1.

Both fluids with low protein content

lymph flows within lymphatic vessels and lymphatic tissue interstitial fluid is found between
cells

. lymphatic vessels have thin walls , More valves , lymph nodes

3. blood enters the capillaries and is filtered it goes into the interstitial spaces and becomes
interstitial fluid. The interstitial fluid that enters the lymphatic capillaries becomes lymph.
Lymphatic capillaries unite to form larger lymphatic vessels and filters periodically through lymph
nodes. lymphatic vessels exit lymph nodes in a they unite form lymph trunks.
From the various lymph trunks, lymph flows into one of two lymphatic ducts and each then
returns the lymph to the bloodstream at the junctions of the internal jugular and subclavian
veins.

. Thymus: Pre-T cells migrate to the thymus, where they mature into T cells. The thymus
populates the secondary lymphatic organs and tissues with T cells.
7
5. tonsils: immune responses against inhaled or ingested foreign substances.
spleen: location for B cells and T cells to carry out immune functions.
Lymph nodes: Trap foreign substances And use macrophages with phagocytosis
6
. jugular lymph sacs, the retroperitoneal lymph sac, the cisterna chyli, and the posterior
lymph sac

. Skin:
Physical Barriers: The epidermis forms a resilient barrier, complemented by the shedding of dead
skin cells and the protective layer of sebum, all of which hinder microbial entry.
4
Chemical Defences: Skin acidity and perspiration create unfavourable conditions for microbial
growth. Tears, containing lysozyme, serve as a potent antimicrobial agent by breaking down
bacterial cell walls, bolstering the skin’s ability to fend off infections.

Mucous:
Physical Barriers: Mucous membranes produce mucus, which ensnares and expels microbes.
Nasal hairs and respiratory tract cilia further obstruct microbial entry by filtering out pathogens
and environmental pollutants.
2
Chemical Defences: Secretions linked to mucous membranes, such as saliva, vaginal fluids,
gastric juice, and tears, harbour compounds that impede microbial proliferation or directly assail
and dismantle pathogens, enhancing the body’s resilience against infections.

8. antimicrobial substances such as interferons, the complement system, iron-binding proteins,

antimicrobial proteins, natural killer cells and phagocytic cells - neutrophils and macrophages,
inflammation, and fever.

9. NK cells and phagocytes are key players in the nonspecific immune response, targeting and
eliminating abnormal cells or pathogens through toxic release or phagocytosis, respectively.
Their actions contribute to innate and adaptive immunity, ensuring effective defence against
infections.

10. symptoms of inflammation are redness, pain, heat, and swelling and loss of function of the
injured area.
stages of inflammation are vasodilation and increased permeability of blood vessels, emigration
of phagocytes from the blood into interstitial fluid, and tissue repair.

11. carry out adaptive immune responses. by B and T cells

12. help T cells recognize foreign antigen

13. antigens enter blood then spleen.

Antigens can penetrate the skin and enter lymphatic vessels and lodge in lymph nodes.
antigen penetrate mucous membranes and trapped by the mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue
(MALT).

14. Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) capture antigens

digest them into peptide fragments
presenting these fragments on their surface bound to major histocompatibility complex class II
(MHC-II) This process occurs through antigen uptake, MHC-II synthesis, formation of antigen-
MHC-II complexes, and APC presentation

15. Cytokines are small protein hormones secreted by different cells like lymphocytes, antigen-
presenting cells, fibroblasts, endothelial cells, monocytes, hepatocytes, and kidney cells.
They regulate normal cellular functions such as cell growth, differentiation, and immune
responses.

16. Helper T cells recognize exogenous antigen fragments presented by APCs, while cytotoxic T
cells identify foreign antigens on infected cells.
Upon activation, helper T cells secrete interleukin-2 to trigger immune responses, while
cytotoxic T cells directly attack and eliminate infected or abnormal cells.
Memory T cells facilitate faster and stronger responses upon re-exposure to the same antigen.

17. Cytotoxic T cells detect and eliminate infected, cancerous, or transplanted cells by
recognizing specific microbial antigens displayed on their surface.
They induce target cell death through the release of granzymes, triggering apoptosis, or by
releasing perforin and granulysin, which create openings in the target cell membrane leading to
cytolysis.
cytotoxic T cells can release lymphotoxin, activating enzymes that fragment the DNA of target
cells, ultimately leading to cell death.

18. when cancer cells being detected by the immune system through the recognition of tumor
antigens and then destroying any cell carrying those tumor antigens. It is most effective in
eliminating tumor cells due to cancer-causing viruses.

19. IgG enhances phagocytosis, neutralizes toxins, and triggers the complement system,
providing vital immune protection 1 unit
IgA guards mucous membranes 2 unit
IgM is the first antibody secreted after exposure to antigens 5 unit
IgD activates B cells 1 unit
IgE is involved in allergic reactions and defense against parasites. all with structures in heavy
chain constant region 1 unit

20. Cell-mediated and antibody-mediated immunity are two branches of adaptive immunity. Cell-
mediated immunity employs T cells, including cytotoxic T cells, to directly combat foreign
antigens.

antibody-mediated immunity uses plasma cells and B cells to produce antibodies that tag
antigens for destruction.

21. Antibody-mediated immunity enhances phagocytosis and activates complement, aiding in

microbe destruction while preventing tissue damage. Opsonization, promotes phagocyte
attachment and enhances phagocytosis.

22. Secondary responses have rapid proliferation of memory cells. so higher antibody titer,
primarily comprising IgG antibodies. In contrast, primary responses involve a delayed antibody
production, starting with IgM followed by IgG, and less reduction in antibody levels.
23. Positive selection in the thymus ensures self-tolerance by allowing pre-T cells to express T-
cell receptors that interact with self-MHC proteins, promote survival.

negative selection eliminates or inactivates T cells that recognize self-antigens, preventing

autoimmune reactions. Apoptosis

24. Students will need to reflect on the impact of stress on the immune responses in dealing with
illness to find the connection between stress and illness.

25. Aging affects T cells by causing them to become less responsive to antigens and fewer T
cells respond to infections. The T cell population decreases with age.

Checkpoint questions:
. How are interstitial fluid and lymph similar, and how do they differ?
. How do lymphatic vessels differ in structure from veins?
. Diagram the route of lymph circulation.
. What is the role of the thymus in immunity
. What functions do lymph nodes, the spleen, and the tonsils serve
6. What are the names of the four lymph sacs from which lymphatic vessels develop?
. What physical and chemical factors provide protection from disease in the skin and
mucous membranes?
. What internal defenses provide protection against microbes penetrate the skin and
mucous membranes?
. How are the activities of natural killer cells and phagocytes similar and different?
. What are the main signs, symptoms, and stages of inflammation
. What is immunocompetence, and which body cells display it?
. How do the major histocompatibility complex class I and class Il self-antigens function?
. How do antigens arrive at lymphatic tissues?
. How do antigen-presenting cells process exogenous antigens?
. What are cytokines, where do they arise, and how do they function?
. What are the functions of helper, cytotoxic, and memory T cells?
. How do cytotoxic T cells kill infected target cells?
. How is immunological surveillance useful?
. How do the five classes of antibodies differ in structure and function?
. How are cell-mediated and antibody-mediated immune responses similar and different?
. In what ways does the complement system augment antibody-mediated immune
 . In what ways does the complement system augment antibody-mediated immune
responses?
. How is the secondary response to an antigen different from the primary response?
. What do positive selection, negative selection, and anergy accomplish?
24. Have you ever observed a connection between stress and illness in your own life?
25. How are T cells affected by aging?