Nervous System and

The Special Senses

I. Membrane Potential, Electrical Signals, Synaptic Transmission
II. The Autonomic Nervous System
III. The Senses
IV. Diseases of the Nervous System and Special Senses
Membrane Potential, Electrical
Signals, Synaptic Transmission
Membrane Potential
• Intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid are electrically neutral solutions.
• Cells at rest are electrically polarized.
• The inside is slightly negative relative to the outside.
• This separation of charge across the plasma membrane is called the
membrane potential.
• Measured in millivolts.
• The sign (+ or -) if the potential is defined by the predominant charge on
the internal surface of the cell membrane.
• Nerves and muscles rely on changes in membrane potential for their
functions.
Resting membrane potential: -70mV

• Movement of Na+ and K+ ions in and out of the cell depends on two
factors:
• Concentration gradient
• Electrical gradient
• Condition: Membrane is permeable only to potassium
• Concentration gradient: K+ diffuses out; positive charge will accumulate in the ECF.
• Electrical gradient: Positive charges will now repel any more K+ and prevent them from
diffusing out of the cell.
• Equilibrium potential for K+: -90mV
• Condition: Membrane is permeable only to sodium
• Concentration gradient: Na+ diffuses in; positive charge will accumulate in the ICF.
• Electrical gradient: Positive charges will now repel any more Na+ ions and prevent them from
diffusing inward.
• Equilibrium potential for Na+: +60mV
• At any given time, the membrane potential is closer to the equilibrium potential of
the more permeable ion.
• Na+-K+ Pump
1 ATP : 3 Na+ (pumped out) : 2 K+ (pumped in)
• Outside of the cell is more positive; inside is more negative.
• Maintains the concentration differences of sodium and potassium.
Electrical signals
• Neurons –convey information to other cells in the form of electrical
signals.
• Graded potentials
• Action potentials
• Occur through the ion flux (movement) across the plasma membrane.
• Stimuli –render its effect by altering the permeability of ions.
Graded Potentials
-short distance signals; local changes in membrane potential that occur at synapses
where one neuron comes into contact with another neuron; magnitude varies with
strength of stimulus.
• Depolarization –occurs when the MP becomes less negative; excitatory effect.
• Hyperpolarization –occurs when the MP becomes more negative; inhibitory
effect.
• Repolarization -once stimulus is removed, the MP returns to its resting
state/potential.
• Local current flow –mechanism by which the signal is transmitted; the movement
of cations.
• Cations move away from initial site of stimulus.
• The further away, the smaller the magnitude of the signal until it dies out.
Action Potentials
-long-distance; magnitude is maintained throughout the length of the
axon.
• If a stimulus is strong enough to a critical level referred to as
threshold, then the membrane continues to depolarize on its own.
• Approximately 20mV less negative than resting MP.
• Suprathreshold stimulus –larger than threshold; increases the
frequency at which action potentials are generated; a stronger
stimulus will trigger a greater number of action potentials per second.
• Voltage-gated Ion Channels –open and close in response to changes in
membrane potential.
• Influx of Na+ ions results in the opening
of more voltage-gated Na+ channel;
this continues until threshold.
• After-hyperpolarization –prolonged
increase of K+ permeability; K+ ions
continue to exit the cell and the MP
approaches the EP for K+.
• Na+-K+ pump returns both ions to
their original positions.
Conduction of the action potential
• Four functional regions of a neuron:
1. Cell body –site of communication and input from other neurons;
generates graded potentials.
• Dendrites –projections from the cell body that increase its surface area.
2. Axon hillock –region of cell body from which the axon arises;
generates action potentials; abundance of Na+ channels.
3. Axon –aka nerve fiber; elongated projection that transmits the
action potential toward other cells.
4. Axon terminal –neuron communicates with other cells through its
action potential.
• Saltatory conduction –occurs in myelinated axons; increases velocity
of conduction; lower energy requirement.
• Myelin –a lipid sheath wrapped around the axon at regular intervals.
• Oligodendrocyte –forms myelin in the CNS.
• Schwann cells –forms myelin in the PNS.
• Nodes of Ranvier –gaps in the myelin sheath.
• Speed of conduction is directly correlated to the urgency of information
conveyed by a neuron.
Example:
• Unmyelinated: slow digestive processes.
• Myelinated: Skeletal muscle nerves.
• Multiple Sclerosis –caused by demyelination of neurons in the brain, spinal
cord, and optic nerve; ssx: weakness, numbness, loss of bladder control, and
visual disturbances.
• Diameter of the axon
• The greater the diameter, the lower the resistance to current flow; impulse is
conducted along large nerve fibers more rapidly.
Example:
• Large diameter: skeletal muscle nerves
• Small diameter: ANS (heart, blood vessels, GI, glands)
• Conduction is unidirectional
Local Anesthetics
-prevent or relieve the perception of pain by interrupting conduction of
the nerve impulse.
-bind to a specific receptor site on the voltage-gated Na+ channels and
block ion movement through them; signal fails to reach the CNS.
-Example: lidocaine and procaine (aka novocaine)
Synaptic Transmission
• Synapse –the site at which the impulse is transmitted from one cell to
the next.
Neuron-to-neuron Transmission
• Presynaptic neuron –transmits the impulse toward the synapse.
• Postsynaptic neuron –transmits the impulse away from the synapse.

