1-87

Prepared and compiled by:

Mr. Najibullah Mayar
 2-87

Table of Content

Grammar _____________________ 8
THE ORIGIN __________________________________________________________________ 8

Definitions _____________________ 8
Parts of SpeechError! Bookmark not defined.
NOUN ________________________________________________________________________ 9
THE ORIGIN __________________________________________________________________ 9
DEFINITIONS __________________________________________________________________ 9
ROOTS OF NOUN _______________________________________________________________ 9
CASES OF NOUN _______________________________________________________________ 9
GENDER OF NOUN_____________________________________________________________ 12
KINDS OF NOUN ______________________________________________________________ 12
PRONOUN __________________________________________ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
THE ORIGIN _________________________________________________________________ 14
DEFINITION _________________________________________________________________ 14
KINDS OF PRONOUN ___________________________________________________________ 14
SUBJECT PRONOUN ____________________________________________________________ 14
OBJECT PRONOUN ____________________________________________________________ 15
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN: ____________________________________________________ 15
POSSESSIVE PRONOUN _________________________________________________________ 15
REFLEXIVE PRONOUN __________________________________________________________ 15
EMPHATIC/INTENSIVE PRONOUN _________________________________________________ 16
INDEFINITE PRONOUN__________________________________________________________ 16
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN _____________________________________________________ 16
RELATIVE/CONNECTIVE PRONOUN _______________________________________________ 16
RELATIVE COMPOUND PRONOUN _________________________________________________ 17
DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUN _______________________________________________________ 17
RECIPROCAL PRONOUN ________________________________________________________ 17
ADJECTIVE ___________________________________________________________________ 17
THE ORIGIN _________________________________________________________________ 17
DEFINITION _________________________________________________________________ 17
CASES OF ADJECTIVE __________________________________________________________ 17
ATTRIBUTIVE CASE ___________________________________________________________ 17
PREDICATIVE CASE____________________________________________________________ 17
POST POSITIVE CASE ___________________________________________________________ 18
ABRIDGE CASE _______________________________________________________________ 18
KINDS OF ADJECTIVE __________________________________________________________ 18
DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE ____________________________________________________ 18
POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE ________________________________________________________ 18
ADJECTIVE OF QUALITY ________________________________________________________ 18
ADJECTIVE OF QUANTITY _______________________________________________________ 19
PROPER ADJECTIVE ___________________________________________________________ 19
RELATIVE ADJECTIVE __________________________________________________________ 19
ADJECTIVE OF NUMBER/NUMERICAL ADJECTIVE _____________________________________ 19
DISTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVE ______________________________________________________ 19
INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVE_____________________________________________________ 19
 3-87
ING ADJECTIVE ______________________________________________________________ 19
ED ADJECTIVE _______________________________________________________________ 20
EMPHATIC ADJECTIVE _________________________________________________________ 20
EXCLAMATORY ADJECTIVE _____________________________________________________ 20
ADVERB _____________________________________________________________________ 20
THE ORIGIN _________________________________________________________________ 20
DEFINITION _________________________________________________________________ 20
KINDS OF ADVERB ____________________________________________________________ 21
ADVERB OF TIME _____________________________________________________________ 21
ADVERB OF PLACE ____________________________________________________________ 21
ADVERB OF FREQUENCY _______________________________________________________ 21
ADVERB OF MANNER __________________________________________________________ 22
ADVERB OF DEGREE ___________________________________________________________ 22
RELATIVE ADVERB ____________________________________________________________ 22
SENTENCE ADVERB ___________________________________________________________ 22
INTERROGATIVE ADVERB _______________________________________________________ 22
CONJUNCTIVE ADVERB ________________________________________________________ 23
ADVERB OF CERTAINTY ________________________________________________________ 23
ADVERB OF AFFIRMING OR DENYING ______________________________________________ 23
ADVERB OF REASON ___________________________________________________________ 23
ADVERB OF NUMBER __________________________________________________________ 23
FOCUSING ADVERB____________________________________________________________ 24
ADVERB OF COMPLETENESS_____________________________________________________ 24
EMPHASIZING ADVERB _________________________________________________________ 24
COMMENTS/VIEWS POINT ADVERB _______________________________________________ 24
VERB _______________________________________________________________________ 24
THE ORIGIN _________________________________________________________________ 24
DEFINITIONS _________________________________________________________________ 24
KINDS OF VERBS ______________________________________________________________ 25
FINITE VERBS ________________________________________________________________ 25
NON-FINITE VERBS ____________________________________________________________ 25
KINDS OF NON-FINITE VERB ____________________________________________________ 25
INFINITIVE __________________________________________________________________ 25
GERUND ____________________________________________________________________ 26
PARTICIPLE__________________________________________________________________ 26
NAMES OF THE FORM OF A VERB _________________________________________________ 26
KINDS OF A VERB _____________________________________________________________ 26
MAIN VERB__________________________________________________________________ 26
KINDS OF MAIN VERB __________________________________________________________ 26
TRANSITIVE VERBS: ___________________________________________________________ 26
KINDS OF TRANSITIVE VERB ____________________________________________________ 27
MONO-TRANSITIVE VERBS______________________________________________________ 27
DI-TRANSITIVE_______________________________________________________________ 27
COMPLEX TRANSITIVE _________________________________________________________ 27
PSEUDO TRANSITIVE __________________________________________________________ 27
INTRANSITIVE VERBS __________________________________________________________ 27
STATIVE VERBS ______________________________________________________________ 28
CATEGORIES OF STATIVE VERBS _________________________________________________ 28
MENTAL ACTIVITY ____________________________________________________________ 28
SENSES _____________________________________________________________________ 28
STATE OF BEING ______________________________________________________________ 29
OWNERSHIP _________________________________________________________________ 29
EMOTIONS/ATTITUDES _________________________________________________________ 29
PHRASAL VERBS ______________________________________________________________ 29
KINDS OF PHRASAL VERBS______________________________________________________ 29
SEPARABLE PHRASAL VERBS ____________________________________________________ 29
IN/NON-SEPARABLE VERBS _____________________________________________________ 29
AUXILIARY/HELPING VERBS ____________________________________________________ 30
KINDS OF AUXILIARY/HELPING VERBS ____________________________________________ 30
PRIMARY/PRINCIPLE AUXILIARY VERBS ___________________________________________ 30
 4-87
SEMI AUXILIARY VERBS ________________________________________________________ 30
MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS ______________________________________________________ 31
MOOD OF A VERB _____________________________________________________________ 31
KINDS OF MOOD OF A VERB _____________________________________________________ 31
INDICATIVE MOOD ____________________________________________________________ 31
IMPERATIVE MOOD ____________________________________________________________ 31
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD __________________________________________________________ 31
FORMS OF SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD __________________________________________________ 32
PREPOSITION __________________________________________________________________ 33
THE ORIGIN _________________________________________________________________ 33
DEFINITION _________________________________________________________________ 33
KINDS OF PREPOSITION ________________________________________________________ 33
SIMPLE PREPOSITIONS/ONE WORD PREPOSITIONS ____________________________________ 34
DOUBLE PREPOSITIONS ________________________________________________________ 34
COMPOUND PREPOSITIONS ______________________________________________________ 34
PARTICIPLE PREPOSITIONS ______________________________________________________ 34
PHRASE PREPOSITIONS _________________________________________________________ 34
POST POSSED PREPOSITIONS _____________________________________________________ 34
AGENTIVE PREPOSITION _______________________________________________________ 34
CONJUNCTION _________________________________________________________________ 35
THE ORIGIN _________________________________________________________________ 35
DEFINITION _________________________________________________________________ 35
KINDS OF CONJUNCTION _______________________________________________________ 35
CO-ORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS ___________________________________________________ 35
PAIRED CONJUNCTIONS ________________________________________________________ 35
SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS___________________________________________________ 36
COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS _____________________________________________________ 37
INTERJECTION _________________________________________________________________ 38
DEFINITION _________________________________________________________________ 38

TENSES _____________________ 38
THE ORIGIN _________________________________________________________________ 38
DEFINITIONS _________________________________________________________________ 38
KINDS OF TENSES _____________________________________________________________ 39
PRESENT TENSE ______________________________________________________________ 39
PAST TENSE _________________________________________________________________ 39
FUTURE TENSE _______________________________________________________________ 39
STAGES OF TENSES ____________________________________________________________ 40
PRESENT TENSES AND THEIR CATEGORIES _______________________________________ 40
SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE/PRESENT INDEFINITE TENSE _________________________________ 40
PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE ___________________________________________________ 41
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE/PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE _________________________________ 41
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS OR PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE _______________ 42
PAST TENSES AND THEIR CATEGORIES __________________________________________ 44
SIMPLE PAST TENSE ___________________________________________________________ 44
PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE ______________________________________________________ 44
PAST PERFECT/PLU PERFECT TENSE _______________________________________________ 45
PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE _______________________________________________ 46
FUTURE TENSES AND THEIR CATEGORIES ________________________________________ 47
SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE _________________________________________________________ 47
FUTURE CONTINUOUS/FUTURE PROGRESSIVE TENSE __________________________________ 49
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE ________________________________________________________ 50
FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS/PROGRESSIVE TENSE _________________________________ 50
 5-87

SENTENCE __________________ 51
THE ORIGIN _________________________________________________________________ 51
DEFINITION _________________________________________________________________ 51
RULES OF AN ENGLISH SENTENCE ________________________________________________ 51
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE OF AN ENGLISH SENTENCE _________________________________ 52
KINDS OF SUBJECT ____________________________________________________________ 52
PREDICATE _________________________________________________________________ 52
KINDS OF PREDICATE __________________________________________________________ 52
THREE IMPORTANT TOPICS______________________________________________________ 52
MAJOR KINDS OF SENTENCE_____________________________________________________ 53
CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCE __________________________________________________ 53
MINOR KINDS OF SENTENCE _____________________________________________________ 54

CLAUSE_____________________ 55
THE ORIGIN _________________________________________________________________ 55
DEFINITION _________________________________________________________________ 55
KINDS OF CLAUSE_____________________________________________________________ 55
INDEPENDENT/COMPLETE/MATRIX/CHIEF/PRINCIPLE CLAUSE __________________________ 55
KINDS OF INDEPENDENT CLAUSE _________________________________________________ 56
DEPENDENT/SUBORDINATE/INCOMPLETE CLAUSE ___________________________________ 56
KINDS OF DEPENDENT CLAUSE __________________________________________________ 56
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE __________________________________________________________ 56
MARKERS/CONNECTERS/LINKERS AND INTRODUCERS OF ADJECTIVE CLAUSE _____________ 56
CASES OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS IN ADJECTIVE CLAUSE________________________________ 57
PLACES OF FORMAL AND INFORMAL OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS __________________________ 57
EMBEDDED AND UNEMBEDDED ADJECTIVE CLAUSE __________________________________ 57
RELATIVE ADJECTIVE OR DETERMINER (WHOSE) ____________________________________ 58
RELATIVE ADVERBS (WHERE AND WHEN) __________________________________________ 58
USING WHEN ________________________________________________________________ 58
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE WITH NOUN + OF WHICH _______________________________________ 59
PUNCTUATION OF ADJECTIVE CLAUSES ____________________________________________ 59
RESTRICTIVE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE ________________________________________________ 59
NON-RESTRICTIVE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE ____________________________________________ 59
CONNECTIVE/SENTENTIAL ADJECTIVE ____________________________________________ 60
USING EXPRESSION OF QUANTITY IN ADJECTIVE CLAUSE ______________________________ 60
REDUCTION OF ADJECTIVE CLAUSE INTO ADJECTIVE PHRASE ___________________________ 60
HOW TO REDUCE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE INTO ADJECTIVE PHRASE _________________________ 60
ADJECTIVE CLAUSES THAT MODIFY PRONOUNS _____________________________________ 61
SUBJECT PRONOUNS ___________________________________________________________ 61
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS _________________________________________________________ 61
ADVERB CLAUSE _____________________________________________________________ 61
KINDS OF ADVERB CLAUSE _____________________________________________________ 61
ADVERB CLAUSE OF TIME ______________________________________________________ 62
ADVERB CLAUSE OF PLACE _____________________________________________________ 63
ADVERB CLAUSE OF CAUSE AND EFFECT ___________________________________________ 63
SHOWING CAUSE AND EFFECT WITH SO...THAT AND SUCH…THAT _______________________ 63
ADVERB CLAUSE OF PURPOSE ___________________________________________________ 64
ADVERB CLAUSE OF CONDITION _________________________________________________ 64
KINDS OF IF CLAUSE ___________________________________________________________ 65
 6-87
ADVERB CLAUSE OF CONTRAST __________________________________________________ 66
KINDS OF ADVERB CLAUSE OF CONTRAST __________________________________________ 66
ADVERB CLAUSE OF MANNER ___________________________________________________ 67
ADVERB CLAUSE OF COMPARISON ________________________________________________ 67
REDUCTION OF ADVERB CLAUSE INTO ADVERB OR MODIFYING PHRASE __________________ 67
HOW TO REDUCE ADVERB CLAUSE INTO ADVERB OR PHRASE __________________________ 68
NOUN CLAUSE _______________________________________________________________ 68
CASES OF NOUN CLAUSE _______________________________________________________ 69
REDUCTION OF NOUN CLAUSE INTO NOUN OR INFINITIVE PHRASE _______________________ 69
HOW TO CHANGE NOUN CLAUSE INTO NOUN PHRASE _________________________________ 69

Gerund and Infinitive ____________ 70

GERUND ____________________________________________________________________ 70
THE ORIGIN _________________________________________________________________ 70
DEFINITION _________________________________________________________________ 70
DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS OF VERB ING ______________________________________________ 70
SOME STRUCTURES OF VERB ING _________________________________________________ 70
USAGES OF GERUND __________________________________________________________ 71
INFINITIVE __________________________________________________________________ 71
THE ORIGIN _________________________________________________________________ 71
DEFINITION _________________________________________________________________ 72
DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS OF TO + BASE FORM OF THE VERB _____________________________ 72
SOME STRUCTURES OF TO + BASE FORM OF THE VERB ________________________________ 72
USAGES OF INFINITIVE _________________________________________________________ 72
KIND OF INFINITIVE ___________________________________________________________ 73
VERBS THAT ARE FOLLOWED BY BOTH GERUND AND INFINITIVE WITH A CLEAR DIFFERENCE IN MEANING 74
VERBS THAT FOLLOWED BY BOTH GERUND AND INFINITIVE WITH LITTLE OR NO DIFFERENCE IN MEANING 75
PREFER FOR COMPARISON ______________________________________________________ 75

Direct and Indirect speech_________ 76

WHAT IS SPEECH?_____________________________________________________________ 76
KINDS OF SPEECH _____________________________________________________________ 76
DIRECT SPEECH ______________________________________________________________ 76
INDIRECT SPEECH _____________________________________________________________ 77
PRONOUNS CHANGES __________________________________________________________ 77
TENSES CHANGES _____________________________________________________________ 77
CHANGES IN MODAL AUXILIARIES ________________________________________________ 78
SOME OTHER WORDS CHANGES __________________________________________________ 78
CHANGING ASSERTIVE/DECLARATIVE SENTENCES INTO INDIRECT SPEECH ________________ 78
CHANGING INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES INTO INDIRECT SPEECH ________________________ 79
CHANGING IMPERATIVE SENTENCES INTO INDIRECT SPEECH ___________________________ 79
CHANGING EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES INTO INDIRECT SPEECH _________________________ 79
CHANGING ABSOLUTE SEGMENT SENTENCE INTO INDIRECT SPEECH _____________________ 80
SITUATIONS UNDER WHICH FORMAL SEQUENCE OF TENSES IS NOT ALLOWED ______________ 80

Active and Passive voice __________ 80

WHAT DOES VOICE MEAN? ______________________________________________________ 80
ACTIVE VOICE _______________________________________________________________ 80
PASSIVE VOICE ______________________________________________________________ 81
 7-87
RULES FOR CHANGING ACTIVE VOICE INTO PASSIVE VOICE ____________________________ 81
WHAT IS BY PHRASE? __________________________________________________________ 81
KINDS OF PASSIVE VOICE _______________________________________________________ 81
WHY DO WE USE ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE? ______________________________________ 82
WHAT IS STATIVE PASSIVE VOICE? _______________________________________________ 82
CHANGING PRESENT TENSES INTO PASSIVE VOICE: ___________________________________ 82
CHANGING PAST TENSES INTO PASSIVE VOICE_______________________________________ 84
CHANGING FUTURE TENSES INTO PASSIVE VOICE ____________________________________ 85
CHANGING HAVE/HAS TO/ BE GOING TO/OUGHT TO INTO PASSIVE VOICE: _________________ 85
CHANGING IMPERATIVE SENTENCES INTO PASSIVE VOICE: _____________________________ 86
CHANGING INFORMATION QUESTIONS INTO PASSIVE VOICE: ___________________________ 86
 8-87

Grammar
The origin
It is derived from French word “Grammarie” and from a Greek word “Grammatica”, forms
ultimately from a Latin word “Grammatikos”. Or a new Latin word “Grammat”, meaning written
characters or letters.

Definitions
 The system of rules that indicates how our thoughts can be expressed is called grammar.
 The particular analysis of rules of a language is called grammar.
 The systematic study of scientific method which provides us guidance and information necessary to
learn a language is called grammar.
 The set of basic rules that are used to speak and write a language correctly and make the accurate
relationship between the words is called grammar.
 The art or the system of putting right word in right place is called grammar.
 Grammar is a book containing information about the rules of a language.
 The skeleton of a language is called grammar.
 The collection of a language and accurate speaking rules is called grammar.

