**Philosophy of Science:**

- Intermediate ground between science and religion

- Addresses presuppositions: reality's existence, nature's regularity, human understanding
- Explores scientific knowledge, methods, and their relation to reality

**Philosophy of Religion:**
- Reflective study of religion
- Examines arguments about God's existence, nature, and the relationship with science and ethics
- Explores questions on human origin, nature, suffering, and the divine

**Ancient Science:**
- Rooted in realism
- Combines sensory experience and reason
- Asserts human capability to know reality despite limitations

**Paradigm Shift (15th-17th centuries):**

- Scientific revolution led by figures like Newton
- Integrated experimentation and mathematization
- Gave rise to empiricism and rationalism in modern philosophy

**New Philosophy of Science (16th century):**

- Embraces rationalism and empiricism
- Rationalism (Descartes): Focus on deductive mathematical formalization
- Empiricism (Bacon): Emphasis on observation, experimentation, and perceptions

**Summary of Rationalism (Descartes):**

- True knowledge in concepts and judgments
- Innate concepts and reasoning emphasized
- Sensory knowledge viewed skeptically (Methodical doubt)

**Summary of Empiricism (Bacon):**

- True knowledge in perceptions and impressions
- Emphasizes observation, experimentation
- Regards the real as phenomenal, rejects dogmatic claims

**1.6. Positivism:**
- Auguste Comte's work influential in analyzing science
- Human knowledge evolution: Theological → Metaphysical → Positive state
- Positive knowledge aims for precision, objectivity, and utility
- Function: Establish laws from facts, unifying all sciences, especially sociology

**1.7. Logical Neopositivism:**

- Positivist focus on language analysis
- Vienna Circle: Emphasizes hypothetical-deductive method
- Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus: Only scientific language is meaningful
- Critique of metaphysics, considering statements not verified in experience as meaningless

**1.8. Disqualification of Metaphysics:**

- Positivism rejects metaphysical and religious statements lacking empirical verification
- Logic and mathematics propositions deemed meaningful due to formal consistency

**1.9. Criticism of Positivism by Karl Popper:**

- Popper challenges positivism's complete verifiability criterion
- Introduces falsifiability as a criterion for scientific propositions
- Acknowledges reasonableness of metaphysics, suggesting a subjective world beyond empirical
sciences

**1.10. Methods of Modern Science:**

- Shift from sensory observation-based philosophy to diverse techniques
- General schema: Construction of theories and experimental confirmation

**1.11. Presuppositions of Modern Science:**

- Essential but often overlooked presuppositions
- Open to theological interpretation regarding the existence and rationality of the world

**II. Religious Knowledge:**

- Philosophy of Religion studies reflective aspects of religion, including God's existence and nature
- Addresses questions about human origin, nature, suffering, and the divine

**2.1. Faith and Religious Experience:**

- Faith is the foundation of religious knowledge
- Rudolf Otto defines religious experience as mysterium tremendum et fascinans
- Religious man experiences awe and shock in the presence of the divine

**2.2. Faith and Reason:**

- Faith and reason can coexist
- Thomas Aquinas' ways and arguments: desire for happiness, yearning for immortality, moral
experience
- Reason as a pathway to faith experience

**2.3. Religious Symbols:**

- Symbols essential for expressing the inexpressible mystery of the sacred
- Symbols point beyond themselves, supporting the relationship with the invisible
- Absolutisation and indifference are inappropriate ways of conceiving symbols

**2.4. Rites in Religion:**

- Religious rites are public practices with fixed forms
- Enable communion with the divine through various elements
- Characteristics include community, historical, and differentiating aspects

**2.5. Praying:**
- Communication with God present in all religions
- Forms: Contemplative, praise, forgiveness, intercession
- Can be individual or community-based
- In Judaism: Strong community character, often expressed in plural
- In Christianity: Recognizes Jesus as the mediator, emphasizes God as Father, and men as brothers
- In Islam: Performed five times a day, expressing worship with total dedication
- In Hinduism: Worship of divinity, inner purification, repetition of sacred words (mantra)

**2.6. The Divine is Ineffable:**

- Symbols, rites, prayers, and language like parables or myths express the inexpressible mystery of
the divine
- Understanding the divine escapes human comprehension due to its overwhelming greatness

**III. SCIENCE AND RELIGION:**

**3.1. Differences between Science and Religion:**

- Object: Natural phenomena for science, God's mystery for religion
- Purpose: Understand structure and functioning for science, find meaning of life and guidance for
action for religion
- Method: Observations, experiments, and mathematization for science, phenomenology,
experience, symbols, and interpretation for religion
- Orientation: Science doesn't give ethical norms, religion involves obligations and demands
extending to all aspects of a believer's life

