772 Video Production

reached B, it holds itself until C. This duration

between B and C can be termed sustain. The
sound then declines fast from C to D. The du-
ration between C and D can be termed decay.
A thud on a table, a gunshot, etc. are ex-
amples of fast attack. However, when you tear
a piece of cloth, the attack is slow; the sound
sustains for some time and decays fast. The en-
ergy from the source determines how long a
sound can sustain. When the energy levels be-
Fig.7.2 Sound-attack, sustain, and decay gin to fall, the sound begins to decay. Suppose
you have the sound of an ambulance for just
3 seconds but need ltfor 4lz seconds. You can manipulate the duration by copy-
ing the sustain part for the required time and increasing the duration to 4Yz min-
utes. You will know how to do this when you sit on the non-linear edit suite.
By increasing or decreasing the playback speedyou can change the prop-
erties of a sound effect. You would have noticed that on some comedy
shows when two persons begin to argue, the speech is normal. When it goes
on for a long time, the speech is contorted, lending the scene a comic effect.
In this case, the speed of normal speech has been increased by at least three
to four times.
Tiy it out when you get an opportunity to work on the non-linear edit
suite. Using the components explained above, multiple permutations and
combinations of sound can be created.
Now that we have learnt about the components of sound, let us move on
to understanding the instruments that enable us record sound. The record-
ing medium (tape, CD, etc.) is important, but an understanding of the dif-
ferent microphones that we use in recording sound is far more important.

N MICROPHONES

Microphones (also known as mics) are basically instruments that convert

sound waves into electrical energy. A microphone works by converting
sound waves into current in a cable. This current travels down through the
cable and is recorded onto a magnetic tape. However, the quality of the
output is affected by the quality of sound used because when sound is cre-
ated in front of a microphone, it creates a pressure on the microphone and
the waves that enter the microphone. Thus, the lower the pressure, the
lesser the volume of recording, and the farther the sound source, the lower
the level of recording.
 l,

Elements cf tiiieo p,co'iction: Sound 173

Selecting Microphones
\\re use rnicrophones to send in sounr{ waves f or (a) lir c arnplificarion as in
stage shou's, seminars, confelences, etc. and (b) Ibr recordinc'purposcs as
in audio and/or r.ideo lapes. The use of n-ricrophones in onc form or the
other is a gir,'en in vidco production, irrespective of the genrc.
TI-rere are several typcs of microphones avarilable in the rnarket to
choose frorn from flimsr to highly professional types, and fronr high end
to Ior'r'-end makes. 'I'he tvpe and the purpose of use direct orir decision in
purchasing microphones. Ther-efore, before purchasing microphoncs, it
makcs sr:nse to consider the Iactors given belorv and balirnce betr,vecn therr-r
and the budget:
l. Purpose
2. Audio qualit)'
ll. Sensitivitr'
,1. I)ick-up pattcrn
5. Phvsical leaturcs in tcrms of size and look
(i. Impedance
7. I'requenc)' response
'fhc intpedartce c';f a microphone is a major factor in nraking a choicer. In
simplc rvords, impedance means the resistance that the microphone cablc
ofl-els to thc f'lorv of aridio. Hieh-irnpedance rnicrophones can w-ork best
n.ith short cables. If 1'oLr attach a Iong cable, chances arc thirt the recording
lvill be of a lor,r. level. Most non-prof'essional r-nicrophones have high im-
pedance and ale best avoided in video productions. On the other hand, a
1or,r,-irnpedance microphone can r.vork rvith lengthl. cables and still oifer
good qualitl'audio. Prof'essional microphones have lou, impedance but are
slightl;- erpensivc. Yet anothcr f actor is frequency rtsfionse , tl-rat is, the capa
bilitv of a r-nicrophone to receive hieh and lou, sounds. A good, profes
sional microphone can receive frequencics rnnsing fronr 20-25,00() H'2.