Parts of Speech
Parts: mean segments or sections.
Speech: means conversation or talking

Definitions:
 Parts of speech is a traditional term that is used for the words that form the speech.
Traditional term means grammatical terminology.
 One of the traditional classifications of words that are divided into different classes according to their
function in a context is called parts of speech.
 Words that are divided into different classes according to their grammatical function is called parts of
speech.

 There are basically eight parts of speech.

1: Noun
2: Pronoun
3: Adjective
4: Adverb
5: Verb
6: Preposition
7: Conjunction
8: Interjection
 9-87

Noun
The origin
It is derived from Latin word “Nomen” which means a name.
Definitions

 Noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, idea, quality of mind and action.
EX: Person___________ Ali, Arif, Ahmad etc…
Place____________ Afghanistan, Peshawar, India etc…
Thing____________ Mobile, chair, pen etc…
Idea_____________ Sorrow, pain, happiness etc…
Quality of mind_____ like, love, hatred etc…
Action____________ Going, to go, playing, to play etc…
 Noun is also called a naming word because it gives a title to a person place or thing.

Roots of noun

1: Cases of noun
2: Gender of noun
3: Kinds of noun

Cases of noun
 Subjective/Nominative case
 Objective/Accusative case
 Dative/Oblique case Or object of preposition
 Dative case/Indirect object of preposition
 Vocative case/Nominative of address
 Genetic/Possessive case
 Subjective complement
 Objective complement
 As a part of verbal
 Appositive case/In apposition to a noun/pronoun

 Subjective/Nominative case:
In this case the noun is used as the subject of a verb or sentence.
Structure: Noun + verb
EX: Ali is teacher.
N V
 10-87
Ahmad and Mahmood go to school everyday.
N V
 Objective/Accusative case:
In this case the noun is used as the object of a verb or sentence.
Structure: Main verb + Noun
EX: I know Ali.
m.v N
We met Laila.
m.v N
Ali beats Mahmood.
m.v N

 Dative/oblique case Or object of preposition:

In this case the noun is used as the object of a preposition.
Structure: Preposition + Noun
EX: We talked about Laila.
Pre N
I am thankful to Ali.
Pre N
Ali bought it for Laila.
Pre N

 Dative case/Indirect object of preposition:

In this case the noun is used as the indirect object of a verb.
Structures: Subject + verb + direct object + for/to + indirect object.
Subject + verb + indirect object + direct object.
EX: Laila bought a book for Ali.
V D.O I.O
Laila bought Ali a book.
V I.O D.O

 Vocative case/Nominative of object:

In this case the noun is used either before or after Imperative sentence. It has two
kinds.
1: Direct nominative of address.
EX: You draw attention and then give order.
Ahmad, bring a glass of water.
2: Indirect nominative of address.
EX: You give order and then draw attention.
Bring a glass of water, Ahmad.

 Genetic/Possessive case:
In this case a noun is used with apostrophe (‘S) or (S’) apostrophe to show ownership or
possession.
 Usage of (‘S)
1: With singular noun.
EX: Ali’s car, Teacher’s mobile, Laila’s purse etc…
2: With singular and plural irregular nouns.
EX: Child’s diaper, Children’s diaper, Man’s duty, Men’s duty etc…
3: With words having no plural forms to form their plural form.
EX: But’s, and’s, for’s etc…
4: Nouns ending with S or SS can either take apostrophe (‘S) or (S’) apostrophe.
EX: Hari’s, Haris’s, bos’s duty, boss’s duty etc…

 Usage of (S’)
 11-87
1: With regular plural nouns.
EX: Teachers’ room, Boys’ college, Girls’ hostel etc…
2: With names of family.
EX: Afridis’ house, Ahmadzais’ property, Logans’ etc…

 Kinds of possessive. It has two kinds.

 Joint possessive.
In joint possessive ‘S is used with last noun combined by and.
EX: Ali and Ahmad’s car.
 Separate possessive.
In separate possessive ‘S is used with both nouns combined by and.
EX: Ali’s and Ahmad’s car.

 Subjective complement:
In this case the noun is used to complete the meaning of subject.
Structure: To be verb+ noun
EX: They are doctors.
To be N
I am a student.
To be N

 Objective complement:
In this the noun is used to complete the meaning of an object.
Structure: Subject+ verb+ object+ noun
EX: Laila never called her father step father.
I told Ali the reality.
Ali taught his student English.

 As a part of verbal:
In this case the noun is used after gerund or infinitive to form gerund or infinitive phrase. It
indicates by the following structures.
Structure: Verb (ing) + noun
EX: Laila enjoys playing tennis.
Structure: To+ Verb 1+ noun
EX: I like to teach English.

 Appositive case/In apposition to a noun or pronoun

In this case the noun is used after or before another noun to describe it.
EX: My uncle, the principal, is delivering a speech.
The principal, my uncle is delivering a speech.

 Parts of noun:
There are two parts of noun.
 Animated nouns are those nouns that refer to living creatures.
EX: Boy, girl, dog, cow, tree, pig etc…
 Non-animated nouns are those nouns that refer to non-living creatures.
EX: Pen, chair, stone, table, air plane etc…
 12-87
Gender of noun
The origin
It is taken from a Latin word “Genus” which means kind, sort or type. It indicates whether a
person or an animal is male or female. It means the state of being male or female.

Kinds of Gender:
There are four kinds of gender.
 Masculine gender: It indicates that a person or animal is male.
EX: Boy, lion, ox, actor, rabbit, dog etc…

 Feminine gender: It indicates that a person or animal is female.

EX: Girl, lioness, oxen, actress, hare, bitch etc…

 Common gender: It indicates that a person or animal is both female and male.
EX: Doctors, Nurse, Singer, Dancer, Teacher etc…

 Neuter gender: It indicates that a person or animal is neither male nor female
EX: Eunuch, Pen, Chair, Table etc…

Kinds of Noun
There are nine kinds of noun.
 Proper noun
 Common noun
 Material noun
 Collective noun
 Concrete noun
 Abstract noun
 Countable noun
 Non-countable noun
 Compound noun

 Proper noun:
The name of a particular person, place and thing is called proper noun.
EX: Person_________ Ali, Laila, Zakir Naik etc…
Place__________ Afghanistan, Peshawar, Kabul etc…
Thing_________ Piano pen, Alto, VXR, titanic ship etc…

 Common noun:
The name which is given to a person, place and thing in common is called common noun.
EX: Person_________ Boy, girl, cook, sweeper etc…
Place__________ Street, class, road, school etc…
Thing__________ Pen, pencil, chair, marker etc…

 Material noun:
The name of substance out of which other things are made is called material noun.
EX: Wood_______ Rostrum, door, window, table etc…
Plastic_______ Pen, dustbin, tape recorder, etc…
Paper________ Book, newspaper, magazine, etc…

 Collective noun:
The name of group of people or thing is called collective noun.
EX: Class, band, family, team, army, jury, squad etc…
 13-87
 Concrete noun:
The name of something that has a physical existence and can be seen or touched is called concrete
noun.
EX: Chair, table, boy, T.V, mobile etc…

 Abstract noun:
The name of something that does not have a physical existence and can not be seen touched, but can
be felt.
EX: Pain, sorrow, dignity, fame, reputation, happiness etc…

 Countable /Unit noun:

The name of something that can be counted or divided into singular and plural is called countable or
unit noun.
EX: One book, one magazine, one pen etc…

 Non-countable/Mass noun:
The name of something that can not be counted or divided into singular or plural is called non-
countable/mass noun.
EX: Water, air, oxygen, rice etc…

 Compound noun:
The name of combinations of noun + noun in which the first noun functions as an adjective and
modifies the second noun.

 Compound noun can be formed by the following structures:

1: Noun + Noun
EX: Bus drivers, college teacher, news reporters etc…
2: Noun + Gerund
EX: Fruit packing, letter writings, window shoppings etc…
3: Gerund + Noun
EX: Frying pan, dining room, swimming pool etc…
4: Adjective + Noun
EX: Yellow fever, right angles, Black magic, common senses etc…
5: Noun + Preposition + Noun
EX: Editor-in-chiefs, sister-in-law, brother-in law, father-in-laws etc…

 Kinds of compound noun

There are three kinds of compound noun.
 Close compound noun:
In this kind of noun two nouns are written jointly or close to each other.
EX: Housewife, newspaper, keyboard, honeymoon etc...

 Open compound noun:

In this kind of noun two nouns are written separately or there is space.
EX: College teacher, bus driver, black magic, standard English etc…

 Hyphenated compound noun::

In this kind of noun two nouns are written with hyphens.
EX: Editor-in-chief, sister-in-law, father-in-law etc…
 14-87

Pronoun
The origin
It is derived from a Latin word “Pronomens” which means for a noun.

Definition
Pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun to avoid its unnecessary repetition in a sentence.
EX: Laila is From Afghanistan. She is my girlfriend.
Pro
Note:
Sometimes pronoun is used as an antecedent.
EX: He is Ali.
Ante

Kinds of Pronoun
There are twelve kinds of pronoun.
 Subject pronoun
 Object pronoun
 Demonstrative pronoun
 Possessive pronoun
 Reflexive pronoun
 Emphatic/Intensive pronoun
 Indefinite pronoun
 Relative pronoun
 Relative compound pronoun
 Interrogative pronoun
 Distributive pronoun
 Reciprocal pronoun

Subject pronoun
A pronoun that refers to three persons is called subject pronoun.
1ST person pronoun:
A pronoun that refers to the person speaking.

2nd person pronoun:

A pronoun that refers to the person spoken to.
 15-87

3rd person pronoun:

A pronoun that refers to the person spoken off.

Object pronoun
A pronoun that occurs in object position and receives the action is called object pronoun.
They are: Me, us, you, him, her, it, and them.
EX: I taught them English.
Bring him a glass of water.

Demonstrative pronoun:
A pronoun that points out a near or far person, place and thing is called demonstrative pronoun.
They are: This, that, those, these and such.
EX: Those are markers.
These move fast.
Such is a bad habit.
That is our house.

Possessive pronoun
A pronoun that is used to show ownership or position is called possessive pronoun.
They are: Mine, ours, yours, his, hers, theirs and O.
Position: After or before verb
EX: Mine is newer than your.
I like hers.
Mine is old.

Reflexive pronoun
A pronoun in which the action of very subject turns back to the subject is reflexive pronoun. Or a
pronoun in which the subject and object is one person is called reflexive pronoun.
They are: Myself, yourself, yourselves, herself, themselves, himself and ourselves.
Position: Normally they are placed after a verb.
Structure: Verb + reflexive pronoun
EX: She cut herself with a knife.
V ref-pro
I saw my self in the mirror.
V ref-pro
Structure: By + reflexive pronoun. It means alone. (American)
 16-87
EX: I do all the work by myself,
Structure: On + one’s + own. It means alone. (British)
EX: I do all the work on my own.

Emphatic/Intensive pronoun
A pronoun that is used for the sake of emphasis is called emphatic pronoun.
They are: Myself, yourself, yourselves, ourselves, himself, herself and themselves.
Positions: After the subject and at the end of a sentence.
EX: She herself cut with a knife.
She cut with a knife herself.

Indefinite pronoun
A pronoun that does not signify or point out a particular person and thing is called indefinite
pronoun. Or such pronouns talk about persons and things generally.
Person: Someone, somebody, anyone, anybody, no one and nobody.
Thing: Something, anything and nothing
1: Pronouns beginning with (some) are used in positive sentences.
2: Pronouns beginning with (any) are used in negative and interrogative sentences.
3: Pronouns beginning with (no) are used in positive sentences with negative meanings.
EX: She saw something wrong in her office.
Pro adj
I have nothing new today.
Pro adj
Do you know anyone famous in Peshawar?
Pro adj
Note:
Somewhere, anywhere and nowhere are adverbs because they show locations.
EX: Let’s go somewhere cold.
Adv adj

Interrogative pronoun
A pronoun that is used to ask questions is called interrogative pronoun.
They are: Where, why, what and when + verb.
EX: Where is your father?
What is this?
Why is she sad?
When is the party?

Relative/Connective pronoun
A pronoun that is used to combine two clauses is called relative pronoun.
They are: Who_________ for people__________________ Subjective case
Whom_______ for people____________________ Objective case
Which_______ for things and animals._________ Sub and obj case
That: ________ for people, thing and animal.____ Sub and obj case
EX: Ali, who is my friend, teaches at KELC.
The boy whom I hate the most is my math teacher.
I have the book which you are reading.
The book that is on the table is mine.
 17-87
Relative compound pronoun
A pronoun that is used with the word “ever” is called relative pronoun.
They are: wherever, whatever, whomever and whichever.
EX: Whomever you want to meet you can meet.
Whatever you want to do you can do.
Whichever you want to buy you can buy.
Wherever you want go you can go.

Distributive pronoun
A pronoun that is used to talk about each person or thing separately is called distributive pronoun.
They are: Each of, every one of, one of, either of, none of, neither of + plural specific noun + singular
verb.
EX: Each one of friends is hard working.
Either of the boys is allowed to come.
Neither of the girls is allowed to come.
One of my friends is coming tonight.

Reciprocal pronoun
A pronoun that is used to show mutual relationship is called reciprocal pronoun.
They are: Each other and one another.
EX: Ali and Ahmad are fighting with each other.
Musharaf and Hamid Karzai discuss the political situation with one another.

Adjective
The origin
It is derived from a Latin word “adjectivus” which means to add.

Definition
Adjective is a word that modifies, explains, or identifies a noun or pronoun.

Cases of Adjective
 Attributive case
 Predicative case
 Post positive case
 Abridge case

Attributive case
In this case the adjective is placed before a noun.
Structure: Adjective + Noun
EX: He is a good boy.
Adj n

Predicative case
In this case the adjective is placed after linking verb.
Structure: Linking verb + Adjective
EX: She is beautiful.
L.v adj
 18-87
Post positive case
In this case the adjective is placed after noun/pronoun.
Structure: Noun/pronoun + Adjective
EX: We have books enough.
Noun adj

Abridge case
In this case the adjective is placed between linking verb and noun.
Structure: Linking verb + adjective + noun
EX: I have something important to tell you.
L.v adj noun

Kinds of adjective
There are mainly 13 kinds of adjective
 Demonstrative adjective
 Possessive adjective
 Adjective of quality
 Adjective of quantity
 Proper adjective
 Relative adjective
 Adjective of number/numerical adjective
 Distributive adjective
 Interrogative adjective
 ING adjective
 ED adjective
 Emphatic adjective
 Exclamatory adjective

Demonstrative adjective
An adjective that is used to point out near or far persons, places and things is called demonstrative
adjective.
They are: This, that, these, those, and such + singular/plural noun
EX: Such behavior is nonsense.
This car is new.
Those boys are hard working.

Possessive adjective
An adjective that is used to show ownership or possession is called possessive adjective.
They are: my, your, our, their, his, her and its + noun.
EX: My car is the newest.
I like her beauty.

Adjective of quality
An adjective that is used to show the quality, goodness or badness of a person, place and thing is
called adjective of quality.
EX: Ali is smart.
Laila is tall and beautiful.
The weather of Peshawar is hot and dirty.
 19-87
Adjective of quantity
An adjective that is used to answer the question with (How much) or show quantity is called
adjective of quantity.
They are: Any, some, more, little, much, a lot, less etc…
EX: How much rice do you need?
I need much rice,

Proper adjective
An adjective that is derived from a proper noun and shows most often nationality is called proper
adjective.
EX: Afghanistan_________ Afghani
Pakistan____________ Pakistani
Japan______________ Japanese
China______________ Chinese
India_______________ Indian
Proper noun Proper adjective

Relative adjective
An adjective that is used to combine two clauses is called relative adjective.
Structure: Whose + Noun
EX: The boy whose father died is crying.
I know the girl whose husband got married.

Adjective of number/numerical adjective

An adjective that is used to show how many persons or things we mean is called adjective of number.
There are two kinds of adjective of number.
1: Definite adjective of number.
EX: Two, three, four, twenty five etc…
2: Indefinite adjective of number.
EX: Many, few, a lot etc…

Distributive adjective
An adjective that is used to talk about each person or thing is distributiv adjective.
They are: Each, every, neither, either etc…
Structure: Each, every, neither, either+ singular noun+ singular verb.
EX: Each boy has his own book.
Either girl is allowed to go out.

Interrogative adjective
An adjective that is used to ask questions is called interrogative adjective.
They are: What, whose, which + noun.
EX: What movies do you watch a lot?
Whose book is it?
Which car do you want to buy?

ING adjective
Present participle that functions as an adjective is called ING or verbal adjective.
Key points:
1: It has active meaning.
2: It shows that the subject is doing something
3: It shows the cause.
EX: This is an interesting book.
Pre-P subj
It is a frightening movie.
 20-87
Pre-P subj

ED adjective
Past participle that functions as an adjective is called ED or verbal adjective.
Key points:
1: It has passive meaning.
2: It shows that the subject is receiving something.
3: It shows the result.
EX: We are bored.
Subj past-p
She was interested.
Subj past-p

Emphatic adjective
An adjective that is used to show emphasis is called emphatic adjective.
Structure: Own, very + noun.
EX: This is the very book that I want to buy.
Adj noun
She saw the murder by her own eyes.
Adj noun

Exclamatory adjective
An adjective that is used to show surprise is called exclamatory adjective.
Structure: What + a/an + noun.
EX: What a building!
What an intelligent teacher!

