28 - Jarzynski1990 - Mechanisms of Sound Attenuation in Materials

Chapter 10
Mechanisms of Sound Attenuation in Materials
Jacek Jarzynski
George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute

of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332-0405
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This review begins with the fundamentals of

sound propagation i n a lossy material. The
Publication Date: May 1, 1990 | doi: 10.1021/bk-1990-0424.ch010
complex wavenumber and sound speed are

defined and are related to the complex
e l a s t i c moduli and the attenuation
c o e f f i c i e n t of the lossy medium. The
mechanisms of sound attenuation are (1)
scattering by inhomogeneities, (2) mode
conversion at boundaries, (3) r e d i r e c t i o n ,
and (4) intrinsic absorption by conversion t o
heat i n a v i s c o e l a s t i c material. Many diverse
designs, both materials and structures, have
been developed t o attenuate air-borne and
water-borne sound. V i s c o e l a s t i c polymers have
unique mechanical properties which make these
materials widely used i n sound attenuating
coatings. The attenuation and dipersion of
sound i n a lossy material are r e l a t e d by the
Kramers-Kronig equations, which e s t a b l i s h
very general constraints on the maximum
absorption of sound by v i s c o e l a s t i c polymers.
Sound attenuation i s defined as the decrease i n i n t e n s i t y

of the sound signal as i t propagates from the source t o
the receiver. This d e f i n i t i o n does not, however, include
the change i n i n t e n s i t y due to geometrical spreading of
the sound wave (such as, for example, the spherical
spreading of the sound i n the f a r f i e l d of a f i n i t e
0097-6156/90/0424-0167$11.25A)
© 1990 American Chemical Society
In Sound and Vibration Damping with Polymers; Corsaro, R., et al.;

ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1990.
168 SOUND AND VIBRATION DAMPING WITH POLYMERS
source). The o b j e c t i v e of t h i s a r t i c l e i s t o review the

many d i v e r s e designs (materials and s t r u c t u r e s ) which
have been developed t o attenuate a i r - b o r n e and
water-borne sound. A l s o reviewed are the unique
mechanical p r o p e r t i e s of v i s c o e l a s t i c polymers, which
make these m a t e r i a l s widely used i n sound a t t e n u a t i n g
coatings. T h i s review emphasizes b a s i c concepts, and
omits p r a c t i c a l design d e t a i l s and d i s c u s s i o n o f methods
f o r measuring the performance of c o a t i n g s . The
r e f e r e n c e s given here are r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f the v a r i o u s
areas o f research, r a t h e r than complete, with some

emphasis given t o more recent p u b l i c a t i o n s which can be

c o n s u l t e d f o r r e f e r e n c e s t o e a r l i e r work.
The mechanisms of sound a t t e n u a t i o n i n c l u d e
(1) s c a t t e r i n g by inhomogeneities, (2) mode conversion a t
boundaries, (3) r e d i r e c t i o n , and (4) i n t r i n s i c absorption
by conversion t o heat i n a v i s c o e l a s t i c m a t e r i a l . In the
present review the term absorption i s used s p e c i f i c a l l y
f o r the conversion o f sound energy t o heat by v a r i o u s
r e l a x a t i o n processes i n the m a t e r i a l (molecular and
s t r u c t u r a l r e l a x a t i o n ) , while the term a t t e n u a t i o n i s
used f o r any process, other than geometrical spreading,
which leads t o a decrease i n the sound amplitude. The
a t t e n u a t i o n of sound has become an i n c r e a s i n g l y important
i s s u e i n many f i e l d s . In the case o f a i r - b o r n e sound,
a t t e n u a t i o n i s important i n i n d u s t r i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s such
as i n s u l a t i o n f o r r e s i d e n t i a l and i n d u s t r i a l b u i l d i n g s ,
and i n s u l a t i o n and noise r e d u c t i o n f o r automotive and
a i r c r a f t transportation. In underwater a c o u s t i c s
a t t e n u a t i o n o f sound i s important f o r sonar and flow
noise t e s t f a c i l i t i e s , and i n s u l a t i o n and b a f f l e s i n
sonar systems, and f o r r e d u c t i o n o f sound r a d i a t i o n and
echoes from s h i p s and submarines. In a l l o f the above
a p p l i c a t i o n s the medium through which the sound
propagates i s a f l u i d ( a i r o r water) which supports only
one type o f wave, namely a l o n g i t u d i n a l wave. The

10. JARZYNSKI Sound Attenuation in Materials 169
m a j o r i t y of the above a p p l i c a t i o n s i n v o l v e e i t h e r
r e d u c t i o n of the r e f l e c t i o n (echo), or r e d u c t i o n of
transmission, f o r an a i r or water-borne sound wave
i n c i d e n t on a s o l i d s t r u c t u r e (such as a w a l l , or a duct,
in a building). Another, r e l a t e d , f i e l d of a p p l i c a t i o n
f o r sound a t t e n u a t i n g m a t e r i a l s i s noise r e d u c t i o n , that
is, r e d u c t i o n of r a d i a t i o n of sound from s o l i d structures
such as machinery and a p p l i a n c e s . Here the sound
a t t e n u a t i n g m a t e r i a l i s o f t e n a p p l i e d as a damping l a y e r
t o reduce the l e v e l of v i b r a t i o n of s e l e c t e d components
of the s t r u c t u r e .
The b a s i c concepts and d e f i n i t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o sound

propagation i n a l o s s y m a t e r i a l are reviewed. The
m a t e r i a l may be a v i s c o e l a s t i c polymer which converts the
sound energy t o heat by molecular r e l a x a t i o n , or the
m a t e r i a l may be a composite where sound i s s c a t t e r e d by
inhomogeneities ( i n c l u s i o n s ) i n a host matrix m a t e r i a l .
In each case the a t t e n u a t i o n of sound can be formally
represented by d e f i n i n g a complex wavenumber, where the
sound a t t e n u a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t i s the imaginary p a r t of
the wavenumber. The complex wavenumber a l s o leads t o the
d e f i n i t i o n of a complex sound speed and a complex dynamic
e l a s t i c modulus.
The v a r i o u s mechanisms of sound a t t e n u a t i o n in
m a t e r i a l s are d e s c r i b e d . At present, the m a t e r i a l s most
f r e q u e n t l y used t o attenuate sound are v i s c o e l a s t i c
polymers where the mechanism of sound a t t e n u a t i o n is
conversion t o heat by molecular r e l a x a t i o n processes.
The s t r e s s - s t r a i n relations for v i s c o e l a s t i c materials
are reviewed. The simplest case of i n t r i n s i c absorption
i n polymers i s a molecular r e l a x a t i o n mechanism with a
s i n g l e r e l a x a t i o n time. However, the r e l a x a t i o n
mechanisms which l e a d t o absorption of sound are u s u a l l y
more complicated, and are c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a d i s t r i b u t i o n
of r e l a x a t i o n times. Under causal l i n e a r response
c o n d i t i o n s the a t t e n u a t i o n and d i s p e r s i o n of sound i n a

l o s s y m a t e r i a l or, e q u i v a l e n t l y , the r e a l and imaginary

components o f the dynamic modulus, are r e l a t e d by the
Kramers-Kronig equations. I t i s pointed out t h a t these
r e l a t i o n s e s t a b l i s h very general c o n s t r a i n t s on the
maximum absorption o f sound by v i s c o l e a s t i c polymers.
THE FUNDAMENTALS OF SOUND PROPAGATION IN A LOSSY MATERIAL
The simplest and a t the same time a very b a s i c type o f

sound s i g n a l i s a plane harmonic wave. F i g . l a shows a
plane harmonic wave t r a v e l l i n g i n the x d i r e c t i o n i n a
l o s s l e s s medium. The a c o u s t i c pressure, p, as a f u n c t i o n

of time and p o s i t i o n i s [1,2],
p = p cos (kx-(*)t + (p )
Q Q (1)
where P i s the amplitude, and 0 i s the i n i t i a l phase,

Q Q
of the wave. The t o t a l phase 0 a t p o s i t i o n x and time t

i s <f> = kx-wt + 0 , and the wave i s plane because the
q
wavefronts (surfaces o f constant phase) are planes

perpendicular t o the x a x i s . The wavenumber, k, and the
angular frequency, C J , are r e l a t e d r e s p e c t i v e l y t o t h e
wavelength, A, and frequency, f , o f the wave as f o l l o w s :
(2)
The wave i s harmonic because i t has the s i n g l e frequency

f a s s o c i a t e d with i t . The plane harmonic wave i s an
idealization. A c t u a l sound waves are t r a n s i e n t s i g n a l s
with a f i n i t e time o f d u r a t i o n . However, the harmonic
wave i s a b a s i c s i g n a l s i n c e any t r a n s i e n t s i g n a l can be
represented as a s u p e r p o s i t i o n of harmonic waves with
different frequencies.
I t i s o f t e n convenient t o use a complex number
representation f o r sound waves [2]. The harmonic wave i s
represented by the complex exponential,
i(kx-(jt + 0 ) Q
(3)
P =

where the p h y s i c a l wave (Eq.l) i s the r e a l p a r t o f the

complex q u a n t i t y r e p r e s e n t i n g the sound wave.
In a l o s s l e s s medium sound waves propagate with a
constant speed, c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the medium. For a
harmonic wave the speed o f sound i s simply r e l a t e d t o the
wavelength and the frequency as f o l l o w s [1,2],
c = Af = u/k . (4)
From Eq.4 i t f o l l o w s t h a t the sound wavelength i s

i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o the frequency. For example,
the speed o f sound i n a i r i s 346 m/sec (at 25°C and

atmospheric pressure) and so the wavelength A = 3.46

meters a t a frequency o f 100 c y c l e s / s e c (Hertz,Hz) and
A = 34.6 cm a t 1 k i l o h e r t z (kHz). In water a t the same
temperature and pressure c = 1496 m/sec so A = 14.96 m a t
100 Hz and X = 1.469 m a t 1 kHz. The i n c r e a s e i n the
wavelength o f sound with decreasing frequency has
important i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r the a t t e n u a t i o n o f sound.
Experiment shows t h a t when a homogeneous m a t e r i a l i s used
t o attenuate sound i t i s necessary t o use a l a y e r o f the
m a t e r i a l a t l e a s t A/2 t h i c k (where A i s the sound
wavelength i n the material) to obtain a s i g n i f i c a n t
r e d u c t i o n i n the sound l e v e l . Therefore, i n general,
treatments f o r a t t e n u a t i o n of sound become more bulky
with decreasing sound frequency.
The d i s c u s s i o n which f o l l o w s , o f sound propagation
i n a l o s s y m a t e r i a l , i s l i m i t e d t o the l i n e a r case. That
is, i t i s assumed t h a t the s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n i n the
lossy material i s linear. In t h i s case a plane, harmonic
sound wave propagating through the l o s s y m a t e r i a l decays
e x p o n e n t i a l l y with d i s t a n c e [ 3 ] ,
-ax i(k'x-cjt)
v 1
p = p e Q .e (5)
/ c x
as shown i n F i g . l b , where p i s the a c o u s t i c pressure a t

d i s t a n c e x from the reference p o i n t where the pressure i s

SOUND AND VIBRATION DAMPING WITH POLYMERS
A
Figure l a . Undamped p r o g r e s s i v e harmonic wave.
Figure l b . Damped p r o g r e s s i v e harmonic wave.

