PHILOSOPHER NATIONALITY PHILOSOPHY

Social Contract Theory

General Will
The Emile
Jean Jacques Rousseau Swiss
Popular Sovereignty
Nature and Human Development
Civil Religion
Empiricism and Epistemology
John Locke English Political Philosophy
Religious Toleration
Deism
Reason and Free Thought
Thomas Paine English/American Critique of Religion
Political Philosophy
Commitment to America
Majority Rule and Optimism in Human Reason
Natural Rights
Agrarian Society
Thomas Jefferson American
Individual Freedoms
Religious Freedom and Speculation of Church
and State
Classification of Governments
Purpose of Governments
Montesquieu French Preference for the English System
Climate and Social Practices
The Spirit of Laws
Efficacy of Reason
Voltaire French Religious Tolerance
Liberty

Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a famous French-speaking philosopher. He was born in

Geneva, Switzerland and always described himself as being Genevan.
1. General Will: The concept of the general will, as articulated by Jean-Jacques Rousseau,
refers to the collective desires and interests of the entire community or society. Rousseau
argues that the general will represents what is best for the common good, transcending
individual preferences or desires. According to Rousseau, individuals in society must set
aside their personal interests and submit to the general will for the sake of the greater
good. The general will is not simply the sum of individual wills, but rather emerges from
a collective deliberation and agreement among citizens. It reflects the shared values,
needs, and aspirations of the community and serves as the foundation for legitimate
political authority and the basis for laws and government policies. Rousseau believed that
a just and harmonious society can only be achieved when individuals willingly align their
 individual wills with the general will, thereby promoting the well-being and flourishing
of the entire community.

2. Social Contract: He is known for his work "The Social Contract," in which he discusses
the idea of a social contract between the rulers and the ruled, emphasizing the importance
of the general will in this contract. The social contract theory, famously elaborated by
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, proposes that individuals in a hypothetical state of nature
voluntarily come together to form a society through a social contract. According to this
theory, people relinquish some of their individual freedoms and submit to the authority of
a government in exchange for protection of their natural rights and the promotion of the
common good. The social contract establishes the basis for legitimate political authority,
with the government deriving its power from the consent of the governed. Rousseau
argued that this contract is not between individuals and their rulers but among all
members of society, ensuring that political authority is based on the collective will of the
people. The social contract theory emphasizes the mutual obligations between citizens
and their government, with both parties bound by the terms of the contract to uphold their
respective duties and responsibilities.

3. Popular Sovereignty: Popular sovereignty, according to Jean-Jacques Rousseau, means

that ultimate political power rests with the people themselves. In this view, individuals
collectively hold the authority to shape their government and laws. Rousseau believed in
direct democracy, where citizens directly participate in decision-making processes,
ensuring that government actions align with the will of the people.

4. Nature and Human Development: Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed humans are born good
and free but become corrupted by society. He argued for natural education, emphasizing
the importance of allowing children to develop according to their innate abilities and
interests. Rousseau criticized societal institutions for perpetuating inequality and
oppression, advocating for a return to nature to preserve moral integrity and harmony.

5. Civil Religion: He proposed the idea of civil religion, which includes the affirmation of
the existence of a supreme being and the afterlife. The main idea of Jean-Jacques
Rousseau's concept of civil religion is to establish a unifying set of beliefs and rituals
within society that promote civic virtue and reinforce social cohesion, without imposing
specific religious dogma or infringing on individual conscience.

6. The Emile or On Education is essentially a work that details Rousseau’s philosophy of

education. It was originally published just several months after the Social Contract.
"Émile, or On Education" by Jean-Jacques Rousseau is a book about how to educate
children. In the book, Rousseau tells a story about a boy named Émile and his upbringing,
 emphasizing the importance of natural learning and moral development. Rousseau argues
that children should be allowed to explore and learn from their surroundings freely,
without the constraints of traditional education. He believes that education should focus
on developing the child's character and virtues, rather than just academic knowledge.
Rousseau advocates for a hands-on approach to education, with an emphasis on physical
activities, outdoor exploration, and practical skills. Overall, "Émile" presents a vision of
education that values freedom, independence, and moral integrity in the upbringing of
children.
References;
1. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. Stanford University.
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rousseau/
2. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1712-1778). University of
Tennessee, Martin. https://iep.utm.edu/rousseau/
3. Britannica. Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Encyclopedia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jean-Jacques-Rousseau
4. Wikipedia. Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau
5. Philosophy Learning and Teaching Organization. Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
https://mlpp.pressbooks.pub/introphil/chapter/jean-jacques-rousseau/
6. The Conversation. Explainer: The philosophy of Jean-Jacques Rousseau is profoundly
contemporary. https://theconversation.com/explainer-the-philosophy-of-jean-jacques-rousseau-
is-profoundly-contemporary-201179
7. SparkNotes. Jean-Jacques Rousseau Themes, Arguments, and Ideas. SparkNotes LLC.
https://www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/rousseau/themes/
8. Study.com.Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Philosophy and Legacy. Study.com.
https://study.com/academy/lesson/jean-jacques-rousseau-philosophy-and-legacy.html

