Professional Documents
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SELECTION OF
COMPONENTS IN A
PANEL
MANUAL
CIRCUIT BREAKERS
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POWER SUPPLY
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RELAYS
DRY/WET CONTACTS
EARTHING
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DIODES
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FUSES
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What is a fuse?
The fuse is an electronic device, which is used to protect circuits from over current,
overload and make sure the protection of the circuit. There are many types of fuses
available in the market, but function of all these fuses is same.
Fuse consists of a low resistance metallic wire enclosed in a non-combustible material.
Whenever a short circuit, over current or mismatched load connection occurs, then the
thin wire inside the fuse melts because of the heat generated by the heavy current flowing
through it. Therefore, it disconnects the power supply from the connected system. In
normal operation of the circuit, fuse wire is just a very low resistance component and does
not affect the normal operation of the system connected to the power supply.
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Current carrying capacity is the amount of current which a fuse can easily conduct without
interrupting the circuit.
The value of maximum current that can safely be interrupted by the Fuse is called
Breaking Capacity and should be higher than the prospective short circuit current.
The I2t terms related to fuse normally used in short circuit condition. it is the amount of
energy which carry the fuse element when the electrical fault is cleared by fuse element.
4. Response Characteristic
The speed at which fuse blows, depend on the amount of current flowing through its wire.
The higher the current flowing through the wire, faster will be the response time.
Response characteristic shows the response time for over current event. Fuses which
respond rapidly to the over current situation is called ultra-fast fuses or Fast fuses. They
are used in Many semiconductor devices because semiconductor devices damaged by over
current very rapidly.
There is another fuse which Is called Slow burn fuse, switch fuses do not respond rapidly
to the over current event, but blow after several seconds of over current occurrence. Such
fuses found their application in motor control electronics systems because motor takes a
lot more current at starting than running.
Each fuse has maximum allowed voltage rating, for example, if a fuse is designed for 32
volts it cannot be used with 220 volts, different amount of isolation is required in different
fuses working on different voltage levels.
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6. Packaging Size
Resettable fuses
Resettable fuse is a device, which can be used as multiple times without replacing it. They
open the circuit, when an over current event occurs and after some specific time they
connect the circuit again. Polymeric positive temperature coefficient device (PPTC,
commonly known as a resettable fuse, poly-switch or poly-fuse) is a passive electronic
component used to protect against short current faults in electronic circuits.
Application of such fuses is overcome where manually replacing of fuses is difficult or
almost impossible, e.g. fuse in the nuclear system or in aerospace system.
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Types of Fuses
CARTRIDGE TYPE
HV HRC FUSES
EXPULSION TYPE
HIGH VOLTAGE
HV FUSES
LIQUID TYPE HV
HRC FUSES
REWIREABLE
AC FUSES
FUSES
D-TYPE
FUSES
CARTRIDGE FUSES
KNIFE BLADE TYPE
DC FUSES CARTRIDGE FUSES
HRC LINK FUSES
LINK TYPE
CARTRIDGE FUSES
BOLTED TYPE HRC
LOW VOLTAGE DROP-OUT FUSES
LINK FUSES
STRIKER FUSES
SWITCH FUSES
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DC Fuses
The DC fuse opens or breaks the circuit when the
excessive current flow through it. The only difficulty with
the DC fuse is that the arc produced by the direct current
is very difficult to extinct because there are no zero
current flows in the circuit. For reducing the DC fuse
arcing the electrodes are placed more distance apart due
to which the size of the fuse increases as compared to AC
fuse.
AC Fuses
The AC fuses are categorized into two types they are the low voltage fuses and the high
voltage fuses. The frequency of the AC fuses changes it amplitude from 0 to 60 in very
one second. Thus, the arc extinction in the AC circuit can be done easily as compared to
the DC circuit.
AC FUSES
HIGH
LOW VOLTAGE
VOLTAGE
FUSES
FUSES
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The low voltage fuses can be further divided into four classes shown below in the image
Semi-enclosed or rewireable type and totally enclosed, or cartridge type switches are the
most commonly used switches.
LOW
VOLTAGE
FUSES
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Rewireable Fuses
This type of circuit is mostly used in the small current circuit or for domestic
wiring. The fuse case and the fuse carrier are the two main parts of the rewireable
fuse. The base of the fuse is made up of porcelain, and it holds the wires which may
be made up of lead, tinned copper, aluminum or alloy of tin-lead. The fuse carrier
can be easily inserted or taken out in the base without opening the main switch.
Cartridge Fuses
The fuse element is totally enclosed in an enclosed container, and it has metal contacts on
both sides. These fuses are further classified as D-type cartridge fuses and the Link type
cartridge fuses.
CARTRIDGE
FUSES
D-TYPE
LINK TYPE
CARTRIDGE
CARTRIDGE
FUSES
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1. D-Cartridge Fuses
The main parts of the D-type fuse are the base, adapter ring,
cartridge and a fuse cap. The cartridge is kept in the fuse cap, and
the fuse cap is fixed to the fuse base. The cartridge tip touches the
conductor when it is completely screwed to the base and thus
completes the circuit through the fuse links.
In such type of fuses, the fuse element carries the fault current for a long duration. If the
fault is not clear, then the fuse element will melt and open the circuit. The major
advantage of HRC fuse is that it clears the low as well as a high fault current.
HRC fuse has the high-speed operation and also does not require maintenance. But the
fuse element of the HRC fuses needs to be replaced after each operation, and it also
produced the heat during the faults which will affect the operations of the nearby
switches.
The enclosure of the HRC fuse is filled with powdered pure quartz, which acts as an arc
extinction medium. The silver and copper wire is used for making the fuse wire. The fuse
wire has two or more sections which are joint by using tin-joint. The tin-joint reduces the
temperature under overloaded condition.
For increasing the breaking capacity of the fuses two or more silver wire is joined in
parallel with each other. These wires are adjusted in such a way so that only one wire will
melt at a time. The HRC fuse is of two types
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LINK TYPE
CARTRIDGE
In knife blade type switches the fuse wire is replaced with a live circuit with the help of
fuse puller. The bolted type HRC fuses have two conducting plates which are bolted to the
fuse base. This fuse requires the additional circuit for taking out the switch without getting
a shock.
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DROP-OUT FUSE
STRIKER FUSE
It is a mechanical device having enough force and displacement which can be used for
closing tripping/indicator circuits.