Adverb
The origin
It is derived from a Latin word “Adverbium” which means to add something to the meaning.

Definition
A word that modifies or adds something to the meaning of a verb, an adjective, another adverb or
sometimes whole sentence is called adverb.
EX: Ali derives recklessly.
Verb adv
Laila is very beautiful.
Adv adj
Ali derives so recklessly.
Adv adv
Luckily, we won the match.
Adverb whole sentence

Note:
When adverb comes at the beginning then it is called fronting.
 21-87
Kinds of Adverb
 Adverb of time
 Adverb of place
 Adverb of frequency
 Adverb of manner
 Adverb of degree
 Relative adverb
 Sentence adverb
 Interrogative adverb
 Conjunctive adverb
 Adverb of certainty
 Adverb of affirming or denying
 Adverb of reason
 Adverb of number
 Focusing adverb
 Adverb of completeness
 Emphasizing adverb
 Comments/Views point adverb

Adverb of time
An adverb that is used to show the time of an action is called adverb of time.
They are: in the morning, in 2010, yesterday etc…
EX: We studied English in 2010.
Adv.time
She comes to the class in the morning.
Adv.time
I went to Kabul yesterday.
Adv.time

Adverb of place
An adverb that is used to show the place of an action is called adverb of place.
They are: At KELC, in the ground, at school etc…
EX: I studied English at KELC.
Adv.place
The player plays football in the ground.
Adv.place
She goes to school everyday.
Adv.place

Adverb of frequency
An adverb that is used to show the frequency or repetition of an action is called adverb of frequency.
They are: always, late, usually etc…
EX: Some students always come to class.
Adv.fre
She is never late to her office.
Adv.fre
I usually feel bored at work.
Adv.fre
 22-87
Adverb of manner
An adverb that is used to show how or in which manner or way an action is performed or done.
They are: Easily, clearly, recklessly, late etc…
EX: Our teacher teaches easily and clearly.
Adv.man Adv.man
My brother writes recklessly.
Adv.man
She comes late.
Adv.man

Adverb of degree
An adverb that is used to show what extent or degree something exists.
They are: Hot, beautiful, fairly etc…
EX: The weather of Peshawar is too hot.
Adv.deg
Laila is so beautiful.
Adv.deg
He is fairly good look.
Adv.deg

Relative adverb
An adverb that is used to combine two clauses and modifies time or location is called relative adverb.
They are: When and where.
EX: The building, where she lives, is worth 20 million dollars.
1990 is the year when Ali’s father died.

Sentence adverb
An adverb that is most often placed at the beginning to modify the whole sentence
is called sentence adverb.
They are: Fortunately, unluckily, proudly etc…
EX: Fortunately, Ali escaped from his enemies.
Sen.adv
Unluckily, we could not fight with them.
Sen.adv
Proudly, we defeated the other team.
Sen.adv

Interrogative adverb
An adverb that is used to ask questions is called interrogative adverb.
They are: How, why, where and when.
EX: How can she say that is not going to marry Ali?
Why did you leave the party last night?
Where does she usually go on Sunday?
When are we supposed to leave Pakistan?
 23-87
Conjunctive adverb
An adverb that is used to show how two ideas or sentences are combined and how are taken from one
idea to another idea.
They are: However, in addition, in fact etc…
EX: Ali didn’t study hard. However, he got first position.
Con.adv
We visited Islamabad. We, in addition, went to Faisal Masjid.
Con.adv
Ali is a good boy. His father is proud of him, in fact.
Con.adv

Adverb of certainty
An adverb that is used to show how or to what degree we are certain or sure about it.
They are: probably, definitely, surely etc…
EX: We will probably finish this class in August.
Adv.cer
He is definitely the best student of this class.
Adv.cer
You are surely doing a good job of helping the poor.
. Adv.cer

Adverb of affirming or denying

An adverb that is used to show agreement or disagreement is called adverb of affirming or denying.
They are: Yes, no, not at all etc…
EX: Is she at home?
Yes, she is.
Adv.affir
Are they washing the clothes?
No, they are not.
Adv.den

Adverb of reason
An adverb that is used to give reasons for an action is called adverb of reason.
They are: Therefore and hence.

EX: I, therefore, can not come to school today.

Adv.reason
Hence she told you.
Foc.adv

Adverb of number
An adverb that is used to show a special sequence is called adverb of number.
They are: First, second, third, fourth etc…
EX: He got first position.
Adv.num
 24-87
Focusing adverb
An adverb that is used to focus a situation or an action is called focusing adverb.
They are: Just, neither, either, only, barely, hardly etc…
EX: She has just come to class.
Foc.adv
Nazia Iqbal only sings songs.
Foc.adv

Adverb of completeness
An adverb that is used to show how much something is true is called completeness adverb.
EX: She was absolutely misunderstood.
Adv.comp
I was thoroughly happy yesterday.
Adv.comp

Emphasizing adverb
An adverb that is used for the sake of emphasis is called emphasizing adverb.
They are: Right, really, rather etc…
EX: Would you rather stay here or go.
Emph.adv
Ali is really good boy.
Emph.adv

Comments/Views point adverb

An adverb that is used to show our views or comments about someone or something is called
comments adverb.
They are: Foolishly, carelessly, awfully etc…

EX: Ali carelessly threw his book in the corner of the room.
Com.adv
Some students write their homework awfully.
Com.adv

Verb
The origin
It is derived from a Latin word “Verbum” which means a word.

Definitions
1: Verb is a part of speech that has the following characteristics.

 Verb shows what a person or thing does.

EX: Our teacher teaches English easily.
P.4 computers work faster than P.3.
 Verb shows what is done to a person or thing.
EX: Ali was beaten by four persons.
Our car is fixed by mechanic.
 25-87
 Verb shows what a person or thing is.
EX: He is a doctor.
Nokia mobiles are expensive but durable.
 Verb shows what a person or thing has.
EX: Laila has a lot of expensive gold rings.
China mobiles can have eight speakers.
2: Verb is a word that shows an action or state.

Kinds of verbs
There are two kinds of verb according to tense.

Finite verbs
Finite verbs are those verbs that show the tense and are limited by the subject and number of persons
and tenses.
EX: Ali goes to KELC everyday.
F.V
They go to KELC daily.
F.V
We went to KELC yesterday.
F.V

Non-finite verbs
Infinite verbs are those verbs that do not show the tense and are not limited by the subject and
number of persons and tenses.

EX: We enjoy swimming.

Non-f .V
Ali likes to study English.
Non-f . V
He is teaching in the class.
Non-f . V

Kinds of Non-finite verb

There are three kinds of Non-finite verb.

Infinitive
EX: We like to study English.
Inf.V
Ali likes to study English.
Inf.V
She liked to study English.
Inf.V
 26-87
Gerund
EX: We enjoy swimming.
Ger.V
They enjoyed swimming yesterday.
Ger. V
She enjoys swimming.
Ger. V

Participle
EX: I am teaching in the class.
Par.V
She is teaching in the class.
Par. V
They were teaching in the class yesterday.
Par. V

Names of the form of a verb

 Go______________ Unconjugated form
 Goes_____________ Inflected form
 Going____________ Derivational form
 Went_____________ Conjugated form
 Gone_____________ Super conjugated form

Kinds of a verb
We have two kinds of verb.
 Main verb
 Auxiliary verb

Main verb
A verb that is used to show an action or state is called main verb.
It is also called full, nation or lexical verb.

Kinds of main verb

 Transitive verbs
 Intransitive verbs
 Stative verbs
 Phrasal verbs

Transitive verbs:
They are passing over verbs in which the action passes from the subject to the object. Or transitive
verb is a verb that has a direct object.
EX: We study English.
T.V obj
She slapped him.
T.V obj
 27-87
Kinds of Transitive verb
 Mono-Transitive verb
 Di-Transitive verbs
 Complex Transitive verbs
 Pseudo Transitive verbs

Mono-Transitive verbs
A verb that is followed by only one direct object is called mono-transitive verb.
Structure: Subject + verb + Direct object
EX: Laila writes her homework.
Subj V D.O
Ali bought a car.
Subj V D.O

Di-Transitive
A verb that is followed by two objects one direct object and one indirect object is called di-transitive.

 Difference between Direct and Indirect object

 Direct object: A word that receives the action indicated by a verb is called direct object.
 Indirect object: A word that receives the direct object is called object.
Structures: Subject + verb + direct object + for/to + indirect object. (Formal)
Subject + verb + indirect object + direct object (Informal)
EX: She bought a gift for me.
She bought me a gift.

Complex transitive
A verb that can be used transitively and intransitively is called complex transitive.
EX: Ali studies English.
Ali studies hard.

Pseudo Transitive
A verb that is followed by an object but can not be changed to passive because no
action exists.
They are: Have, fit, suit, posses, own etc…
EX: That silk dress suits Laila.
They own a lot of property.

Intransitive verbs
They are not passing over verbs in which the action passes over from the subject to the object are
called intransitive verbs. Or these verbs are not followed by a direct object.
Structure: Subject + verb + modifiers
Subject + verb + PATAP
Note: PATAP stands for the followings.
P: Place
EX: The accident occurred on Arbab Road.
Place
A: Adverb
EX: She works hard.
Adverb
 28-87
T: Time
EX: Our class begins at 6:00 am.
Time
A: Adjective
EX: She looks beautiful.
Adjective
P: Preposition
EX: I go to school.
Preposition

Stative verbs
Verbs that are used to show an existing condition rather than an action are called stative verbs. They
are also called Non-progressive verbs.
They are unlike dynamic verbs which are considered with action.

Note:
Stative verbs are normally not used in any progressive tense except a few exceptions.
1: With these adverbs. (Always, constantly, continually, continuously,
Perpetually)
EX: She is always liking mango juice. Or she always likes mango juice.

2: When there is a physical change.

EX: Ali was too sick yesterday. He is feeling better today. Or he feels better today.

3: With actions of limited durations.

EX: The weather is being nice today. Or the weather is nice today.
You are being naughty today. Or you are naughty today.

4: When the stative verb has an idiomatic meaning.

EX: The situation of Pakistan is looking up nowadays. Or
The situation of Pakistan looks up nowadays.

Categories of Stative verbs

They fall into five categories.
 Mental activity
 Senses
 State of being
 Ownership
 Emotions/Attitudes

Mental activity
In this category the verbs show our mentality.
EX: I know Ali.
She forgot her homework.

Senses
In this category the verbs refer to five senses of human being.
EX: I saw Mahmood.
The soup tastes awful.
 29-87
State of being
In this category the verbs show existence.
EX: She is a doctor.
They are boys.

Ownership
In this category the verbs show possession.
EX: I have a lot of work.
They possess a high status.

Emotions/Attitudes
In this category the verbs show how we feel.
EX: I love my country.
She hates bad boys.

Phrasal verbs
The combination of a lexical verb and particle is called phrasal verb.
Particle can be preposition, adverb or both preposition and adverb.
Verb + Preposition is called prepositional verb.
Verb + Adverb is called phrasal verb.
Verb + Adverb + Preposition is called phrase prepositional verb.

Kinds of Phrasal verbs

 Separable phrasal verbs
 In/Non-separable phrasal verbs

Separable phrasal verbs

Verbs that can be separated by a noun or pronoun object from the prepositions are called separable
verbs.
Structures: Verb + preposition + noun object. (Right)
Verb + noun object + preposition. (Right)
Verb + pronoun object + preposition. (Right)
Verb + preposition + pronoun object. (Wrong)
EX: Please, fill out this form.
Please, fill this form out.
Please, fill it out.
Please, fill out it.

In/Non-separable verbs
Verbs that can not be separated by a noun or pronoun object from the prepositions are called non-
separable verbs.
Structures: Verb + preposition + noun object. (Right)
Verb + preposition + pronoun object. (Right)
Verb + noun object + preposition. (Wrong)
Verb + pronoun object + preposition. (Wrong)
 30-87
EX: I heard from Ali that KELC is off.
I heard from him that KELC is off.
I heard Ali from that KELC is off.
I heard him from that KELC is off.

Auxiliary/Helping verbs
Verbs that are used to help some other verbs to form negations and sometimes questions are called
auxiliary/helping verbs.

Kinds of Auxiliary/Helping verbs

 Primary/Principle auxiliary verbs
 Semi auxiliary verbs
 Modal auxiliary verbs

Primary/Principle auxiliary verbs

These auxiliary verbs must always exist for a correct sentence.

EX: I am a doctor.
She has written her homework.
Does Laila go to college everyday?

Semi auxiliary verbs

These auxiliary verbs have the characteristics of either main verb or auxiliary verb.

EX: She dares to climb the mountain.

Dare she climb the mountain?
I need money.
You need not shout.
 31-87
Laila used to be happy.
Used Ali to smoke cigar?

Modal auxiliary verbs

These auxiliary verbs are also called defective verbs because they show different feelings or attitudes
of a speaker.
They are: Can, could, will, would, may, might, shall, should, ought to, must etc…
EX: I will go to London.
Laila could speak English.
You must write your homework.

Mood of a verb
The origin:
Mood is taken from a Latin word “Modus” which means manners.

Definition:
Mood is the mode or method by which a verb is used to express a particular action is called
mood.

Kinds of mood of a verb

There are three kinds of mood of a verb.
 Indicative mood
 Imperative mood
 Subjunctive mood

Indicative mood
It is the way in which a verb is used to express state a fact.
EX: Allah is one.
We study Special Grammar class.

Imperative mood
It is the way in which a verb is used to give orders, directions, advice and instructions.
EX: Bring a glass of water.
Please, help the poor.

Subjunctive mood
It is the way in which a verb is used to express a wish, desire, intention and resolution in the noun
clause in the present time and improbability in the past time isn’t called subjunctive mood.

Note:
These notes should be kept in mind.
1: It does not have present, past and future form.
2: It is neither singular nor plural.
3: Its negative form is Not + verb 1.
4: Its passive form is Be + verb 3.
5: In present subjunctive we have only Be instead of (Is, am, are)
6: In past subjunctive we use only were instead of (Was) with singular and plural
Subject.
 32-87
Forms of Subjunctive mood
 Present subjunctive mood
 Past subjunctive mood

 Past Subjunctive mood

It is used to indicate a contrary situation to the fact/unreal situation in the present
and future.

It can be formed by the following structures.

1: With (if) + Simple past tense
EX: If I studied hard, I would pass the test.

2: With (wish) + simple past tense

EX: Ali wishes that he were a doctor.

3: With (as if/as though) + simple past tense

EX: She acts as if she were an actress.

4: With (would rather) + object + simple past tense

EX: I would rather you applied for that post.

5: It + is + time + simple past tense

EX: It is time you came.
 33-87

Preposition
The origin
It is derived from a Latin word “Preaposition” which means placing before.

Definition
It is a word that shows relationship of noun/pronoun to some other words
in a sentence is called preposition.
EX: Ali comes by bus.
Pre n.o
We talked to her.
Pre p.o
Note: Preposition is used before these words.
 Noun
 Pronoun
 Gerund
 Infinitive
 Noun clause
 Adjective clause
 Question

 Noun:
EX: I am talking about Ali.
Pre N

 Pronoun:
EX: She is tired of them.
Pre Pro

 Gerund:
EX: We are interested in learning English.
Pre Ger

 Infinitive:
EX: You have no choice except to study.
Pre Infi

 Noun clause:
I am sad about what he has done to me.
Pre N.clause
 Adjective clause:
EX: The boy about whom you are talking is my cousin.
Pre Adj.cluase

 Question:
EX: In which do you read?
Pre Question

Kinds of Preposition
 Simple prepositions/One word prepositions
 Double prepositions
 34-87
 Compound prepositions
 Participle prepositions
 Phrase prepositions
 Post possed prepositions
 Agentive preposition

Simple prepositions/One word prepositions

Prepositions that are not formed by any method and common to a language are
called simple or one- word prepositions.
They are: to, at, from, in, about, of, on, over, above, between, except, through etc..
EX: I am at work.
The fan is above her head.

Double prepositions
Prepositions that are made of two words are called double or tow-word
prepositions.
They are: From…to, next to, near to, from…through, infront of, through out,
near by etc…
EX: My house is infront of Bilal masjid.
Her school was off from Monday to Thursday.

Compound prepositions
Prepositions that are made by prefixing are called compound prepositions.
They are: Into, until, across, infront etc…
EX: The piece of meat fell into the water.
Their office is across the Sadder Road.

Participle prepositions
Present participles that function as prepositions are called participle prepositions.
They are: Following, considering, concerning, regarding, according etc…
EX: Do you have any questions regarding yesterday lesson?
I will ask all the lessons concerning Active and Passive voice.

Phrase prepositions
A group of words that function as prepositions are called phrase prepositions.
They are: By the name of, at the beginning of, by the dint of, at the end of, by the
help of, in the presence of etc…
EX: I dare not talk in the presence of my father.
By the dint of English grammar I can speak English very well.

Post possed prepositions

Sometimes prepositions are placed at the beginning of a sentence or clause, they
are known as post possed prepositions
They are: In, about etc…
EX: In which class do you read?
The buy about whom you are talking is my friend.

Agentive Preposition
A preposition that introduces the agent in passive voice is called agentive
preposition.
It is: By
EX: The glass was broken.
 35-87

Conjunction

The origin
It is derived from a Latin word “Conjunct” which means to relate or to join.

Definition
It is a word that combines two words, two phrases, two clauses or two sentences.

