Lesson A1.

Control of Body Processes

through Nervous System
 describe the events that
1 lead to the generation of a
nerve impulse;
Objectives
At the end explain how the conduction
of the of nerve impulse from one
2 neuron to another takes
lesson, you
should be place; and
able to:
explain how the reflex arc
3 works.
 Learn about It!

Control of Body Processes

through the Nervous System
● Neurons communicate
with each other through
neural transmission.

● A stimulus is being
received by sensory
receptors and the body
responds through motor
effectors. The process of the nervous system
 Learn about It!

Nerve Impulse
● The fundamental process
of neural transmission, in
order to be successful,
requires the generation of
nerve impulses.

● A nerve impulse is a
signal transmitted along a
nerve fiber. An artist’s rendition of a neural network
 Learn about It!

Generation of Nerve Impulse

● Neurons are able to transmit signals through changes in
the electrical potential of their membrane brought about
by the movement of ions across the membrane.

● An electrochemical gradient is the difference in electric

charges between the inner and outer part of the neuron.

○ It governs the movement of the ions which results in

an electrical impulse.
 Learn about It!

Generation of Nerve Impulse

● The generation of nerve impulses can be divided into
phases, each with distinct stages or events.
Phases Stages or Events

Resting Membrane Polarization

Potential Depolarization
Propagation of action potential
Action Potential
Repolarization
 Learn about It!

Generation of Nerve Impulse

● First Phase: Resting Membrane Potential

○ Resting membrane potential is when the nerve cell is

not firing an impulse.

○ This is established through polarization, when the

unequal distribution of sodium ions (Na+) outside the cell
and potassium ions (K+) inside the cell, making the
outside of the cell more positively charged compared with
the inside.
 Learn about It!

Generation of Nerve Impulse

● First Phase: Resting Membrane Potential
○ A polarized neuron does
not carry an impulse.

○ The electrochemical
gradient is established
and maintained by the
sodium-potassium An axon at the resting membrane
potential has its membrane at the
pump. polarization state.
 Learn about It!

Generation of Nerve Impulse

● First Phase: Resting Membrane Potential
○ When a neuron is stimulated
by a stimulus, Na+ channels
open and sodium ions flow
into the cell.

○ Depolarization, a change in
the potential across the Stimulation of the membrane of the
axon results in depolarization.
membrane, happens.
 Learn about It!

Generation of Nerve Impulse

● Second Phase: Action Potential

○ Action potential is an electrical impulse that

maintains their amplitude and strength down the
length of the axon.

○ This is created as soon as the depolarizing electrical

potential travels down the dendrites over the cell
body.
 Learn about It!

Generation of Nerve Impulse

● Second Phase: Action Potential
○ The action potential travels
down the axon when the
depolarization of an area of
membrane causes adjacent
Na+ channels to open.

○ This is the propagation As one axonal membrane becomes

depolarized, the adjacent one
state. becomes polarized.
 Learn about It!

Generation of Nerve Impulse

● Second Phase: Action Potential
○ After a short delay, K+
channels open and
potassium ions flow out,
restoring the (+) charge
outside and the (−) charge
inside of the neuron Propagation of the action potential
through the process called happens as a result of continuous
repolarization. repolarization and depolarization.
 Learn about It!

Generation of Nerve Impulse

● Second Phase:
Action Potential
○ Action potential
or nerve impulse
is the result of
“waves of
depolarization.”

Continuous depolarization and repolarization

causes the generation of nerve impulse.
 Learn about It!

Generation of Nerve Impulse

● Second Phase: Action Potential
○ For the neuron to fire again, the resting membrane
potential needs to be reestablished.

○ Sodium-potassium pump is used to move Na+ out and

letting K+ in, reestablishing the first phase.

○ With this, the neuron is ready again to respond to

another stimulus and transmit another impulse.
 Learn about It!

Generation of Nerve Impulse

● Second Phase:
Action Potential
○ The rapid transmission
of action potential is
reinforced by the
myelin sheath
wrapped around the
neural processes Action potential propagation in
(axons and dendrites). unmyelinated and myelinated axons
 Learn about It!

Generation of Nerve Impulse

● The generation of
nerve impulses is
governed by the
movement of
sodium and
potassium ions
through the ion
channels and Na+-
K+pumps. Summary of the stages of nerve impulse generation
through electrochemical gradient
 Learn about It!