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SWITCH FUSE
Such type of switches is used for low and medium voltages circuit. The rating of the fuse
unit is in the range of 30, 60, 100, 200, 400, 600, and 800 amperes. The fuse unit is
available as 3-pole and 4-pole unit. The making capacity of such type of fuses is up to 46
kA. They can safely break depending upon rating currents of the order of 3 times the load
current.
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HIGH
VOLTAGE
FUSES
CARTRIDGE EXPULSION
LIQUID TYPE
TYPE HV HRC TYPE HV
HV HRC FUSE
FUSES FUSES
The fuse element of the HRC fuse is wound in the shape of the helix
which avoids the corona effect at the higher voltages. It has two fused
elements placed parallel with each other, one of low resistance and
the other is of high resistance. The low resistance wire carries the
normal current which is blown out and reducing the short circuit
current during the fault condition.
Such type of fuses is filled with carbon tetrachloride and sealed at both the ends of the
caps. When the fault occurs then the current, exceed beyond the permissible limit, and
the fuse element is blown out. The liquid of the fuse acts as an arc extinguishing medium
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for the HRC fuses. They may be employed for the transformer protection and the backup
protection to the circuit breaker.
Expulsion type fuses are widely used for the protection of feeders and transformer
because of their low cost. It is developed for 11kV, and their rupturing capacity is up to
250 MVA. Such type of fuses comprises a hollow open-ended tube made of synthetic
resin-bonded paper.
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The fuse elements are placed in the tubes, and the ends of the tubes are connected to
suitable fittings at each end. The arc producing is blown off in the inner coating of the
tube, and the gases thus formed extinguish the arc.
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https://www.fusesunlimited.com/glossary.aspx
or open the saved web-page contained in the folder i.e. Fuse Types Glossary _ Technical
Terms for Fuses
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Application Voltage
The voltage rating of the fuse must be equal to, or greater than, the available circuit
Voltage.
Ambient temperature
The current carrying capacity tests of fuses are performed at 25C and will be affected by
changes in ambient temperature. The higher the ambient temperature, the hotter the fuse
will operate, and the shorter its life. Conversely, operating at a lower temperature will
prolong fuse life. A fuse also runs hotter as the normal operating current approaches or
exceeds the rating of the selected fuse. Practical experience indicates fuses at room
temperature should last indefinitely, if operated at no more than 75% of catalog fuse
rating.
Ambient temperature effects are in addition to the normal re-rating, see example.
Example: Given a normal operating current of 1.5 amperes in an application using a
traditional Slo-Blo fuse at room temperature, then:
Similarly, if that same fuse were operated at a very high ambient temperature of 70C,
additional derating would be necessary. Curve "A" (Traditional Slo-Blo Fuse) of that
ambient temperature chart shows the maximum operating "Percent of Rating" at 70C to
be 80%, in which case;
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Pulses
The general term pulses is used in this context to describe the broad category of wave
shapes referred to as surge currents, start-up currents, inrush currents, and
transients. Electrical pulse conditions can vary considerably from one application to
another. Different fuse constructions may not react the same to a given pulse condition.
Electrical pulses produce thermal cycling and possible mechanical fatigue that could
affect the life of the fuse. Initial or start-up pulses are normal for some applications and
require the characteristic of a Slo-Blo fuse. Slo-Blo fuses incorporate a thermal delay
design to enable them to survive normal start-up pulses and still provide protection
against prolonged overloads. The startup pulse should be defined and then compared to
the time current curve and I2t rating for the fuse. Application testing is recommended to
establish the ability of the fuse design to withstand the pulse conditions.
Nominal melting I2t is a measure of the energy required to melt the fusing element and is
expressed as Ampere Squared Seconds (A2 Sec.). This nominal melting I2t, and the
energy it represents (within a time duration of 8 milliseconds [0.008 second] or less and
1 millisecond [0.001 second] or less for thin film fuses), is a value that is constant for each
different fusing element. Because every fuse type and rating, as well as its corresponding
part number, has a different fusing element, it is necessary to determine the I2t for each.
This I2t value is a parameter of the fuse itself and is controlled by the element material
and the configuration of the fuse element. In addition to selecting fuses on the basis of
Normal Operating Currents, Rerating, and Ambient Temperature as discussed
earlier, it is also necessary to apply the I2t design approach. This nominal melting I2t is
not only a constant value for each fuse element design, but it is also independent of
temperature and voltage. Most often, the nominal melting I2t method of fuse selection is
applied to those applications in which the fuse must sustain large current pulses of a short
duration. These high-energy currents are common in many applications and are critical
to the design analysis.
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Step 2 Determine the required value of Nominal Melting I2t by referring to Chart 2. A
figure of 22% is shown in Chart II for 100,000 occurrences of the Pulse I2t calculated in
Step 1. This Pulse I2t is converted to its required value of Nominal Melting I2t as follows:
Step 3 Examine the I2t rating data for the PICO II, 125V, very fast-acting fuse. The
part number 251001, 1 ampere design is rated at 0.256 A2 Sec., which is the minimum
fuse rating that will accommodate the 0.2327 A2 Sec. value calculated in Step 2. This 1
ampere fuse will also accommodate the specified 0.75 ampere normal operating current,
when a 25% derating factor is applied to the 1 ampere rating, as previously described.
Agency Approvals
See standards as mentioned above in this chapter.
Fuse Features
See datasheets for the fuse features such as type, ratings, etc.
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Testing
The factors presented here should be considered in selecting a fuse for a given application.
The next step is to verify the selection by requesting samples for testing in the actual
circuit. Before evaluating the samples, make sure the fuse is properly mounted with good
electrical connections, using adequately sized wires or traces. The testing should include
life tests under normal conditions and overload tests Under fault conditions, to ensure
that the fuse will operate properly in the circuit.
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CIRCUIT
BREAKERS
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Types of CB
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In Routine Depictions
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T HERMAL METALLIC CB
T HERMAL CB OPERATION
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Derating Factor
The specifications of a circuit breaker are only valid under the conditions quoted in the
data sheet; a frequency of 60 Hz in an open-air environment at 40C ambient, for
example. If the real-world conditions differ from those under which the specifications
were derived, derating factors must be applied.
Similarly, operation at higher or lower frequencies than specified may also require
modification of the specification. On the one hand, eddy currents and iron losses at the
higher frequency cause greater heating within the thermal-trip components, requiring the
breaker to be de-rated. At the low end, even DC operation can cause issues with
extinguishing the arc that occurs when the contacts are separated in high-current
applications.