p , k' = 2n/X i s the r e a l p a r t o f the wavenumber, where X

i s the wavelength, and a i s the sound a t t e n u a t i o n
c o e f f i c i e n t i n nepers per meter. From Eq.5 i t f o l l o w s
t h a t sound a t t e n u a t i o n can be f o r m a l l y i n c l u d e d i n the
wavenumber by d e f i n i n g a complex wavenumber,
k* = k' + i k " = k' + itx (6)
The expression f o r the sound wave now has the same form,
p = p e x p [ i (k*x-o)t) ], as i n a l o s s l e s s medium.
Q The
complex wavenumber, s u b s t i t u t e d i n Eq.4, d e f i n e s a
complex sound speed f o r the m a t e r i a l as f o l l o w s ,

c = —- (7)
k
However, as shown i n F i g . l b , the propagation o f the

wave as a f u n c t i o n o f space and time i s s t i l l determined
by the phase v e l o c i t y , c, which i s r e l a t e d t o the r e a l
p a r t o f the wavenumber, c=(j/k' .
The e l a s t i c moduli o f a l o s s y m a t e r i a l can a l s o be
represented as complex q u a n t i t i e s [3,4]. The complex
dynamic modulus M* i s r e l a t e d t o the corresponding
complex sound speed c* as f o l l o w s [ 3 ] ,
2
M* = M' -iM" = pc* (8)
where p i s the d e n s i t y . In Eq.8 the imaginary p a r t o f

the modulus, M", has a negative sign. L a t e r i n the t e x t ,
i n Eq.23, the s i g n o f the imaginary component o f the
modulus i s p o s i t i v e . Both signs are p o s s i b l e , and the
choice o f the s i g n i s determined by the fundamental
requirement t h a t a harmonic sound wave propagating
through a l o s s y m a t e r i a l decays e x p o n e n t i a l l y with
distance. I f the time dependence f o r the harmonic wave
i s taken t o be e as i n Eq.5, then the s p a t i a l
l k x
dependence i s e and the imaginary p a r t o f the complex
wavenumber has a p o s i t i v e s i g n (Eq.6) t o ensure
exponential decay o f the sound wave. The p o s i t i v e k"

then leads, v i a Eqs.7 and 8, t o a negative s i g n f o r M".

i a ) t
Conversly, i f t h e time dependence i s taken t o be e
then M" has a p o s i t i v e s i g n .
Eq.8 has t h e same form as the r e l a t i o n between t h e
(real) e l a s t i c modulus and sound speed i n a l o s s l e s s
medium. From Eqs.6-8 i t f o l l o w s t h a t the sound
a t t e n u a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t i s r e l a t e d t o the complex e l a s t i c
modulus,
2
/2 2
( k - a ) + i(2k'a) = (1+ir) (9)
2
M' (1+r )
where r i s c a l l e d the l o s s f a c t o r , and i s t h e r a t i o o f

the imaginary t o the r e a l p a r t o f t h e modulus,
10
r = tan 5 = ( >
When r « l (and a « k ' ) t h e above r e l a t i o n s s i m p l i f y t o

2
k ,2 = pcj_ a n d a X = 7 r r
where t h e wavelength A = 27i/k' . Various experimental

techniques a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r measuring t h e complex moduli
of l o s s y m a t e r i a l s [4,5]. The experimental data shows
t h a t both t h e r e a l and t h e imaginary p a r t s o f a complex
modulus a r e frequency dependent. Once data on t h e
complex modulus M* i s a v a i l a b l e , then Eqs.9 and 11 a r e
very u s e f u l f o r p r e d i c t i n g from t h e data t h e a t t e n u a t i o n
c o e f f i c i e n t a f o r the lossy material.
The l o s s f a c t o r r i s an important q u a n t i t y f o r sound
attenuating materials. E q . l l shows t h a t r i s d i r e c t l y
r e l a t e d t o t h e a t t e n u a t i o n per wavelength f o r a harmonic
wave propagating through t h e m a t e r i a l . An a l t e r n a t e
expression f o r r can be d e r i v e d i n terms o f t h e energy
d i s s i p a t e d p e r one c y c l e (period) o f the sound wave.
T h i s expression i s d e r i v e d by c o n s i d e r i n g a c o n t r o l
volume ( f o r example, u n i t volume) i n the m a t e r i a l through
which t h e sound i s propagating. The t o t a l a c o u s t i c

energy ( k i n e t i c and p o t e n t i a l [ 2 ] ) , E , s t o r e d i n the

st
c o n t r o l volume i s c a l c u l a t e d , as w e l l as E , the
diss
energy removed by a t t e n u a t i o n from the sound wave i n t h e

c o n t r o l volume during one wave p e r i o d . I t can be shown
that [ 3 ],
E
r = tan s = 2 IJj
F1^ 12
< >
FT
st
A sound wave t r a n s p o r t s energy and t h e a c o u s t i c
i n t e n s i t y , I, i s d e f i n e d as the a c o u s t i c energy
t r a n s p o r t e d per u n i t area and time i n the d i r e c t i o n o f

propagation. For a plane t r a v e l l i n g wave i n a medium

with d e n s i t y p and phase v e l o c i t y c [ 2 ] ,
Both the t o t a l sound l e v e l , and the a t t e n u a t i o n o f sound,

are o f t e n expressed i n a dimensionless u n i t , the d e c i b e l ,
where the sound l e v e l (SL) i n d e c i b e l s i s ,
SL = -10 l o g | E! J = -20 l o g j J
XL (14)
where p i s the sound pressure a t the observation p o i n t .

For the a t t e n u a t i o n o f sound ( r e l a t i v e SL) p Q i s the
pressure a t some appropriate reference p o i n t , w h i l s t f o r
the t o t a l sound l e v e l p Q i s a f i x e d reference pressure
(usually p Q = 20 uPa f o r a i r - b o r n e sound, and p Q = 1 jiPa
f o r underwater sound). I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o s p e c i f y any
general c r i t e r i a on what c o n s t i t u t e s good performance f o r
sound a t t e n u a t i o n . However, i n many a p p l i c a t i o n s a
r e d u c t i o n i n echo l e v e l (or i n the l e v e l o f t r a n s m i t t e d
sound, depending on the a p p l i c a t i o n ) by 10 dB, 15 dB, o r
20 dB i s considered as s i g n i f i c a n t , good, o r very good,
respectively. Note t h a t a 20 dB r e d u c t i o n i n sound l e v e l
means a r e d u c t i o n o f the a c o u s t i c pressure p by a f a c t o r
of 10, which (according t o Eq.13) r e q u i r e s a t t e n u a t i o n o f
99% o f the i n c i d e n t sound energy.

From Eqs.5 and 14 i t f o l l o w s t h a t the a t t e n u a t i o n of

a sound wave propagating through a medium can be
expressed e i t h e r i n terms of the c o e f f i c i e n t a (nepers
per meter), or as a r e d u c t i o n i n sound l e v e l i n d e c i b e l s
per meter. The r e l a t i o n between these u n i t s of
a t t e n u a t i o n i s obtained by i n s e r t i n g x = 1 meter i n Eq.5,
and s u b s t i t u t i n g the r e s u l t i n Eq.14,
20 log(e)-a nepers/m (15)

where 20 log(e) = 8.686.

Most of the p u b l i c a t i o n s on sound a t t e n u a t i n g
m a t e r i a l s assume l i n e a r c o n d i t i o n s f o r the propagation of
sound i n the m a t e r i a l . Non-linear e f f e c t s can i n t r o d u c e
a d d i t i o n a l a t t e n u a t i o n mechanisms [6]. For example,
sound energy can be t r a n s f e r r e d from the o r i g i n a l
(fundamental) frequency component t o higher harmonics of
the propagating sound wave. However, t h e r e has been no
study so f a r t o determine a t what sound pressure l e v e l
n o n l i n e a r e f f e c t s may become important. Comparisons
between t h e o r e t i c a l p r e d i c t i o n s based on l i n e a r
c o n d i t i o n s and experimental data, i n the somewhat l i m i t e d
number of cases where such a comparison was made, suggest
t h a t the l i n e a r approximation i s adequate f o r most cases
of p r a c t i c a l interest.
The a t t e n u a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t a i s not the only f a c t o r
which determines the performance of an anechoic c o a t i n g .
E q u a l l y important i s the i n i t i a l t r a n s m i s s i o n of sound
from the surrounding medium ( u s u a l l y a i r or water) i n t o
the c o a t i n g . The s i m p l e s t case i s when the boundary
between the medium and the c o a t i n g i s a plane s u r f a c e , as
shown i n Fig.2a, and the sound i s i n c i d e n t normally. The

sound r e f l e c t i o n and sound t r a n s m i s s i o n r a t i o s then a r e

[1,2],
Pr V Z
o Pt
2 Z
a
(16)
p. z a + z o ' p. z zo
a +
where p. i s the i n c i d e n t , p i s the r e f l e c t e d and p. i s

