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Numbers
N = {1, 2, 3, . . .}
Z = {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}
nm o
Q= : m, n ∈ Z and n ̸= 0
n
Example
Show that x2 = 2 has no rational solutions.
a
Proof. Suppose, by way of contradiction, that x = b is a rational solution
with gcd(a, b) = 1.
a 2
=2
b
a2 = 2b2 .
(2c)2 = 2b2
2c2 = b2 .
a
Similarly, 2 | b. So, 2 | a and 2 | b, contradicting the choice of b as a reduced
fraction. So, x2 = 2 has no rational solution.
1
Note
This example illustrates why we define real numbers. There are real
solutions √
± 2 = ±1.41421 . . .
of x2 = 2.
The real numbers are what we get when we topologically complete the
rational numbers as a metric space with respect to the distance function
defined by the absolute value by adjoining to Q all limits of Cauchy
sequences of rational numbers.
Example
The equation
x2 = −1
has no real solution since if x ∈ R, then x2 ≥ 0. This motivates defining
the complex numbers.
Definition
1. A complex number is an expression of the form
a + bi
2
Note
1. N ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R ⊂ C
2. Addition:
(a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i
3. Multiplication:
4. Division: If c2 + d2 ̸= 0,
a + bi a + bi c − di (ac + bd) + (−ad + bc)i
= =
c + di c + di c − di c2 + d2
ac + bd −ad + bc
= 2 2
+ i
c +d c2 + d2
Definition
If a, b ∈ R, then
3
(imaginary axis)
y
b z = a + bi
b2
+
√ a2
|z |=
θ
x (real axis)
a
Definition
The absolute value or modulus of z = a + bi is
p
|z| := a2 + b2 .
Example
|z1 − z2 | is the distance between the points z1 and z2 .
4
Definition
The complex conjugate of z = a + bi is
z̄ = a + bi := a − bi.
z = a + bi
−θ
z̄ = a − bi
|z|2 = z z̄
z + z̄ z − z̄
2. Re(z) = Im(z) =
2 2i
√
3. |z| = a2 + b2 = |z̄|
Note
It is very often easier to work with |z|2 than with |z|.
5
Example
Prove that
1. z1 z2 = z̄1 z̄2
Proof of 2.
6
Examples
Describe the sets of point.
(a) Im(z) = −3
(b) |z − 1 + i| = 3
(c) Re(z) ≥ 4
-1
-2
7
Lecture 2 – §1.3 Vectors and Polar Form
Last Time
A complex number z = x + iy (x, y ∈ R, i2 = −1) has a geometric
interpretation as the point (x, y) in the plane.
p
Absolute value or modulus: |z| = x2 + y 2
Complex conjugate: z̄ = x − iy
|z|2 = z z̄
z1 + z2 = (x1 + x2 ) + (y1 + y2 )i
z2 = x2 + iy2
z1 = x1 + ix1
Triangle Inequality
(The most important inequality in all of mathematics.)
8
Variations
1. Replace z2 with −z2 in (∗) to get
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Polar Coordinates
}
2
y
2 +
p x
{z
|= y = r sin θ
|z
r= θ
|
x
| {z }
x = r cos θ
z = x + iy (rectangular form)
= r cos θ + ir sin θ (polar form, NOT rectangular form)
= r(cos θ + i sin θ) (polar form)
10
Note
In polar coordinates, the angle θ is NOT unique.
θ θ + 2π
Definitions
1. In complex analysis, an angle θ such that
z = |z|(cos θ + i sin θ)
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Note
(a) Arg(z) = arg−π (z)
Example
−1 − i
z= √ |z| = 1
2
5π
θ0 = 4
5π 21π
arg(z) = + 2kπ : k ∈ Z = + 2ℓπ : ℓ ∈ Z
4 4
3π
Arg(z) = −
4
5π
argπ (z) =
4
13π
arg2π (z) =
4
12
Multiplication in Polar Form
z1 z2
θ1 + θ2
z2 z1
θ2
θ1
In the product z1 z2
13
Division
|z1 |
Lengths divide: | zz12 | = |z2 |
Question
1
Where are z and z̄?
z
circle |z| = 1
1
z
−θ
z̄
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1.3 #11
Using (1 + i)(5 − i)4 derive
π 1 1
= 4 tan−1 − tan−1 .