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In general, any unusual operating conditions may require modification of data sheet
parameters or special design provisions if the circuit breaker is to perform as expected. In
addition to those already discussed, such conditions may include corrosion, moisture,
mechanical shock and vibration, altitude, and perhaps even mounting position. Circuit
breaker manufacturers provide derating tables and operating guidelines to help you in
this task. When in doubt, consult the experts at the factory.
Packaging
Circuit breakers come in a variety of sizes and mounting configurations for use on printed
circuit boards, racks, and panels, all the way up to highly specialized installations for high-
voltage electrical grid use.
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Selection Factors of CB
General Steps
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Examples of tables for the determination of derating/uprating factors to apply to CBs with
uncompensated thermal tripping units, according to temperature.
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The installation of a circuit-breaker in a LV installation must fulfil one of the two following
conditions:
Either have a rated short-circuit breaking capacity Icu (or Icn) which is equal to or
exceeds the prospective short-circuit current calculated for its point of installation,
or
If this is not the case, be associated with another device which is located upstream,
and which has the required short-circuit breaking capacity.
In the second case, the characteristics of the two devices must be coordinated such that
the energy permitted to pass through the upstream device must not exceed that which the
downstream device and all associated cables, wires and other components can withstand,
without being damaged in any way. This technique is profitably employed in:
Associations of fuses and circuit-breakers
Associations of current-limiting circuit-breakers and standard circuit-breakers.
The technique is known as cascading.
A single transformer
If the transformer is located in a consumers substation, certain national standards
require a LV circuit-breaker in which the open contacts are clearly visible such as Compact
NSX withdrawable circuit-breaker.
Isc (3-phase) = 9 kA
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A Compact NSX400N with an adjustable tripping-unit range of 160 A - 400 A and a short-
circuit breaking capacity (Icu) of 50 kA would be a suitable choice for this duty.
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Note: The essential conditions for the successful operation of 3-phase transformers in
parallel may be summarized as follows:
1. the phase shift of the voltages, primary to secondary, must be the same in all units
to be paralleled.
2. the open-circuit voltage ratios, primary to secondary, must be the same in all units.
3. the short-circuit impedance voltage (Zsc%) must be the same for all units.
For example, a 750-kVA transformer with a Zsc = 6% will share the load correctly
with a 1,000-kVA transformer having a Zsc of 6%, i.e. the transformers will be loaded
automatically in proportion to their kVA ratings. For transformers having a ratio of kVA
ratings exceeding 2, parallel operation is not recommended.
Table below indicates, for the most usual arrangement (2 or 3 transformers of equal kVA
ratings) the maximum short-circuit currents to which main and principal CBs (CBM and
CBP respectively, in Figure H45) are subjected. It is based on the following hypotheses:
The short-circuit 3-phase power on the MV side of the transformer is 500 MVA.
The transformers are standard 20/0.4 kV distribution-type units rated as listed.
The cables from each transformer to its LV circuit-breaker comprise 5 meters of
single core conductors.
Between each incoming-circuit CBM and each outgoing-circuit CBP there is 1
meter of busbar.
The switchgear is installed in a floor mounted enclosed switchboard, in an
ambient-air temperature of 30 C.
Moreover, this table shows selected circuit-breakers of M-G manufacture recommended
for main and principal circuit-breakers in each case.
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Example
Circuit-breaker selection for CBM duty:
For a 800 kVA transformer In = 1155 A; Icu (minimum) = 38 kA (from Table
above), the CBM indicated in the table is a Compact NS1250N (Icu = 50 kA).
A recommended choice for the three outgoing circuits 1, 2 and 3 would be current-limiting
circuit-breakers types NSX400 L, NSX250 L and NSX100 L. The Icu rating in each case
= 150 kA.
These circuit-breakers provide the advantages of:
Circuit-breaker selection for CBP duty:
Circuit-breaker selection for CBP duty:
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Design Example
To illustrate the process, heres a real-world design example. The customer wanted to
replace an existing fuse-block assembly that protected field I/O devices in a demanding
industrial application. Previously, a large variety of fuses had been used to meet both
catastrophic short-circuit and overload protection needs, including both slow-blow
(delay) and fast-acting types.
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Operational Considerations
Environmental conditions: high shock and vibration specifications (seismic testing
is part of the customers approval process)
Enclosed cabinet installation with temperature excursions.
Selection Process
Several circuit breaker technologies can meet the aforementioned electrical
requirements; the initial solution utilized a fast-acting thermal (TO) miniature circuit
breaker. Temperature-derating factors were applied, but during testing, the thermal
technology had too many nuisance trips within the allowable temperature window, ruling
it out as a possible solution.
The next step was to move to a technology immune to the swing in temperature of the
cabinet environment, but which could disconnect in the same amount of time as a
standard fuse; in other words, a purely magnetic (MO) solution.
The 808 product (see Fig.) family was a good fit for the application as its magnetic; single-
pole; includes indications via a discrete signal and an LED; is designed to meet UL60950-
1, CE, and CSA standards; operates over a wide -30 C to +70 C range; and is mounted
on a symmetrical DIN rail that can be plugged into a PCB.
The result is a very satisfied customer! There are many potential options when picking a
circuit breaker for your application. A systematic selection procedure will help you make
the right choice.
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POWER
SUPPLIES
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Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as well as any energy it
consumes while performing that task, from an energy source. Depending on its design, a
power supply may obtain energy from various types of energy sources, including electrical
energy transmission systems, energy storage devices such as a batteries and fuel cells,
electromechanical systems such as generators and alternators, solar power converters, or
another power supply.
All power supplies have a power input, which receives energy from the energy source, and
a power output that delivers energy to the load. In most power supplies the power input
and output consist of electrical connectors or hardwired circuit connections.
General Classifications
1. Functional
Power supplies are categorized in various ways, including by functional features. For
example, a regulated power supply is one that maintains constant output voltage or
current despite variations in load current or input voltage. Conversely, the output of an
unregulated power supply can change significantly when its input voltage or load current
changes. Adjustable power supplies allow the output voltage or current to be programmed
by mechanical controls (e.g., knobs on the power supply front panel), or by means of a
control input, or both. An adjustable regulated power supply is one that is both adjustable
and regulated. An isolated power supply has a power output that is electrically
independent of its power input; this is in contrast to other power supplies that share a
common connection between power input and output.