. r
*
the t r a n s m i t t e d sound pressure, Z = p c i s the
a a a
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c impedance of the c o a t i n g m a t e r i a l , and
Z_ = p c i s the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c impedance o f the
o o o
surrounding medium. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c impedance i s an
important q u a n t i t y r e l a t e d t o r e f l e c t i o n and t r a n s m i s s i o n
of sound a t boundaries. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c impedance o f

a medium i s d e f i n e d as the r a t i o o f the a c o u s t i c pressure
to the p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y i n a p r o g r e s s i v e plane wave
propagating through the medium.
When the sound i s i n c i d e n t o b l i q u e l y on a plane
i n t e r f a c e (as shown i n Fig.2a), and i f both media support
only one type of wave (a l o n g i t u d i n a l wave i f the medium
i s a i r o r water), then Eq.15 can s t i l l be used t o
c a l c u l a t e the r e f l e c t i o n and t r a n s m i s s i o n coefficient.
However, the expressions f o r Z and Z are modified as
a o
follows [2,7],
where 0 i s the angle o f incidence, and <t> i s the angle o f

refraction. Note t h a t s i n 0 / s i n 0 = c / c * and sin0 i s
o
complex i f the c o a t i n g i s l o s s y . The wave t r a n s m i t t e d

i n t o a l o s s y c o a t i n g i s an inhomogeneous plane wave.
I f the c o a t i n g m a t e r i a l i s s o l i d , such as a v i s c o e l a s t i c
polymer, then an i n c i d e n t l o n g i t u d i n a l wave may generate
both l o n g i t u d i n a l and shear waves i n the c o a t i n g . The
expressions f o r the r e f l e c t i o n and t r a n s m i s s i o n
c o e f f i c i e n t s are then more complicated than Eqs.16 and 17
[8].
Eq.16 i s v a l i d when both the surrounding medium and

the l o s s y m a t e r i a l are of s e m i - i n f i n i t e extent. In

p r a c t i c e the a c o u s t i c a l c o a t i n g i s u s u a l l y a l a y e r of
f i n i t e t h i c k n e s s , or a s e r i e s of l a y e r s , a p p l i e d over a
solid structure. In a l a y e r of f i n i t e t h i c k n e s s multiple
r e f l e c t i o n s of sound occur, as shown i n Fig.2b, and a
standing wave p a t t e r n develops i n the l a y e r [2,3,9]. At
normal incidence an equation of the same form as Eq.16
still a p p l i e s , but Z i s now the input impedance a t the
a
i n t e r f a c e between the surrounding medium and the
acoustical coating. In t h i s case Z^ i s the r a t i o of the
a
a c o u s t i c pressure t o the p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y a t the f r o n t

surface of the c o a t i n g , and i s a f u n c t i o n of (1) the
complex moduli and the d e n s i t y of the c o a t i n g m a t e r i a l ,
(2) the t h i c k n e s s of the c o a t i n g , and (3) the input
impedance of the backing s t r u c t u r e over which the coating
i s applied [10]. When the sound i s i n c i d e n t at some
angle 9 t o the normal at the surface of the c o a t i n g the
expressions f o r P /P^
r and P /P^
t are more complicated than
Eq.16. The complete expressions f o r the r e f l e c t i o n and
transmission c o e f f i c i e n t s of a m u l t i l a y e r c o a t i n g , at
a r b i t r a r y angle of incidence, and i n c l u d i n g generation of
both shear and l o n g i t u d i n a l waves i n the c o a t i n g , are
given by Folds [10].(The r e f l e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t f o r a
f i n i t e t h i c k n e s s c o a t i n g l a y e r i s discussed i n more
d e t a i l i n the chapter by Corsaro, Covey and Spryn i n t h i s
book).
From Eq.16 i t f o l l o w s t h a t complete transmission
(zero r e f l e c t i o n ) occurs when the impedances of the two
m a t e r i a l s match, Z^ = Z . However, when the surrounding
a o
medium has a low sound a t t e n u a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t , l i k e a i r
or water, the sound speed c i s a r e a l q u a n t i t y , w h i l s t
* ^
the c i n the c o a t i n g has an imaginary p a r t . A high
a
a t t e n u a t i o n i n the c o a t i n g m a t e r i a l leads t o a l a r g e
imaginary component f o r c*, t h e r e f o r e a l a r g e impedance
a
mismatch and a strong r e f l e c t i o n from the f r o n t s u r f a c e .
Various c o a t i n g designs have been developed t o minimize

the above problem. One s u c c e s s f u l design i s a

m u l t i l a y e r , gradual t r a n s i t i o n c o a t i n g [11,12]. In t h i s
design the outer l a y e r i s low-loss m a t e r i a l with a good
impedance match t o the surrounding medium. Successive
l a y e r s are then designed t o have a g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s i n g
attenuation. Another s u c c e s s f u l design i s a wedge
s t r u c t u r e c o n s i s t i n g o f an array o f sound absorbing
wedges [11,13]. The wedge c o a t i n g can be approximately
modeled as a gradual t r a n s i t i o n l a y e r [14]. The outer
l a y e r of the wedge c o a t i n g i s mainly the surrounding
medium with a small f r a c t i o n o f the l o s s y wedge m a t e r i a l .

Therefore the outer l a y e r i s a good impedance match t o

the surrounding medium. Successive l a y e r s o f the c o a t i n g
are more a t t e n u a t i n g as the f r a c t i o n o f the wedge
material increases. Wedge coatings a r e widely used i n
the design o f anechoic chambers f o r a i r a c o u s t i c s
measurements. The performance o f a t y p i c a l wedge c o a t i n g
i n a i r i s shown i n F i g . 3 . I t can be seen t h a t t h i s type
of c o a t i n g i s f a i r l y broadband, with peak performance i n
the frequency range where the wedge l e n g t h i s a l e a s t
A/2, where A i s the sound wavelength i n the surrounding
medium.
Most a t t e n u a t i n g c o a t i n g designs use m a t e r i a l s with
a high i n t r i n s i c sound a b s o r p t i o n t o f i n a l l y convert the
sound energy t o heat. T h i s m a t e r i a l may be c o n f i g u r e d i n
d i f f e r e n t ways, such as m u l t i p l e l a y e r s , o r absorbing
wedges. The absorbing m a t e r i a l s used i n many c o a t i n g
designs a r e v i s c o e l a s t i c polymers. These polymers a r e
u s u a l l y i s o t r o p i c s o l i d s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by two e l a s t i c
moduli, f o r example the bulk modulus K, and the shear
modulus G. The two types of a c o u s t i c waves which can
propagate i n the unbounded m a t e r i a l [8] a r e the
longitudinal ( d i l a t a t i o n a l ) wave with sound speed
K +
2 (18)
c.L
P

A i r or Water
p c
a a
Acoustic coating
Figure 2a. R e f l e c t i o n and transmission o f sound a t

the f l u i d - a c o u s t i c c o a t i n g i n t e r f a c e .
A i r or Water
Acoustic coating layer
Figure 2b. R e f l e c t i o n o f sound from an acoustic

c o a t i n g l a y e r on a backing s t r u c t u r e .
£ 60 r
Q
55
D
O
CO
Q
W
CJ
w
.J
w
500
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 3. Wedge absorber i n a i r . Glass wool
wedge.

(where p i s the d e n s i t y and, a t s o n i c f r e q u e n c i e s , K i s

the a d i a b a t i c bulk modulus), and the shear wave with
sound speed
For a v i s c o e l a s t i c m a t e r i a l both K and G are complex

quantities. When the m a t e r i a l sample has f i n i t e
dimensions other modes o f wave propagation may occur as a
r e s u l t o f m u l t i p l e s c a t t e r i n g from the m a t e r i a l
boundaries. Mode conversion from l o n g i t u d i n a l wave t o
shear wave, and v i c e v e r s a , occurs on r e f l e c t i o n a t a

s o l i d boundary. For m a t e r i a l samples i n the form o f t h i n

rods o r p l a t e s the modes o f wave propagation a r e
e x t e n i o n a l waves (with speed determined by t h e Young's
modulus, o r the p l a t e modulus), and f l e x u r a l (bending)
waves [ 8 ] .
In a l o n g i t u d i n a l wave the p a r t i c l e motion i s
p a r a l l e l t o the d i r e c t i o n o f wave propagation, w h i l s t i n
a shear wave the p a r t i c l e motion i s t r a n s v e r s e t o the
d i r e c t i o n o f propagation. The shear modulus G = 0 f o r
f l u i d s . Therefore only l o n g i t u d i n a l waves propagate i n
f l u i d s such as a i r o r water. I t f o l l o w s from Eq.18 t h a t
the p a r t i c l e motion produced by a l o n g i t u d i n a l wave can
be expressed as the sum of compressional and shear
strains. The sound speed i s r e l a t e d t o the a d i a b a t i c
bulk modulus o f the f l u i d by Eq.18. The shear s t r a i n s i n
the l o n g i t u d i n a l wave i n a f l u i d l e a d t o v i s c o u s f o r c e s
which convert some o f the a c o u s t i c energy t o heat. The
a t t e n u a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t f o r v i s c o u s a b s o r p t i o n o f sound
i n a f l u i d i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o the v i s c o s i t y o f the f l u i d
and t o the a c o u s t i c frequency squared [15]. In f l u i d s
with low v i s c o s i t y , such as a i r o r water, t h e v i s c o u s
a b s o r p t i o n i s n e g l i g i b l e a t frequencies below t h e
megahertz range [15]. Therefore, i n a l l c a l c u l a t i o n s

r e l a t e d t o sound a t t e n u a t i n g coatings the speed o f sound,

c , Q i n a i r o r water i s taken t o be a r e a l q u a n t i t y .
In c o n c l u s i o n , i t f o l l o w s from the above d i s c u s s i o n
t h a t t h e design o f anechoic coatings r e q u i r e s both
development o f m a t e r i a l s with a high i n t r i n s i c absorption
of sound, and t h e development o f composite s t r u c t u r e s
(such as the wedge s t r u c t u r e ) t o ensure a good impedance
match between t h e c o a t i n g and t h e surrounding medium, t o
optimize the a t t e n u a t i o n o f sound. A discussion of
v a r i o u s composite s t r u c t u r e s f o r o p t i m i z i n g t h e
a t t e n u a t i o n o f sound i s presented i n the next s e c t i o n .