Kinds of conjunction
 Co-ordinate/ Coordinative/ Coordinating conjunctions
 Paired/Correlative conjunctions
 Subordinate/Subordinating conjunctions
 Compound conjunction

Co-ordinate conjunctions
Conjunctions that are used to combine equal words or clauses are called
Co-ordinate conjunctions.
They are: And, so, yet, but, or, nor, and for.
Structures: Main clause + conjunction + Main clause
Conjunction + main clause + main clause
EX: Ali didn’t study, yet he got first position.
For she didn’t call me she was busy.

Paired conjunctions
Conjunctions that are used in pairs to combine equal words or clauses are called
paired conjunctions.
They are: Neither…nor, both…and, either…or and not only…but also.
Structure: Equal structure + conjunction + Equal structure
EX: She is either beautiful or polite.
Adj con adj
The students are both listening and writing the lesson.
V con V
Neither he asked me nor I told him.
Clause con Clause
Nazia Iqbal sings not only beautifully but also attractively.
Adv con Adv
 36-87
Subordinate conjunctions
Conjunctions that are used to combine two clauses of unequal rank or
conjunctions that are used to combine dependent clause with independent clause
are called subordinate conjunctions.
Structures: Main clause + conjunction + subordinate clause
Conjunction + Subordinate clause + Main clause
EX: I visited a lot of places when I was in Kabul.
M. clause con S. clause
Before I graduate I will get married.
Con S. clause M. clause

Kinds of subordinate conjunction

 Subordinate conjunctions of time:

They are used to indicate time.
They are: When, while, as, after, before, since, till etc…
EX: While she was washing the dishes, I called her.
I have taught at KELC since I graduated from school.

 Subordinate conjunctions of place:

They are used to indicate place.
They are: Where and wherever.
EX: The bomb has blasted where we visited yesterday.

 Subordinate conjunctions of cause and effect:

They are used to indicate cause and effect.
They are: Because, since and as.
EX: I will fire you from the job because you can’t work here.
As she was very sick, she didn’t come to the class.

 Subordinate conjunctions of purpose:

They are used to indicate purpose.
They are: So (that)
EX: He reviewed the lessons that I might learned.
I went to Afghanistan so that to meet Laila.

 Subordinate conjunctions of condition:

They are used to indicate condition.
They are: If and unless.
EX: If he studies hard, he will pass the test.

 Subordinate conjunctions of contrast:

They are used to indicate a contrast.
They are: Although, though, even though, while, whereas etc…
EX: They lost the match although they played well.
I am rich while my friend is poor.

 Subordinate conjunction of comparison:

They are used to compare two objects.
They are: As and than.
EX: She is taller that me.
He is as bald as coot.
 37-87
Compound conjunctions
The group of words that function as conjunctions and combine two of unequal
ranks are called compound conjunctions.
Structures: Main clause + conjunction + subordinate clause
Conjunction + subordinate clause + main clause
EX: I had watched a movie by the time the electricity.
So long as he doesn’t try hard he won’t get good marks.

Kinds of Compound conjunctions

 Compound conjunctions of time:

They are used to indicate time.
They are: By the time, as long as and so long as.
EX: By the time Ali comes to class, we will have finished Active and Passive
voice.
I won’t talk to you as long as I am alive.
 Compound conjunctions of cause and effect:
They are used to indicate cause and effect.
They are: Inasmuch as, so long as and as long as.
EX: Inasmuch as you came late, you missed the lesson.
I had an accident as long as I drove fast.

 Compound conjunction of purpose:

They are used to indicate purpose.
It is: In order that.
EX I run every morning in order that I may loss weight.

 Compound conjunctions of condition:

They are used to indicate condition.
They are: Only if, even if, provided that, providing that, in case that and in the
event that.
EX: Providing that you have no questions, we will conclude the class.
You can call me on this number in the event that you have any problems.

 Compound conjunction of manner:

They are used to indicate manner.
They are: As if and as though.
EX: He orders as if he were my father.
She acts as though she were an actress.
 38-87

Interjection
Definition
A word that is used to show sudden feeling of mind such as pain, sorrow, happiness, surprise and
sadness is called interjection.

It can be formed by the following structures:

1: Declarative questions/Question intonation ending with rising sound.
EX: Ali got first position!

2: What + a/an + (adjective) + noun

EX: What a tall building!

3: How + adverb + subject + verb

EX: How beautifully she dances!
How carefully he drives!

4: How + subject + (auxiliary) + verb

EX: How you have grown!
How you did that!

TENSES
The origin
It is derived from a Latin word “Tempus” which means time, from a Greek word “Tensus” which
means time and from old French word “Tens” which also means time or era.

Definitions
 Tense is a grammatical term that is used to show the relationship between time,
condition and other forms of a verb.
 Tense is form of a verb that is used to show time of an action in the present, past
and future.
 A facet of a verb that is used to show whether the action is expressed by the verb
and takes place in the present, past and future, whether it is single or repeated action
and whether the action is finished or unfinished is called tense.
 39-87

Kinds of tenses
We have three kinds of tenses.
 Present tense
 Past tense
 Future tense

Present tense
Present tense is used to show that the action of a verb takes place in the present
time.
EX: We study at KELC.
Categories of present tense:
 Simple present tense
 Present continuous tense
 Present perfect tense
 Present perfect tense

Past tense
Past tense is used show that the action of a verb took place in the past time.
Categories of past tense:
 Simple past tense
 Past continuous tense
 Past/Plu perfect tense
 Past perfect continuous tense

Future tense
Future tense is used to show that the action of a verb will take place in the future.
Categories of future tense:
 Simple future tense
 Future continuous tense
 Future perfect tense
 Future perfect continuous tense
 40-87

Stages of tenses
All tenses go through three stages.
 Syntax stage
 Explanation stage
 Implementation stage

 Syntax stage
In this stage we form the structures for tenses.

 Explanation stage:
In this stage we discuss the usages or cases of tenses.

 Implementation stage:
In stage we use or make example for tenses.

PRESENT TENSES AND THEIR CATEGORIES

Simple present tense/Present indefinite tense
Structures: Subject + verb (s, es, ies) + ROTS. (Positive)
Subject + does/do + not + verb + ROTS (Negative)
Do/does + subject + verb + ROTS +? (Interrogative)
Don’t, doesn’t + subject + verb + ROTS +? (Neg. Interrogative American)
Do/does + subject + not + verb + ROTS +? (Neg. Interrogative British)

It is used in the following cases:

 It is used to show an action that happens regularly or habitually.
EX: We come to class at 6:00 am.
She plays tennis every morning.
He smokes cigar.
Note: This case of present tense is also called alterative present tense.

 It is used to show a universal facts or general facts.

Universal facts: They are not changeable in nature.
EX: Allah is one.
Milk is white and Honey is sweet.
General facts: They are changeable in nature
EX: The girl is young and beautiful.
I am a teacher.
Note: This case of present tense is called Neutral present tense.

 It is used to replace present continuous tense even if we are talking about things
happening at the moment of speaking. This occurs with stative verbs.
Here are some stative verbs: Know, like, want, understand, forget, see, remember,
possess, own, believe feel etc…
EX: I like mango juice.
The students understand the lecture.
Note: This case of present is also called Actual present tense.
 41-87

 It is used to replace Simple future tense in adverb clause of time and condition.
EX: If Ali studies hard, he will pass the test.
Laila will go to America when she finishes her class.

 It is used to talk about future events that are apart of fixed timetable or program in
the present time.
EX: My father comes from America next year.
We finish this class in August.

 It is used to talk about past events in newspaper headlines.

EX: MUSHARAF GOES TO AMERICA.
ENGLAND WINS THE T20 WORLD CUP.

Present continuous tense

Structures: Subject + is/am/are + verb (ing) + ROTS. (Positive)
Subject + is/am/are + not + verb (ing) + ROTS. (Negative)
Is/am/are + subject + verb (ing) + ROTS +? (Interrogative)
Isn’t/aren’t + subject + verb (ing) + ROTS +? (Neg. Interrogative American)
Is/am/are+ subject+ not+ verb (ing) + ROTS +? (Neg.Interrogative British)

It is used in the following cases:

 It is used to talk about an action that is ongoing at the moment or at the time
of speaking.
EX: I am teaching in the class.
The students are writing.

 It is used to express an action which may not be actually at the moment of

speaking, but it is happening around the time of speaking. Or it shows general
actions in progress around the time of speaking.
EX: I am studying in the university.
She is writing a book.

 It is used to talk about actions that are planned or programmed to take place in the
future at the moment of speaking.
EX: We are going to park this Sunday.
He is leaving college tomorrow.

 It is used to talk about changing situation, progress and development.

EX: The situation of Pakistan is becoming worse and worse.
The students are getting better and better.

 It is used to talk about long going habit or a persistent action that is not dominated
despite warning or advice. In this we use the following adverbs.
(Always, constantly, continually, continuously, forever and perpetually)
EX: She is always telling a lie.
He is constantly forgetting her books and notebooks.

Present perfect tense/Present perfect simple

Structures: Subject + have/has + verb 3 + ROTS. (Positive)
Subject + have/has + not + verb 3 + ROTS. (Negative)
 42-87
Have/has + subject + verb 3 + ROTS +? (Interrogative)
Haven’t/hasn’t + subject + verb 3 + ROTS +? (Neg. Interrogative American)
Have/has + subject + not + verb 3 + ROTS +? (Neg. Interrogative British)

It is used in the following cases:

 It is used to show an action that happened or never happened during a period of
time that continuous from past to present. Or it is used show an action or situation
that happened or didn’t happen at unparticular time in the past.
Time is not clear and time is not important to be clear.
EX: We have seen the Faisal Masjid.

 It is used to an action that started and ended, but its time has not finished yet. Or it
is used to show incomplete period of time.
EX: I have taught four classes today.

 It is used to show an action that happened several or many times in the past, but the
time of each repetition is not clear. In this case we use the followings.
(Once, twice, three times, four times, a couple of times, several times etc…)
EX: Ali has been to that restaurant twice.
We have won the world cup a couple of times.

 It is used to show an action that happened in the past, but when we think more of
their effects appear in the present than of the action itself.
EX: Ali has cut his finger. (It is bleeding now)
She has polished my shoes. (They are shining now)

 It is used to show an action that started in the past that continuous up to the present
and may or may not go to the future. In this case we use Since and For.
Since + particular point of time
Since is used to show when an action has started.
For + duration of time
For is used to show how long an action has continued.
EX: Ali has played cricket since 3:00 pm.
Ali has played cricket for 2 hours.

Present perfect continuous or present perfect progressive tense

Structures:
Subject+ has/have+ been+ verb (ing) + ROTS (Positive)
Subject+ has/have+ not+ been+ verb (ing) + ROTS (Negative)
Have/has+ subject+ been+ verb (ing) + ROTS (Interrogative)
Haven’t/hasn’t+ subject+ been+ verb (ing) + ROTS+? (Neg. Interrogative American)
Have/has+ subject+ not+ been+ verb (ing) + ROTS+? (Neg. Interrogative British)

It is used in the following cases:

 It is used to show an action that started at sometime in the past, continuous up to
the time and may or may not go to the future. We use Since and For in this case.
 43-87

Difference between Future perfect tense and Future perfect continuous tense

NO Future Perfect Tense NO Future Perfect Continuous Tense

1 It shows actions of long
background
2 It shows conditions with
interruptions.
3 It shows achievement result.
1 It shows actions of short background.
2 It shows conditions without
interruptions.
3 It shows unachievement result.

EX: We have lived in Pakistan for 25 years. (Best)

We have been living in Pakistan for 25 years. (Better)
She has worked in a bank for one month. (Better)
She has been working in a bank for one month. (Best)

 It is used to show an action that has already stopped or just finished and duration
emphasized as the explanation of something. In this case Since and For are not
used.
EX: Ali’s eyes are red. He has been crying.
Her hair is still wet. She has been swimming.
 It is used to show a compliant behavior about an action that is new and temporary.
EX: Ali has been smoking a lot when his father isn’t home.
The students have been making a lot of noise when the teacher is a bit late.

 It is used to show a regular action, but less common than present continuous tense.
EX: I have been writing a book.
(I am writing a book, but not right now)
My father has been working in a bank.
(My father is working in a bank, but not right now)

 It is used to show the repetition of an action, but less common than present perfect
tense.
EX: Ali has been visiting his mother three times in the hospital.
(Ali has visited his mother three times in the hospital)
We have been flying the airplane twice.
(We have flown the airplane twice)
 44-87

PAST TENSES AND THEIR CATEGORIES

Simple past tense
Structures: Subject + verb2 + ROTS. (Positive)
Subject + did + not + verb1+ ROTS. (Negative)
Did + subject + verb1 + ROTS+? (Interrogative)
Didn’t+ subject + verb1 + ROTS +? (Neg. Interrogative American)
Did + subject + not + verb1 + ROTS+? (Neg. Interrogative British)

It is used in the following cases:

 It is used to show an action that started and ended at a particular time in the past.
Adverbs or adverb phrases of time are used in this case.
EX: I got English diploma from KELC last year.
Laila went to Kabul last month.

 It is used to show present or future unreal desire in subjunctive mood.

EX: If you studied, you would pass the test.
Laila wishes that she were an actress.

 It is used to show a habit that existed in the past, but it is no longer in the present.
EX: We lived in Afghanistan in 2002.
Laila used to smoke cigar.

 It is used to show two actions that happened in the past, but one before another.
Structures: When + simple past tense +, + simple past tense
Simple past tense + when + simple past tense
EX: When we studied hard, we passed the test.
We passed the test when we studied hard.

 It is used to replace simple present tense in Indirect/Reported speech. If the main verb
is said.
EX: Ali said, “I go to Kabul”. (Ali said that he went to Kabul)
Our teacher said, “You waste your time”. (Our teacher said that I wasted my time)

Past continuous tense

Structures: Subject + was/were + verb (ing) + ROTS. (Positive)
Subject + was/were + not + verb (ing) + ROTS. (Negative)
Was/were + subject + verb (ing) + ROTS+? (Interrogative)
Wasn’t/weren’t + subject + verb (ing) + ROTS+? (Neg. Interrogative American)
Was/were + subject + not + verb (ing) + ROTS+? (Neg. Interrogative British)

It is used in the following cases:

 It is used to show an action that was in progress at a particular time in the past.
EX: They were playing cricket at this time yesterday.
She was studying at the library at 3:00pm.

 It is used to show an action that was in progress, but sometimes interrupted by another
action.
Structures: While + past continuous tense +, + simple past tense
 45-87
When + simple past tense +, + past continuous tense
Note: After the interruption perhaps the action restarted, perhaps not.
EX: While I was teaching, someone knocked the door.
When someone knocked the door, I was teaching.

 It is used to show two actions that were in progress simultaneously in the past without
interruption each other.
Note: Only while is used in this case.
EX: While Nazia Iqbal was singing, all the audiences were dancing.
All the audiences were dancing while Nazia Iqbal was singing.

 It is used to show changing situation, progress, development over a period of time in

the past.
EX: In 2002 the population of Pakistan was increasing 40%.
Ali’s health was getting worse and worse.

 It is used to show a persistent action or long going habit that was not eliminated despite
warning or advice. The following adverbs are used in this case.
(Always, constantly, continually, continuously, perpetually, forever)
EX: Ali was always telling lie.
They were forever teasing the girls.

Past perfect/plu perfect tense

Structures: Subject + had + verb3 + ROTS. (Positive)
Subject + had + not + verb3 + ROTS. (Negative)
Had + subject + verb3 + ROTS+? (Interrogative)
Hadn’t + subject + verb3 + ROTS+? (Neg Interrogative American)
Had + subject + not + verb3 + ROTS+? (Neg. Interrogative British)

It is used in the following cases:

 It is used to show an action or situation which happened or didn’t happen before
another action or time in the past. Or it is used to show two actions that happened in
the past, but one before another.
Note: First or earlier action is shown by past perfect tense. Second or later action is
shown by simple past tense.
Structures:
 After + subject + had + verb3 + ROTC +, + subject + verb2 + ROTS.
Subject + verb2 + ROTS + after + subject + had + verb3 + ROTC.
EX: After Ali had finished his education, he went to America.
I started teaching at KELC after I had gotten diploma.
Note: This structure is called obligatory past perfect tense.

 After + subject + verb2 + ROTC +, + subject + verb2 + ROTS.

Subject + verb2 + ROTS + after + subject + verb2 + ROTC.
EX: After I took medicine, I felt okay.
I performed the prayer after I got ablution.
Note: This structure is called non-obligatory past perfect tense.

 Before + subject + veb2 + ROTC +, + subject + had + verb3 + ROTS.

Subject + had + verb3 + ROTS + before + subject + verb2 + ROTC.
EX: Before he became a rich man, he had been a poor former.
The patient had died before the doctor came.
Note: This structure is called obligatory past perfect tense.
 46-87
 Before + subject + verb2 + ROTC +, + subject + verb2 + ROTS.
Subject + verb2 + ROTS + before + subject + verb2 + ROTC.
EX: Before I went to class, I took tea.
I called her before she called me.
Note: This structure is called non-obligatory past perfect tense.

 When + subject + had + verb3 + ROTC +, + subject + verb2 + ROTS.

Subject + verb2 + ROTS + when + subject + had + verb3 + ROTC.
EX: When we had finished the class, we held a party.
She played tennis when I had called her.
Note: In this structure when means after.

 When + subject + verb2 + ROTC +, + subject + verb2 + ROTS.