**3.2. Similarities between Science and Religion:**

- Both are belief systems offering different perspectives on reality
- Both have a final propositional element: existence of an outside world for science, mystery of God
for religion
- Rites and celebrations important in both, emphasizing community roles

**3.3. Science and Theology:**

- Theology formalizes religious discourse, starts with faith, systematizes and explains knowledge
about God
- Natural theology in Christian tradition explores paths pointing to God discovered by reason
- Theology is considered a "science" in a broad sense, involving methodically directed reflection

**Conclusion: Unity of the Human Being:**

- Three rationalities: science, philosophy, and religion
- Two uses of reason: theoretical and practical (technical or prudential)
- The whole human being is the thinking and acting entity, unitary and not isolated
- Root unity makes these rationalities compatible, complementary, and interdependent.

**Christianity and Modern Science:**

- Modern science in Christian Europe merged ancient Greek and Arab contributions.
- Copernicus, Kepler, Boyle, Newton balanced science and faith.

**Faith and Science Development:**

- China and India's stagnation attributed to pantheistic views.
- Creationist Christian tradition influenced science's birth.
- Whitehead linked Christian thought to science.
- Jaki connected Christian faith to the universe's intelligibility.
- Monod recognized Christian influence on science's birth.
**Christianity, Philosophy, Early Science:**
- Christian-Church played a crucial role in medieval philosophy.
- Christian thinkers valued the Bible and nature's books.

**Integration of Knowledge in Christianity:**

- Early Christianity valued knowledge from pagan authors.
- Clement and Augustine accepted Greek cosmology.
- Augustine acknowledged science's autonomy.

**Post-Roman Empire, Knowledge Preservation:**

- Church preserved Greco-Roman culture post-Roman Empire.
- Boethius, Cassiodorus contributed to preserving knowledge.

**Recognition of Knowledge's Autonomy:**

- Cassiodorus affirmed secular knowledge's ecclesiastical value.
- Isidore presented secular knowledge in "Etymologiae."
- Bede accepted a geocentric model, acknowledging science's role.

**Medieval Universe Image:**

- Medieval universe followed Aristotelian spheres, not the biblical view.
- Christian acceptance of the Greek model reflected science's autonomy.

**Biblical Cosmology:**
1. **Isaiah 40:22:** Describes Earth like a circle, maybe imagining it as flat when seen from a
mountain.
2. **Isaiah 66:1:** Pictures Earth as God's footstool, suggesting a flat Earth where God rests.
3. **Psalms 104:5, Psalms 93:1:** Implies Earth doesn't move, and the Sun goes around it.
4. **Daniel 4:11, Matthew 4:8:** Stories hint at a flat Earth, focusing on visibility based on height.

**University Beginnings:**
- After the Roman Empire, schools in monasteries and cathedrals saved old knowledge.
- Universities started in the 12th century, teaching Philosophy, Theology, Law, and Medicine.
- Key ones were in Bologna, Paris, Oxford, Cambridge, Salamanca.

**University of Paris and Philosophy:**

- Dominicans (Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas) and Franciscans (Bonaventure, Duns Scotus) were
important.
- Aristotle's ideas became popular.

**Dominican School: Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas:**

- Albertus Magnus said faith and science can be separate, and we can learn about God from nature.
- Thomas Aquinas mixed Aristotle's ideas with Christianity, connecting reason and faith.

**Blending Reason and Faith:**

- Thomas Aquinas thought reason and faith should work together.
- Faith guides reason, and reason helps explain and defend faith.
- He believed if reason and faith seem to clash, it's likely a mistake in reason.

Hope this makes it clearer!

**Transition to the Modern Age:**
- Began with the fall of Constantinople in 1453.
- Marked a new relationship between religion and science, moving from theocentric to human-
centered and reason-driven views.

**Changing Cosmological Views:**

- **Claudius Ptolemy (100-170):** Geocentric theory (Earth at the center), widely accepted in
medieval Europe.
- **Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543):** Proposed heliocentrism (Sun at the center) in 1543,
challenging geocentric beliefs.
- **Reactions:** Protestants initially resisted, but Johannes Kepler (1561-1630) found compatibility
with the Bible.

**Galileo and Heliocentrism:**

- **Galileo Galilei (1564-1642):** Supported Copernicus. Encountered opposition; Pope Urban VIII
allowed a book, but later condemned Galileo's "Dialogo."