The most widely used m a t e r i a l s f o r absorption o f sound

are v i s c o e l a s t i c polymers, and these m a t e r i a l a r e
d i s c u s s e d i n a separate s e c t i o n .
MECHANISMS OF ACOUSTICAL ATTENUATION
One o f t h e mechanisms f o r a c o u s t i c a l a t t e n u a t i o n listed

i n t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n , i s r e d i r e c t i o n o f sound. Direct
r e f l e c t i o n s from a s u r f a c e can be reduced by t r e a t i n g t h e
s u r f a c e with a c o u s t i c a l t i l e s with input impedance Z a
a
which i s a l t e r n a t e l y higher and lower than t h e impedance
Z Q o f the surrounding medium. When Z < Z
a Q i t f o l l o w s from
Eq.16 t h a t the phase o f p r i s reversed on r e f l e c t i o n , and
the r e f l e c t e d sound i n t e r f e r e s d e s t r u c t i v e l y ( i n t h e
b a c k s c a t t e r d i r e c t i o n ) with sound r e f l e c t e d from an
adjacent high impedance t i l e . I f the a c o u s t i c t i l e s a r e
arranged i n a random p a t t e r n , with a range o f values o f
Z , the i n c i d e n t sound i s converted t o a d i f f u s e
a
r e f l e c t e d sound f i e l d . T h i s arrangement has a p p l i c a t i o n
i n a r c h i t e c t u r a l a c o u s t i c s [16,17,18].
A second mechnism f o r sound a t t e n u a t i o n i s mode
conversion. The sound waves i n a i r o r water a r e
l o n g i t u d i n a l waves, where the p a r t i c l e motion i s p a r a l l e l
to t h e d i r e c t i o n o f sound propagation. With a p p r o p r i a t e
boundary c o n d i t i o n s the l o n g i t u d i n a l deformation can be
converted t o shear deformation or t o viscous flow.
Conversion t o v i s c o u s flow i s most r e a d i l y achieved a t

the boundaries i n porous or f i b r o u s m a t e r i a l s [11,19,20].

The v i s c o u s flow i s then converted t o heat by molecular
collisions. The end r e s u l t i s a t t e n u a t i o n o f the sound
wave as i t propagates through the porous composite.
S i g n i f i c a n t mode conversion i s achieved when the motion
of the medium r e l a t i v e t o the porous framework i s
maximum, t h a t i s , when the porous framework i s r i g i d
r e l a t i v e t o the medium. This condition i s easier t o
achieve i n a i r , where there i s a l a r g e impedance mismatch
between the a i r and any s o l i d porous framework. Also, i t
i s e a s i e r t o achieve an impedance match between a i r and a

porous, o p e n - c e l l , m a t e r i a l ( i n t o which a i r can f l o w ) ,

than between a i r and a c l o s e d - c e l l or s o l i d m a t e r i a l .
Therefore, porous v i s c o u s absorbers are f r e q u e n t l y used
to attenuate a i r - b o r n e sound. The performance o f a
v i s c o u s absorber can be optimized by p l a c i n g the porous
l a y e r i n a r e g i o n of maximum p a r t i c l e motion. Relative
to the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c impedance o f a i r , the s u r f a c e o f
any s o l i d s t r u c t u r e i s approximately a s o l i d boundary.
Therefore, i n a i r the porous l a y e r should be p l a c e d a t
approximately A/4 from the s u r f a c e o f the backing
wall. A l t e r n a t e l y the c o a t i n g can be designed as a
honeycomb panel with small holes i n the f r o n t s u r f a c e .
The honeycomb c a v i t i e s a c t l i k e Helmholtz resonators.
Near the resonance frequency there i s l a r g e p a r t i c l e
motion a t the holes i n the f r o n t s u r f a c e which leads t o
strong v i s c o u s a t t e n u a t i o n of the i n c i d e n t sound [ 7 ] .
An i n t e r e s t i n g type of v i s c o u s absorber, developed
by Meyer e t . a l . [21] f o r underwater operation, i s shown
i n Fig.4. I t i s c l e a r t h a t i n t h i s case the l o n g i t u d i n a l
p a r t i c l e motion i s converted to a transverse viscous
flow. The peak performance (and frequency range) o f t h i s
absorber are f u n c t i o n s of the mass of the cover p l a t e ,
and the v i s c o s i t y of the l i q u i d between the cover p l a t e
and the backing structure. Tests i n a w a t e r - f i l l e d
impedance tube have shown t h a t a r e l a t i v e l y broadband

Viscous liquid
Water
Figure 4, Thin v i s c o u s absorber f o r water-borne

sound.

performance ( i n the range of 250 Hz t o s e v e r a l k i l o h e r t z )

with a peak echo r e d u c t i o n of 20 dB can be achieved.
T h i s d e s i g n i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g because a h i g h
echo r e d u c t i o n i s achieved with a very t h i n c o a t i n g . The
t h i c k n e s s of the c o a t i n g i s t y p i c a l l y * A/100, where A i s
the wavelength, i n water, of the i n c i d e n t sound. A major
disadvantage of the absorber i n Fig.4 i s t h a t i t i s very
pressure s e n s i t i v e , and i s unable t o support any i n c r e a s e
i n ambient p r e s s u r e . T h i s absorber i s a l s o s e n s i t i v e t o
changes i n temperature, because the v i s c o s i t y of the
l i q u i d used i n the c o a t i n g changes with temperature.

Another example of mode conversion i s the c o n v e r s i o n

of l o n g i t u d i n a l deformation t o shear deformation a t the
boundaries of a s o f t ( a i r - f i l l e d ) cavity i n a solid
[13,22,23]. T h i s conversion i s p a r t i c u l a r l y pronounced
i n m a t e r i a l s such as v i s c o e l a s t i c polymers, whose shear
modulus i s a t l e a s t an order of magnitude lower than the
bulk modulus. I f the host m a t e r i a l i s v i s c o e l a s t i c the
shear deformation energy i s converted t o heat by
molecular r e l a x a t i o n , and the sound wave i s attenuated.
The c a v i t i e s may be m i c r o s c o p i c (dimension much s m a l l e r
than the wavelength of sound), or macroscopic with
dimensions comparable t o a t l e a s t the s h o r t e s t sound
wavelength ( u s u a l l y the shear wavelength) i n the host
m a t e r i a l , i n the frequency range of i n t e r e s t . The effect
of m i c r o s c o p i c c a v i t i e s i s d i s c u s s e d i n the next s e c t i o n .
With macroscopic c a v i t i e s maximum sound a b s o r p t i o n i s
obtained a t f r e q u e n c i e s i n the v i c i n i t y of the resonance
frequencies of the c a v i t y [22,23]. The advantage of a
c o a t i n g with macroscopic c a v i t i e s i s t h a t l a r g e sound
a b s o r p t i o n can be obtained with a r e l a t i v e l y t h i n c o a t i n g
layer. However, a disadvantage of t h i s type of c o a t i n g
i s the r e l a t i v e l y narrow frequency range over which the
a b s o r p t i o n occurs. A l s o , the a b s o r p t i o n can be s t r o n g l y
temperature dependent i f the l o s s tangent of the

v i s c o e l a s t i c coating material i s strongly temperature

dependent. An example of a c o a t i n g with macroscopic

c a v i t i e s , and i t s performance as a f u n c t i o n of frequency,
are shown i n Fig.5. The frequency dependence shown i n
Fig.5 i s f o r the case where the c a v i t y has a single
resonance frequency. Performance over a broader range of
frequencies can be achieved e i t h e r by d e s i g n i n g the
c a v i t y t o have s e v e r a l resonances, or by introducing
s e v e r a l c a v i t i e s of d i f f e r e n t s i z e , and i n each case
s t a g g e r i n g the resonance frequencies.(Viscoelastic
c o a t i n g s with macroscopic c a v i t i e s are a l s o d i s c u s s e d i n
the chapter by Corsaro, Covey and Spryn i n t h i s book).

The above case of l o n g i t u d i n a l to shear conversion

can be considered as a p a r t i c u l a r example of the
s c a t t e r i n g of sound by inhomogeneities i n a host medium.
The complete treatment of the s c a t t e r i n g of sound i n a
composite m a t e r i a l i n v o l v e s both the c a l c u l a t i o n of the
scattering cross-section of a s i n g l e s c a t t e r e r i n the
host medium, and the m u l t i p l e s c a t t e r i n g e f f e c t s due to
surrounding s c a t t e r e r s . There are many t h e o r e t i c a l
publications on t h i s t o p i c [24,25,26,27]. In most of the
studies so f a r the i n c l u s i o n s are assumed to have a
simple geometrical shape, o f t e n s p h e r i c a l . The objective
of the theory i s t o d e r i v e an expression f o r the complex
wavenumber, K, of the sound wave propagating through the
composite medium, i n terms of the wavenumber k i n the
host medium and the f a r - f i e l d amplitude, f ( 0 ) , f o r the
s c a t t e r i n g of sound by a s i n g l e s c a t t e r e r i n the host
medium. For example, the expression derived by Waterman
and T r u e l l [24] i s ,
2
n
1 + (20)
where f(0) and f ( 7 r ) are the (complex) s c a t t e r i n g

amplitudes i n the forward and the back d i r e c t i o n s
respectively, and n i s the number of s c a t t e r e r s per unit

Figure 5. Thin rubber c o a t i n g with resonant

macroscopic c a v i t i e s . The dashed l i n e s show motion
at the c a v i t y w a l l s .

volume. The d e s c r i p t i o n o f sound propagation i n t h e

composite i n terms o f m u l t i p l e s c a t t e r i n g o f sound from
the i n c l u s i o n i s t h e most fundamental d e s c r i p t i o n
a v a i l a b l e , and should l e a d t o a complete model f o r sound
propagation i n composite media. A t present, however, t h e
development o f u s e f u l approximations f o r m u l t i p l e
s c a t t e r i n g e f f e c t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y a t high d e n s i t i e s o f
i n c l u s i o n s , i s s t i l l under research. The a t t e n u a t i o n o f
the sound wave i s d e s c r i b e d by t h e imaginary p a r t o f K .
Examination o f Eq.20 shows t h a t the s c a t t e r e r s can
attenuate sound by any one o f the f o l l o w i n g mechanisms