Types of Microphones
Thc sr:lection of nricrophones woulcl also depend on the tvpe most suitarble
fbr our use. The two broad categories of nicropholles are the clynamic and
condcnscr types. Most microphones ervailable in the marrket are either o[
thcse two types.
Dynamic The rnoving coil rnicrophone. shown in Fig. 7.3(a), or the dv
nanric microphone has a flexiblc mounted diaphragm coupled to a coil of
tine wire. The rnount is such that thcre is irn air gap betrveer-r the coil and ar
magnet. When sound hits thc diapl-rragm, the diaphlagrn surfircc vibrirtes
774 Video Production

in response. This diaphragm motion ex-

tends to the coil, which moves back and
forth in the field of the magnet. As the coil
cuts through lines of magnetic force in the
gap, a sma.ll electrical current is induced in
the wire. The magnitude and direction of
that current is directly proportional to the
motion of the coil, and the current thus is
an electricai representation of the incident
sound wave. Typically its frequency range I
I
is between 40-16,000 Hz. Dynamic micro-
?
phones are rugged and robust, and are
mostly used in field situations where the t
emphasis is not exactly on the fidelity of I
sound but the sound itself. They are also I
built to avoid rubbing sounds from the
user's hands. The microphones that are
used by rock stars are normally of the dy-
namic type.
Condenser Said to produce very high
quality of sound, condenser microphones
are also called electrostatic microphones;
see Fig. 7.3(b). A light flexible metallic
membrane is stretched close to a flat metal
plate. Due to the varying space between
these plates by the sound wave pressure
(a) (b)
fluctuations, the capacitance is altered.
Fig. 7.3 Cross-sections of mics-(a) dynamic and Variations in current required to recharge
(b) condenser the changing capacitance constitutes the
audio signal. Typically, the frequency range of these microphones is be-
tween 20-18,000 Hz. Unlike dynamic microphones, condenser micro-
phones need an external power supply. Some condenser microphones have
a battery attachment on the cable as part of the connector. Others need
power delivered to them through the microphone cable itself. When power
is supplied to the microphone through the connecting cable from the record-
ing instrument itself, it is known as phantom power supply. Phantom power
supplies are available on some audio mixers (about which we will learn
shortly). You just need to plug in the condenser microphone, and the mixer
provides the required power. Owing to their sensitivity, condenser micro-
phones are normally used in studio recordings and for sound effects where
 Elements of Video Produdion: Sound 175

the emphasis is on fidelity of the sound recorded. The sensitivity of these

microphones enables them to pick up even faint sounds, though the sur-
d roundings must be kept as quiet as possible for recording.
il
Electret copsule This is a miniature condenser microphone incorporating
]e
a plastic film diaphragm with an inbuilt permanent electrostatic charge. It
m
does not require a polarising voltage. Since not dependable, these are
of
hardly used in video production.
le
is Pick-up Patterns
Dt
The choice of a microphone also depends on the manner in which they
5e pick-up sound. One does not use the same microphone to record atmo-
(>
sphere sound outdoors and also record interviews. Each situation demands
fe a particular pick-up pattern. Although there are a number of varieties
he based on pick-up patterns, the following three serve our purpose.
of An omni-di.rectional microphone, Fig. 7.4(a), can pick up sound from all
so
directions irrespective of its point of origin. It is very easy to use and is
he preferred to pick location sound.
Ire
Auni-di.rectionalmicrophone, Fig. 7.a(b), can pick up sound only from one
ty-
direction. You may have noticed in music shows that even though instru-
ments are placed close to each other, the microphone placed above one
gh instrument does not pick up sound from another. Uni-directional micro-
les phones are best used for vocalists and musical instruments. They are also
.es; widely used for recording in outdoor interviews and in panel discussions in
llic studio situations.
*al A bi-directional microphone, Fig.7.4(c), can pick up sounds from the front
:en or the rear, but does not respond to sounds from the sides. However, it is
[re very sensitive. Distance between the source of the sound and the micro-
ed. phone is critical because bi-directional microphones tend to produce pops
rge when not placed carefully. Bi-directional microphones are best avoided for
ihe outside work but a couple of them can be used for discussions that have a
be- group of four or five in studio situations. They also come in handy when
ro- two persons are seated across a table for an interview.
tve Microphones also come in different shapes, sizes, and combinations.
)ed For example, a microphone could be dynamic but uni-directional, or
ler condenser but omni-directional. The most commonly used hand-held
,rd- microphones are either the dynamic or condenser types. Hand-held
iyer
microphones are placed on stands for stability. The sensitivity with which a
am microphone picks up sounds depends not only on whether it is a dynamic
xer or condenser microphone, but also on the pick-up pattern. Like mentioned
fl> earlier, the choice of a microphone is made well before the actual recording.
ere
176 Video Production