**Galileo's Struggle:**
- **Galileo's Book:** Published "Dialogo Sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo Tolemaico e
Coperniciano" in 1632, defending Copernicus.
- **Retraction:** Forced to retract heliocentric views in 1633 by the Church.
- **Church's Stance:** Struggle due to a lack of distinction between biblical and empirical truths.
- **Galileo's View:** Advocated for interpreting Scripture correctly and respecting the independence
of science and religion.

**Conclusion:** The struggle between heliocentrism and geocentrism reflects a period of tension as
science challenged traditional beliefs, prompting a reevaluation of the relationship between faith and
reason.

**Reevaluation and Reconciliation:**

- John Paul II acknowledged the logical action of the Holy Office in the Galileo case, emphasizing that
heliocentrism wasn't forced without irrefutable proof.
- Epistemological Questions: The debate involved biblical hermeneutics and Galileo's rejection of
presenting Copernicus as a hypothesis. The clash was between scientific and philosophical reflection,
leading to the question of interpreting Scripture.

**Challenges in Interpretation:**
- Geocentrism and Scripture: Geocentric views were culturally accepted, posing a challenge to
theologians on the compatibility of heliocentrism with the Bible.
- Cultural Influences: The uniform cultural structure of the time, while positive, contributed to the
condemnation of Galileo due to a lack of distinction between Scripture and its interpretation.

**Rehabilitation of Galileo:**
- Pope Gregory XVI rehabilitated Galileo in 1835, recognizing the misinterpretations and cultural
influences that led to the condemnation.

**Science and Christian Churches:**

**Anglican Church:**
- **Royal Society's Role:** Encouraged English scientists to promote science for the glory of God and
humanity.
- **Puritan Influence:** English puritanism fueled the scientific renaissance, viewing scientific
activity as a religious task.
- **Scientific and Religious Integration:** English scientists, like Robert Boyle, saw science as
revealing God's wisdom, with natural science fostering admiration for the Creator.

**Key Figures:**
- **Robert Boyle (1627-1691):** A modern chemist and Anglican theologian who saw scientific
knowledge inspiring admiration for God's perfections.
- **Isaac Newton (1642-1727):** Integral to the English trend, Newton saw the solar system as
originating from an intelligent and almighty Being, influencing natural theology.

**Conclusion:** The Anglican Church demonstrated a harmonious relationship between science and
faith, with scientists integrating their religious beliefs into their scientific pursuits.

**Christian Scientists of the Seventeenth Century:**

**John Ray (1627-1705):**
- Faith and Demonstration: Ray argued that faith in God must be demonstrated through
contemplation of order and purpose observed in nature.

**Catholic Scientists after Galileo:**

- **Continuation of Science:** Despite the Galileo case, science in the Catholic sphere persisted,
with Giovanni Borelli and Torricelli continuing Galileo's work.
- **René Descartes (1596-1650):**
- **Scientific Revolution in France:** Descartes, a fervent Catholic, contributed to the scientific
revolution, stating that God's consistent actions reveal laws of nature.
- **Blaise Pascal (1623-1662):**
- **Physics and Religious Defense:** Pascal, besides physics and mathematics, defended
Christianity in "Pensées sur la religion," emphasizing the need for Jesus Christ as the mediator to
know God.
- **Christian Huygens (1629-1695):**
- **Astronomy and Theology:** Dutch astronomer Huygens supported divine providence against
the idea of Earth's origin from fortuitous atoms, attributing existence to God's wisdom.

**Contribution of Jesuits:**
- **Astronomical Observatories:** Jesuits established astronomical observatories, conducting
meteorological and magnetic observations. Their scientific endeavors were not hindered by religion.

**Relations Between Science and Religion:**

**Independence:**
- Scientists, both Protestant and Catholic, in the early stages of modern science saw no opposition
between their Christian faith and scientific pursuits.

**Complementarity:**
- **Theological Claims and Scientific Theories:** Newton and Descartes, for different reasons, saw
God as essential for understanding nature and the material world. Theological beliefs complemented
their scientific theories.
**Conclusion:**
In the seventeenth century, scientists from diverse religious backgrounds demonstrated
independence or complementarity between their scientific pursuits and Christian faith, showcasing a
nuanced relationship between science and religion.

**Cultural Transformations in the 18th and 19th Centuries:**

**The Enlightenment:**
- a) **Mechanistic Universe:** Enlightenment embraced the idea of the universe as an autonomous
mechanism governed by universal laws, like the law of universal gravitation.
- b) **Shift to Deism:** From a personal God revealed in history, people turned to deism, seeing God
as an architect of the world without direct involvement.
- c) **Scientific Contributions:** New scientific ideas about Earth's origin and evolution challenged
traditional interpretations of Genesis, requiring a theological reevaluation.
- d) **Extreme Positions:** Agnosticism, atheism, materialism, and secular ethics emerged, with
some proposing science as a successor to religion.