2. Mechanical
Power supplies are packaged in different ways and classified accordingly. A bench power
supply is a stand-alone desktop unit used in applications such as circuit test and
development. Open frame power supplies have only a partial mechanical enclosure,
sometimes consisting of only a mounting base; these are typically built into machinery or
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other equipment. Rack mount power supplies are designed to be secured into standard
electronic equipment racks. An integrated power supply is one that shares a common
printed circuit board with its load.
Types
1. DC Power Supply
A DC power supply is one that supplies a constant DC voltage to its load. Depending on
its design, a DC power
supply may be powered
from a DC source or from
an AC source such as the
power mains.
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2. AC to DC Power Supply
Some DC power supplies use AC mains electricity as an energy source. Such power
supplies will sometimes employ a transformer to convert the input voltage to a higher or
lower AC voltage. A rectifier is used to convert the transformer output voltage to a varying
DC voltage, which in turn is passed through an electronic filter to convert it to an
unregulated DC voltage.
The filter removes most, but not all of the AC voltage variations; the remaining AC voltage
is known as ripple. The electric load's tolerance of ripple dictates the minimum amount
of filtering that must be provided by a power supply. In some applications, high ripple is
tolerated and therefore no filtering is required. For example, in some battery charging
applications it is possible to implement a mains-powered DC power supply with nothing
more than a transformer and a single rectifier diode, with a resistor in series with the
output to limit charging current.
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3. Linear Regulator
The function of a linear voltage regulator is to convert a varying DC voltage to a constant,
often specific, lower DC voltage. In addition, they often provide a current limiting function
to protect the power supply and load from overcurrent (excessive, potentially destructive
current).
A constant output voltage is required in many power supply applications, but the voltage
provided by many energy sources will vary with changes in load impedance. Furthermore,
when an unregulated DC power supply is the energy source, its output voltage will also
vary with changing input voltage. To circumvent this, some power supplies use a linear
voltage regulator to maintain the output voltage at a steady value, independent of
fluctuations in input voltage and load impedance. Linear regulators can also reduce the
magnitude of ripple and noise on the output voltage.
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4. AC power supplies
An AC power supply typically takes the voltage from a wall outlet (mains supply) and
lowers it to the desired voltage. Some filtering may take place as well.
In modern use, AC power supplies can be divided into single phase and three phase
systems. "The primary difference between single phase and three phase AC power is the
constancy of delivery." AC power Supplies can also be used to change the frequency as
well as the voltage, they are often used by manufacturers to check the suitability of their
products for use in other countries. 230V 50 Hz or 115 60 Hz or even 400 Hz for avionics
testing.
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compatible with low voltage circuitry. The metering signal is used by a closed-loop
controller that regulates the high voltage by controlling inverter input power, and it may
also be conveyed out of the power supply to allow external circuitry to monitor the high
voltage output.
Efficiency
All power supplies have a specific efficiency curve. As an example, we will use the Cooler
Master UCP 900W power supply. Here is the efficiency curve we measured during testing:
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Efficiency is the output power divided by the input power, as there is a certain amount
of power lost during the AC to DC conversion. The x-axis shows the power supply load in
Watts and the y-axis shows efficiency. Let's include our three sample systems in the chart
see what sort of efficiency they would get with this power supply.
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The first system causes this high-performance power supply to only run at 73% to 81%
efficiency, depending on input voltage. Obviously, there's absolutely no need for a 900W
power supply if you're running this type of computer.
The midrange system looks quite a bit better, allowing the PSU to run at 80% to 88%
efficiency, although the latter only occurs at maximum load. Considering the vast majority
of systems rarely run at 100% load most of the time, real-world efficiency will average
closer to 82%. Office work and Internet surfing in particular will be at that level.
For the third system, a 900W power supply actually might start to make sense. It's still
more than you need, but having a bit of extra room to grow isn't a bad idea. This system
idles at over 300W, so it achieves a minimum 86% efficiency with 120VAC. When running
a game or other demanding task, the PSU is finally able to reach its potential and provide
89% efficiency with 230VAC (or 87.5% with 120VAC).
The quick summary then is that if you don't have a system that uses 350W of power when
idle, it's probably not worthwhile to purchase this type of power supply. Our high-end
sample system more or less meets this qualification, and if you were to take such a system
and overclock it, these high-end power supplies are actually required. The 8800 Ultra is
one of the most demanding graphics cards currently available; however, the GTX 280
appears to require even more power, making that another candidate for this sort of PSU.
(Unfortunately, our power supply testing labs didn't have the latest GPUs available for
testing.)
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Power efficiency is very important. Wasted power is converted to heat, which need to be
dissipated with a fan. The lower the efficiency, the more heat. The more heat, the faster
the fan will have to run to dissipate it. The faster the fan, the noisier it will be. So, high
efficiency = less noise basically.
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RELAYS
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What is a Relay?
A relay is an electrically operated switch.
Many relays use an electromagnet to mechanically operate a switch, but other operating
principles are also used, such as solid-state relays. Relays are used where it is necessary
to control a circuit by a separate low-power signal, or where several circuits must be
controlled by one signal.
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became ubiquitous as early germanium transistors were easily destroyed by this surge.
Some automotive relays include a diode inside the relay case.
If the relay is driving a large, or especially a reactive load, there may be a similar problem
of surge currents around the relay output contacts. In this case a snubber circuit (a
capacitor and resistor in series) across the contacts may absorb the surge. Suitably rated
capacitors and the associated resistor are sold as a single packaged component for this
commonplace use.
If the coil is designed to be energized with alternating current (AC), some method is used
to split the flux into two out-of-phase components which add together, increasing the
minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle. Typically this is done with a small
copper "shading ring" crimped around a portion of the core that creates the delayed, out-
of-phase component, which holds the contacts during the zero crossings of the control
voltage.
Types
Latching Relay
Reed Relay
Mercury Wetted relay
Mercury Relay
Polarized Relay
Machine tool Relay
Coaxial Relay
Contactor
Solid State Relay
Static Relay
Solid State Contactor Relay
Buchholz Relay
Force Guided Contacts Relay
Overload Protection Relay
Vacuum Relay
Safety Relay
Multi Voltage Relays
Thermal Relay
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Latching Relay
A latching relay (also called "impulse", "keep", or "stay" relays) maintains either contact
position indefinitely without power applied to the coil. The advantage is that one coil
consumes power only for an instant while the relay is being switched, and the relay
contacts retain this setting across a power outage. A latching relay allows remote control
of building lighting without the hum that may be produced from a continuously (AC)
energized coil.