Sorne commonly used directional mtcs

are as follows.
Boom mics These are used to record loca-
tion sounds and dialogue in fiction shoots'
In fiction, the dialogue thus recorded is
later dubbed in a studio. Boom mics are
normalh, placed at the end of a long pole
and can be moved up or down without being
seen in the frame. Figure 7.5(a) shows a
boom mike, rvhich can be used with a boom
pole that can be extended or shortened as
required.
Lavelier mics Also called lapel mics or
(c) button mics, a lavelier mic, see Fig. 7.5(b), is
Fig. 7.4 DirectionaI mics-(a) omni-directionaL, normally pinned to the interviewee. It is a
(b) uni-directionaL. and (c) bj-djrectional small condenser mic and can either be
(Courtesy Mathrushree VisuaI Com m.)
corded or rvireless. The wireless types are
preferrecl when movement of the subject isrequired. The wireless mic ver-
sion runs into a transmitter, usually worn on the belt. Lapel mics can be
powered by batteries or phantom power, depending on the make'
Mono ond stereo mics When audio is mono-aural it can only indicate dif-
ferences in qualitv ancl volumes. Ho\t'ever. stereo audio can also indicate
the direction of the sound. Mono-aural sound can be very flat, unlike steleo
 ELements of Video Production: Sound 1,77

(a) (c)

Fig. 7.5 Types of mics-(a) boom mic, (b) Lapet mic, and (c) stereo mic (Courtesy: Rode Microphones)

sound that is very rich because it indicates direction. Care should, however,
be taken to match video with sound perspective, movement (called audio
panning), and the amount of noise. A stereo mic, see Fig. 7.5(c), is essen-
tially two-mic-in-one unit. Stereo mics are often expensive and come in
professional models.
Exhibit 7.1 shows different kinds of mics and accessories available in the
market and their uses.

Using Microphones and Accessories

Since mics are used both in studio and outdoor situations, their placement
decides the quality of audio we r,vill be able to record. Here are a few guide-
lines for mastering placement, though we will need to experiment to find
the perfect position in a given situation.
o Always point the mic to the source of the sound; see Fig. 7.6. Place the
mic at least 3" away from the sound source.
778 Video Production

Fig. 7.6 Source proximity ensures qual"ity

o Mics are like lenses. If you take a lens very close to the object, the
picture will distort. If you take it very far away, you will see no details.
Similar is the case with mics. Every mic has a critical distance to get
the right audio. If you take the mic too close to the source, the audio
will be distorted and result in pops. On the other hand, taking it far
away from the sound source is likely to result in hollow sound.
. Never use the built-in mic on your camera for interviews. You may just
want to use them to record ambience sound.
o If you are using handheld mics, always talk across them. The mic is
best placed at the chest position. However, if you are using a uni-
directional mic, keep it close to the mouth.
. Sit down when interviewing children. This way you can place the mic
at a comfortable position and also achieve good composition.
. When using a boom mic, you may use a boom pole, particularly for
fiction shoots, to ensure that you keep the mic out of the frame.
Shot-gun mics are highly directional and keep out noises. Therefore, it
is perfectly okay to use them in such situations.
 Elements of Video Produdion: Sound 179
Exhibit 7.1 Microphones ond occessories
Picture Product
Condensor, variabte
pattern mic
Condensor, cardioid
pattern mic (captures
sound from and side)
mic
0m ni-di rection aI
condensor mic
Light-weight con-
denser shotgun mic
0m ni-di rectionaI
dynamic mic
Condensor, direc-
tionat, switchable
from uni-directionaI
to omni-directional
mic
Vocals and instru-
mentation
Live pertormances
where too much
ambience sound is
not required
ProfessionaI record-
ings in studios
Video, film, for
exceltent voice-over
and for use with
boom pote
Reporter's mic with
[ong shaft for the
studio ftag
Studio and concert
ha[[ recordings; both
string and brass
i nstruments
(Contd)
180 Video Production

Exhibit 7.7 (Contd)

Apptication

0 m ni -di rectional., Studio environment,

condenser mic good for grouP
discussions, easil"y
con ceated-e.9.,
behind a flower vase

0mni to directiona[, Water sports, under-

fl"uid mic water shoots with
great pressure levels
and extreme condi-
tions where normal
mics cannot be used

Hanging condenser Ideal for mounting

mic directly on musicaI
instruments or even
to record sound from
audience in studio
situations
Shock absorber mount AL[ shotgun mikes;
e[iminates vibration
sounds; can be used
directty on the
camera or even with
a boom pote

Wind pack Rain cover; water

proofs and Protects
both mic and the
winds hiel.d;
distortion-free cove'
can be dried after i-.=
 ELements cf',,;e: Proo"ction: Sound 181

a IJse mic stands as far as possible or pin the lapei mic ro clothes.
a If the talenthas to move) go in for an appropriateh placed u'ireless
mic. Obviously you cannot use wireless mics rrhen shooiin{ fiction.
Use a shotgun but move along with the talent even rrhile rnainraining
distance such that it does not get into the frame.
When using multiple mics for a talk show, place them to avoid phase
cancellation. For example, if you place one mic at a distance of I from
two talents, place the next mic at least 2' to 3' away from the first one.
This helps prevent phase cancellation.
Do not point the mic when the subject is in front of a noisr enr iron-
ment (roads, machines, etc.). Figure 7.7 gives you an idea of rvhere not
to place the subject and the rnic.
a Use directional mics wherever necessarv.
a Pin a lapel mic at least 6" below the person's chin.
o Switch off/fade out mics when not in use.