**The Industrial Revolution:**

- a) **Scientific Progress:** The Industrial Revolution, driven by scientific advancements,
transformed society from an agrarian to an industrial one in the 19th century.
- b) **Social Conflicts:** Conflicts arose due to the separation of capital and labor, leading to social
struggles over wages, working conditions, and workers' rights.

**Age of the Earth:**

- a) **Genesis and Literal Interpretation:** The literal interpretation of Genesis, stating creation in six
days, became untenable with geological studies.
- b) **Geological Studies:** Charles Lyell's work in 1830 proposed geological processes occurring
over millions of years, challenging the young Earth idea.
- c) **Radioactivity Discovery:** Radioactivity's discovery provided a scientific basis, estimating the
Earth's age to be around 4,500 million years, contradicting a literal Genesis interpretation.

**Bible Studies in the 18th Century:**

- **Interpretation Shift:** Authors acknowledged that interpreting biblical texts required considering
cultural contexts and literary genres.

**Origin of Biological Species:**

- a) **Genesis and Independent Creation:** The biblical Genesis suggested species were created
independently. Linnaeus in 1750 supported separate creations.
- b) **Lamarck's Evolutionary Proposal:** Lamarck in 1809 proposed progressive evolution,
attributing morphological changes to adaptation to environmental conditions.

**Debates in the 19th Century:**

- **Origin of Species Debate:** The 19th century saw debates on the origin of species, with various
proposals leading to the formulation of the theory of evolution.

**Charles Darwin:**
- **Voyage on the Beagle (1831):** Darwin's observations during his journey led him to doubt the
independent creation of species.
- **Influence of Malthus:** Reading Malthus led Darwin to consider the struggle for survival and
scarcity of resources in nature.
- **Evolutionary Conclusions:** Darwin proposed evolution through natural selection, where
advantageous traits led to survival and reproduction, producing species diversity.
- **Publication of "The Origin of Species" (1859):** Despite initial hesitation, Darwin published his
groundbreaking work, which triggered both favorable and unfavorable reactions.

**Debates and Reactions to Evolution:**

**Oxford Debate (1860):**

- In 1860, a famous debate in the Museum of Sciences, Oxford, pitted Thomas Henry Huxley, a
supporter of Darwin's evolution, against Samuel Wilberforce, an opponent. The debate quickly
turned into one for or against the church.

**Darwin's Continued Work:**

- In 1871, Darwin published "The Descent Man," explaining evolution concerning humans. Initially
met with opposition, within two decades, the scientific community widely accepted evolutionary
ideas.

**Interpretations of Evolution:**
- **Evolutionary Naturalism:** Materialist interpretations by figures like Huxley and Haeckel
opposed Christian views of creation and providence.
- **Haeckel's Social Darwinism:** Social Darwinism contributed to racist ideologies, claiming racial
superiority, later misused by the Nazis.
- **Evolution as an Ideology:** Richard Dawkins sees evolution as an explanation for reality,
dismissing the need for a designer, which some connect with atheistic and materialistic
interpretations.

**Evolutionism and Christianity:**

- In traditionally Christian countries, Darwin's ideas led to debates challenging biblical doctrines.
- **Reaction in England:** English theologians, like F. Temple, found compatibility between evolution
and Christian doctrine.

**Catholic Reactions:**
- In countries like France, Spain, and Italy, there was strong ecclesiastical rejection, and a Synod of
Bishops in Germany officially condemned evolutionism.

**Popes and Evolution:**

- a) Pope Leo XIII (1893) and Pius XII (1943) emphasized that Genesis' early chapters were not
scientific.
- b) Pius XII's Humani generis (1950) addressed evolutionism, allowing for the human body's origin
from pre-existing material but insisting the soul was directly created by God.
- c) Later popes, Paul VI and John Paul II, affirmed that man was created by God, discussing the
challenge of polygenism and the doctrine of original sin.

**Joseph Ratzinger's Perspective:**

- Joseph Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI) argued for the compatibility of evolution and faith,
emphasizing the ontological jump in the creation of humans. He stressed that the capacity to relate
to God marked the emergence of the human spirit.

**Conclusion on Evolution and Creation:**

- Creation and Evolution are not mutually exclusive but complementary. Ratzinger emphasized that
both answer different questions – creation defines who man is, while evolution describes biological
periods.