In one mechanism, two opposing coils with an over-center spring or permanent magnet
hold the contacts in position after the coil is de-energized. A pulse to one coil turns the
relay on and a pulse to the opposite coil turns the relay off. This type is widely used where
control is from simple switches or single-ended outputs of a control system, and such
relays are found in avionics and numerous industrial applications.
Another latching type has a remanent core that retains the contacts in the operated
position by the remanent magnetism in the core. This type requires a current pulse of
opposite polarity to release the contacts. A variation uses a permanent magnet that
produces part of the force required to close the contact; the coil supplies sufficient force
to move the contact open or closed by aiding or opposing the field of the permanent
magnet. A polarity controlled relay needs changeover switches or an H bridge drive circuit
to control it. The relay may be less expensive than other types, but this is partly offset by
the increased costs in the external circuit.
In another type, a ratchet relay has a ratchet mechanism that holds the contacts closed
after the coil is momentarily energized. A second impulse, in the same or a separate coil,
releases the contacts. This type may be found in certain cars, for headlamp dipping and
other functions where alternating
operation on each switch actuation is
needed.
A stepping relay is a specialized kind
of multi-way latching relay designed
for early automatic telephone
exchanges.
An earth leakage circuit breaker
includes a specialized latching relay.
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Reed Relay
A reed relay is a reed switch enclosed in a solenoid. The switch has a set of contacts inside
an evacuated or inert gas-filled glass tube which protects the contacts against atmospheric
corrosion; the contacts are made of magnetic material that makes them move under the
influence of the field of the enclosing solenoid or an external magnet.
Reed relays can switch faster than larger relays and require very little power from the
control circuit. However, they have relatively low switching current and voltage ratings.
Though rare, the reeds can become magnetized over time, which makes them stick 'on'
even when no current is present; changing the orientation of the reeds with respect to the
solenoid's magnetic field can resolve this problem.
Sealed contacts with mercury-wetted contacts have longer operating lives and less contact
chatter than any other kind of relay.
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however in a practical circuit it will be limited by the inductance of the contacts and
wiring. It was quite common, before the restrictions on the use of mercury, to use a
mercury-wetted relay in the laboratory as a convenient means of generating fast rise time
pulses, however although the rise time may be picoseconds, the exact timing of the event
is, like all other types of relay, subject to considerable jitter, possibly milliseconds, due to
mechanical imperfections.
The same coalescence process causes another effect, which is a nuisance in some
applications. The contact resistance is not stable immediately after contact closure, and
drifts, mostly downwards, for several seconds after closure, the change perhaps being 0.5
ohm.
Polarized Relay
A polarized relay places the armature between the poles of a permanent magnet to
increase sensitivity. Polarized relays were used in middle 20th Century telephone
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exchanges to detect faint pulses and correct telegraphic distortion. The poles were on
screws, so a technician could first adjust them for maximum sensitivity and then apply a
bias spring to set the critical current that would operate the relay.
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Coaxial relay
Where radio transmitters and receivers share one antenna, often a coaxial relay is used as
a TR (transmit-receive) relay, which switches the antenna from the receiver to the
transmitter. This protects the receiver from the high power of the transmitter. Such relays
are often used in transceivers which combine transmitter and receiver in one unit. The
relay contacts are designed not to reflect any radio frequency power back toward the
source, and to provide very high isolation between receiver and transmitter terminals.
The characteristic impedance of the relay is matched to the transmission line impedance
of the system, for example, 50 ohms.
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Contactor
A contactor is a heavy-duty relay with higher current ratings, used for switching electric
motors and lighting loads. Continuous current ratings for common contactors range from
10 amps to several hundred amps. High-current contacts are made with alloys containing
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silver. The unavoidable arcing causes the contacts to oxidize; however, silver oxide is still
a good conductor. Contactors with overload protection devices are often used to start
motors. For medium-voltage motor control, vacuum interrupters are used in a vacuum
contactor.
Contactors come in many forms with varying capacities and features. Unlike a circuit
breaker, a contactor is not intended to interrupt a short circuit current. Contactors range
from those having a breaking current of several amperes to thousands of amperes and 24
V DC to many kilovolts. The physical size of contactors ranges from a device small enough
to pick up with one hand, to large devices approximately a meter (yard) on a side.
Contactors can be noisy when they operate (switch on or off), so they may be unfit for use
where noise is a chief concern. In such cases solid-state relays are preferred.
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Static relay
A static relay consists of electronic circuitry to emulate all those characteristics which are
achieved by moving parts in an electro-magnetic relay.
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Buchholz relay
A Buchholz relay is a
safety device sensing the
accumulation of gas in
large oil-filled
transformers, which will
alarm on slow
accumulation of gas or
shut down the
transformer if gas is
produced rapidly in the
transformer oil. The
contacts are not operated
by an electric current but
by the pressure of
accumulated gas or oil
flow.
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set to provide more accurate motor protection. Some motor protection relays include
temperature detector inputs for direct measurement from a thermocouple or resistance
thermometer sensor embedded in the winding.
Vacuum relays
A sensitive relay having its contacts mounted in a highly evacuated glass housing, to
permit handling radio-frequency voltages as high as 20,000 volts without flashover
between contacts even though contact spacing is but a few hundredths of an inch when
open.
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Safety relays
Safety relays are devices
which generally implement
safety functions. In the
event of a hazard, the task of
such a safety function is to
use appropriate measures to
reduce the existing risk to an
acceptable level.
Multi-voltage relays
Multi-voltage relays are devices designed to work for wide voltage ranges such as 24 to
240 VAC/VDC and wide frequency ranges such as 0 to 300 Hz. They are indicated for use
in installations that do not have stable supply voltages.
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Thermal Relay
These relays are based on the effects of heat, which means the rise in the ambient
temperature from the limit, directs the contacts to switch from one position to other.
These are mainly used in motor protection and consist of bimetallic elements like
temperature sensors as well as control elements. Thermal overload relays are the best
examples of these relays.
The S (single) or D (double) designator for the pole count may be replaced with a number,
indicating multiple contacts connected to a single actuator. For example, 4PDT
indicates a four-pole double-throw relay that has 12 switching terminals.