[24]: (1) i n t r i n s i c d i s s i p a t i o n o f sound w i t h i n t h e

scatterer i t s e l f , (2) mode conversion a t t h e boundary o f
the s c a t t e r e r , and (3) s c a t t e r i n g o f sound t o a back
propagating wave. However, there has been no
q u a n t i t a t i v e study so f a r t o determine the optimum
parameters, and t h e maximum sound a t t e n u a t i o n which may
be achieved with each o f the above mechanisms. A
composite m a t e r i a l with high sound a t t e n u a t i o n i s
d e s c r i b e d by Madigosky e t . a l . [28]. In t h i s absorber
both t h e host m a t e r i a l and the i n c l u s i o n s have an
a c o u s t i c impedance approximately matched t o water, but
there i s a l a r g e d i f f e r e n c e i n the speed o f sound i n t h e
two m a t e r i a l s . The dimensions o f t h e i n c l u s i o n s a r e
comparable t o t h e wavelength o f t h e incoming sound. It
i s probable t h a t a l l three o f the sound a t t e n u a t i o n
mechanisms d e s c r i b e d above c o n t r i b u t e t o the performance
of the absorber i n Ref.28.
I t i s important t o note t h a t , i n general, s c a t t e r i n g
of sound from an i n c l u s i o n i n a medium does not become
s i g n i f i c a n t u n t i l t h e dimensions o f t h e i n c l u s i o n a r e
comparable t o the wavelength o f sound i n t h e medium. For
example, Fig.6 shows t h e normalized s c a t t e r i n g
c r o s s - s e c t i o n cr f o r a r i g i d sphere immersed
s i n water
[29]. I t can be seen t h a t or reaches i t s maximum v a l u e
s
when ka * 1, where k i s the wavenumber o f t h e i n c i d e n t

10. JARZYNSKI Sound Attenuation in Materials
0.01 0.1 1.0 ka

Figure 6. Normalized s c a t t e r i n g cross s e c t i o n f o r
an a i r bubble and a r i g i d sphere.

sound i n water and a i s the r a d i u s of the sphere. When

the i n c l u s i o n i s an e l a s t i c s o l i d the frequency
dependence of <T g i s more complicated, with maxima and

minima a t f r e q u e n c i e s corresponding t o i n t e r n a l
resonances of the sound i n the i n c l u s i o n [30,31].
However, the average t r e n d as a f u n c t i o n of frequency i s
s i m i l a r t o t h a t f o r the r i g i d sphere.(The scattering
c r o s s - s e c t i o n s of i n c l u s i o n s and t h e i r r e l a t i o n t o sound
a t t e n u a t i o n are a l s o considered i n the chapter by
Madigosky and Scharnhorst i n t h i s book).
An important exception t o the above r e s u l t s i s the

s c a t t e r i n g of sound by very compliant i n c l u s i o n s (usually

g a s - f i l l e d c a v i t i e s ) i n a medium where the shear modulus
i s a t l e a s t an order of magnitude s m a l l e r than the bulk
modulus. In t h i s case the i n c i d e n t sound can e x c i t e
l a r g e r a d i a l motion at the boundary of the i n c l u s i o n ,
which leads t o a l a r g e cr even when k a « l .
g A striking
example of t h i s type of i n c l u s i o n i s a gas bubble i n a
liquid. The corresponding s c a t t e r i n g c r o s s - s e c t i o n i s
shown i n F i g . 6. There i s a l a r g e peak i n cr a t ka^O.01.
P h y s i c a l l y t h i s peak i s the r e s u l t of a "mass-spring"
resonance, where the s p r i n g i s the compliant gas bubble
and the mass i s the e n t r a i n e d r a d i a t i o n mass of the
surrounding l i q u i d [7,29].
When the dimensions of the s c a t t e r e r s are much
s m a l l e r than the wavelength of sound simple expressions
for f ( 9 ) and K are obtained i n terms of the complex
e l a s t i c moduli of the i n c l u s i o n and host m a t e r i a l s , and
the volume f r a c t i o n of the i n c l u s i o n s . Alternately,
s t a t i c s e l f - c o n s i s t e n t mean f i e l d models can be used t o
d e r i v e expressions f o r the complex e f f e c t i v e moduli of
the composite m a t e r i a l i n terms of the complex e l a s t i c
moduli and volume f r a c t i o n s of the component m a t e r i a l s
[32,33,34,35]. The propagation wavenumber fc can then be
expressed i n terms of the e f f e c t i v e complex moduli of the
composite u s i n g Eqs.9 and 10. Particularly interesting,

for sound a t t e n u a t i o n , are the composite m a t e r i a l s

obtained when the host m a t e r i a l i s a l o s s y v i s c o e l a s t i c
polymer and the i n c l u s i o n s are s o f t microbubbles, usually
air. The e l a s t i c p r o p e r t i e s of the gas i n the
m i c r o c a v i t y are not important, and the main e f f e c t o f the

c a v i t y i s t o provide pressure r e l e a s e c o n d i t i o n s a t the
c a v i t y boundary. S c a t t e r i n g o f sound from a small c a v i t y
i n a v i s c o e l a s t i c polymer i s s i m i l a r t o the s c a t t e r i n g o f
sound from an a i r microbubble i n a l i q u i d . However, t h e
compliant " s p r i n g " element i n the polymer i s the
extensional (or shear) deformation o f the polymer around

the w a l l o f the c a v i t y .
The a i r microbubbles convert l o n g i t u d i n a l s t r a i n t o
shear s t r a i n . The need f o r t h i s type o f c o n v e r s i o n i s as
follows. I t i s shown i n the next s e c t i o n t h a t i n a
v i s c o e l a s t i c m a t e r i a l the l o s s tangent f o r compressional
s t r a i n i s r e l a t i v e l y small (tan 5 ^ 0.1), w h i l e the l o s s
tangents f o r both e x t e n s i o n a l and shear s t r a i n s can be
l a r g e (tan 8 * 1 ) . A l o n g i t u d i n a l sound wave propagating
through a v i s c o e l a s t i c m a t e r i a l produces both
compressional and shear s t r a i n s . However, s i n c e the bulk
modulus i s one or two orders o f magnitude g r e a t e r than
the shear modulus, the f r a c t i o n of a c o u s t i c energy stored
i n the shear s t r a i n i s s m a l l . Therefore, t o achieve h i g h
a t t e n u a t i o n of the l o n g i t u d i n a l wave i t i s necessary
f i r s t t o convert the compressional s t r a i n energy t o
e i t h e r shear o r e x t e n s i o n a l s t r a i n energy. Note t h a t an
i s o t r o p i c m a t e r i a l has only two independent elastic
moduli. Therefore a given conversion o f energy can be
regarded as being from compressional t o e i t h e r shear o r
e x t e n s i o n a l s t r a i n , depending on whether the shear o r
e x t e n s i o n a l modulus i s chosen as the second independent
modulus.
I t i s i n s t r u c t i v e t o c o n s i d e r the p r e d i c t i o n s o f t h e
mean f i e l d model f o r the above type of composite. A
f r e q u e n t l y used mean f i e l d model i s t h a t o f Kerner [32],

192 SOUND A N D VIBRATION DAMPING WITH POLYMERS
who develops expressions f o r the e f f e c t i v e e l a s t i c moduli

of the composite i n terms of the e l a s t i c moduli of both
the host m a t e r i a l and the m a t e r i a l i n the i n c l u s i o n s .
When the i n c l u s i o n i s an a i r bubble i n a v i s c o e l a s t i c
s o l i d the shear modulus o f the a i r i s zero, and a l s o i t
i s reasonable t o n e g l e c t the bulk modulus o f the a i r
s i n c e i t i s s e v e r a l orders of magnitude l e s s than the
bulk modulus o f the s o l i d . The Kerner mean f i e l d model
then p r e d i c t s the f o l l o w i n g expression f o r the e f f e c t i v e
bulk modulus o f the air-polymer composite,
K* = K * ( l - 0 ) / ( l + 3K*0/4G ) o (21)
* *
where K and G are the bulk and shear moduli,
o o
r e s p e c t i v e l y , o f the v i s c o e l a s t i c polymer and <t> i s the
volume f r a c t i o n o f a i r . For v i s c o e l a s t i c polymers K* i s
t y p i c a l l y one t o two orders of magnitude l a r g e r than G * .
A l s o , as d i s c u s s e d i n the next s e c t i o n , shear waves are
s t r o n g l y absorbed i n v i s c o l e a s t i c polymers, and t h e r e f o r e
G* has a l a r g e imaginary component. Therefore, both the
* *
magnitude and the imaginary p a r t of the term 3 K 0 / 4 G q q are
large. P h y s i c a l l y t h i s term corresponds t o conversion o f
d i l a t a t i o n a l t o shear (or extensional) deformation a t the
boundaries of the a i r microbubbles, and subsequent
d i s s i p a t i o n o f the shear deformation as heat i n the
v i s c o e l a s t i c polymer. According t o s c a t t e r i n g theory the
conversion o f energy occurs as f o l l o w s . When the
l o n g i t u d i n a l wavelength i s much g r e a t e r than the diameter
of the c a v i t y , the s c a t t e r i n g of sound by the c a v i t y i s
due t o a combination o f two motions a t the boundary,
namely a r a d i a l motion and a t r a n s l a t i o n a l motion, as
shown i n F i g . 7 . Both motions c o n t r i b u t e t o c o n v e r s i o n o f
compressional s t r a i n energy. The r a d i a l motion i s
analyzed i n d e t a i l i n Ref.22. In the f a r f i e l d r e g i o n o f
the c a v i t y the s c a t t e r e d wave due t o the r a d i a l motion i s
again a l o n g i t u d i n a l wave. However, i n the near field
r e g i o n t h e r e i s s t r o n g conversion t o e x t e n s i o n a l s t r a i n .

Figure 7a. Scattering of sound by r a d i a l motion of

an a i r microbubble.
Figure 7b. S c a t t e r i n g of sound by t r a n s v e r s e

motion of an a i r microbubble. Both l o n g i t u d i n a l
( s o l i d l i n e ) and shear (dashed l i n e ) waves are
generated.