Subject + verb2 + ROTS + when + subject + verb2 + ROTC.
EX: When my cousin came home, we ate lunch.
Laila washed the dishes when I went her house.
Note: In this structure when means before.

 By the time + subject + verb2 + ROTC +, + subject + had + verb3 + ROTS.

Subject + had + verb3 + ROTS + by the time + subject + verb2 + ROTC.
EX: By the time we went home, the rain had stopped.
I had taken lunch by the time my brother came home.
Note: By the time is only used with simple past tense to show second action.

 It is used to show a past unreal desire or situation with if and wish.

EX: If I had studied hard, I would have passed the test.
Laila wishes that she had studied medical.

 It is used to replace simple past tense and present perfect tense in Indirect/Reported
speech if the main verb is said.
EX: Ali said, “I loved cricket”. (Ali said that he had loved cricket.)
Laila said, “I have played tennis”. (Laila said that she had played tennis)

 It is use to show an action that completed and that never happened again in the past.
EX: Ali had finished university.
Laila had broken her engagement.

 Sometimes simple past and past perfect tense almost have the same meaning without a
specific point of time.
EX: We had finished building the house.
We finished building the house.

Past perfect continuous tense

Structures: Subject + had + been + verb (ing) + ROTS. (Positive)
Subject + had + not + been + verb (ing) + ROTS. (Negative)
Had + subject + been + verb (ing) + ROTS +? (Interrogative)
Hadn’t+ subject+ been+ verb (ing) + ROTS +? (Neg. Interrogative American)
Had+ subject+ not+ been+ verb(ing) + ROTS+? (Neg. Interrogative British)

It is used in the following cases:

 It is used to emphasize the duration of an action that was in progress before another
action or time in the past. Or two actions happened in the past, but one before another.
Note: First or earlier action is shown by past perfect continuous tense. Second or later
action is shown by simple past tense.
 47-87
Structures:
 After + subject + had + verb (ing) + since/for+ ROTC+, + subject+ verb2+ ROTS.
Subject + verb2 + ROTS + after + subject + had + verb (ing) + since/for + ROTC.
EX: After we had been studying for one month, some students got admissions.
The rescuer came to after our house has been collapsing for three hours.

 Before/when/by the time + subject + verb2 + ROTC+, + subject + had + been+

verb (ing) + since/for + ROTS.
Subject + had + been + verb (ing) + since/for + ROTS + before/when/by the
time + subject + verb2 + ROTC.
EX: Before we went to Afghanistan, we had been living in Pakistan for 20 tears.
Ali had been teaching at KELC for five years when he resigned.
By the time my father came home at 8:00 pm, I had been sleeping since
5:00pm.

 It is used to show an action that was in progress, but stopped very recently to
another action or time in the past.
EX: Laila’s hear was wet when she came home. (She had been swimming)
Ali’s eyes were red. (He had been crying)

 It is used to replace past continuous tense and present perfect continuous tense in
Indirect/Reported speech if the main verb is said.
EX: Laila said, “I have been living in Pakistan”.
(Laila said that she had been living in Pakistan)
Laila said, “I was living in Pakistan”.
(Laila said that she had been living in Pakistan)

FUTURE TENSES AND THEIR CATEGORIES

Simple future tense
Structures: Subject + will/shall + verb1 + RTOS. (Positive)
Subject + will/shall + not + verb1 + RTOS. (Negative)
Will/shall + subject + verb1 + ROTS +? (Interrogative)
Won’t/shan’t + subject + verb1+ ROTS +? (Neg. Interrogative American)
Will/shall + subject + not + verb1 + ROTS +? (Neg. Interrogative British)

It can also be indicated by Be Going To.

Structures:
Subject + is, am, are + going to + verb1 + ROTS. (Positive)
Subject + is, am, are + not + going to + verb1 + ROTS. (Negative)
Is, am, are + subject + going to + verb1 + ROTS +? (Interrogative)
Isn’t, aren’t + subject + going to + verb1 + ROTS +? (Neg. Interrogative American)
Is, am, are + subject + not + going to + verb1 + ROTS +? (Neg. Interrogative British)

Using will to talk about future:

It is used in the following cases:

 It is widely used word to form the future forms of lexical verbs.
EX: We will go to Islamabad tomorrow.
Laila will attend her classes next week.
 48-87

 It is used to talk about those actions about which we have little certainty that would
happen because there is no evidence for it.
EX: We will finish this class this week.
Some students will pass the test.

 It is more formal than be going to and commoner than shall with all subjects in
both American and British English to talk about weak actions.
EX: We will go to Afghanistan next weak.
She will get healthy soon.

 It is used to talk about those actions whose decisions are made at the moment of
speaking.
EX: We will have a test tomorrow.
My father will buy a car this Sunday.

 It is used to talk about promise and determination.

EX: I will return your money tomorrow.
The soldiers will fight up to the last moment.

 It is used to talk about willingness and won’t is used to talk about unwillingness.
EX: I will help you in house construction.
Laila will not come to your wedding party.

Using shall to talk about future:

It is used in the following cases:

 It is also used to form the future form of lexical verbs and it is used
chiefly and standard in British English with I and We .
Note: In American English shall can be used with all subjects, but it is less
common than will.
EX: We shall finish this class by the end of this month.
I shall study in a university next year.

 It is used as the tag questions for let’s.

EX: Let’s go to the park, shall we?
Let’s go swimming, shall we?

 It is sometimes used to show determination as a behavior word than will.

EX: We shall fight and win this time.
I shall finish my university.

 It is used in questions to make suggestions for doing something.

EX: Shall we go to the party tonight?
Shall we play tennis?

 It is used in very formal English to show a formal order and regulation.

EX: The students shan’t talk in the library.
The derivers shall follow the traffic rules and laws.

Using be going to talk about future:

It is used in the following cases:

 49-87
 Sometimes be going to is used as a stronger or heavier word than will and shall to
form the future form of lexical verbs.
EX: I am going to Kabul on Sunday.
The students are going to write their homework.

 It is used to talk about prior plans or those plans whose decisions are made in the
past, but they are only reported now.
EX: We are going to buy a house this month.
Laila is going to get married this Sunday.

 It is used to talk about those actions about which we have certainty that would
happen because there is evidence for it.
EX: The party is going to be as interesting as it was last month.
The stadium is going to be full of audiences this weak as it was last weak.

 It is used to talk about someone’s intentions and predictions.

EX: Ali is going to buy a new car next weak.
The weather is cloudy it is going to be rain today.

 It is used to talk about an action that will happen in the fairly immediately or near
future.
EX: We are going to study Active and Passive voice.
The meeting is going to start in five minutes.

Future continuous/future progressive tense

Structures:
Subject + will/shall + be + verb(ing) + ROTS. (Positive)
Subject + will/shall + not + be + verb(ing) + ROTS. (Negative)
Will/shall + Subject + be + verb(ing) + ROTS +? (Interrogative)
Won’t/shan’t + Subject + be + verb(ing) + ROTS +? (Neg. Interrogative American)
Will/shall + Subject + not + be + verb(ing) + ROTS +? (Neg. Interrogative British)

It is also indicated by Be Going To.

Structures:
Subject + is, am, are + going to + be + verb (ing) + ROTS. (Positive)
Subject + is, am, are + not + going to + be + verb (ing) + ROTS. (Negative)
Is, am, are + subject + going to + be + verb (ing) + ROTS +? (Interrogative)
Isn’t, aren’t+ subject+ going to+ be+ verb (ing) + ROTS+? (Neg. Interrogative American)
Is, am, are+ subject+ not+ going to+ be+ verb (ing) + ROTS+? (Neg. Interrogative British)

It is used in the following cases:

 It is used to show an action that will be in progress at a particular time in the future.
EX: We will be studying a new topic tomorrow at 7:00 am.
Ali will be helping his father tonight.
Note: The time at which it is started is not the starting point, but it is the
continuation point.

 It is used to show an action that is already planned or decided to take place in the
future.
Note: In this case it has the same meaning as be going to.
EX: Laila will be getting married next month.
I shall be visiting my friends this Sunday.

 It is used to ask about someone’s plans or to ask about something more politely.
 50-87
EX: Will you be coming tonight?
Will you be passing me salt?

 It is used show an action with or without a particular time. That will take place in
the either near or distance future.
EX: I will be joining university.
Laila will be shifting to Kabul in three months.

 It is used to show an action that will be happening in the ordinary or normal course
event
EX: Ali will be going to college after summer holidays
Due to advanced technologies more and more people will be traveling to
space.

Future perfect tense

Structures:
Subject + will/shall + have + verb3 + RTOS. (Positive)
Subject + will/shall + not + have + verb3 + RTOS. (Negative)
Will/shall + subject + have + verb3 + ROTS +? (Interrogative)
Won’t/shan’t + subject + have + verb3+ ROTS +? (Neg. Interrogative American)
Will/shall + subject + not + have + verb3 + ROTS +? (Neg. Interrogative British)

It is used in following case:

 It is used to show an action or situation that will happen before another action or
time in the future. Or it is used to show two actions that will happen in the future, but
one before another.
Note: First or earlier action is shown by future perfect tense. Second or later action is
shown by simple present tense.
Structures: When/before/by the time + subject + verb (s, es, ies) + ROTC +, +
Subject + will/shall + have + verb3 + RTOS.
Subject + will/shall + have + verb3 + RTOS + When/before/by the time +
subject + verb (s, es, ies) + ROTC.
EX: Before I finish my university, I will have gotten married.
We will have finished this class by the time some of your class fellows come.

Future perfect continuous/progressive tense

Structures:
Subject + will/shall + have + been + verb (ing) + RTOS. (Positive)
Subject + will/shall + not + have + been + verb (ing) + RTOS. (Negative)
Will/shall + subject + have + been + verb (ing) + ROTS +? (Interrogative)
Won’t/shan’t+ subject+ have+ been+ verb (ing) + ROTS +? (Neg. Interrogative American)
Will/shall+ subject+ not+ have+ been+ verb (ing) +ROTS+? (Neg. Interrogative British)

It is used in the following case:

 It is used to emphasize the duration of an action that will be in progress before
another action or time in the future. Or it is used to show two actions that will happen
in the future, but
one before another.
Note: First or earlier action is shown by future perfect continuous tense. Second or
later action is shown by simple present tense.
Structures: When/before/by the time + subject + verb (s, es, ies) + ROTC +, +
Subject + will/shall + have + been + verb (ing) + since/for + RTOS.
 51-87
Subject + will/shall + have + been + verb (ing) + since/for + RTOS +
When/before/by the time + subject + verb (s, es, ies) + ROTC.
EX: We will have been living in Pakistan for 25 years, by the time we go to Kabul.
Before you come back, I will have been teaching for three hours.
I will have been waiting for Ali since 7:00pm by the time he comes.
(I will go to Ali’s home at 7:00pm. He will come at 9:00pm.)

SENTENCE
The origin
It is derived from a Latin word “Sententia” which means a thought or an opinion.

Definition
A group of words that containing a subject and a verb and giving a complete meaning or sense is
called sentence.

The following words are used as a subject of a sentence:

 Nouns
EX: Ali is good teacher.
N

 Pronouns
EX: They are playing cricket.
Pro

 Gerund
EX: Praying five times is our major duty.
Gerund

 Infinitive
EX: To love your job is important.
Infinitive

 Adjective as a noun
EX: The richers are getting richer.
Adj as noun
The olds can’t walk as they could.
Adj as noun

 Phrase
EX: A friend in need is a friend’s in deed.
Phrase

 Noun clause
EX: That Allah is one is a fact.
N. clause

Rules of an English sentence

 There should be at least one subject and one verb.
 52-87
 The sentence should be properly capitalized and punctuated.
 There should be equal spaces among the words your sentence.
 Two parts o one sentence or two sentences should go together logically.
 The sentence should be grammatically correct.
 The sentence should be proofread to equal mistakes.

Subject and predicate of an English sentence

 Subject: The person, place or thing about whom or which we talk is called subject.

Kinds of subject
 Simple subject
 Complete subject

 Simple subject:
It is a one word subject about whom or which we talk.
EX: Afghanistan is beautiful country.
S. subject
Ali is an intelligent student.
S. subject

 Complete subject:
It is the simple subject along with some other words that come before or after it.
EX: Most of the students from different parts of Afghanistan are studying hard.
Complete subject

Predicate
A part of a sentence talking about the subject is called predicate.

Kinds of predicate
 Simple predicate
 Complete predicate

 Simple predicate:
It is one word that talks about the subject.
EX: Ali plays cricket everyday.
S. pred

 Complete predicate:
It is the simple predicate along with some other words that directly come after it.
EX: Ali works in Habib Bank in Peshawar branch.
Complete predicate

Note: There can be compound subjects and compound predicates.

EX: Ali and Mahmood go and come together to school.
Comp. subjects Comp. predicates

Three important topics

 Major kinds of sentence/Sentences according to the meaning.
 Classification of sentence/Sentences from structural point of view.
 Minor kinds of sentence/Sentences according to the placement.
 53-87

Major kinds of sentence

 Assertive/Declarative sentence
 Interrogative sentence
 Imperative sentence
 Exclamatory sentence
 Optative sentence
 Absolute segment sentence

 Assertive/Declarative sentence:
A sentence that state a fact and ends with a full stop is called assertive sentence.
EX: We are in grammar class.

 Interrogative sentence:
A sentence that is used to ask questions and ends with a question mark is called
interrogative sentence.
EX: Are you a teacher?

 Imperative sentence:
A sentence that is used to give orders, commands, directions, instructions, advice
and request and ends with full stop is called interrogative sentence.

Note: In imperative sentences the subject is not used, but it is understood to be

“You”.
EX: Bring a glass of water.

 Exclamatory sentence:
A sentence that is used to show some sudden feelings of mind and emotion or
surprise and ends with an exclamation mark (!) is called imperative sentence.
EX: Hurrah, we won the match.

 Optative sentence:
A sentence that is used to show a wish or a prayer and ends with a full stop is called
optative sentence.
EX: Wish you best of luck.
May you live long.

 Absolute segment sentence:

A sentence that does not have subject and verb, but gives us a complete meaning is
called absolute segment sentence.
EX: Congratulations.
Thanks.
All right.

Classification of sentence
 Simple sentence
 Compound sentence
 Complex sentence
 Complex compound/Double sentence

 Simple sentence:
A sentence that has only one main or independent clause is called simple sentence.
 54-87
EX: Ali is a boy.
Laila plays tennis.

 Compound sentence:
A sentence that has two main clauses without any dependent clause is called
compound sentence.
Structures:
Main clause +; + main clause
Main clause +, + co-ordinate conjunction + main clause
EX: I was sick; I went to the doctor.
I was sick, so I went to the doctor.

 Complex sentence:
A sentence that has only one main clause and one or two dependent clauses is called
complex sentence.

Structures:
Main clause + adjective clause
EX: I know the man whom you are talking about.
M. clause adj. clause
Main clause + adverb clause
EX: We can’t leave this class until the bell rings.
M. clause adv. clause
Main clause + noun clause
EX: I don’t know what you are talking about.
M. clause noun clause
Main clause + adjective clause + adverb clause
EX: Because the restaurant where eat dinner was closed, we went to another
restaurant.
Main clause + adjective clause + noun clause
EX: I don’t know where the place is that you are talking about.
Main clause + adverb clause + noun clause
EX: If what he says is true, we should help him.

 Complex compound/Double sentence:

A sentence that has two main clauses and only one dependent clause is called
complex compound or double sentence.
Structures:
Main clause + Main clause + dependent clause
EX: While I was going to Sadder, I met one of my old friends, so I asked him to
have lunch with me.
The teacher who teaches us English was absent, so we decided to back home.

Minor kinds of sentence

 Loose sentence
 Periodic sentence
 Balance sentence
 Inverted sentence

 Loose sentence:
A sentence that has the main clause before modifier and has a complete meaning
without modifier is called loose sentence.
Structure: Main clause + modifier
EX: We will pass the test, if we study hard.
 55-87

 Periodic sentence:
A sentence that has modifier before the main clause and it is not complete till or
near the end is called periodic sentence.
Structure: Modifier + main clause
EX: If you study hard, you will pass the test.

 Balance sentence:
A sentence that has two main clauses combined by semi colon (;) or comma (,) +
co-ordinate conjunction is called balance sentence.
EX: I was sick; I went to the doctor.
I was sick, so I went to the doctor.

 Inverted sentence:
A sentence that has the main verb or the auxiliary verb before the subject is called
inverted sentence.
EX: Are you a teacher?
There goes the bus.

CLAUSE
The origin
It is derived from a Latin word “clausa” or “claudere” which means to close.

Definition
A group of words containing a subject and a verb is called clause. OR when smaller sentences are
combined to make a larger sentence is called clause.
Note: It has the same structure as a sentence, but t is a part of a larger sentence. It is important part of a
sentence. It, in fact, is a sentence within a sentence.

Difference between sentence and clause

No. Clause No.

1. It is longer than a sentence. 1. It is shorter than a clause.
2. It usually gives a complete 2. It always gives a complete meaning.
meaning.
3. It forms the structure of a 3. It has clause and almost its structure.
sentence.

Kinds of clause
There are two kinds of clause.
 Independent/Complete/Matrix/Chief/Principle clause.
 Dependent/Subordinate/Incomplete clause.

Independent/Complete/Matrix/Chief/Principle clause
It is a complete sentence containing subject and a verb. It gives a complete meaning
independently and does not need to be combined to any other clause for a complete
 56-87
meaning.