4 5 239
Solution.
15
Lecture 3 – §1.4 The Complex Exponential
Goal:
For complex z = x + iy (x, y ∈ R) define
ez
in a reasonable way.
Considerations:
1. ex1 +x2 = ex1 ex2 for x1 , x2 ∈ R
∞
x
X xn
2. e = for x ∈ R
n=0
n!
d x
3. (e ) = ex for x ∈ R
dx
Definition
If z = x + iy (x, y ∈ R)
ez := ex cos y + i sin y
2. Prove later.
3. Prove later.
Example
e2πi = 1
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Cosine and sine
Example
2 + 2i |2 + 2i|ei(π/4)
√ = √ Arg(2 + 2i) = π/4
− 3 + i | − 3 + i|ei(5π/6)
√
2 2 i(π/4−5π/6) √ √
= e Arg(− 3 + i) = arctan(−1/ 3) + π
√2
= 2e−7πi/12 = 5π/6
√
= 2e5πi/12
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De Moivre’s Formula
Proof.
(eiθ )n = e|iθ eiθ{z· · · eiθ} = eiθ+···+iθ = einθ .
n-times
Example
A way to derive trig identities:
Example
We can use complex exponentials to reproduce a common identity:
ˆ 2π ˆ 2π iθ −iθ 2
ˆ 2π 2iθ −2iθ
e + e e + 2 + e
cos2 θ dθ = dθ = dθ
0 0 2 0 4
ˆ 2π
1 cos(2θ)
= + dθ
0 2 2
= π.
19
Example
√
(−1 + 3i)100 = (2e2πi/3 )100
= 2100 e100·2πi/3
= 2100 e(33+1/3)·2πi
= 2100 e2πi/3
= 2100 cos( 2π 2π
3 ) + i sin( 3 )
√
= 2100 −12 +i 2
3
√
= 299 (−1 + 3i)
√
2 √ 2 cos( 2π 2π −1 3
3 3 ) + i sin( 3 ) = 2 +i 2
2π/3
−1
| {z }
2
20
Lecture 4 – §1.5 Powers and Roots
Powers
If z = reiθ and n ∈ Z, we already know that
Example
95
√
1+i
(1 + i)95 = 2 √
2
√ 95
= 2eπi/4 = 295/2 e95πi/4 = 295/2 e(96/4−1/4)πi
= 295/2 e(24−1/4)πi = 295/2 e−πi/4
95/2 1 − i
=2 √ = 295/2−1/2 (1 − i)
2
47
= 2 (1 − i).
Roots
Next we will find the mth roots of a complex number z when m =
1, 2, 3, . . .. Thus, we wish to find w such that
wm = z
Calculation. Write
z = |z|eiθ
w = |w|eiα .
Then
m
z = wm ⇔ |z|eiθ = |w|eiα = |w|m eimα
(
|w| = |w|m and
⇔
αm = θ + 2πk for some k ∈ Z
21
(
|w| = |z|1/m and
⇔
α = θ+2πk
m for some k ∈ Z
(
|w| = |z|1/m and
⇔
θ+2πk
α= m where k ∈ {0, 1, 2, . . . , m − 1}
1/m i( θ+2πk
m )
⇔ w = |z| e where k ∈ {0, 1, 2, . . . , m − 1}
Theorem
The nonzero complex number z = |z|eiθ has exactly m distinct mth roots.
They are
θ+2πk
w = |z|1/m ei( m ) where k ∈ {0, 1, 2, . . . , m − 1}
Note
(a) The mth roots of 1 are
(c) If z = |z|eiθ , then one mth root of z is z 1/m = |z|1/m eiθ/m and the
complete set of mth roots is
22
Notation
(p.36) The author writes
(5 + 3i)1/2
Pictures
3rd roots of 1 3rd roots of 8i = 8eπi/2 4th roots of −1 = eπi
ω3 |z| = 1 |z| = 2
e3πi/4 eπi/4
2e5πi/6 2e πi/6
|z| = 1
1
e5πi/4 e7πi/4
ω32
2e3πi/2 = −2i
Example
Let a, b, c ∈ C with a ̸= 0. Find solutions of
az 2 + bz + c = 0.