Neural Communication through the Synapse

● Neurons communicate with
each other by passing the
nerve impulse through
synapses.

○ A synapse is an
extracellular gap between
one neuron’s axon and
The extracellular gap
another neuron’s dendrite. between neural processes
 Learn about It!

Neural Communication through the Synapse

● The space between the
presynaptic neuron and a
postsynaptic cell is called the
synaptic cleft.

● The presynaptic neuron

contains signal molecules
called neurotransmitters
found in synaptic vesicles.
Neural transmission through synapse
 Learn about It!

Neural Communication through the Synapse

1. When the action potential
reaches the end of a neuron,
neurotransmitters are
released from the neuron
into the synaptic cleft.

2. Neurotransmitters bind to
the adjacent cell at receptor
sites attached to ion
channels. Neural transmission through synapse
 Learn about It!

Neural Communication through the Synapse

3. The channels open,

allowing ions to move into
and out of the effector cell,
which alters its membrane
potential, thereby
transmitting the signal from
the neuron to the effector
cells.
Neural transmission through synapse
 Learn about It!

Neural Communication through the Synapse

● The transmission of nerve impulse is an
electrochemical event.

○ The transmission down the length of the neuron’s

membrane is electrical.

○ The next neuron is stimulated by a neurotransmitter,

which is a chemical.
 Learn about It!

Neural Communication through the Synapse

● Each neuron receives and

send signals to and from
other neurons, resulting in a
conversation with many
different neurons at the
same time because of their
numerous neural processes.
Neurons communicate to all other
neurons with their neural processes.
 Learn about It!

Reflexes
● There are body responses that do not necessarily follow the
general neural pathway, which is to send and receive
signals from the brain. They are the reflexes.

○ Reflexes are rapid, instantaneous, and involuntary

responses of the body to stimuli that do not undergo
integration in the brain.

○ They are controlled by the somatic nervous system.

 Learn about It!

Reflexes
● Reflexes occur over neural
pathways called reflex arcs,
which have five components.

○ receptors
○ sensory neuron
○ interneuron
○ motor neuron
○ effector muscle The reflex arc
 Learn about It!

Reflexes
● Components of the reflex arc:

○ Receptors receive the stimulus.

○ Sensory neurons send signals to the spinal cord.
○ Interneurons in the spinal cord link the sensory to
motor neurons.
○ Motor neurons carry the impulse from the spinal cord.
○ Effector muscles carry out the reflex response.
 Learn about It!

Reflexes
● Reflex actions protect us from possible sudden harm.

Examples of reflex action: knee jerk (left) and touching a hot object (right)
Key Points

A nerve impulse is a signal transmitted along a nerve

1 fiber. It is the result of spreading waves of
depolarization.

The generation of nerve impulse undergoes two

phases: the resting membrane potential is the
condition of the neuron which it cannot fire impulses
2 yet, and the action potential which is the change in
an electrical impulse associated with the passage of
signals along membranes of the neurons.
Key Points

Nerve impulse generation also has four major states

3 or events.

Polarization is the state of a neuron where it does not

carry any impulse because of unequal distribution of
4 sodium ions (Na+) outside of the cell and potassium
ions (K+) inside the cell.

Depolarization is the change in the potential across

5 the membrane due to stimulation. Here, action
potential is starting to be generated.
Key Points

Propagation of action potential is the spreading of

6 impulses across axonal membranes.

Repolarization is the restoration of the positive

7 charge outside and the negative charge inside of the
neuron.

Neurons communicate with other neurons through

8 the extracellular gaps between them, which is called
the synapse.
Key Points

A reflex is a rapid, instantaneous and involuntary

responses of the body to stimuli that do not undergo
9 integration in the brain. It occurs in the neural
pathway called reflex arc.
 Check Your Understanding

Write true if the statement is correct, otherwise,

write false.
1. Neurons are excitable cells.
2. Reflex actions protect us from possible danger.
3. The transmission of an impulse is an electrical event.
4. Reflexes are controlled by the autonomic nervous system.
5. A neurotransmitter is an extracellular gap between two
neurons.
 Challenge Yourself

To which system, object,

or phenomena can you
compare the way neurons
generate nerve impulses?
 Photo Credits

Slide 15: This file, Saltatory Conduction, by Dr. Jana, is licensed under CC BY 4.0 via Creative Commons.
 Bibliography

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