Neurobiology & Behaviour

Lesson 3: Propagation of
Action Potentials

IB Biology
Membrane Potential

• Membrane potential is the result of an

unequal ion distribution between the interior
and the exterior of a cell.
• The solutions of the human body are
electrically neutral. When separated by a
membrane, minor differences in relative
abundance of ions may occur as a result of the
selective movement of ions across the
membrane.
• When these minor charge differences interact
across a thin cell membrane they create a
source of electrical potential energy.
• This voltage is called the membrane potential.
Resting Potential

• Membrane potential is expressed relative to the outside of the cell.

• Any membrane with a potential other than zero is considered polarized.
• A neuron that is not transmitting a signal has a membrane potential of about
-70mV. This is known as resting potential.
• The resting potential is a result of the gradient of ions across the membrane
and the permeability of the membrane to ions.
 Establishing Resting
Potential
The resting potential of a neuron is determined by:
1. The cytoplasm contains many organic
molecules that have net negative charge and
cannot cross the membrane.
2. This attracts cations that can move across the
membrane. K+ is the most permeable of the
cations and will accumulate in cells. This leads
the Na+ concentration gradient to be steeper
than that of K+.
3. The sodium – potassium pumps in the
membrane move ions unequally; for every
three Na+ pumped out, two K+ are pumped in.
Changes in Membrane Potential

• Signal transmission occurs through changes to the membrane potential.

• Since membrane potential is the result of ion concentrations, changes in the
membrane potential occur as a result of the movement of ions across the
membrane.
• This is controlled by gated ion channels in the membrane which can affect the
permeability of the membrane to certain ions.
• Gated ion channels open or close in response to stimuli.
• An increase in the magnitude of the membrane potential is called a
hyperpolarization.
• Hyperpolarization is the result of the opening of potassium channels which
make the membrane even more permeable to K+ ions, more K+ ions leave the
cell, lowering the membrane potential to -90mV.
• A reduction in the magnitude of
membrane potential is called a
depolarization.
• Depolarization is the result of the opening
of sodium channels which makes the
membrane permeable to Na+, more Na+
ions enter the cell, raising the membrane
potential to +30mV.
• If the depolarization shifts the membrane
potential enough, this massive change in
membrane potential is known as an
action potential.
Generating Action Potentials

Generating an action potential occurs in a series of stages.

1. Axon membrane begins at a resting potential. This means that most sodium
and potassium channels are closed.
2. A stimulus depolarizes the membrane, sodium channels open allowing Na+
into the cell.
3. The threshold is crossed, and the membrane potential rapidly increases.
4. Sodium channels rapidly close, stopping Na+ inflow and potassium channels
open, causing outflow of K+.
5. As K+ ions leave the cell, there will be a moment when the membrane
potential is more negative than resting potential. This is called the undershoot.
6. The potassium channels close and the membrane returns to resting potential.
This is called repolarization.
7. There is a moment after the action potential passes that the cell cannot
initiate another action potential. This is known as the refractory period.
 Propagation of Action
Potentials

• Neurons send messages as a wave of

depolarization down the length of the axon.
• The Na+ inflow during the action potential
depolarizes the neighbouring region of the axon
membrane. The depolarization is large enough to
initiate an action potential in this region.
• This process is repeated down the length of the
axon.
• An action potential is an all-or-none event. The
magnitude and duration of the action potential
remains the constant along the length of the
axon.
The Synapse

• Neurons do not touch on

another; there are tiny gaps
between them called synapses.
• The neuron that carries the
depolarization towards the
synapse is called the presynaptic
neuron.
• The neuron that receives the
stimulus is called the post
synaptic neuron.
• When a wave of depolarization reaches the end
of a presynaptic axon it triggers the release of
neurotransmitter molecules
• The neurotransmitter is released from special
vacuoles called synaptic vesicles.
• The neurotransmitter diffuses into the gap
between the axon and dendrites of the
neighbouring postsynaptic neurons.
• The neurotransmitter attaches to special
receptor sites and either excites or inhibits the
neuron.
Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine
• Responsible for the stimulation of muscles, memory formation and
learning.
• Found in the sensory neurons and autonomic nervous system
• Botulism and Tetanus are conditions in which bacterial agents block the
receptors for acetylcholine. This causes paralysis and sometimes worse.
Norepinephrine
• Excitatory neurotransmitter
• Responsible for the fight or flight response
• Increased by the use of amphetamines
Dopamine
• Reduces a neurons ability to fire
• Associated with the reward/pleasure center of the brain
GABA
• Gamma-aminobutyric acid
• Inhibitor of norepinephrine and acetylcholine
• Low GABA leads to anxiety, jitters and epilepsy
• Diazapam reduces anxiety by binding to GABA receptors
Glutamate
• CNS neurotransmitter related to long term memory formation.
• Glutamate imbalance can lead to ALS, Lou Gherig’s disease and a large
number of nervous system disorders
Endorphin
• Endogenous morphine – structurally similar to opiates and opioids
• Involved in pain reduction and pleasure
Serotonin
• Inhibitory neurotransmitter involved in emotion and mood.
• Low serotonin can lead to depression, OCD, sleep disorders,
carbohydrate binging, migraines, IBS and fibromyalgia
• Hallucinogens block the release of serotonin which changes perceptual
pathways.