;i_s.$

i!

Fig,7.7 Noisy backgrounds reduce quaLity

L82 Video Production

o IJse mic windshields, when recording

outdoors and pop filters (Fig. 7.8)
when indoors.
. Always use headphones/speakers
when recording sound outdoors/in-
doors. Fig. 7.9 shows a closed head-
phone.
o Never allow the audio to consistently
touch the 'red' on your recording ma-
chine (camera" or audio recorder).
. Record sound on tape (SoT) without
fail. SoT or ambience sound lends
Fig. 7.8 Pop-fitters (Courtesy: DPA Microphones) character to your film. You can always
remove it on the edit suite.

Taking care of microphones

Fig. 7.9Closed headphones are sealed
(Courtsey: AKG Acoustics)
Here is a list of dos and don'ts on taking
care of microphones:
o Do not test by tapping or blowing into
microphones. Just talk.
. Keep them in their pouches after use.
. Keep them safely in a bureau or a
box.
. Keep mics away from moisture, wa-
ter, and fire.
. Do not subject microphones to shocks.
. Switch off microphones after use.
o Remove batteries if not in use. Re-
place batteries periodically.
. (Jse quality connectors and cables to
work with microphones.
o Do not pull out a connector by tuggrng
at the cable. Always hold the connec-
tor in place when disconnecting.
o Do not leave heavy microphones dan-
gling from a cable, nor swing them
while holding the cable.
tight . Do not use any liquid whatsoever to
clean microphones.
 Elements of Video Produdion: Sound 183

n SOME TERMS USED IN AUDIO RECORDING

Fade-in The gradual upping of audio from zero to an optimal level. The
duration it takes to reach its peak is called attack.
Fade-out The reverse of a fade-in where the audio gradually falls to zero.
The duration it takes to fall to zero is called decay.
Cross-fade A transition method where the preceding sound is faded out
and the succeeding sound is faded in simultaneously. Both sounds overlap
briefly during a cross-fade.
Fade under A procedure where one audio is brought down to a level
lesser than the primary audio. For example, music is faded under when a
person is speaking on screen. It must be remembered that the two sounds
do not clash but rather supplement each other.
Sweetening The process of working on sound after studio production is
called audio sweetening. This involves incorporating additional material,
making corrections, cross-fading, enhancing sound elements, blending
various tracks, ensuring continuity, bridging, dubbing, and adding effects.
Phase cancellation This is a phenomenon that results in low and hol-
low-sounding audio when two or more mics pick up sound from the same
sound source. Since the,sounds arrive at the two mics at two different times,
they tend to cancel each other and result in hollow or low audio levels.
Therefore, placement of mic is an important factor to get the right audio
with greater fidelity.

ffi AUDIO FADERS AND MIXERS

Besides microphones, there are other instruments we would require during
a production. They are audio faders, mixers, and audio connectors. Let us
discuss them briefly.
Audio Faders
Faders are instruments, shown in Fig. 7.10, that are available on all cameras and
recording instruments. Exclusive audio faders are available in the market.
They enable the sound recordist to increase or decrease the level of audio
being recorded on the recording medium. They function like volume controls
on our TV sets. It is important to set the fader at the optimum level to
ensure the best quality sound. For example, in video carneras, ensure that
the recording level does not cross 12 dB on the recording level. Audio
recorded consistently beyond 12 dB will have a'crack' effect and sound very
distorted. The indicator on the fader levels of an audio mixer has two sec-
tions-the green and the red light emitting devices (LEDS). The series of green
LEDs indicate whether the audio levels are well in control. \Mhen the audio
184 Video Production

Fig. 7.10 Faders (Courtesy: Panasonic)

Headphones
Talkback microphone
Peak meter
shows audio level/clipping
Auxillary send E(
(to other external devices) Auxillary return
(back from external device)

Pan lefVright

Master fader
(mixed output)

Fi1.7.17 Audio mixer (Courtesy: Mackie)