John Locke was born in 1632 in Wrington, a small village in southwestern England.
1. Political Philosophy – Locke's political philosophy is centered on the concept of natural
rights and limited government. He argued that individuals are by nature free and equal,
possessing inherent rights such as life, liberty, and property, which are independent of
any particular society's laws. He is also known for his advocacy of the social contract
theory, believing that governments have obligations to their citizens and should have
limited powers, with the ultimate authority residing in the people
 2. Religious Toleration – Locke was a proponent of religious toleration and is famous for
advocating the separation of church and state. His ideas on religious freedom were
influenced by his belief in the importance of individual conscience and the limitations of
civil government in religious matters

3. Empiricism and Epistemology – In the field of epistemology, Locke is considered one of

the most important figures in the development of empiricism. His work "An Essay
Concerning Human Understanding" is a significant defense of empiricist theory,
exploring the nature of human knowledge and the limitations of understanding

References:
1. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (n.d.). John Locke's Political Philosophy. Stanford
University. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/locke-political/
2. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (n.d.). Locke, John (1632—1704). University of
Tennessee, Martin. https://iep.utm.edu/locke/
3. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (n.d.). John Locke. Stanford University.
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/locke/
4. Encyclopaedia Britannica. (n.d.). John Locke.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Locke
5. Wikipedia. (n.d.). John Locke. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Locke

Thomas Paine was an English-born American

1. Deism: Paine was a proponent of Deism, a belief system that acknowledges the existence
of a creator or supreme being but rejects organized religion and supernatural intervention
in human affairs.

2. Reason and Free thought: Paine advocated for the use of reason and free thought in
understanding the world and shaping human society. He believed that individuals should
rely on their rational faculties rather than blindly accepting religious dogma or traditional
authority.

3. Critique of Religion: Paine's writings, including "The Age of Reason," offered sharp
critiques of organized religion, particularly Christianity. He argued against religious
doctrines and superstitions, advocating for a more rational and sceptical approach to
religious belief.

4. Political Philosophy: Paine's political philosophy emphasized the importance of civil

rights grounded in natural rights and sovereignty. He argued for limited government and
 the protection of individual liberties, advocating for democratic governance and the rule
of law.

5. Commitment to America: Paine's philosophy was characterized by a strong commitment

to the cause of America's independence and the principles of liberty and equality. He
played a significant role in shaping public opinion during the American Revolution
through his influential pamphlets like "Common Sense."

Reference:
1. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Thomas Paine. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/paine/
2. Wikipedia. (n.d.). Thomas Paine. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Paine
3. College of Liberal Arts, California State University, Long Beach. The Political Philosophy of
Thomas Paine. https://cla.csulb.edu/ebro/the-political-philosophy-of-thomas-paine/
4. Tepfer, D. Thomas Paine's Philosophy. https://thomaspaine.us/article_tepfer02.html
5. Thomas Paine National Historical Association. The Philosophy of Thomas Paine by Thomas
Edison. https://www.thomaspaine.org/pages/resources/the-philosophy-of-thomas-paine-by-
thomas-edison.html

Thomas Jefferson as an American statesman, diplomat, lawyer, architect, philosopher, and

Founding Father who served as the third president of the United States from 1801 to 1809.

1. Natural Rights: Jefferson was influenced by John Locke's ideas on natural rights and
emphasized the importance of unalienable rights, including life, liberty, and the pursuit of
happiness. These principles were enshrined in the Declaration of Independence.

2. Individual Freedoms: Jefferson believed strongly in the protection of individual

freedoms, including freedom of speech, press, and conscience. He advocated for a
government that respects and upholds these liberties, as evidenced by his support for the
First Amendment.