Kinds of independent clause

There are two kinds of independent clause.
 Main clause
 Co-ordinate clause

 Main clause:
It is a subject + verb combination that is used to complete the meaning of dependent
clause.
EX: Ali goes to KELC everyday.

 Co-ordinate clause
Two main clauses combined by co-ordinate conjunction is co-ordinate clause.
EX: I was sick, so I went to the doctor.

Dependent/Subordinate/Incomplete clause
It is not a complete sentence although it has subject and verb. It does not give a
complete meaning independently and has to be combined to a main clause for a
complete meaning.
Structure: Marker + subject + verb + ROTC.
EX: If she studies hard.
While I was teaching.

Kinds of dependent clause

 Adjective clause
 Adverb clause
 Noun clause

Adjective clause
A subject + verb structure functioning the same as an adjective in a sentence is
called adjective clause. Or a group of words containing a subject and a verb and
serving the same function as an adjective in a sentence is called adjective clause.
Key points:
 It is also called relative clause.
 It is not used in interrogative structures.
 It should be made from the second sentence.
 It should always be placed as close as possible to antecedent/head noun/modified
noun and referent.
 It modifies noun and pronoun in the main clause and sometimes the whole main
clause.

Markers/Connecters/Linkers and Introducers of adjective clause

There are three kinds of markers of adjective clause.
 Relative/Connective pronouns. (Who, whom, which and that)
 Relative adjective or determiner. (Whose)
 Relative adverbs. (Where and when)
 57-87

Cases of relative pronouns in adjective clause

There are three cases.
 Subjective/Nominative case
 Objective/Accusative case
 Dative/Oblique case

 Subjective/Nominative case
In this case the pronouns are used as a subject of a verb in adjective clause.
Structure: Who//which/that + verb + ROTC.
EX: The teacher who teaches at KELC is my best friend.

 Objective/Accusative case:
In this the pronouns are used as the object of a verb in adjective clause.
Structure: Who/whom/which/that + subject + verb + ROTC.
Note: In objective case the relative pronouns can be deleted, but very informally.
Note: When relative pronouns are deleted, the adjective clause is called Zero,
Contact and unmarked adjective clause.
EX: Some animals which people are killing now and then are falling in extinction.

 Dative/Oblique case:
In this case the pronouns are used as the object of preposition.
Structure:
Preposition + whom/which + subject + verb + ROTC (Formal)
EX: Ali thanks the people from whom he received the gifts.
Whom, who, which, that, O + subject + verb + preposition + ROTC (Informal)
EX: Ali thanks the people whom he received the gifts.

Places of formal and informal of relative pronouns

Embedded and unembedded adjective clause

Embedded adjective clause: When the antecedent is used as a subject then the
adjective clause is called embedded adjective clause.
Structure: Subject + adjective clause + verb + ROTS.
EX: The book which is mine is on the table.
Sub adj. clause V ROTS

Unembedded adjective clause:

When the antecedent is used as an object then the adjective clause is called unembedded adjective
clause.
Structure: Subject + verb + object + adjective clause
EX: I know the girl who studies a lot.
Sub V object adj. clause
 58-87

Relative adjective or determiner (Whose)

Key points:
 It is used to show possession or ownership.
 It is always connected to a noun structure (Whose + noun).
 It can not be deleted or replaced.
 It replaces possessive adjective in the second sentence.
 It is used for people, things and animals.
Structure: Whose + noun + (subject) + verb + ROTC.
EX: The boy whose father someone killed is crying.
We watched the house whose rooms are too small.

Relative adverbs (Where and when)

 Using Where:
Key points:
 It modifies a place or location in the adjective clause.
 If where is used no preposition is required.
 If where is not used the prepositions in, on and at are used but only before which.
Structures:
Where + subject + verb + ROTC (Very formal
In, at, on + which + subject + verb + ROTC (Formal)

EX: The building where my grand parents lived is old.

The building in which my grand parents lived is old.
The building which my grand parents lived in is old.
The building that my grand parents lived in is old.
The building my grant parents lived in is old.

Using When
Key points:
 It modifies a noun of time in the adjective clause.
 It can be deleted.
 If when is used no preposition is required.
 If when is not used the prepositions on and at are used but only before which.
Structures:
When + subject + verb + ROTC (Very formal)
On, at + which + subject + verb + ROTC

EX: I dislike Sundays when many guests come.

I dislike Sundays on which many guests come.
I dislike Sundays that many guests come.
I dislike Sundays many guests come.
 59-87
Adjective clause with noun + of which
Key points:
 This structure is formally written of which + noun.
 This structure is used only for things.
 This structure has the same function as whose.
 We separate this by a comma (s) from the main clause.
Structure: of which + noun/noun + of which + verb + ROTC.
EX: Laila is writing a book, the name of which is fire at the Ritz.
My car is imported from America, of which the gearshift is automatic.

Punctuation of adjective clauses

There are three kinds of adjective clause according to punctuation.
 Restrictive/Descriptive/Identifying/Modifying/Defining/Essential adjective clause.
 Non-restrictive/Non-descriptive/Non-identifying/Non-modifying/Non defining /
Non-essential adjective clause
 Connective/Sentential adjective clause

Restrictive adjective clause

This kind of adjective clause is used to give essential or important information about
the antecedent and it is important to identify the antecedent.
Key points:
 It is followed by a common antecedent.
EX: The students who are in grammar class are from Afghanistan.
 It is never set off by a comma (s) from the main clause.
 It is used in daily informal spoken English.
 All pronouns are formally and informally used.
 Deletion of pronouns is possible in objective case.
 Essential information can not be deleted because clarity is lost.
 It is used to talk about some of a group with plural antecedent.
EX: The students who come late will be charged.
 It is used to mean more than one with a singular antecedent.
EX: The car that is parked outside is Ali’s.

Non-Restrictive adjective clause

This kind of adjective clause is used to give extra or additional information about
the antecedent and it is not important to identify the antecedent.
Key points:
 It is followed by a proper antecedent.
EX: Fardin Safi, who is manager of KELC, is my best friend.
 It is set off by a comma (s) from the main clause.
 It is used in daily formal written English.
 All pronouns are used except (that) but only formally.
 Deletion of pronouns is impossible even in objective or dative case.
 Extra information can be deleted because clarity is not lost.
 It is used to talk about a whole/complete group with a plural antecedent.
EX: The students, who come late, will be charged.
 It is used to mean only one with a singular antecedent.
EX: The car, which is parked outside, is Ali’s.
 60-87
Connective/Sentential adjective
This kind of adjective is used to continue the idea expressed in the main clause and
in this kind of adjective clause the antecedent is whole main clause.
Note: Which modifies the idea of a whole sentence and it replaces This and That.
Structure: Main clause +, + which + (subject) + verb + ROTC
EX: Ali died last night. This made all of us sad.
Ali died last night, which made all of us sad.
Laila sent me flowers to hospital. I really appreciate that.
Laila sent me flowers to hospital, which I really appreciate.

Using expression of quantity in adjective clause

There are some expressions of quantity followed by of that are used in adjective
clause. And these expressions of quantity are followed which, whom, and whose.
Note: A comma (s) are primarily used to set off the adjective clause form the main
clause.
Structures: Of+ whom/which/whose+ expression of quantity+ subject+ verb+ ROTC
Expression of quantity+ of+ whom/which/whose+ subject+ verb+ ROTC
EX: Ali has two brothers. One of them is a doctor.
Ali has two brothers, of whom one is a doctor.
Ali has two brothers, one of whom is a doctor.
She tried on six pairs of shoes. She liked none of them.
She tried on six pairs of shoes, none of which she liked.
She tried on six pairs of shoes, of which none she liked
We all discussed Ahmad. Some of his habits are unacceptable.
We all discussed Ahmad, some of whose habits are unacceptable.
We all discussed Ahmad, of whose some habits are unacceptable.

Reduction of adjective clause into adjective phrase

An adjective phrase is the reduction of adjective clause which modifies a noun. It is also called reduced
adjective clause. Adjective clause can be changed into adjective phrase under one condition and that is
subjective case.
Structure: Who//which/that + verb + ROTC.

How to reduce adjective clause into adjective phrase

Key points:
 Delete the relative pronouns (Who, which, that) that are the markers and subjects
of the main clause.
 Delete all the forms of to be verbs if used in adjective clause.
 Change the active main verb into its (ing) form.
 No change will occur in a passive main verb.
 Use having + verb3 that is called perfect participle for changing perfect tenses.
EX: Afghanistan, which is located in the heart of Asia, is our homeland.
Afghanistan, located in the heart of Asia, is our homeland.
We live in a house that consists of five rooms.
We live in a house consisting of five rooms.

The story that is about Afghanistan is written by Ahmad.

The story about Afghanistan is written by Ahmad.
The movie that has been telecasted is about fight.
The movie having been telecasted is about fight.
The city that was destroyed by flood is going to be reconstructed.
The city destroyed by flood is going to be reconstructed.
Anyone who does not want to come should stay home.
 61-87
Anyone not wanting to come should stay home

Adjective clauses that modify pronouns

The pronouns that the adjective clauses modify are of two types.
 Subject pronouns
 Indefinite pronouns

Subject pronouns
Sometimes an adjective clause is used to modify a subject pronoun and that is
possible in cleft sentences.
Structure: It + is/was + subject pronoun + adjective clause.
EX: It was he who helped us in difficult time.
It is you who always come late.

Indefinite pronouns
Sometimes an adjective clause is used to modify an indefinite pronoun and that is
possible in cleft sentences.
Structure: Indefinite pronoun + adjective clause.
EX: Those who come late will be charged.
One who respects her parents in his or her life will succeed.

Adverb clause
A subject + verb structure functioning the same as an adverb in a sentence is
called adverb clause. Or a group of words containing a subject and a verb and
serving the same function as an adverb in a sentence is called adverb clause.
Key points:
 It is also called adverbial clause.
 It is a dependent clause and it should be used with a main clause.
 It modifies an adjective, a verb and another adverb in the main clause.
 It is not used in interrogative structures.
 It disallows the usage of future tense.
 It is introduced by subordinate conjunctions.
 It can be used before or after the main clause.
Structures: Marker + subject + verb + ROTC +, + subject + verb + ROTS.
Subject + verb + ROTS + marker + subject + verb + ROTC.

Kinds of adverb clause

 Adverb clause of time
 Adverb clause of place
 Adverb clause of cause and effect
 Adverb clause of purpose
 Adverb clause of condition
 Adverb clause of contrast
 Adverb clause of manner
 Adverb clause of opposition
 62-87
Adverb clause of time
This kind of adverb clause is used to show the time relationship.It is introduced by the following
markers:

After, before, when, till, until, as, while, as soon as, once, as long as, so long as, since, by the time,
whenever, the first time, the last time and the next time.

When:
It means at that time and it can be used with both past and present tenses.
EX: When I go to college, I will meet her.
When Ali came, I was watching a movie.

After:
It means after that period and it can be used with simple present tense to give future meaning or it
can be used with past perfect tense.
EX: After I eat lunch, I will attend the class.
He got a job after he had graduated from the university.

Before:
It means before that period and it can be used with simple present or simple past tenses.
EX: I will get married before I graduate.
Before he came to class, he had written his homework.

Till/until:
They both mean up to that time and they can be used with simple present or simple past tense.
EX: I have to stay here until he comes.
We will be in the class till the bell rings.

While/As:
They both mean during that time and they can be used with past continuous tense.
EX: While I was playing cricket, it started to rain.
As I was playing cricket, it started to rain.

As soon as/Once:
They both mean immediately after and they can be used with simple present, simple past, past perfect
and present perfect tenses.
EX: As soon as I saw the fire, I called the firefighter.
Once she graduates, she will arrange a party.
He called the police as soon as he had seen the robbers.
As long as/So long as:
They both mean during all that time from the beginning to end and they can be used with simple
present and simple past tenses.
EX: You won’t come to KELC as long as I am at KELC.
I didn’t not meet her so long as I lived in Pakistan.
Since:
It means from that time and it can be used with present perfect, past perfect present perfect
progressive and past perfect progressive tenses.
EX: I have worked at KELC since I graduate from school.
She has visited many places since she came to Peshawar.

By the time:
It means before and it can be used with past perfect and future perfect tenses.
EX: By the time Ali comes to class, we will have finished Gerund and Infinitive.
I had watched a movie by the time the power failure happened.
 63-87
The first time/the second time/the last time
They all mean that specific time and they all show particular time.
EX: The first time I went to America I visited a lot beautiful places.
The next time she met me I liked her.
The last time I went to Afghanistan I met Laila.

Adverb clause of place

This kind of adverb is used to show place relationship.
It is introduced by the following markers:
Where and wherever
EX: Where you tell me, I will come.
You can go wherever you want to go.

Adverb clause of cause and effect

This kind of adverb clause is used to show the cause and effect relationship.
It is introduced by the following markers:
Because, since, as, as long as, so long as, and inasmuch as.
Note: They all mean because.
EX: She was tired since she went to bed early.
Inasmuch as I was sick, I didn’t go to the class.

EX: As long as he was too short, he was not selected as a teacher.

The students were punished, so they didn’t write their homework.
He was lazy. Therefore, he failed the test.
Because of the rain, she didn’t go to her office.

Showing cause and effect with so...that and such…that

 So…that:
So is an adverb of degree. It makes the meaning of an adjective or adverb stronger.
So…that combines the cause clause with the effect or result clause.
It can be formed by the following structures.
 So + adjective + that
EX: Ali is so intelligent that he can top his class.
 So + adverb + that
EX: She dances so beautifully that no one wants to stop watching her.
 So + adjective + a/an + singular count noun + that
EX: Mahmood is so polite a boy that all his teachers like him.
 So + many/few + plural count noun + that
EX: She has so few friends that sometimes she feels lonely.
Ali studied so many pages that he can easily attempt 10 questions.
 So + much/little + non-count noun + that
 64-87
EX: Pakistan has so much pollution that everyday you have to go to the doctor.
We have so little time that we can not waste in joking.
 (So) in inversion with all the above structures.
EX: So intelligent is Ali that he can top his class.
So beautifully does she dance that no one wants to stop watching her.
So polite a boy is Mahmood that all his teachers like him.
So few friends does she have that sometimes she feels lonely.
So much pollution does Pakistan have that everyday you have to go the doctor.

 Such…that:
Such is a pre-determiner adjective. It modifies a modified noun.
Such…that combines the cause clause with effect or result clause.
It can be formed by the following structures.
 Such + a/an + singular count noun + that
EX: Ali is such a clever boy that his father is proud of him.
 Such + adjective + plural count noun + that
EX: KELC has such committed teachers that their productivity and profitability is
high.
 Such + adjective + non-count noun + that
EX: It is such hot coffee that I can’t drink at once.
 Such+ (a/an)+ (adjective)+ singular count noun/plural count noun/ non count +
that
EX: You are such a fool that all laugh at you.
They are such boys that they will reach to higher and higher position.

 (Such) in inversion with all the above structures.

EX: Such a clever boy is Ali that his father is proud of him.
Such committed teachers does KELC have that their productivity and
profitability is high.
Such hot coffee is it that I can’t drink at once.
Such a fool you are you that all laugh at you.
Such boys are they that they will reach to higher and higher position.

Adverb clause of purpose

This kind of adverb clause is used to indicate the purpose of an action.
It is introduced by the following markers:
So (that) and (in order) that
Structures:
So (that)/ (in order) that+ subject+ present tense/can/will/may+ verb1 + ROTC +
subject + present tense + ROTS
EX: We come to KELC so that we learn English.
So (that)/ (in order) that+ subject+ past tense+ could/would/might+ verb1+ ROTC+
subject + past tense + ROTS
EX: Last night I went to home early in order that I could sleep early.
Note: It possible but less common to use so that or in order that at beginning.
EX: So that Ali buys mobile, he goes to Bazaar.
In order that the food wouldn’t spoil, she put it in the refrigerator.

Adverb clause of condition

This kind of adverb clause is used to show a real or unreal condition.
It is introduced by the following markers:
If, unless, even if, whether…or not, in the event that, in case that, providing that,
 65-87
provided that and only if.

If: It is used to indicate a real or unreal condition.

EX: If I were a girl, I would marry you.
If you study hard, you will get first position.

Unless:
It is used to indicate the negative meaning of a sentence. It means if not or except if. If + negative verb
equals to unless + positive verb.
EX: Unless you have money, I will leave you.

Even if:
It is used to indicate that a particular condition does not matter; the result will be the same.
EX: Even if it rains, we will go on picnic.

Whether…or not:
It is used to indicate neither this condition nor that condition matter; the result will be the same.
EX: Whether you come or not, I will arrange a party.

In the event that/In case that:

They are used to indicate that something or condition won’t take place, but it might.
EX: You can call me on this number in the event that you have any problems.

Providing that/provided that and only if:

They are used to indicate the idea that there is only one condition that will cause a
particular result.
EX: Providing that you have no questions, we will conclude the class.
Note: Inversion is possible with only if.
EX: Only if I study, will I pass the test.

Kinds of if clause
There are five kinds of if clause.
 Open/real/true/ or natural conditional clause
 Untrue/unnatural/imaginary/ or improbable conditional clause
 Zero conditional clause
 Unfulfilled/counterfactual/ or hypothetical conditional clause
 Mixed time conditional clause

 Open conditional clause:

It is used to show a real meaning in the present or future.
Structure: If + subject + simple present tense + ROTC +, + subject +
can/will/may + verb1 + ROTS
EX: If it rains, we will not play cricket.