From Eq.21 i t f o l l o w s t h a t the imaginary p a r t y o f the

e f f e c t i v e bulk modulus K* i s much l a r g e r than the
imaginary p a r t o f K*. Therefore, sound waves are
s t r o n g l y attenuated i n t h i s type o f m a t e r i a l . The
v i s c o e l a s t i c polymer-air microbubbles composites are
p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l i n the design o f broadband,
t r a n s i t i o n type anechoic c o a t i n g s f o r underwater
a p p l i c a t i o n s , such as the wedge type s t r u c t u r e s d e s c r i b e d
earlier [11,13].
The s e l f - c o n s i s t e n t mean f i e l d models developed so
far have been very u s e f u l i n d e s c r i b i n g the trends i n t h e

mechanical p r o p e r t i e s o f the composite as a f u n c t i o n o f

the volume f r a c t i o n o f i n c l u s i o n s , and i n g i v i n g some
p h y s i c a l i n s i g h t on how given i n c l u s i o n s modify the
mechanical response. However, the mean f i e l d models have
not been e x t e n s i v e l y t e s t e d a g a i n s t experimental data,
p a r t i c u l a r l y a t h i g h volume f r a c t i o n o f i n c l u s i o n s .
V a r i o u s i n c l u s i o n - v i s c o e l a s t i c polymer matrix
combinations have been i n v e s t i g a t e d f o r use as sound
absorbing m a t e r i a l s . Among the i n c l u s i o n s used were
sawdust [11], metal oxide m i c r o p a r t i c l e s [37], and
p h e n o l i c m i c r o b a l l o o n s [12]. In some cases [12] two
d i f f e r e n t i n c l u s i o n s were used, f o r example p h e n o l i c
b a l l o o n s and i r o n oxide p a r t i c l e s . By u s i n g two
i n c l u s i o n s i t i s p o s s i b l e t o a d j u s t both the speed o f
sound and the d e n s i t y o f the composite t o d e s i r e d v a l u e s ,
and so achieve a b e t t e r impedance match t o the
surrounding water. I t i s probable t h a t i n each o f t h e
above cases some a i r microbubbles were a l s o introduced
during mixing o f the i n c l u s i o n s with the polymer matrix.
Therefore, the observed high a b s o r p t i o n o f sound i n t h e
above m a t e r i a l s may be p a r t l y due t o the presence o f a i r
microbubbles.
In many a p p l i c a t i o n s a c o u s t i c a l c o a t i n g a r e used
over a range o f temperatures, and i t i s important t o
estimate the temperature dependence o f the a t t e n u a t i o n i n

the sound absorbing m a t e r i a l used i n the c o a t i n g . F o r

m a t e r i a l s with m i c r o s c o p i c i n c l u s i o n s t h i s type o f
estimate can be made u s i n g an expression (such as Eq.21)
for the e f f e c t i v e bulk modulus, and i n s e r t i n g the
temperature dependence of K* and G*. The temperature
dependence of the bulk and shear moduli of v i s c o e l a s t i c
polymers i s d i s c u s s e d i n the next s e c t i o n . For some
a p p l i c a t i o n s i t i s a l s o important t o determine the
pressure dependence of the e f f e c t i v e bulk modulus. The
mean f i e l d models f o r composites, d e s c r i b e d above, can be
extended t o p r e d i c t the change of the e f f e c t i v e bulk

modulus with h y d r o s t a t i c pressure as shown, f o r example,

i n Ref.38.
ABSORPTION OF SOUND IN VISCOELASTIC MATERIALS
Many m a t e r i a l s , p a r t i c u l a r l y polymers, e x h i b i t both the

c a p a c i t y t o s t o r e energy ( t y p i c a l of an e l a s t i c m a t e r i a l )
and the c a p a c i t y t o d i s s i p a t e energy ( t y p i c a l of a
viscous material). When a sudden s t r e s s i s a p p l i e d , the
response of these m a t e r i a l s i s an instantaneous e l a s t i c
deformation followed by a delayed deformation. The
delayed deformation i s due t o v a r i o u s molecular
r e l a x a t i o n processes ( p a r t i c u l a r l y structural
r e l a x a t i o n ) , which take a f i n i t e time t o come t o
equilibrium. Very general s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s f o r
v i s c o e l a s t i c response were proposed by Boltzmann, who
assumed t h a t a t low s t r a i n amplitudes the e f f e c t s o f
p r i o r s t r a i n s can be superposed linearly. Therefore, the
s t r e s s a t time t at a given p o i n t i n the m a t e r i a l depends
both on the s t r a i n a t time t , and on the p r e v i o u s s t r a i n
h i s t o r y at that point. The s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s
proposed by Boltzmann are [4,39]:
00
cr(t) = M e(t) - f e ( t - A t ) M (At) d(At)
i (22)
1 J r
o
where cr(t) i s the s t r e s s and e ( t ) i s the s t r a i n a t time

t , and e(t-At) i s the s t r a i n at a time t - A t e a r l i e r . M

j
i s the e l a s t i c modulus (bulk or shear) which d e s c r i b e s

the instantaneous response of the m a t e r i a l , and M (At) i s r
a memory f u n c t i o n ( g e n e r a l l y d i f f e r e n t f o r bulk and shear

s t r a i n s ) which determines the c o n t r i b u t i o n o f the
previous s t r a i n h i s t o r y t o cr(t) . The r e l a t i o n proposed
by Boltzmann i s c a l l e d the l i n e a r v i s c o e l a s t i c model.
Sometimes i t i s a l s o c a l l e d isothermal l i n e a r
viscoelasticity. Eq.22 i s not exact [40] s i n c e i t f a i l s
t o take proper account o f thermal e f f e c t s a s s o c i a t e d with
the d i s s i p a t i o n of mechanical energy during the

r e l a x a t i o n process. However, experiment shows t h a t Eq.22

i s a v e r y good approximation f o r the mechanical response
of the v i s c o e l a s t i c polymers used i n a c o u s t i c a l
coatings.
When a s i n u s o i d a l (harmonic) sound wave propagates
through a v i s c o e l a s t i c m a t e r i a l , the s t r e s s e s and s t r a i n s
i n the m a t e r i a l vay s i n u s o i d a l l y . Eq.22 p r e d i c t s , i n
t h i s case, a phase lage between the s t r e s s and the
s t r a i n , which leads t o conversion o f a c o u s t i c energy t o
heat. From the F o u r i e r transform of Eq.22 i t f o l l o w s
t h a t the s i n u s o i d a l s t r e s s and s t r a i n are r e l a t e d by
complex, frequency-dependent e l a s t i c moduli as f o l l o w s ,
K*(CJ) = K' (CJ) + iK" (CJ)
and G*(CJ) = G'(CJ) + i G " (CJ) (23)
Any two complex, frequency dependent, e l a s t i c moduli are

s u f f i c i e n t t o d e s c r i b e the mechanical response of a
v i s c o e l a s t i c polymer. The two moduli which are most
f r e q u e n t l y measured are the bulk modulus [41], and the
Young s modulus E*(CJ) = E (CJ) + i E " (CJ) [42].
x 7
Poisson's
r a t i o i s c l o s e t o 0.5 f o r polymers both i n the rubber
s t a t e , and the rubber-glass t r a n s i t i o n r e g i o n .
Therefore, i n these r e g i o n s E* * 3G*, and the frequency
and temperature dependence of the two moduli i s very

similar. In the d i s c u s s i o n which f o l l o w s a l l statements

r e l a t i n g t o G* a l s o apply t o E*.
Fig.8a shows the v a r i a t i o n of the r e a l and imaginary
p a r t of the shear modulus, G ' (CJ) and G"(CJ) , with
frequency f o r a polymer which shows no flow. I t can be
seen t h a t a t low frequencies the polymer i s r u b b e r - l i k e
and has a low frequency (relaxed) modulus G o f
6 2
- 1 0 dyne/cm , and a t high frequencies the polymer i s
10 2
g l a s s y with an unrelaxed modulus G U of - 1 0 dyne/cm . I n

the rubber-glass t r a n s i t i o n r e g i o n the polymer e x h i b i t s

v i s c o e l a s t i c behavior, with a peak i n the imaginary p a r t

of the modulus G" and a peak i n the l o s s f a c t o r t a n 8.
The f r a c t i o n a l change i n the modulus from the r e l a x e d t o
G G G s
the unrelaxed value, ( u ~ r )/ r ' i c a l l e d the r e l a x a t i o n
s t r e n g t h of the v i s c o e l a s t i c t r a n s i t i o n . F i g s . 8a and 8b
show t h a t the frequency dependence of the bulk modulus
K (CJ) i s s i m i l a r t o the frequency dependence of G (CJ) .
However, the r e l a x a t i o n s t r e n g t h and the peak v a l u e of
the l o s s f a c t o r are much s m a l l e r i n the case of the bulk
modulus. For example, values of t a n 6 * 2 are p o s s i b l e
f o r G*(CJ), w h i l s t tan 5 ^ 0.1 for K*(CJ) . T h i s means t h a t
e l a s t i c shear waves are r a p i d l y attenuated i n
v i s c o e l a s t i c m a t e r i a l s , w h i l s t l o n g i t u d i n a l sound waves
are weakly attenuated. Therefore, t o attenuate
l o n g i t u d i n a l waves i t i s necessary t o i n s e r t inclusions
which convert the l o n g i t u d i n a l wave t o shear waves, which
are then d i s s i p a t e d i n the v i s c e l a s t i c polymer. As
d i s c u s s e d i n the p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n , the i n c l u s i o n s which
are most e f f e c t i v e f o r conversion from l o n g i t u d i n a l t o
shear deformation are a i r c a v i t i e s , e i t h e r i n the form of
small microbubbles or as macroscopic cavities.
The frequency dependence of G ' and G" i n the
v i s c o e l a s t i c t r a n s i t i o n r e g i o n has been the o b j e c t of
many experimental and t h e o r e t i c a l s t u d i e s [4,5]. The
simplest model f o r the t r a n s i t i o n r e g i o n i s the standard
l i n e a r s o l i d , which i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a s i n g l e