3. Agrarian Society: Jefferson favored an agrarian society and believed that small,
independent farmers were the backbone of a democratic nation. He championed policies
that supported agriculture and decentralized government, opposing the consolidation of
power in urban centers.
 4. Religious Freedom and Separation of Church and State: Jefferson was a staunch advocate
for religious freedom and the separation of church and state. He believed that government
should not interfere in matters of religion and that individuals should be free to practice
their faith without coercion or discrimination.

5. Majority Rule and Optimism in Human Reason: Jefferson's fundamental political belief
was an "absolute acquiescence in the decisions of the majority." He had a deep optimism
in human reason and believed that the collective wisdom of the people should guide
governance.

Reference:
1. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (n.d.). Thomas Jefferson.
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/jefferson/
2. U.S. History. (n.d.). Thomas Jefferson and the Meanings of Liberty.
https://www.ushistory.org/us/20b.asp
3. Free Speech Center, Middle Tennessee State University. (n.d.). Thomas Jefferson: Champion
of Freedom of Thought. https://firstamendment.mtsu.edu/article/thomas-jefferson/
4. Study.com. (n.d.). Thomas Jefferson's Presidency: Facts & Philosophy.
https://study.com/learn/lesson/thomas-jefferson-presidency-facts-philosophy.html
5. Library of Congress. (n.d.). The Thomas Jefferson Papers.
https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/jefferson/jefffed.html

Montesquieu was a French philosopher and author, who is considered one of the founders of
sociology as a scholarly discipline

1. Classification of Governments: Montesquieu categorized governments into three types:

republican governments (which can be democratic or aristocratic), monarchies, and despotisms.
He explored the characteristics and functions of each type of government in his works.

2. Purpose of Government: Montesquieu believed that the main purpose of government is to

maintain law and order, protect political liberty, and safeguard the property of individuals. He
argued that different forms of government achieve these purposes in distinct ways.
3. Preference for the English System: Montesquieu opposed the absolute monarchy of France
and favored the English system of government as a model. He admired the system of checks and
balances and separation of powers in the English political system.

4. Climate and Social Practices: Montesquieu believed that climate influenced social practices
and the development of laws. He argued that understanding the environmental factors that shape
societies is crucial for comprehending legal systems and governance.

5. The Spirit of Laws: Montesquieu's most influential work, "The Spirit of Laws," was a major
contribution to political theory. In this work, he explored the principles of governance, the causes
of different types of governments, and the relationship between laws and social institutions.

References:
1. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Montesquieu.
https://plato.stanford.edu/ENTRIES/montesquieu/
2. Constitutional Rights Foundation. Hobbes, Locke, Montesquieu, and Rousseau on
Government. https://www.crf-usa.org/bill-of-rights-in-action/bria-20-2-c-hobbes-locke-
montesquieu-and-rousseau-on-government.html
3. Wikipedia. Montesquieu. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montesquieu
4. Study.com. Montesquieu: Beliefs & Ideas. https://study.com/learn/lesson/montesquieu-beliefs-
ideas.html
5. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Montesquieu. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Montesquieu

Voltaire was a French writer and public activist who played a singular role in defining the
eighteenth-century movement called the Enlightenment

1. Efficacy of Reason: Voltaire believed in the power of reason as a force for social
progress and enlightenment. He emphasized the importance of rationality in
understanding the world and solving social problems.

2. Religious Tolerance: Voltaire advocated for religious tolerance, arguing that individuals
should be free to practice their religion without persecution or discrimination. He
 critiqued religious intolerance and bigotry, promoting the idea of coexistence among
different religious beliefs.

3. Liberty: Voltaire was a proponent of liberty, championing individual freedoms and civil
liberties. He believed that liberty was essential for human flourishing and societal well-
being, opposing authoritarianism and oppression.
References:
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Voltaire. Retrieved from
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/voltaire/
Encyclopaedia Britannica. What was Voltaire's philosophy?
https://www.britannica.com/question/What-was-Voltaires-philosophy
Encyclopaedia Britannica. Voltaire. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Voltaire
Study.com. Voltaire: Philosophy & Works. https://study.com/academy/lesson/voltaire-
philosophy-works-quiz.html v
Voltaire Foundation. About Voltaire. https://www.voltaire.ox.ac.uk/about-voltaire/