• Unidirectional
• Presynaptic neuron influences the postsynaptic neuron only.
Chemical
Synapses
• The change at the synapse is in the form of a graded potential only.
• If the depolarization caused by multiple graded potentials added
together is sufficient for the axon hillock to reach threshold, then
action potential is generated here.
Two Types of Synapse
1. Excitatory synapse –binding of NT to its receptor increases
permeability of the membrane to Na+ and K+ ions through chemical
messenger-gated channels closely related with the receptor.
• Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP) –graded potential; influx of Na+ is
greater than efflux of K+.
2. Inhibitory synapse –binding of NT to its receptor increases
permeability of membrane to K+ or Cl- ions.
• Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP) –K+ exits or Cl- enters.
• A neuron is genetically programmed to synthesize and release only a
single type of neurotransmitter.
• A synapse is either always excitatory or always inhibitory.
Inactivation of NT:
• Passive diffusion of the NT away from the synaptic cleft.
• Destruction of NT by enzymes located in the synaptic cleft or in the
plasma membranes of presynaptic or postsynaptic neurons.
• Active reuptake of the NT into the synaptic knob of the presynaptic
neuron for reuse or enzymatic destruction.
Summation
• Generation of an action potential requires the addition or summation
of a sufficient number of excitatory inputs to depolarize this neuron to
threshold.
Two Types:
• Temporal summation –occurs when multiple EPSPs/IPSPs produced by
a single presynaptic neuron in close sequence exert their effect on the
membrane potential of the postsynaptic neuron.
-addition of up to 50 EPSPs are needed to reach threshold.
-strength of signal is influenced by the frequency of nerve
impulses.
• Spatial summation –occurs when multiple EPSPs/IPSPs produced by
many presynaptic neurons exert their effects on the MP of the
postsynaptic neuron simultaneously.
-strength of signal is influenced by the number of simultaneously
active presynaptic neurons.
Interconnections between neurons
• Convergence –occurs when the axon terminals of many presynaptic
neurons all synapse with a single postsynaptic neuron; spatial
summation.
• Divergence –occurs when the axon terminals of a single presynaptic
neuron branches and synapses with multiple postsynaptic neurons.
-a single nerve fiber can affect several regions of the nervous
system, each with a different function, at the same time.
Factors affecting synaptic transmission
• pH of the interstitial fluid
• normal arterial blood pH: 7.4
• Alkalosis –pH increases, excitability of neurons also increases; more likely to
generate action potential; may lead to seizures, particularly for epileptics.
• Acidosis –pH decreases, neurons are depressed; less likely to generate action
potential; leads to comatose state; common for severe diabetic acidosis or
acidosis associated with end-stage renal failure.
• Hypoxia –depresses neuronal activity.
• Interruption of blood flow to the brain for only a few seconds leads to
unconsciousness.
• Prolonged lack of blood flow (characteristic of stroke) leads to permanent brain
damage.
• Drugs, toxins, and diseases
• Altered release of a NT: Tetanus toxin –produced by Clostridium tetani;
prevents release of GABA, an inhibitory neurotransmitter; causes
uncontrolled muscle spasms/contractions; lockjaw, opisthotonus, death by
asphyxiation due to respiratory muscle paralysis; tx: antitoxin, metronidazole.
• Altered interaction of a neurotransmitter with its receptor:
Antagonists
• Schizophrenia –severe mental disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, social
withdrawal, and disorganized speech and behavior; excessive dopamine release.
• Chlorpromazine (Thorazine), Haloperidol (Haldol) –dopamine antagonists; SE:
extrapyramidal symptoms.
Agonists
• Albuterol (Ventolin) –β2 agonist that mimics the effects of epinephrine; causes
bronchodilation; used for asthma.
Facilitate binding
• Diazepam (Valium) and Lorazepam (Ativan) –benzodiazepines; antianxiety drugs;
enhances binding of GABA.
• Altered removal of a NT from the synaptic cleft:
• Depression –involves a deficiency of monoamine NTs e.g. norepinephrine
and serotonin.
• Fluoxetine (Prozac) –selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI);
antidepressant.
• Replacement of a deficient NT
• Parkinson’s Disease –progressive destruction of dopaminergic (dopamine
releasing) neurons, resulting in a deficiency of dopamine; results to
increased muscle rigidity and resting tremors.
• Levodopa (L-dopa) –dopamine precursor; taken up by axon terminals and
used to form dopamine; SE: schizophrenic symptoms.
The Autonomic Nervous System
-largely independent; activities are not under direct conscious control.
-involuntary movements; concerned primarily with visceral functions such as
cardiac output, blood flow to various organs, and digestion.
Anatomy
of the
ANS
 Sympathetic
• Fight, Flight, Fright
• Eyes: mydriasis (pupillodilation)
• Bronchi: bronchodilation
• Heart: Tachycardia
• GIT wall: Relaxation
• GIT sphincters: closure
• Constipation
• Bladder wall (detrusor): relaxation
• Bladder trigonal and sphincter:
closure
• Urinary retention
• Sweat glands: Apocrine
Parasympathetic
• Rest & Digest
• Eyes: Miosis (Pupilloconstriction)
• Bronchi: Bronchoconstriction
• Heart: Bradycardia
• GIT wall: Contraction
• GIT sphincters: Opening
• Bowel movement
• Bladder wall (detrusor): Contraction
• Bladder trigonal and sphincter:
Opening
• Urination
• Sweat glands: Eccrine
 Receptors Location Responses
Alpha 1 (α1) Smooth muscles: Contraction:
Radial muscles of the iris Mydriasis
Sympathetic Vascular (Splanchnic; cutaneous)
Bladder trigone & sphincter
Vasoconstriction
Urinary retention
Receptors Prostatic
Pilomotor
Urinary retention
Hair erection (goosebumps)