F i g u r e 8a. Frequency dependence o f t h e complex

shear modulus o f a v i s c o e l a s t i c polymer.
Figure 8b. Frequency dependence o f the complex

bulk modulus o f a v i s c o e l a s t i c polymer.

r e l a x a t i o n time [ 5 ] . T h i s model p r e d i c t s t h a t the rubber

t o g l a s s t r a n s i t i o n w i l l occur over a frequency range o f
approximately one decade. However, measurements show
t h a t i n polymers t h i s t r a n s i t i o n occurs over a broader
frequency range. One approach t o d e s c r i b e the observed
broad frequency dependence i s t o introduce a spectrum o f
r e l a x a t i o n times [4,5]. So f a r , however, i t has not been
p o s s i b l e t o f i n d any simple p h y s i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n f o r
the proposed r e l a x a t i o n time s p e c t r a . Other models f o r
v i s c o e l a s t i c behavior i n c l u d e the use o f f r a c t i o n a l
d e r i v a t i v e s [43], and a four-parameter model developed by

Hartmann [44]. Models f o r the frequency dependence o f G*

are important i n the design of a c o u s t i c a l c o a t i n g s s i n c e
these models p r o v i d e the input data f o r c a l c u l a t i o n s o f
the performance of the c o a t i n g as a f u n c t i o n o f
frequency. A l t e r n a t e l y , one can use as input data the
measured frequency dependence o f G*. In a d d i t i o n t o
frequency dependence, i t i s a l s o u s u a l l y necessary t o
estimate how the performance o f the c o a t i n g changes with
temperature. The input data f o r t h i s estimate i s the G*
as a f u n c t i o n o f temperature. The assembly of t h i s data
i s g r e a t l y f a c i l i t a t e d by the time-temperature
superposition p r i n c i p l e [4,5,44]. This p r i n c i p l e i n i t s
simplest form i m p l i e s t h a t the v i s c o e l a s t i c behavior a t
one temperature can be r e l a t e d t o t h a t a t another
temperature by a change i n the time s c a l e o n l y . A more
accurate a p p l i c a t i o n o f the s u p e r p o s i t i o n p r i n c i p l e
i n c l u d e s t a k i n g i n t o account changes with temperature i n
the r e l a x e d (G ) and unrelaxed (G ) moduli r e s p e c t i v e l y .
r u
In many p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s o f anechoic m a t e r i a l s
the s p e c i f i c a t i o n s demand not only high a t t e n u a t i o n o f
sound, but a l s o good performance over a range o f
temperatures and p r e s s u r e s . The extent t o which these
demands can be simultaneously r e a l i z e d i s l i m i t e d by some
general r e l a t i o n s which govern the behavior of l i n e a r
damped systems. These r e l a t i o n s , known as the

Kramers-Kronig r e l a t i o n s , are d e r i v e d from the b a s i c

c a u s a l i t y c o n d i t i o n t h a t the output s t r a i n cannot precede
the input s t r e s s i n any p h y s i c a l m a t e r i a l . The
Kramers-Kronig r e l a t i o n s are [8],
r
°° G" (CJ ) 7
7
G' (CJ) - G u = i PV dcj
0 0
G'(CJ ) 7
- G
G"(CJ) = - i PV dcj 7
(24)
(CJ - 7
CJ)
where PV i s the p r i n c i p a l value of the i n t e g r a l . For the

purpose of the present d i s c u s s i o n i t i s more convenient
t o use an approximate l o c a l v e r s i o n of the Kramers-Kronig
r e l a t i o n s , developed by O'Donnel e t . a l . [ 4 5 ] . This
approximation r e l a t e s the a t t e n u a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t a t o
the frequency d e r i v a t i v e of the phase v e l o c i t y , dc/dcj, as

follows,
, » TTCJ C l C
= ( 2 5 )
«w —*^>
7 77
where a and c are r e l a t e d t o G and G by Eqs.7-10. I t
f o l l o w s from Eq.25 t h a t a high value of a r e q u i r e s a
l a r g e dc/dcj i n the v i s c o e l a s t i c r e g i o n , which p o i n t s t o a
G G G
m a t e r i a l with a l a r g e r e l a x a t i o n strength, ( u ~ r )/ r '
and a narrow range of r e l a x a t i o n times. However,
experience shows t h a t i n m a t e r i a l s where the v i s c o e l a s t i c
r e g i o n occurs over a narrow range of frequencies the
r e l a x a t i o n times, and t h e r e f o r e a , are s t r o n g l y
temperature dependent. The unrelaxed modulus, G , has u
• 10 2
approximately the same value f o r polymers, -10 dyne/cm .

Therefore, t o i n c r e a s e the r e l a x a t i o n s t r e n g t h i t i s
necessary t o choose m a t e r i a l s with a low r e l a x a t i o n
modulus G . r However, f o r composite m a t e r i a l s with a i r
c a v i t i e s a low G r of the host m a t e r i a l leads t o strong
pressure dependence f o r the e f f e c t i v e moduli of the

composite. Therefore, i t follows from the above

d i s c u s s i o n t h a t some t r a d e - o f f s have t o be made i n
choosing a v i s c o e l a s t i c m a t e r i a l f o r any s p e c i f i c sound
attenuation or damping a p p l i c a t i o n .
STRUCTURAL DAMPING
The d i s c u s s i o n so f a r has centered on anechoic coatings,

t h a t i s coatings designed t o reduce the r e f l e c t i o n of
sound from e l a s t i c s t r u c t u r e s , such as the w a l l s of an
anechoic tank i n a i r or underwater. Another important
area of a p p l i c a t i o n of v i s c o e l a s t i c polymers i s the

damping of f l e x u r a l waves i n s t r u c t u r e s such as plates

and beams. The p a r t i c l e displacement i n a f l e x u r a l wave
i s normal t o the surface of the p l a t e . Strong r a d i a t i o n
of sound can occur from f l e x u r a l waves i n p l a t e s and
beams which are incorporated i n the s t r u c t u r e s of
v e h i c l e s , machines, and b u i l d i n g s . Damping of the
f l e x u r a l waves i s necessary f o r noise r e d u c t i o n , hearing
p r o t e c t i o n , and the i n h i b i t i o n of s t r u c t u r a l f a t i g u e .
A most u s e f u l measure of the degree of damping i s
the l o s s f a c t o r , tan 5, as defined i n Eq.12 i n terms of
the energy d i s s i p a t e d per c y c l e , E , and the total
diss
s t o r e d energy of the v i b r a t i o n , E (E jt and E x may
st diss st
apply t o a complete v i b r a t i n g system, or t o a t y p i c a l

u n i t area or u n i t length).
Two widely a p p l i e d damping c o n f i g u r a t i o n s t h a t use
v i s c o e l a s t i c materials are the f r e e v i s c o e l a s t i c l a y e r
and the c o n s t r a i n e d v i s c o e l a s t i c l a y e r , as shown i n
Fig.9a and 9b. The deformation of the v i s c o e l a s t i c l a y e r
i s extensional i n the f i r s t case and shear i n the second
case. Both these deformations are h i g h l y damped by
i n t r i n s i c absorption i n the v i s c o e l a s t i c polymer. In the
case of the f r e e v i s c o e l a s t i c l a y e r (Fig.9a) i t f l e x e s
with the p l a t e p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the bending s t i f f n e s s as
p a r t of a two-layer beam. The v i s c o e l a s t i c l a y e r must be
t i g h t l y bonded t o the p l a t e and must be continuous over a

EZZZZZZZZa
F i g u r e 9a. Free v i s c o e l a s t i c damping l a y e r .
2
.3
Figure 9b. Constrained v i s c o e l a s t i c damping l a y e r .

distance of a t l e a s t 1/2 f l e x u r a l wavelength. The

performance i s described approximately as f o l l o w s [46]
2
Y (h }
(tan
v 8) .. = const.TZ- 2 (tan 6) (26)
' composite Y
where Y and h are the Young's modulus and t h i c k n e s s

respectively, and s u b s c r i p t s 1 and 2 r e f e r t o the p l a t e
and the v i s c o e l a s t i c l a y e r , r e s p e c t i v e l y . The composite
l o s s f a c t o r increases with the modulus and l o s s f a c t o r of
the v i s c o e l a s t i c l a y e r , and with the square of the l a y e r

thickness. T h i s was recognized by Oberst who designed a

s e r i e s of f i l l e d elastomer damping m a t e r i a l s with high
modulus - l o s s f a c t o r products.
In c o n t r a s t t o the f r e e l a y e r , the o p e r a t i o n of the
constrained v i s c o e l a s t i c layer (Fig.9b) i n v o l v e s shear
deformation of the l a y e r [47]. S i g n i f i c a n t dampling can
be achieved i n the frequency range where t h e r e i s a
balance between the shear s t i f f n e s s of the v i s c o e l a s t i c
layer (2) and the extensional s t i f f n e s s of the
constraining layer (3). In t h i s region the composite
l o s s f a c t o r v a r i e s approximately as f o l l o w s ,
Y h
(tan 5) = const-rr^-(tan 6) o (27)
v
'composite Y^ v
' 2 N
where the s u b s c r i p t s 1, 2, and 3 r e f e r t o the p l a t e , the

constrained v i s c o e l a s t i c l a y e r , and the c o n s t r a i n i n g
layer respectively. From Eq.27 i t follows t h a t good
damping r e q u i r e s the c o n s t r a i n i n g l a y e r t o be
extensionally stiff, and the v i s c o e l a s t i c l a y e r t o have a
high l o s s f a c t o r . Although the modulus of the
v i s c o e l a s t i c l a y e r does not appear e x p l i c i t l y i n Eq.27,
i t determines the l a y e r t h i c k n e s s r e q u i r e d t o p l a c e the
maximum damping i n the d e s i r e d frequency-temperature
region.
Composite l o s s f a c t o r s i n the range 0.05 - 0.2 can

be r e a l i z e d with t h e above damping treatments. Good

damping can a l s o be achieved with t h i c k v i s c o e l a s t i c
l a y e r s a t frequencies f o r which t h e l a y e r i s resonant i n
i t s thickness d i r e c t i o n [48].
CONCLUSIONS
I t i s obvious from the above review t h a t a wide v a r i e t y