 Untrue conditional clause:

It is used to show an unreal meaning in the present or future.
Structure: If + subject+ simple past tense + ROTC +, + subject + would/could/
might + verb1 + ROTS
EX: If Ali had money, he would buy a car.

 Zero conditional clause:

It is used to show an automatic or habitual result.
Structure: If + subject + simple present tense + ROTC +, + simple present tense
+ ROTS
 66-87
EX: If Ahmad wants to exercise, he runs a mile or swims.

 Unfulfilled conditional clause:

It is used to show an unreal meaning in the past.
Structure: If + subject + past perfect tense + ROTC +, + would/could/might +
have + verb3
EX: If Laila had not told lie, she would not have lost her job.

 Mixed time conditional clause:

It is used to show an unreal meaning in the present or past.
Structure: If + subject + past perfect tense + ROTC +, + would/could/might +
have + verb1
EX: If Ali had gotten married last year, he would have a son now.
If I had eaten lunch, I would not be hungry now.

Adverb clause of contrast

This kind of adverb clause is used to show either a direct or indirect contrast
between main clause.

Kinds of adverb clause of contrast

There are two kinds of adverb clause of contrast
 Direct contrast
 Indirect contrast

 Direct contrast:
In direct contrast we indicate that this is directly the opposite of that.
It can be shown by the following ways.

EX: While Ali is rich, Laila is poor.

Whereas Pakistan is hot, Afghanistan is cold.
Ali is tall, but mahmood is short.
She studied hard. However, she failed the test.

 Indirect contrast:
It is used to indicate an indirect contrast between main clause and adverb clause.
Moreover, it shows an unexpected result.
It can be shown by the following ways.
 67-87

EX: Although I didn’t study, I passed the test.

Even though she told the truth, no one believed her.
I didn’t study hard; but/yet I still got first position.
I didn’t study hard, but I got first position anyway.
Ali is too sick. Nonetheless, he comes to his classes.

Adverb clause of manner

This kind of adverb clause is used to show how someone does something or how
something is done to someone.
It is introduced by the following markers:
As if and as though
Structures:
As if/as though + present or future tense (For real situations in the present time)
EX: She talks as if she will never come.
As if/as though + past tense (For unreal situations in the present time)
EX: You order me as though you were my father.
As if/as though + past perfect tense (For unreal situations in the past time)
EX: She looks as if she failed the test.

Adverb clause of comparison

This kind of adverb clause is used to show contrast and similarity between persons,
places and things.
It is introduced by the following markers:
As and than
EX: He works as hard as Ali does.
He works as hard as does Ali.
He works as hard as Ali works.
Liala runs faster than Ali does.

Reduction of adverb clause into adverb or modifying phrase

An adverb phrase is the reduction of adverb clause which modifies the subject of
main clause.
Key points:
 The subject of adverb clause and the main clause should be the same.
 After the reduction the subject of main clause is responsible for all the actions.
 Reduction is possible if these markers are used such as after, before, since, when,
while and because.
 After, before and since are used in both clause and phrase.
 When is changed into upon or on in adverb phrase.
 While is optional in adverb phrase.
 Because is deleted in adverb phrase.
 Sometimes reduction is possible even if the subjects of adverb clause and main
 68-87
clauses are different
Note: If the subjects are different and reduction is made, it is called dangling, hanging,
unattached and irreverent modifier and we avoid using dangling modifier.
EX: While driving, a dog came in front of her car.

How to reduce adverb clause into adverb or phrase

Key points:
 Delete the subject of adverb clause.
 Delete all the forms of to be verbs if used in adverb clause.
 Change the active main verb into its (ing) form.
 No change will occur in a passive main verb.
 Use having + verb3 that is called perfect participle for changing perfect tenses.
 If only (is, am, are) are used in adverb clause change them into being.

EX: Before he went to school, he ate breakfast.

Before going to school, he ate breakfast.
Since she came here, she has met many friends.
Since coming here, she has met many friends.
Ali went to Kabul after he had finished his university.
Ali went to Kabul after finishing his university.
While the teacher was teaching, he explained the lessons well.
While teaching, he explained the lessons well.
We will go to Afghanistan when we finish our work.
We will go to Afghanistan upon finishing our work.
Because I am sick, I can not go to the classes.
Being sick, I can not go to the classes.
After Ali failed the test, he had not studied hard.
After failing the test, he had not studied hard.
She left her room after she was beaten.
She left her room after beaten.

Noun clause
A subject + verb structure that functions the same as a noun in a sentence is called
noun clause. Or a group of words containing a subject and a verb functioning the
same as a noun is called noun clause.
Key points:
 It is also called nominal clause.
 It is introduced by subordinate conjunctions and there three classes.
 That: It is used for positive and negative statements.
 If/whether: They are used for yes/no questions.
 W.H words: They are used for W.H questions.
 It is not used in interrogative structures.
 Inversion is not allowed in noun clause.
 Positive to do auxiliary verbs (do/does/did) are not used in noun clause.

Note: Noun clause is used when we want to give more details or to make a more
exclamatory sentence.
Structures: Marker + subject + verb + ROTC
Marker + verb + ROTC
 69-87
Cases of noun clause
 As a subject of a verb:
EX: His story was boring.
Subject
What he has written was boring.
Noun clause host clause

 As the object of a verb:

EX: I don’t like your story.
Object
I don’t like what you have written.
Host clause Noun clause

 As the object of a preposition:

EX: She tired of your story.
Pre object
She is tired of what you have written.
Host clause Noun clause

 As the complement of Be:

EX: This is your story.
Be Complement
This is what you have written.
Host clause Noun clause

 As the object of complement:

EX: I told Ali the story.
Obj complement
I told Ali what you have written.
Host clause Noun clause

 As the adjectival complement:

EX: She is happy that I came back.
It is important that you not cheat.

 Appositive case:
EX: The reason, why she left the center, is not clear.
The questions, that I asked yesterday, were not answered.

Reduction of noun clause into noun or infinitive phrase

Some noun clauses that begin with W.H words can be changed into noun phrase.
Key points:
 It can be changed into noun phrase if the noun clause is used as the object of a verb
or as object of complement.
 It can be changed into noun phrase if the subject of main clause and noun clause
are the same.

How to change noun clause into noun phrase

Key points:
 Delete the subject of noun clause.
 Delete the auxiliary verbs if used any.
 Change the verb into full infinitive form.
EX: She does not know what she should in this country.
She does not know what to do in this country.
 70-87
I asked him where I can go on Sunday.
I asked him where to go on Sunday.
I don’t know when I should leave for Kabul.
I don’t know when to leave for Kabul.

Gerund and Infinitive

Gerund
The origin
It is derived from a Latin word “Gerere” which means to do or to perform something.

Definition
It is a word ending with the ing form of a verb that has the force of a verb and a noun, so it is also
called verbal noun.

Note:
It is basically a verb in its ing form, but functions as a noun. It is a noun that shows an action or
names of an action. It is most often singular, so it requires the pronoun it.
EX: She likes swimming. It is a good exercise.
But sometimes gerund has a plural form, so it requires the pronoun they.
EX: I like writings of Shakespeare. They are about love, piece and sympathy.

Different functions of verb ing

It can function in five ways.
 As a verb:
EX: The baby is crying.

 As a noun:
EX: She hates crying.

 As an adjective:
EX: She hates crying babies.

 As an adverb:
EX: Inzamam-ul-haq left the ground crying.

 As a preposition:
EX: You can ask our manager concerning our new production.

Some structures of verb ing

 Verb ing + noun/adverb/prepositional phrase. Makes gerund phrase.
EX: Washing the car is a big problem.
Swimming in the ocean can be dangerous.
 71-87
Driving fast is risky.
 Singular gerund phrase + singular verb
EX: Watching movie is a bad habit.

 Plural gerund phrase + singular verb

EX: Washing the dishes is your duty.

 Gerund + and + gerund + plural verb

EX: Washing the dishes and cleaning the house are girls’ duty.

Usages of Gerund
It can be used in the following cases.
 As a subject of a verb:
EX: Smoking cigar is a bad habit.
Subject

 As the object of a verb:

EX: She loves swimming in the ocean.
Object
 As the object of a preposition:
Note: It can used in three structures.
 Verb + preposition + gerund
EX: Our teacher insists on coming to class on time.
V P G
 Adjective + preposition + gerund
EX: I am tired of teaching English.
Adj P G
 Noun + preposition + gerund
EX: My father is the head of hiring people.
N P G

 As the object of Be:

EX: My desire is helping my nation.
Be obj

 After the adverb (No) to indicate prohibition:

EX: No smoking.
No parking.

 After do/does/did to talk about chores or housework:

EX: My mother does cooking and cleaning.
My father did shopping yesterday.

 As an ordinary word or absolute phrase:

EX: The loving of children deglitches my heart.
Playing soccer is being his habit. We couldn’t play cricket.

Infinitive
The origin
It is derived from a Latin word “Infinitivus” which means unlimited.
 72-87
Definition
To + base form of the verb that functions as a noun is called infinitive.

Note:
It is also called verbal noun. To is called an infinitive marker when it is used before base form of the
verb, but it is a preposition when it is used before gerund or noun.

Different functions of To + base form of the verb

It can function in five ways.
 As a verb:
EX: You must come to class on time.

 As a noun:
EX: To respect elders is my duty.

 As an adjective:
EX: Sadder is the place to buy a mobile.

 As an adverb:
EX: I am happy to see you.

Some structures of To + base form of the verb

 To + base form of the verb + noun/adverb/prepositional phrase. It makes infinitive
phrase.
EX: To wash the car is a big problem.
To swim in the ocean can be dangerous.
To drive fast is risky.
 Singular infinitive phrase + singular verb
EX: To watch movie is a bad habit.

 Plural infinitive phrase + singular verb

EX: To wash the dishes is your duty.

 Infinitive + and + infinitive + plural verb

EX: To wash the dishes and to clean the house are girls’ duty.

Usages of Infinitive
It can be used in the following cases.
 As a subject of a verb:
EX: To respect elders is our major duty.
Subject

 As the object of a verb:

EX: We want to finish the class.
Object
 As the object of a preposition:
Note: It is used after two prepositions except and but.
EX: We have no choice but to study our lessons.

EX: He could not do anything except to cheat his parents.

 As the object of Be:

 73-87
EX: My plan is to go to America.

 As the objective complement:

EX: I encourage my students to study their lessons.
No parking.

 To modify a verb and show a clear purpose:

EX: We come to KELC to learn English.

Kind of Infinitive
There are eight kinds of infinitive.
 Full/absolute/noun infinitive
 Bare/plain infinitive
 Split infinitive
 Abridge/short infinitive
 Compound infinitive
 Complex infinitive
 Perfect infinitive
 Gerundial/qualifying infinitive

 Full infinitive:
This kind of infinitive id formed by to + base form of the verb.
EX: She likes to study computer programming.

 Bare infinitive:
This kind of infinitive is formed by only base form of the verb without to.
EX: You must come on time.

 Split infinitive:
This kind of infinitive is formed by to + adverb + base form of the verb for the sake
of emphasis.
EX: Ahmad likes to really learn English.

 Abridge infinitive:
This kind of infinitive is formed by only to without base form of the verb and used
in answers.
EX: Do you want to join us?
Yes, I want to.

 Compound infinitive:
This kind of infinitive is formed by to + base form the verb + and + to + base form
the verb.
EX: She wants to go to America and to find a job.
Note: The second “to” is optional.

 Complex infinitive:
This kind of infinitive is formed by infinitive verb + noun/pronoun object + to +
base form of the verb.
EX: I encourage my students to study hard.

 Perfect infinitive:
This kind of infinitive is formed by auxiliary + have + verb3.
EX: Ali should have studied hard.
 74-87

 Gerundial infinitive:
This kind of infinitive is used before or after the clause to modify that clause.
EX: To tell you honestly, you have failed the test.
I do not like going to the movie, to tell you frankly.

Verbs that are followed by both gerund and infinitive with a clear difference in
meaning
They are: Remember, forget, regret, try, go on, stop, come, and mean.

Remember:
Remember + infinitive. It means one remembers his/her duty, job, responsibility or
task.
EX: The students remember to write their homework.
Remember + gerund. It means one remembers what happened in the past.
EX: We remember fighting in our university.

Forget:
Forget + infinitive. It means one forgets his/her duty, job, responsibility or
task.
EX: The robbers broke into the house because the guard forgot to lock the door.
Forget + gerund. It means one forgets what happened in the past.
EX: I want to watch 3 idiots; I forget watching that movie.

Regret:
Regret + infinitive. It means one informs someone of bad news.
EX: I regret to tell that you failed the test.
Regret + gerund. It means one feels sad what happened in the past.
EX: I regret not listening to my father advice.

Try:
Try + infinitive. It means one struggles to do something.
EX: Every student tries to get first position.
Try + gerund. It means one conducts an experiment.
EX: The room was hot, I tried opening the window.

Go on:
Go on + infinitive. It means one does something different.
EX: After cleaning the house, Laila went on to cook lunch for her family.
Go on + gerund. It means one does something without any interruption.
EX: I and my uncle went on playing cards for four hours.

Stop:
Stop + infinitive. It means that there are two actions one stops for the sake of second
action.
EX: While I was driving, I stopped to buy something for my son.
Stop + gerund. It means that there is only one action that stops.
EX: I stopped smoking.

Come:
Come + infinitive. It means that something develops automatically.
 75-87
EX: After spending sometimes with Ahmad I came to understand that he is a honest
boy.
Come + gerund. It means that subject does something as it moves.
EX: After the marriage proposal, Laila came laughing to her room.

Mean:
Mean + infinitive. It means to express the intention of someone.
EX: I didn’t mean to hurt your feelings.
Mean + gerund. It means to express the result of something.
EX: To tell how much I love will mean telling lie.

Verbs that followed by both gerund and infinitive with little or no difference in
meaning
They are: Start, begin, commence, continue, like, love, hate, cease, omit, intend, can’t stand, can’t bear,
deserve, dread, bother, fear and prefer.
EX: I started to teach at KELC.
I started teaching at KELC.
She loves swimming in the ocean.
She loves to swim in the ocean.

Note:
If any of these verbs is used in progressive tenses, only infinitive is used though using gerund is not
wrong. Gerund is uncommon for (ing) forms sound awkward, but using gerund is right.
EX: It was beginning to rain. (Formal)
It was beginning raining. (Informal)

Prefer for comparison

Structures:
 Prefer + to + verb1 + (rather) than + (to) + verb.
EX: She prefers to live in Kabul rather than to live in Peshawar.
 Prefer + verb (ing) + to + verb (ing).
EX: She prefers living in Kabul to living in Peshawar.

Infinitive:
Present active infinitive
Structure: Subject + infinitive verb + to + verb1 + ROTS
EX: Ali wants to learn English.

Present passive infinitive

Structure: Subject + infinitive verb + to be + verb3 + by phrase
EX: The students need to be advised by their parents.

Past active infinitive

Structure: Subject + infinitive verb + to have + verb3 + ROTS
EX: Ahmad remembers to have locked the door.

Past passive infinitive

Structure: Subject + infinitive verb + to have + been + verb3 + by phrase
EX: We remember to have been supported by our soldiers.

Gerund:
Present active gerund
Structure: Subject + gerund verb + verb (ing) + ROTS
EX: She enjoys playing soccer.
 76-87

Present passive gerund

Structure: Subject + gerund verb + being + verb3 + by phrase
EX: Laila avoids being asked personal questions by her friends.

Past active gerund

Structure: Subject + gerund verb + having + verb3 + ROTS
EX: She does not recall having told lie.

Past passive gerund

Structure: Subject + gerund verb + having + been + verb3 + by phrase
EX: Laila understands having been cheated by her boyfriend.

Direct and Indirect speech

What is speech?
A talk or dialogue between two persons is called speech. Or a lecture given to a
number of audiences is called speech. Or speech is the way, act and power of
speaking.

Kinds of speech
 Direct/Quoted speech
 Indirect/Reported speech

Direct speech
It refers to reproducing the exact words of a speaker. Or we represent the exact
words of a speaker in his/her own words to someone without any modifications.
Key points:
 It is made of two parts.
A) Reporting speech. It contains subject and a reporting verb.
B) Reported speech. It contains the exact words of a speaker.
EX: Ali said, “I am too tired.”
Reporting S Reported S
 Reporting speech can come before or after the reported speech.
Note: If reporting speech is used at the beginning then comma is used outside the
inverted commas.
If reporting speech is used at the end then comma is used inside the inverted
commas.
EX: Laila said, “I hate you.”
“I hate you,” said Laila.
 The exact words of a speaker will be placed inside the quotation marks, speech marks, inverted commas
or double commas.
 The first letter inside quotation marks will always be capitalized.
 All signs of punctuations must be placed inside the quotation marks.
 77-87
Indirect speech
It refers to reproducing the main idea of exact words of a speaker. Or we represent
the essence of a speaker’s exact words with a few modifications to someone.
Key points:
 It is made of two parts.
A) Main clause. It contains subject and verb to support the noun clause in terms of completion of its
meaning.
B) Noun clause. It contains the essence of a speaker’s exact words.
EX: Ali said that he was too tired.
M. clause Noun clause
 No comma or quotation marks will be used.
 Noun clause markers (That, if/whether, w.h words) are used.
 That can be omitted after say and tell.
 But that can not be omitted after other verbs.
 If the reporting verb is in the past tense, tenses and words indicating nearness of time and positions will
be changed.
 Tenses can also not be changed even if the reporting verb is in the past tense, but it is very informal.
 No changes will occur if the reporting verb is in the present or future tense.
EX: Ali says, “You are a bad boy.”
Ali says that I am a bad boy.
They will say, “The weather is too hot.”
They will say that the weather is too hot.
 Pronouns will be changed according to SON formula.
SON stands for:
S: Subject changes. I and we will change according to the subject of reporting
speech.
O: Object changes. You will change according to the object of reporting speech.
N: No changes. He, she, it and they will not change.
 Yes/yeah/no/hi/ and hello are removed.
EX: The teacher said, “Yes, I will come.”
The said that he would go.