and
Responses Alpha 2 (α2) CNS-presynaptic Inhibition of further release of NE
Central: sedation, depression
Peripheral: vasodilation
Vascular smooth muscle-postsynaptic vasoconstriction
Beta 1 (β1) Juxtaglomerular apparatus (kidneys) Renin release
Heart Increased CID
Beta 2 (β2) Smooth muscles: Relaxation:
Bronchial Bronchodilation
Vascular smooth muscles supplying the Vasodilation
skeletal muscles
Uterine Tocolysis
Skeletal muscles Contraction (tremors)
Muscle cell membranes Influx of K+ = hypokalemia

Beta 3 (β3) Adipose tissues Lipolysis

Dopamine 1 Renal & Splanchnic blood vessels Vasodilation
(D1)
Dopamine 2 GIT wall Relaxation:
(D2) Loss of peristalsis (ileus)
CNS Modulation of motor activity
Modulation of perception
 Receptors Location Response
Parasympathetic
M1
M2
Gastric glands
Heart
HCl secretion
Decreased dromotropism and

Receptors M3 Smooth muscles:

Eyes (circular muscles)
chromotropism (vagotonic effect)
Contraction
Miosis
and Ciliary muscles
Bronchi
Accomodation (near vision)
Bronchoconstriction
GIT wall Contraction
Responses Sphincters
Urinary bladder:
Opening: bowel movement

Detrusor Contraction
Trigone & Sphincter Opening: urination
Exocrine glands: Increased secretions:
Sweat Sweating
Salivary Salivation
Lacrimal Lacrimation
Gastric & Bronchial Increased secretion

Nn Ganglion Stimulation
Dominant innervations: most
parasympathetic sweat glands &
sympathetic blood vessels
Nm Neuromuscular endplate Skeletal muscle contraction (SNS)