically a single plate; either a Sill Plate or a Sole Plate
⮚ SILL PLATE – referred to as Mud Sill; bottom plate connected to foundation
▪ Must be Preservative-Treated Wood or Naturally Decay-Resistant Species ex.) YAKAL
▪ anchored to foundations via BOLTS (Anchor Bolts: min. 1/2-inch diameter, spaced at MAX. 6-ft on centers)
▪ SILL SEALER – fibrous felt placed between sill & foundation to reduce air infiltration & seal gaps
▪ Continuous Termite Shield – used for termite-infested areas
Number of Studs at Wall Corner or at T–Junction between Nails – MIN. of (3) three Studs
⮚ CRIPPLE STUD – studs above header or below rough sill (studs found above & below window opening)
⮚ HEADER – made of two or three 2-by Lumber Members, depends on wall thickness
⮚ Precut Stud Length equal to 7-ft 8–5/8 inches because it provides a floor-to-ceiling height of 8-ft
Essentials of FLOOR FRAMING – layout of floor joists is the most critical aspect of floor framing
Support for Load–Bearing & Non– Load–Bearing Walls
⮚ Load–Bearing Wall – wall on upper floor must lie over a wall on lower floor
Role of RIM / BAND Joists – Rim Joists provide lateral restraint to the floor joists, reducing their tendency to buckle
⮚ Similarly, Floor Joists w/ Long Span may req. intermediate full-depth Blocking or Diagonal Bridging
⮚ Required if floor joist depth is greater than 12-inch (Nominal)
⮚ However it is practical to provide rows of blocking or bridging for all joists at 8-ft on centers
Page 38 of 40
BUILDING TECH
ROOF TYPES & ROOF SLOPE – Roof slope not in degrees but as a Rise-to-Run Ratio at constant value of 12
Sheathing Applied to a Frame – wall, floor, & roof frames must be covered w/ a sheathing mat’l
⮚ Sheathing serves as both struc’l & nonstruc’l functions
⮚ Wall Sheathing serves as a base for exterior wall finish and a nailing base
▪ Struc’ly integrates studs in a composite wall system; provides bracing to the frame against lateral loads
⮚ Common mat’l for Exterior Wall Sheathing is OSB (Oriented Strandboard); but plywood, gypsum, and other
panels such as Rigid Foam Insulation are acceptable
▪ Alternative to Panel Bracing is a Diagonal Let–In Brace; consists of
▪ 1 x 4 Lumber member fastened to notched studs to receive the brace
▪ Angle of brace should be 45–60 degrees
▪ Steel Angle Let-in Brace may also be used in place of lumber let-in brace
⮚ Floor Sheathing also called Subfloor – struc’l element; transfers dead & live
floor loads to the joists; Subfloor must be perpendicular to floor joists
⮚ Roof Sheathing – struc’l element; commonly use OSB
▪ require H–Shaped Metal Edge Clips instead of blocking
▪ Metal Edge Clips leave a gap of 18-inches to allow edges pf panels to expand
Page 39 of 40
BUILDING TECH
REFERENCES
Allen, E., & Iano, J. (2014). Fundamentals of Building Construction: Materials and Methods (6th ed.). U.S.: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
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