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Selection of Relay
Electromechanical relays provide a good all-around solution, although they have
limitations in package size, switching speed, and mechanical lifetime. Reed relays
improve on package size, density, and speed but are less robust in situations where surge
currents may be present. SSRs are a nice alternative to mechanical relays but have higher
path resistances and are not fully isolated between the contacts. FET switches provide a
fast, low-cost solution but have the limitation of only working with low voltages.
For any application, consider all of the system parameters before choosing a given relay
type. Using this information will allow you to make the appropriate tradeoffs for your
application.
The following table might help you select an appropriate relay.
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DRY/WET
CONTACTS
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These contacts are normally associated with the relays and can be defined in terms of
Relays in the following way:
-----|/|-----0
|
|-------------0
|
-----| |-----0
The set of C-form contacts below is also voltage-free, or "dry". Although someone has
connected a red indicating lamp to the terminals there is no voltage/current source to
illuminate the lamp filament (LED) when the NO (Normally Open) contact closes.
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-----|/|-----0
| \ /
|-------------0------- R ------
| / \ |
-----| |-----0-----------------
The set of C-form contacts below is also voltage-free, or "dry." However, in this case
someone has provided a source of voltage current, connected to the COM (COMmon)
terminal, connected one side of the red indicating lamp to the NO terminal, and connected
the other side of the red indicating lamp to a Neutral, so that when the NO contact closes
the red indicating lamp will illuminate. The voltage source (and Neutral) is external to the
set of contacts--hence, the contacts are still "dry" (voltage-free).
-----|/|-----0
|
|-------------0---- 220 VAC
| \ /
-----| |-----0-------------- R -------- Neutral
-----|/|-----0
|
220 VAC -----|-------------0
|
-----| |------0
Neutral ---------------------0
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In the drawing below, a red indicating lamp is connected to the "wet" set of C-form
contacts and when the NO contact closes the lamp filament (or LED) will be illuminated.
No external source of voltage/current is required--it's available at the contact terminals.
-----|/|-----0
|
220 VAC------|-------------0
| \ /
-----| |-----0---- R ------
/ \ |
Neutral -------------------0-------------
The voltage/current source can be 12 VDC, 5 VDC, 24 VDC, 24 VAC, 110 VAC, 125 VDC,
etc.--it all depends on the type device/output being used. The caveat is that one can't
simply connect any load to a wet contact--the ability of the "contact" to supply current has
to be taken into account. In other words, you can't connect a load that requires 3.2 Amps
to a set of wet contacts that can only supply 1.0 Amps; well you can, but you can't expect
the load to work for very long and you can expect to have to replace the contacts or the
fuse (if included) in the source.
Another use of the dry contacts can be, the dry contacts are not the ones Wetted by the
power source. The synonym for the dry contacts is Volt Free Contacts. Power source
doesnt have a direct connection with the contacts as shown in this figure.
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The following figure is another example of where the dry contact relays are needed. Same
is true for industrial control panels.
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EARTHING
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Points to be Earthed
Earthing is not done anyhow. According to IE rules and IEE (Institute of Electrical
Engineers) regulations,
Earth pin of 3-pin lighting plug sockets and 4-pin power plug should be efficiently
and permanently earthed.
All metal casing or metallic coverings containing or protecting any electric supply
line or apparatus such as GI pipes and conduits enclosing VIR or PVC cables, iron
clad switches, iron clad distribution fuse boards etc. should be earthed (connected
to earth).
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The frame of every generator, stationary motors and metallic parts of all
transformers used for controlling energy should be earthed by two separate and
yet distinct connections with the earth.
In a dc 3-wire system, the middle conductors should be earthed at the generating
station.
Stay wires that are for overhead lines should be connected to earth by connecting
at least one strand to the earth wires.
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Generally, copper wire can be used as earthing lead but, copper strip is also used for high
installation and it can handle the high fault current because of wider area than the copper
wire.
A hard-drawn bare copper wire is also used as an earthing lead. In this method, all earth
conductors connected to a common (one or more) connecting points and then, earthing
lead is used to connect earth electrode (earth plat) to the connecting point.
To increase the safety factor of installation, two copper wires are used as earthing lead to
connect the device metallic body to the earth electrode or earth plate. I.e. if we use two
earth electrodes or earth plats, there would be four earthing leads. It should not be
considered that the two earth leads are used as parallel paths to flow the fault currents
but both paths should work properly to carry the fault current because it is important for
better safety.
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Plate Earthing
In plate earthing system, a plate made up of either copper with dimensions 60cm x 60cm
x 3.18mm (i.e. 2ft x 2ft x 1/8 in) or galvanized iron (GI) of dimensions 60cm x 60cm x
6.35 mm (2ft x 2ft x in) is buried vertical in the earth (earth pit) which should not be
less than 3m (10ft) from the ground level.
For proper earthing system, follow the above-mentioned steps in the (Earth Plate
introduction) to maintain the moisture condition around the earth electrode or earth
plate.
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Pipe Earthing
A galvanized steel and a perforated pipe of approved length and diameter is placed
vertically in a wet soil in this kind of system of earthing. It is the most common system of
earthing.
The size of pipe to use depends on the magnitude of current and the type of soil. The
dimension of the pipe is usually 40mm (1.5in) in diameter and 2.75m (9ft) in length for
ordinary soil or greater for dry and rocky soil. The moisture of the soil will determine the
length of the pipe to be buried but usually it should be 4.75m (15.5ft).
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Rod Earthing
It is the same method as pipe earthing. A copper rod of 12.5mm (1/2 inch) diameter or
16mm (0.6in) diameter of galvanized steel or hollow section 25mm (1inch) of GI pipe of
length above 2.5m (8.2 ft) are buried upright in the earth manually or with the help of a
pneumatic hammer. The length of embedded electrodes in the soil reduces earth
resistance to a desired value.
In this method of earthing, the waterman (Galvanized GI) pipes are used for earthing
purpose. Make sure to check the resistance of GI pipes and use earthing clamps to
minimize the resistance for proper earthing connection.
If stranded conductor is used as earth wire, then clean the end of the strands of the wire
and make sure it is in the straight and parallel position which is possible then to connect
tightly to the waterman pipe.
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a cross-section of 25mm x 4mm (1in x 0.15in) is used and a dimension of 3.0mm2 if its a
galvanized iron or steel.
If at all round conductors are used, their cross-section area should not be too small, say
less than 6.0mm2 if its a galvanized iron or steel. The length of the conductor buried in
the ground would give a sufficient earth resistance and this length should not be less than
15m.
