Action Potential

Flow of information in a neuron

Learning objectives

1. Learn how information travels in a neuron.

2. Understand the process and phases of action potential.

3. Examine the role of ions in action potential.

4. Identify key ion channels and their functions during action potential.

5. Describe how the refractory period regulates neural signal timing.

How do neurons transmit information?
• Information moves along a
neuron in the form of a
neural impulse called an
action potential.
• Action Potential―a
neural/electrochemical
impulse that travels from
the cell body down the
axon terminal.
• Measured in millivolts (mV).
• Speed: 1–120 m/s
All-or-None Law of Action Potential
Action potential is an all-or-none
process (like a gun firing).
• Neuron fires a single, brief neural
pulse, then becomes inactive for a
few thousandths of a second.
• Only triggered if the stimulation by
another neuron reaches the
threshold level.
• In response, it either fires an
action potential or it does not.
• Its intensity always remains the
same.
Ions in Neuron Cell
• Action potential is generated by movements by electrically charged
molecules in and out of the neuron membrane, known as ions.

• Most abundant ions found are:

• positively charged sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) and
• negatively charged chloride (Cl-), organic anion and proteins
Ions in Neuron Cell

• Neuron’s surface is selectively

permeable:
• Some ions can pass through
easily while others cannot,
except when special
passageways are open.
• Ion channels―doughnut-shaped
protein molecules that form pores
across the neuron membrane.
Distribution of Ions in a Neuron

• Interior of the neuron

membrane has more
negatively charged ions. Outside
• Exterior of the neuron
membrane has more Neuron
positively charged ions. membrane
• K+ ions are highly
concentrated inside.
Inside
• Na+ ions are highly
concentrated outside.
Resting Potential
• When a neuron is not
generating an action
potential, it is said to be at
rest.
• During resting potential,
inside of neuron is more
negatively charged and
ouside is more positively.
• Neuron’s resting membrane
potential is around –70 mV.
How is resting membrane potential formed?
• By difference in electrical charge on the inside and outside of the neuron
membrane.
• And difference in the concentrations of positively charged Na+ and K+ ions
inside and outside the cell.
• At rest, the cell membrane is not permeable to Na+ ions.
• In contrast, the membrane is permeable to K+ ions.
• This difference in charges and ion concentration is called an
electrochemical gradient.
Sodium-Potassium Pump

• It is a special protein channel.

• Responsible for maintaining
differences in the
concentrations of Na+ and K+
ions inside and outside the
neuron.
• Takes 3 Na+ ions out from the
membrane and 2 K+ ions back
in.
Significance of Resting Potential

• Establishment of the electrochemical gradient.

• Maintenance of cellular homeostasis or equilibrium in neuron.
• Generation of action potential.
• Proper functioning of the nervous and muscular systems.
Phases of Action Potential
1. Polarization

• When a neuron has negative membrane potential at resting potential, it is

said to be polarized.

• The electric potential across a neuron’s cell membrane will change if it is

stimulated by other neurons.
2. Depolarization
• If the electric potential is raised
above –55 mV, the axon
membrane becomes temporarily
unstable.
• Na+ channels open and Na+ ions
enter the axon.
• Axon’ interior is briefly positively
charged up to about +40 mV or
so.
• This brief positive charge is action
potential.
3. Repolarization
• Na+ channels close, K+ channels
open and K+ ions flow out of the
axon, carrying a positive charge
with them.
• Movement of K+ ions out of the
axon is repolarization of the
neuron.
• Axon’s interior membrane is
restored to a negatively charged
state.
4. Hyperpolarization

• Repolarization leads to an
electrical charge below the
resting potential around –75mV,
called hyperpolarization.

• After K+ channels close, the

sodium-potassium pump takes
over to bring the neuron to Refractory
resting potential. period
Refractory Period
• A brief period during which a neuron
is temporarily unresponsive to further
stimulation and cannot generate +40
another action potential.
• Duration: 1 milliseconds
• Two phases:
1. Absolute refractory period
2. Relative refractory period
1. Absolute Refractory Period
This phase follows the peak of an action potential. During the absolute
refractory period:
• Na+ channels are inactivated and cannot reopen.
• Regardless of the strength of the stimulus, a new action potential cannot
be initiated.
• This ensures a strict ‘no firing’ period, contributing to the one-directional
propagation of nerve impulses along the axon.
• Typically lasts around a few milliseconds.
2. Relative Refractory Period
• Followed by absolute refractory period.
• Neuron's membrane potential is in the hyperpolarization phase i.e., more
negative than its resting potential.
• While it is possible to trigger another action potential during the relative
refractory period, it requires a stronger-than-usual stimulus.
• Increased stimulation is necessary because the Na+ channels are
gradually recovering from their inactivated state, and the membrane is
more resistant to depolarization.
Significance of Refractory Period
• Ensures one-directional propagation of nerve impulses along the axon,
preventing signals from traveling backward.
• Helps maintain proper timing and sequence of nerve impulses, allowing for
precise signal transmission.
• Prevents overexcitation of neurons by imposing a temporary ‘rest’ period
after each action potential.
• Contributes to reliability and accuracy of information transmission in the
nervous system.
References
• Meyer, J. (2022). Psychopharmacology. Oxford University Press.
• David G. M., C. Nathan D. (2020). Myers’ Psychology for AP. Worth
Publishers
• Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Fredrickson, B. L., Loftus, G. R., & Wagenaar, W. A.
(2009). Atkinson & Hilgard’s introduction to psychology. Cengage Learning
EMEA.