of composite m a t e r i a l s and composite s t r u c t u r e s have been
developed f o r a t t e n u a t i o n o f sound. Nevertheless, t h e r e
i s a c o n t i n u i n g need and opportunity f o r new concepts f o r
a t t e n u a t i o n o f a i r - b o r n e and water-borne sound waves, and

to reduce s t r u c t u r a l v i b r a t i o n s . In p a r t i c u l a r there i s
a c o n t i n u i n g need f o r c o a t i n g s which operate over a wide
range o f f r e q u e n c i e s , over a range o f temperatures, and
i n some cases over a range o f pressures.
On t h e t h e o r e t i c a l s i d e there i s a need t o develop
b e t t e r models f o r sound propagation i n composite
m a t e r i a l s , i n c l u d i n g such s t r u c t u r e s as wedges. The
models should i n c l u d e both microscopic and macroscopic
i n c l u s i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y a t high d e n s i t i e s . Both t h e
long wavelength r e g i o n , and the r e g i o n where t h e
wavelength i s comparable t o the dimensions o f t h e
i n c l u s i o n should be s t u d i e d . In t h e macroscopic case
i n c l u s i o n s o f d i f f e r e n t shapes should be evaluated. The
t h e o r e t i c a l models should i d e n t i f y t h e v a r i o u s p o s s i b l e
mechanisms which can attenuate sound i n a composite, and
e s t a b l i s h t h e optimum parameters and the maximum
a t t e n u a t i o n which can be achieved with each mechanism.
In t h e s p e c i f i c area o f development o f v i s c o e l a s t i c
polymers f o r sound a t t e n u a t i o n and v i b r a t i o n damping, t h e
need i s t o i d e n t i f y m a t e r i a l s with high intrinsic
a b s o r p t i o n which a r e a l s o r e l a t i v e l y temperature and
pressure independent. These c o n d i t i o n s can be optimized
w i t h i n t h e c o n s t r a i n t s o f the general c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s
between t h e r e a l and imaginary p a r t s o f t h e moduli.

REFERENCES
1. L . E . Kinsler, A.R. Frey, A . B . Coppens and J.V
Sanders, "Fundamentals of Acoustics", J. Wiley
and Sons, New York, 1982.
2. A.D. Pierce, "Acoustics", McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1981.
3. L . Cremer and M. Heckl, "Structure-Borne Sound",
translated by E . E . Ungar, 2nd Ed. Springer-Verlag,
1987.
4. J.D. Ferry, "Viscoelastic Properties of Polymers,
3rd E d . , John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1980.
5. I.M. Ward, "Mechanical Properties of Solid

Polymers", J. Wiley and Sons, New York, 1971.

6. R. Beyer, "Nonlinear Acoustics". (G.P.O.,
Washington, DC, 1974) Naval Sea Systems Command,
Stock No.: 0-596-215.
7. A . P . Dowling and J.E. Ffowcs Williams, "Sound and
Sources of Sound", Ellis Horwood Limited, 1983.
8. A . I . Beltzer, "Acoustics of Solids",
Springer-Verlag, 1988.
9. C. Zwikker and C.W. Kosten, "Sound Absorbing
Materials", Elsevier Publishing Co., Inc., New York,
1949.
10. D.L. Folds and C.D. Loggins, J.Acoust.Soc.Am., 62,
1102 (1977).
11. K.Tamm, Ch.6 in "Technical Aspects of Sound", E . G .
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1957.
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J.Acoustic.Soc.Am., 68, 655 (1980).
13. E . Meyer, Applied Acoustics, 3, 169 (1970).
14. N.B. M i l l e r , J.Acoustic.Soc.Am., 30, 967 (1958).
15. K . F . Herzfeld and T.A. L i t o v i t z , "Absorption and
Dispersion of Ultrasonic Waves", Academic Press, New
York, 1959.
16. K.Schroeder, Physics Today, 30, 24, (Oct. 1979).
17. H.W. Strube, J. Acoust. Soc.Am., 70, 633 (1981).

18. M.C. Junger, J. Acoust. Soc.Am., 56, 1347 (1974).

19. J.A. Moore and R.H. Lyon, J. Acoust. Soc.Am., 72,
1989 (1982).
20. R . F . Lambert, J. Acoust. Soc.Am., 73, 1131 and 1139
(1983).
21. E . Meyer, K. Brendel, and J. Richter, Acustica 19, 8
(1967-68), and 21, 260 (1969).
22. E . Meyer, K. Brendel, and K. Tamm, J. Acoust.
Soc.Am., 30, 1116 (1958).
23. H. Oberst, Ch. 7 in "Technical Aspects of Sound,"
E. G. Richardson E d . , Elsevier Publishing Co., New

York, 1957.
24. P.C. Waterman and R. T r u e l l , J.Math. Phys.,2, 512

(1961).
25. V. Twersky, J. Acoust. Soc.Am., 77, 29 (1985).
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Soc.Am., 77, 375 (1985).
27. L.W. Anson and R.C. Chivers, J. Acoust. Soc.Am.,85,
535 (1989).
28. W.M. Madigosky, R.W. Harrison and K.P. Scharnhorst,
p. 615 in "Multiple Scattering of Waves in Random
Media and Random Rough Surfaces," V.V. Varadan and
V.K. Varadan, Eds., The Pennsylvania State
University, 1985.
29. C.S. Clay and H. Medwin, "Acoustical Oceanography,"
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(1956).
31. R. Hickling, J. Acoust. Soc.Am., 36, 1124 (1964).
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(1956).
33. Z. Hashin and S. Shtikman, J. Mech. Phys. Solids,

11, 127 (1963).
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35. E.P. Honing, P.E. Wierenga, and J.H.M. van der

Linden, J . Appl. Phys. 62, 1610 and 1613 (1987).
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Vol 4, C. Truesdell Ed., Springer-Verlag, 1974.
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RECEIVED January 24, 1990


28 - Jarzynski1990 - Mechanisms of Sound Attenuation in Materials

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Chapter 10

Mechanisms of Sound Attenuation in Materials

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute

This review begins with the fundamentals of

complex wavenumber and sound speed are

Sound attenuation i s defined as the decrease i n i n t e n s i t y

In Sound and Vibration Damping with Polymers; Corsaro, R., et al.;

source). The o b j e c t i v e of t h i s a r t i c l e i s t o review the

areas o f research, r a t h e r than complete, with some

emphasis given t o more recent p u b l i c a t i o n s which can be

In Sound and Vibration Damping with Polymers; Corsaro, R., et al.;

The b a s i c concepts and d e f i n i t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o sound

In Sound and Vibration Damping with Polymers; Corsaro, R., et al.;

l o s s y m a t e r i a l or, e q u i v a l e n t l y , the r e a l and imaginary

THE FUNDAMENTALS OF SOUND PROPAGATION IN A LOSSY MATERIAL

The simplest and a t the same time a very b a s i c type o f

l o s s l e s s medium. The a c o u s t i c pressure, p, as a f u n c t i o n

of time and p o s i t i o n i s [1,2],

where P i s the amplitude, and 0 i s the i n i t i a l phase,

of the wave. The t o t a l phase 0 a t p o s i t i o n x and time t

wavefronts (surfaces o f constant phase) are planes

The wave i s harmonic because i t has the s i n g l e frequency

In Sound and Vibration Damping with Polymers; Corsaro, R., et al.;

where the p h y s i c a l wave (Eq.l) i s the r e a l p a r t o f the

From Eq.4 i t f o l l o w s t h a t the sound wavelength i s

the speed o f sound i n a i r i s 346 m/sec (at 25°C and

atmospheric pressure) and so the wavelength A = 3.46

as shown i n F i g . l b , where p i s the a c o u s t i c pressure a t

In Sound and Vibration Damping with Polymers; Corsaro, R., et al.;

Figure l a . Undamped p r o g r e s s i v e harmonic wave.

Figure l b . Damped p r o g r e s s i v e harmonic wave.

In Sound and Vibration Damping with Polymers; Corsaro, R., et al.;

p , k' = 2n/X i s the r e a l p a r t o f the wavenumber, where X

k* = k' + i k " = k' + itx (6)

complex sound speed f o r the m a t e r i a l as f o l l o w s ,

However, as shown i n F i g . l b , the propagation o f the

where p i s the d e n s i t y . In Eq.8 the imaginary p a r t o f

In Sound and Vibration Damping with Polymers; Corsaro, R., et al.;

then leads, v i a Eqs.7 and 8, t o a negative s i g n f o r M".

where r i s c a l l e d the l o s s f a c t o r , and i s t h e r a t i o o f

When r « l (and a « k ' ) t h e above r e l a t i o n s s i m p l i f y t o

where t h e wavelength A = 27i/k' . Various experimental

In Sound and Vibration Damping with Polymers; Corsaro, R., et al.;

energy ( k i n e t i c and p o t e n t i a l [ 2 ] ) , E , s t o r e d i n the

energy removed by a t t e n u a t i o n from the sound wave i n t h e

t r a n s p o r t e d per u n i t area and time i n the d i r e c t i o n o f

propagation. For a plane t r a v e l l i n g wave i n a medium

Both the t o t a l sound l e v e l , and the a t t e n u a t i o n o f sound,

where p i s the sound pressure a t the observation p o i n t .

In Sound and Vibration Damping with Polymers; Corsaro, R., et al.;

From Eqs.5 and 14 i t f o l l o w s t h a t the a t t e n u a t i o n of

20 log(e)-a nepers/m (15)

where 20 log(e) = 8.686.

In Sound and Vibration Damping with Polymers; Corsaro, R., et al.;

sound r e f l e c t i o n and sound t r a n s m i s s i o n r a t i o s then a r e

where p. i s the i n c i d e n t , p i s the r e f l e c t e d and p. i s

of sound a t boundaries. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c impedance o f

where 0 i s the angle o f incidence, and <t> i s the angle o f

complex i f the c o a t i n g i s l o s s y . The wave t r a n s m i t t e d

In Sound and Vibration Damping with Polymers; Corsaro, R., et al.;

the l o s s y m a t e r i a l are of s e m i - i n f i n i t e extent. In

a c o u s t i c pressure t o the p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y a t the f r o n t