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in electrical appliances, it does so only when there is problem and only to direct the
unwanted current to earth in order to protect us from severe shock.
In addition, if a live wire touches accidentally (in a faulty system) to the metallic part of a
machine. Now, if a man touches that metallic part of the machine, then the current will
flow through their body to the ground, hence, he will get shocked (electrocuted) which
may lead to serious injuries even to death. Thats why earthing is so important.
IEC terminology
International standard IEC 60364 distinguishes three families of earthing arrangements,
using the two-letter codes TN, TT, and IT.
The first letter indicates the connection between earth and the power-supply equipment
(generator or transformer):
"T" Direct connection of a point with earth (Latin: terra)
"I" No point is connected with earth (isolation), except perhaps via a high
impedance.
The second letter indicates the connection between earth or network and the electrical
device being supplied:
"T" Earth connection is by a local direct connection to earth (Latin: terra),
usually via a ground rod.
"N" Earth connection is supplied by the electricity supply Network, either as a
separate protective earth (PE) conductor or combined with the neutral conductor.
Types of TN networks
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to the star point in a three-phase system, or that carries the return current in a single-
phase system, is called neutral (N). Three variants of TN systems are distinguished:
TNS
PE and N are separate conductors that are connected together only near the power source.
TNC
A combined PEN conductor fulfils the functions of both a PE and an N conductor. (on
230/400v systems normally only used for distribution networks)
TNCS
Part of the system uses a combined PEN conductor, which is at some point split up into
separate PE and N lines. The combined PEN conductor typically occurs between the
substation and the entry point into the building, and earth and neutral are separated in
the service head. In the UK, this system is also known as protective multiple earthing
(PME), because of the practice of connecting the combined neutral-and-earth conductor
to real earth at many locations, to reduce the risk of electric shock in the event of a broken
PEN conductor. Similar systems in Australia and New Zealand are designated as multiple
earthed neutral (MEN) and, in North America, as multi-grounded neutral (MGN).
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TN-S EARTHING
It is possible to have both TN-S and TN-C-S supplies taken from the same transformer.
For example, the sheaths on some underground cables corrode and stop providing good
earth connections, and so homes where high resistance "bad earths" are found may be
converted to TN-C-S. This is only possible on a network when the neutral is suitably
robust against failure, and conversion is not always possible. The PEN must be suitable
reinforced against failure, as an open circuit PEN can impress full phase voltage on any
exposed metal connected to the system earth downstream of the break. The alternative is
to provide a local earth and convert to TT. The main attraction of a TN network is the low
impedance earth path allows easy automatic disconnection (ADS) on a high current
circuit in the case of a line-to-PE short circuit as the same breaker or fuse will operate for
either L-N or L-PE faults, and an RCD is not needed to detect earth faults.
TT network
In a TT (Terra-Terra) earthing system, the protective earth connection for the consumer
is provided by a local earth electrode, (sometimes referred to as the Terra-Firma
connection) and there is another independently installed at the generator. There is no
'earth wire' between the two. The fault loop impedance is higher, and unless the electrode
impedance is very low indeed, a TT installation should always have an RCD (GFCI) as its
first isolator.
The big advantage of the TT earthing system is the reduced conducted interference from
other users' connected equipment. TT has always been preferable for special applications
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like telecommunication sites that benefit from the interference-free earthing. Also, TT
networks do not pose any serious risks in the case of a broken neutral. In addition, in
locations where power is distributed overhead, earth conductors are not at risk of
becoming live should any overhead distribution conductor be fractured by, say, a fallen
tree or branch.
In pre-RCD era, the TT earthing
system was unattractive for general
use because of the difficulty of
arranging reliable automatic
disconnection (ADS) in the case of a
line-to-PE short circuit (in
comparison with TN systems, where
the same breaker or fuse will operate
for either L-N or L-PE faults). But as
residual current devices mitigate
this disadvantage, the TT earthing
system has become much more
attractive providing that all AC
power circuits are RCD-protected.
In some countries (such as the UK)
is recommended for situations
where a low impedance
equipotential zone is impractical to
maintain by bonding, where there In a TT (Terra-Terra) earthing system, the protective
earth connection for the consumer is provided by a local earth electrode, (sometimes
referred to as the Terra-Firma connection) and there is another independently installed
at the generator. There is no 'earth wire' between the two. The fault loop impedance is
higher, and unless the electrode impedance is very low indeed, a TT installation should
always have an RCD (GFCI) as its first isolator.
The big advantage of the TT earthing system is the reduced conducted interference from
other users' connected equipment. TT has always been preferable for special applications
like telecommunication sites that benefit from the interference-free earthing. Also, TT
networks do not pose any serious risks in the case of a broken neutral. In addition, in
locations where power is distributed overhead, earth conductors are not at risk of
becoming live should any overhead distribution conductor be fractured by, say, a fallen
tree or branch.
In pre-RCD era, the TT earthing system was unattractive for general use because of the
difficulty of arranging reliable automatic disconnection (ADS) in the case of a line-to-PE
short circuit (in comparison with TN systems, where the same breaker or fuse will operate
for either L-N or L-PE faults). But as residual current devices mitigate this disadvantage,
the TT earthing system has become much more attractive providing that all AC power
circuits are RCD-protected. In some countries (such as the UK) is recommended for
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IT network
In an IT network, the electrical distribution system has no connection to earth at all, or it
has only a high impedance connection.
Comparison
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DIODES
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What is a Diode?
A semiconductor device with two terminals, typically allowing
the flow of current in one direction only.
A diode is a specialized electronic component with two electrodes called the anode and
the cathode. Most diodes are made with semiconductor materials such as silicon,
germanium, or selenium. Some diodes are comprised of metal electrodes in a chamber
evacuated or filled with a pure elemental gas at low pressure. Diodes can be used as
rectifiers, signal limiters, voltage regulators, switches, signal modulators, signal mixers,
signal demodulators, and oscillators.
Diode operation: (a) Current flow is permitted; the diode is forward biased. (b) Current
flow is prohibited; the diode is reversed biased.
When the polarity of the battery is such that electrons are allowed to flow through the
diode, the diode is said to be forward-biased. Conversely, when the battery is backward
and the diode blocks current, the diode is said to be reverse-biased. A diode may be
thought of as like a switch: closed when forward-biased and open when reverse-
biased.