Pronouns changes

Tenses changes
Simple present tense to simple past tense
Present continuous tense to past continuous tense
Present perfect tense to past perfect tense
Present perfect continuous tense to past perfect continuous tense
 78-87
Simple past tense to past perfect tense
Past continuous tense to past perfect continuous tense
Past perfect tense to past perfect tense
Past perfect continuous tense to past perfect continuous tense

Changes in modal auxiliaries

Can to could
Will to would
May to might
Have to to had to
Has to to had to
Must to had to
Shall to should
Could to could
Had to to had to
Would to would
Ought to to ought
Had better to had better
Might to might

Some other words changes

This to that
These to those
Now to then
Thus to so
So to very
Ago to before
Just to then
Here to there
Hither to thither
Come to go
Bring to take
Hence to therefore
Good night to good night
Good bye to good bye
Farewell to farewell
Good morning to good morning
Good afternoon to good afternoon
Good evening to Good evening
Today to that day
Tonight to that night
Yesterday to the previous day/the day before/the last day
Tomorrow to the next day/the day after/the following day
The day after tomorrow to in two days/the day after the next day
The day before yesterday to two days before/the day before the previous day

Changing assertive/declarative sentences into indirect speech

Structure:
Subject + reporting verb (Said/told) + that + subject + verb + ROTC
Said + noun clause
Said + to + object + noun clause
Told + object + noun clause
EX: His father said, “He is hard working.”
 79-87
His father said that he was hard working.
She told me, “I will help you.”
She told me that she would help me.

Changing interrogative sentences into indirect speech

Structures:
 Subject + reporting verb (asked/wanted to know/questioned/inquired/interrogated)
+ if/whether + subject + verb + ROTC (This structure is used for yes/no questions)
EX: Laila said, “Will Ali will be present tomorrow?”
Laila asked if Ali would be present the next day.
My father told me, “Is it raining now?”
My father questioned me that it was raining then.

 Subject + reporting verb (asked/wanted to know/questioned/inquired/interrogated)

+ W.H words + subject + verb + ROTC (This structure is used for W.H questions)
EX: Her mother said, “Who broke the jug?”
Her mother inquired who had broken the jug.
The students said, “When does the class end?”
The students wanted to know when the class ended.

Changing imperative sentences into indirect speech

Structures:
 Subject + reporting verb (Instructed, told, advised, requested, forced, ordered) + to
+ verb1 (This structure is used for positive imperative)
EX: The teacher said, “Bring a glass of water.”
The teacher ordered to take a glass of water.

The man said, “Walk four blocks to the west.”

The man instructed to walk four blocks to the west.
She said, “Please, respect your elders.”
She advised to respect my elders
The commanders shouted, “Attack the on the enemies.”
The commanders forced to attack on the enemies.

 Subject + reporting verb (Instructed, told, advised, requested, forced, ordered) + not + to + verb1
(This structure is used for negative imperative)
EX: The mother said, “Don’t touch the hot stove.”
The mother advised not to touch the hot stove.
She told me, “Don’t smoke cigar.”
She advised me not to smoke cigar.

Changing exclamatory sentences into indirect speech

 Structure: Subject + exclaimed with + noun (Joy, surprise, happiness, sadness, displeasure, pain ) +
that + W.H words subject + verb + ROTC
EX: The players said, “Hurrah! We won the match.”
The players exclaimed with joy that they won the match.
Ali said, “What a high mountain it is!”
Ali exclaimed with surprise what a high mountain it was.
Laila said, “Ouch! I cut my finger.”
Laila exclaimed with pain that she had cut her finger.
 80-87
Ahmad said, “How difficult this test is!”
Ahmad exclaimed with displeasure how difficult this test was.

Changing absolute segment sentence into indirect speech

Structure: Subject + reporting verb (wished) + object + absolute segment sentence.
EX: The students said to the teacher, “Good morning.”
The students wished the teacher good morning.
The teacher said to the students, “Congratulation”
The teacher wished the students congratulation.

Situations under which formal sequence of tenses is not allowed

 A universal fact:
EX: Our teacher said, “Allah is the most merciful and compassionate
Our teacher said that Allah is the most merciful and compassionate.
 A general fact:
EX: Ali said, “She is young and beautiful.”
Ali said that she is young and beautiful.

 A past historical event:

EX: My father said, “Pakistan came into being on 14 August, 1947.”
My father said that Pakistan came into being on 14 August, 1947.

 Improbable conditional clause:

EX: Our teacher said, “If you studied hard, you will pass the test.”
Our teacher said that if I studied hard, I will pass the test.

 Real conditional clause:

EX: Her father said, “If it rains, the picnic will be cancelled.”
Her father said that if it rains, the picnic will be cancelled.

Active and Passive voice

What does voice mean?
It means sound, but it is a form of a verb in grammar that shows whether the subject does something
or something is done to the subject. Or it shows whether is performing the action or receiving the action.

Kinds of voice:
There are basically two kinds of voice.
 Active voice
 Passive voice

Active voice
When a form of a verb shows that the subject is performing the action is called
passive voice.
In active voice the subject performs the action from the actual position means
before verb and the object performs the action from the actual position means after
the verb.
EX: Ali eats an apple.
 81-87
Sub V obj

Passive voice
When a form of a verb shows that the subject is receiving the action is called
passive voice.
In passive voice the subject performs the action from the unactual position means
before verb and the object performs the action from the unactual position means
after the verb.
EX: An apple is eaten by Ali.
Sub V obj

Rules for changing active voice into passive voice

 Divide the sentence into subject, verb and object.
EX: We study English.
Sub V obj
 Change the object of active voice into the subject of passive voice.
EX: English
Subject
 Use a form of to be verb according to the subject of active voice and the new subject.
EX: English is
Sub V
 Use past participle form of the verb used in active voice.
EX: English is taught
Sub V V3
 Change the subject of active voice into a part of (By phrase) in passive voice.
EX: English is taught by us.
Sub V V3 obj

What is by phrase?
It is the person who performs the action in both active and passive voice. Using by
phrase is important when the subject of active voice is a proper noun or when it
provides extra information about the performer.
Note: It is also called actor or agent.

Kinds of passive voice

 Agentless passive voice
It has no by phrase.
EX: The jug was broken.

 Noticed passive voice

It is used without to be verb only past participle is used.
EX: Wanted.

 Pseudo passive voice

It is used without to be verb only past participle and by phrase is used.
EX: Written by/issued by/directed by etc…

Note: The following tenses are not changed into passive voice in modern English,
while they are changed in very old English.
 Present perfect continuous tense:
EX: Ali has been washing the car. (Modern English)
The car has been being washed by Ali. (Old English)
 Past perfect continuous tense:
 82-87
EX: They had been played cricket. (Modern English)
Cricket had been being played by them. . (Old English)
 Future continuous tense:
EX: She will be cooking a big dinner. (Modern English)
A big dinner will be being cooked by her. (Old English)
 Future perfect continuous tense:
EX: They will have been writing a book. (Modern English)
A book will have been being written by them. (Old English)

Why do we use active and passive voice?

We prefer active voice in the following cases:
 When we are more interested in the performer of the action.
EX: Ali delivers a speech about terrorisms.
 When we want to avoid confusion.
 When we only talk about the subject and the action.
 When we want to place the subject and the object in their actual positions.

We prefer passive voice in the following cases:

 When we don’t know or have forgotten who performed the action.
EX: The jug was broken.
 When we are more interested in the action than its performer.
EX: The room was decorated.
 When we want to bring a variety in our speaking and writing.
EX: The jug was broken by Ahmad. Instead of Ahmad broke the jug.
 When it is not important or already clear is, am, are or will be the performer.
EX: Ahmad was born in Peshawar.
Rice is grown in India.
 When we want to emphasize or give importance to the receiver.
EX: The students are taught by a good teacher.
 When the subject of active voice is indefinite pronouns or people.
EX: The glass was broken.
Large buildings are built.
 When we want to combine two clauses and avoid grammatical errors.
EX: When Ali went outside his house, he was arrested.
After the teacher came, we were taught a new lesson.
 When we want to generic statements or disagreeable announcements.
EX: Overtime rates will be reduced by the end of this month.

What is stative passive voice?

It is a passive sentence which shows only an existing condition or state not action.
Note: It is also called statal passive voice.
Structure: Be + verb3
Key points:
 It has no active voice.
 By phrase is not used in this kind of passive voice; others prepositions might be used.
 In this kind of passive voice the past participle functions as an adjective.
EX: The door is locked.
Laila is married to Ali.
The book is covered with plastic.

Changing present tenses into passive voice:

 83-87
Simple present tense:
Structures:
Subject + is/am/are + verb3 + by phrase (Positive)
EX: She washes the dishes every day.
The dishes are washed every day by her.
Subject + is/am/are + not + verb3 + by phrase (Negative)
EX: She does not wash the dishes every day.
The dishes are not washed every day by her.
Is/am/are + subject + verb3 + by phrase (Interrogative)
EX: Does she wash the dishes every day?
Are the dishes washed every day by her?
Isn’t/aren’t + subject + verb3 + by phrase (Neg. Interrogative American)
EX: Doesn’t she wash the dishes every day?
Aren’t the dishes washed every day by her?
Is/am/are + subject + not + verb3 + by phrase (Neg. Interrogative British)
EX: Does she not wash the dishes every day?
Are the dishes not washed every day by her?

Present continuous tense:

Structures:
Subject + is/am/are + being + verb3 + by phrase (Positive)
EX: Ali is studying math.
Math is being studied by Ali.
Subject + is/am/are + not + being + verb3 + by phrase (Negative)
EX: Ali is not studying math.
Math is not being studied by Ali.
Is/am/are + subject + being + verb3 + by phrase (Interrogative)
EX: Is Ali studying math?
Is math being studied by Ali?
Isn’t/aren’t + subject + being + verb3 + by phrase (Neg. Interrogative American)
EX: Isn’t Ali studying math?
Isn’t math being studied by Ali?
Is/am/are + subject + not + being + verb3 + by phrase (Neg. Interrogative British)
EX: Is Ali not studying math?
Is math not being studied by Ali?

Present perfect tense:

Structures:
Subject + have/has + been + verb3 + by phrase (Positive)
EX: They have bought a car.
A car has been bought by them.
Subject + have/has + not + been + verb3 + by phrase (Negative)
EX: They have not bought a car.
A car has not been bought by them.
Have/has + subject + been + verb3 + by phrase (Interrogative)
EX: Have they bought a car?
Has a car been bought by them?
Haven’t/hasn’t + subject + been + verb3 + by phrase (Neg. Interrogative American)
EX: Haven’t they bought a car?
Hasn’t a car been bought by them?
Have/has + subject + not + been + verb3 + by phrase (Neg. Interrogative British)
EX: Have they not bought a car?
Has a car not been bought by them?
 84-87
Changing past tenses into passive voice

Simple past tense:

Structures:
Subject + was/were + verb3 + by phrase (Positive)
EX: I visited Laila the day before yesterday.
Laila was visited the day before yesterday by me.
Subject + was/were + not + verb3 + by phrase (Negative)
EX: I visited Laila the day before yesterday.
Laila was not visited the day before yesterday by me.
Was/were + subject + verb3 + by phrase (Interrogative)
EX: Did I visit Laila the day before yesterday?
Was Laila visited the day before yesterday by me?
Wasn’t/weren’t + subject + verb3 + by phrase (Neg. Interrogative American)
EX: Didn’t I visit Laila the day before yesterday?
Wasn’t Laila visited the day before yesterday by me?
Was/were + subject + not + verb3 + by phrase (Neg. Interrogative British)
EX: Did I not visit Laila the day before yesterday?
Was Laila not visited the day before yesterday by me?

Past continuous tense:

Structures:
Subject + was/were + being + verb3 + by phrase (Positive)
EX: Laila was watching cricket yesterday.
Cricket was being watched yesterday by Laila.
Subject + was/were + not + being + verb3 + by phrase (Negative)
EX: Laila was not watching cricket yesterday.
Cricket was not being watched yesterday by Laila.
Was/were + subject + being + verb3 + by phrase (Interrogative)
EX: Was Laila watching cricket yesterday?
Was cricket being watched yesterday by Laila?
Wasn’t/weren’t + subject + being + verb3 + by phrase (Neg. Interrogative American)
EX: Wasn’t Laila watching cricket yesterday?
Wasn’t cricket being watched yesterday by Laila?
Was/were + subject + not + being + verb3 + by phrase (Neg. Interrogative British)
EX: Was Laila not watching cricket yesterday?
Was cricket not being watched yesterday by Laila?

Past perfect tense:

Structures:
Subject + had + been + verb3 + by phrase (Positive)
EX: Laila had broken her engagement.
Laila’s engagement had been broken by her.
Subject + had + not + been + verb3 + by phrase (Negative)
EX: Laila had not broken her engagement.
Laila’s engagement had not been broken by her.
Had + subject + been + verb3 + by phrase (Interrogative)
EX: Had Laila broken her engagement?
Had Laila’s engagement been broken by her?
Hadn’t + subject + been + verb3 + by phrase (Neg. Interrogative American)
EX: Hadn’t Laila broken her engagement?
Hadn’t Laila’s engagement been broken by her?
Had + subject + not + been + verb3 + by phrase (Neg. Interrogative British)
EX: Had Laila not broken her engagement?
 85-87
Had Laila’s engagement not been broken by her?

Changing future tenses into passive voice

Simple future tense:

Structures:
Subject + will/shall + be + verb3 + by phrase (Positive)
EX: We will paint the house tomorrow.
The house will be painted tomorrow by us.
Subject + will/shall + not + be + verb3 + by phrase (Negative)
EX: We will not paint the house tomorrow.
The house will not be painted tomorrow by us.
Will/shall + Subject + be + verb3 + by phrase (Interrogative)
EX: Will we paint the house tomorrow?
Will the house be painted tomorrow by us?
Won’t/shan’t + Subject + be + verb3 + by phrase (Neg. Interrogative American)
EX: Won’t we paint the house tomorrow?
Won’t the house be painted tomorrow by us/
Will/shall + Subject + not + be + verb3 + by phrase (Neg. Interrogative British)
EX: Will we not paint the house tomorrow?
Will the house not be painted tomorrow by us?

Future perfect tense:

Structures:
Subject + will/shall + have + been + verb3 + by phrase (Positive)
EX: She will have cooked dinner, before you clean the house.
Dinner will have been cooked by her, before the house is cleaned by you.
Subject + will/shall + not + have + been + verb3 + by phrase (Negative)
EX: She will not have cooked dinner, before you clean the house.
Dinner will not have been cooked by her, before the house cleaned by you.
Will/shall + subject + have + been + verb3 + by phrase (Interrogative)
EX: Will she have cooked dinner, before you clean the house?
Will dinner have been cooked by her, before the house is cleaned by you?
Won’t/shan’t + subject + have + been + verb3 + by phrase (Neg. Interrogative American)
EX: Won’t she have cooked dinner, before you clean the house?
Won’t dinner have been cooked by her, before the house is cleaned by you?
Will/shall + subject + not + have + been + verb3 + by phrase (Neg. Interrogative British)
EX: Will she have not cooked dinner, before you clean the house?
Will dinner have not been cooked by her, before the house is cleaned by you?

Changing have/has to/ be going to/ought to into passive voice:

Structure:
Subject + have/has to/ be going to/ought to + be + verb3 + by phrase
EX: She has to study English.
English has to be studied by her.
They ought to wash the car.
The car ought to be washed by them.
I am going to call you.
You are going to be called by me.
 86-87
Changing imperative sentences into passive voice:
Structure:
 Let + object + be + verb3 (Positive imperative)
EX: Close your books.
Let your books be closed.
Bring me a glass of water.
Let a glass of water be brought to me.

 Let + object + not + be + verb3

EX: Don’t touch the stove.
Let the stove not be touched.
Don’t tell lie.
Let lie not be told.

Changing information questions into passive voice:

1: Information questions having tenses

Structure:
W.H words + auxiliary + subject + verb3 + by phrase
EX: When does she call you?
When are you called by her?
Why are you studying English?
Why is English being studied by you?
Who gave you flowers?
Note: There is no subject in the last example, so the word “by” should be used at the beginning and who
should be changed into whom.
By whom the flowers were given to you.

2: Information questions having modal auxiliaries

Structure:
W.H words + modal auxiliary + subject + be + verb3 + by phrase
EX: How is she going to teach the students?
How are the students going to be taught by her?
Where will you meet her?
Where will she be met by you?

3: Information questions having have/has to

Structure:
W.H words + to do auxiliary + subject + have to + be + verb3 + by phrase
EX: Why did you have to call her?
Why did she have to be called by you?
Where does she have to study computer?
Where does computer have to be studied by her?

4: Information questions having be going to

Structure:
W.H words + to be auxiliary + subject + be + verb3 + by phrase
EX: Why is she going to cancel her engagement?
Why is her engagement going to be cancelled by her?
Where are they going to take rest?
Where is rest going to be taken by them?
87-87