2 z n+1 − 1
n
1 + z + z + ··· + z = .
z−1
Use this result and De Moivre’s formula to establish the following identi-
ties:
1 sin (n + 12 )θ
(a) 1 + cos(θ) + cos(2θ) + · · · + cos(nθ) = +
2 2 sin(θ/2)
sin(nθ/2) sin (n + 1)θ/2
(b) sin(θ) + sin(2θ) + · · · + sin(nθ) = , where
sin(θ/2)
0 < θ < 2π
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sin(−A + B) = cos A sin B − sin A cos B
nθ (n+1)θ 1
sin (n + 12 )θ + sin θ
cos 2 sin 2 = 2 2
1 sin (n + 12 )θ
1 + cos(θ) + cos(2θ) + · · · + cos(nθ) = +
2 2 sin(θ/2)
(n+1)θ
sin nθ
2 sin 2
sin(θ) + sin(2θ) + · · · + sin(nθ) =
sin(θ/2)
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Lecture 5 – §1.5 Roots (continued)
Recall
w = |w|eiθ wn = |w|n einθ , n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
Let z ̸= 0 and z = |z|eiθ0 , where θ0 ∈ arg(z).
w is nth root of z ⇔ wn = z
⇔ |w|n einθ = |z|eiθ0
⇔ |w|n = |z| and nθ = θ0 + 2πk, k ∈ Z
θ0 +2πk
⇔ |w| = |z|1/n and θ = n ,k ∈ {0, 1, . . . , n − 1}
Theorem
There are exactly n distinct nth roots of the complex number z ̸= 0. If
z = |z|eiθ0 , they are
1/n θ0 + 2πk
|z| exp i k ∈ {0, 1, . . . , n − 1}
n
where θ0 = Arg(z).
Example
Fourth roots of z = |z|eiθ0
iθ0 πi
|z|1/4 exp 4 + 2
iθ0
|z|1/4 exp 4
iθ0
|z|1/4 exp 4 + πi
iθ0 3πi
|z|1/4 exp 4 + 2
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Example
Show computer demonstration of nth roots.
Example
Discuss the roots of (z + 1)100 = (z − 1)100
Solution.
Note: We are actually solving for the roots of a polynomial of degree 99 not
100. We expect 99 complex roots.
27
z is a root of (z + 1)100 = (z − 1)100
z+1 100
⇔ z is a root of z−1 =1
⇔ w100 = 1 where w = z+1
z−1
For z ̸= 1,
z+1
w= z−1 ⇔ (z − 1)w = z + 1
⇔ zw − w = z + 1
⇔ zw − z = w + 1
⇔ z(w − 1) = w + 1
w+1
⇔z= w−1
exp 2πki
100 + 1
z= k = 1, 2, . . . , 99
exp 2πki
100 − 1
exp 100 exp πki
πki πki
100 + exp − 100 /(2i)
=
exp πki exp πki πki
100 100 − exp − 100 /(2i)
πk
1 cos 100
= · πk
i sin 100
πk
= −i cot 100 k = 1, 2, . . . , 99
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y
ρ
z
z0
boundary point
29
Example
Bρ (z0 ) is open.
z0
Example
S = {z = x + iy : − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1, −1 ≤ y ≤ 1} is not open.
i
The point 1 + 2 is not an interior point.
30
Picture
Polygonal path joining w1 , . . . , w6 .
w6 w5
w2
w4
w3
w1
Picture
z2
z1 hole
hole
31
Theorem
Suppose u(x, y) is a real-valued function defined in a domain D. If the
first partial derivatives of u(x, y) satisfy
∂u ∂u
= =0
∂x ∂y
at all points of D, then u(x, y) is constant in D.
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