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The list below provides a summary of some of the more widely used diode specifications,
parameters and limits detailing their meanings.
The list below provides details of the various diode characteristics, and diode parameters
found in the datasheets and specifications for diodes.
Forward voltage drops (Vf) Any electronics device passing current will
develop a resulting voltage across it and this diode characteristic is of great
importance, especially for power rectification where power losses will be higher for
a high forward voltage drop. Also, RF diodes often need a small forward voltage
drop as signals may be small but still need to overcome it.
The voltage across a PN junction diode arise for two reasons. The first of the nature
of the semiconductor PN junction and results from the turn-on voltage mentioned
above. This voltage enables the depletion layer to be overcome and for current to
flow. The second arises from the normal resistive losses in the device. As a result,
a figure for the forward voltage drop are a specified current level will be given. This
figure is particularly important for rectifier diodes where significant levels of
current may be passed.
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) This diode characteristics is the maximum voltage
a diode can withstand in the reverse direction. This voltage must not be exceeded
otherwise the device may fail. This voltage is not simply the RMS voltage of the
incoming waveform. Each circuit needs to be considered on its own merits, but for
a simple single diode half wave rectifier with some form of smoothing capacitor
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afterwards, it should be remembered that the capacitor will hold a voltage equal to
the peak of the incoming voltage waveform. The diode will then also see the peak
of the incoming waveform in the reverse direction and therefore under these
circumstances it will see a peak inverse voltage equal to the peak to peak value of
the waveform.
Maximum forward current When designing a circuit that passes any levels
of current it is necessary to ensure that the maximum current levels for the diode
are not exceeded. As the current levels rise, so additional heat is dissipated and this
needs to be removed.
Leakage current If a perfect diode were available, then no current would flow
when it was reverse biased. It is found that for a real PN junction diode, a very
small amount of current flow in the reverse direction as a result of the minority
carriers in the semiconductor. The level of leakage current is dependent upon three
main factors. The reverse voltage is obviously significant. It is also temperature
dependent, rising appreciably with temperature. It is also found that it is very
dependent upon the type of semiconductor material used - silicon is very much
better than germanium.
The leakage current characteristic or specification for a PN junction diode is
specified at a certain reverse voltage and particular temperature. The specification
is normally defined in terms of in microamps, A or picoamps, pA.
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the overall diode parameters because high power diodes may require packages that
can be bolted to heat sinks, whereas small signal diodes may be available in leaded
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Applications of Diodes
While only two pin semiconductor devices, there are a number of applications of diodes
that are vital in modern electronics. Diodes are known for only allowing current to move
in one direction through the component.
This lets a diode acts as a one-way valve, keeping signals where they need to be or routing
them around components. While diodes only let current move in one direction, each type
of diode acts differently, making a number of useful applications for diodes.
Some of the typical applications of diodes include:
Rectifying a voltage, such as turning AC into DC voltages
Isolating signals from a supply
Voltage Reference
Controlling the size of a signal
Mixing signals
Detection signals
Lighting
Lasers diodes
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Backward Diode
This type of diode is also called the back diode, and it is not widely used. The backward
diode is a PN-junction diode that is similar to the tunnel diode in its process. It finds a
few special applications where its specific properties can be used.
BARITT Diode
The short term of this diode Barrier Injection Transit Time diode is BARITT diode. It is
applicable in microwave applications and allows many comparisons to the more widely
used IMPATT diode.
Gunn Diode
Gunn diode is a PN junction diode, this sort of diode is a semiconductor device that has
two terminals. Generally, it is used for producing microwave signals.
Laser Diode
The laser diode is not the similar as the ordinary LED
(light emitting diode) because it generates coherent
light. These diodes are extensively used in many
applications like DVDs, CD drives and laser light
pointers for PPTs. Although these diodes are
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inexpensive than other types of laser generator, they are much more expensive than LEDs.
They also have a partial life.
Photodiode
The photodiode is used to detect light. It is found that when light strikes a PN-junction it
can create electrons and holes. Typically, photodiodes operate under reverse bias
condition where even a small amount of flow of current resulting from the light can be
simply noticed. These diodes can also be used to produce electricity.
PIN Diode
This type of diode is characterized by its construction. It has the standard P-type & N-type
regions, but the area between the two regions namely intrinsic semiconductor has no
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doping. The region of the intrinsic semiconductor has the effect of increasing the area of
the depletion region which can be beneficial for switching applications.
PN Junction Diode
The standard PN junction may
be thought of as the normal or
standard type of diode in use
today. These diodes can come as
small signal types for use in RF
(radio frequency), or other low
current applications which may
be called as signal diodes. Other
types may be planned for high
voltage and high current
applications and are normally
named rectifier diodes.
Schottky Diode
The Schottky diode has a lower forward voltage drop than ordinary Si PN-junction diodes.
At low currents, the voltage drop may be
between 0.15 & 0.4 volts as opposed to
0.6 volts for a Si diode. To attain this
performance, they are designed in a
different way to compare with normal
diodes having a metal to semiconductor
contact. These diodes are extensively
used in rectifier application, clamping
diodes, and also in RF applications.
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Tunnel Diode
The tunnel diode is used for microwave applications where its performance surpassed
that of other devices of the day.
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Zener Diode
The Zener diode is used to provide a stable reference voltage. As a result, it is used in vast
amounts. It works under reverse bias condition and found that when a particular voltage
is reached it breaks down. If the flow of current is limited by a resistor, it activates a stable
voltage to be generated. This type of diode is widely used to offer a reference voltage in
power supplies.
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these electronic safeguards. Manufacturers typically chose either a diode or transistor for
reverse battery protection.
The simplest protection against reverse battery protection is a diode in series with the
battery, as seen in Figure 1.
In Figure 1, the diode becomes forward biased and the loads normal operating current
flows through the diode. When the battery is installed backwards, the diode reverse
biases and no current flows. This approach is used for any battery type, from single-cell
alkaline to multiple Li-Ion, but it has two major disadvantages. The forward voltage drop
across the diode shortens the usable battery life, i.e., a dual alkaline battery pack capable
of providing 1.8 V, is limited to 1.8 V 0.6 V = 1.2 V. In addition, the efficiency of the
power circuitry (e.g., a boost converter) following the battery suffers due to this drop. To
minimize these disadvantages, many designers use a Schottky diode, since its forward
drop is lower than that of a regular diode. However, the disadvantage of using a Schottky
diode is that it is more expensive than a standard diode.
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