2mrks

Q1 Determine the Custer Size K, if i=2 and j=2

→ Formula: N= i2 +ij+j2
Calculation: 22 +2*2+22
4+4+4
12
Q2 What is isotropic radiator?
The isotropic radiator is defined as a radiator which radiates energy in all directions
uniformly. It is also called isotropic source. As it radiates uniformly in all directions.
Basically isotropic radiator is a lossless ideal radiator or antenna.

Q3 What is multipath propagation?

Multipath propagation, also known as multipath fading, is a phenomenon in wireless
communication where signals travel from a transmitter to a receiver via multiple
paths. This occurs when radio waves reflect, refract, or diffract off various surfaces,
such as buildings, terrain, or other obstacles, before reaching the receiver. As a result,
multiple versions of the signal may arrive at the receiver with different phases and
amplitudes.
Multipath propagation can have both positive and negative effects on wireless
communication

Q4 Illustrate the two network elements of GPRS architecture.

GPRS Support Nodes (GSN):
GGSN (Gateway): Connects GPRS network to external packet-switched networks.
SGSN (Serving): Manages mobility of GPRS mobile stations, handling session and
security functions.
GPRS Mobile Stations (MS):
End-user devices such as mobile phones or data terminals.
Mobile stations communicate with serving (SGSN) and gateway (GGSN) nodes for
data transmission within the GPRS network and external connections.
Q5 Determine the various UMTS domains w.r.t. UMTS system architecture
Access network domain
–physical entities managing the resources of the access network
–provides the user with a mechanism to access the core network domain
Serving network (SN) domain
 –part of the CN domain to which the AN domain that provides the user’s access is
currently connected
–responsible for routing calls and transport user data/information from source to
destination
–provides CN functions that are local to the user’s access point (i.e. SN changes
when the user moves)
Home network (HN) domain
–provides CN functions that are conducted at a permanent location regardless of the
location of the user’s access point (i.e. does not change due to user mobility)
–contains user-specific data and is responsible for management of subscription
information
–handle home-specific services, not offered by the serving network domain
User Services Identity Module domain (USIM)
–related to the home network domain by subscription

Q6 Determine the basic reasons for handover in GSM.

Handover in GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) refers to the process
of transferring an ongoing call or data session from one cell (base station) to another
without interrupting the communication. The basic reasons for handover in GSM
include:
Cell Boundary Crossing:
As a mobile device moves, it may transition from the coverage area of one cell to
another.
Handover ensures that the call or data session is seamlessly transferred to the new cell
without disruption.
Load Balancing:
In situations where one cell is heavily loaded with traffic and neighboring cells have
available capacity, handover helps distribute the load more evenly across cells.
This prevents network congestion and improves overall system performance.
Q7 Describe the functions of authentication and encryption in GSM?
Authentication:
Verifies the identity of the mobile device and the network using a challenge-response
mechanism.
Prevents unauthorized access and ensures only legitimate subscribers can use the
network.
Encryption:
Secures voice and data transmissions by encoding them with a session key.
Protects against eavesdropping and unauthorized access, ensuring user privacy and
data integrity.
Q8 Describe the function of SNDCP with respect to GPRS.
SNDCP is top most layer of user plane GPRS protocol stack. Network layer
corresponding to PDN with which connection is to be managed lie above SNDCP.
Main function of SNDCP is to buffer N PDUs (Network PDU), segment N PDU, add
header to each segment (for other side to assemble it) and then give it to LLC for
transmission. Receiving side does the reverse procedure.
SNDCP also does compression/decompression. The idea is to reduce amount of data
that is required to be transmitted over air. SNDCP need to be aware of certain details
about PDN protocol for compression related functions.
 To do these functions SNDCP need to be aware of PDP contexts and corresponding
information like NSAPI, pdp type, QoS etc. This information is given by SM layer
during PDP context activation procedure.
Q9 Illustrate the behavior of TCP after the detection of congestion.
Slow Start mechanism:
TCP employs a mechanism known as slow start to initially probe the network's
capacity. After congestion is detected, TCP adjusts the slow start threshold to a lower
value.
During subsequent transmissions, TCP enters a slow start phase where it increases its
congestion window more gradually to avoid exacerbating the congestion.
Q10 Name the multiplexing schemes used in GSM and for what purpose.
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA):
Divides the frequency spectrum into channels for multiple users.
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA):
Divides each FDMA channel into time slots for shared use by multiple users.
Frequency Hopping:
Rapidly changes the communication channel frequency to resist interference and
fading.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA):
Assigns a unique code to each user for simultaneous communication on the same
frequency. (Primarily used in later mobile technologies, not in traditional GSM.)
Q11 List the mobile services in GSM and explain any one service.
In GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications), various mobile services are
offered to subscribers. Some of the primary mobile services in GSM include:
• Data Services
• Fax Services
• Voice Services
• Supplementary Services
• Packet Switched Services
• Emergency Call Services
• Short Message Service (SMS):
SMS enables the exchange of short text messages between mobile devices. It has
become one of the most widely used and popular services, allowing users to send
and receive messages quickly and efficiently.
Q12 Determine the basic groups of logical channels in GSM with their subchannels.
Traffic Channels (TCH):
Full Rate Traffic Channel (TCH/F)
Half Rate Traffic Channel (TCH/H)
Double Rate Traffic Channel (TCH/2)
Control Channels (CCH):
Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH)
Common Control Channel (CCCH)
Paging Channel (PCH)
Random Access Channel (RACH)
Access Grant Channel (AGCH)
Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH)
Standalone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH)
Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH)
Fast Associated Control Channel (FACCH)
 Common Packet Control Channel (CPCH)
Q13 Explain the need of bandwidth manager in Mobile TCP.
Dynamic Network Conditions:
Mobile networks experience varying conditions like signal strength and interference.
A bandwidth manager adapts to these changes, ensuring efficient resource
utilization.
Limited Bandwidth:
Mobile networks often have restricted bandwidth. A bandwidth manager optimizes
resource usage to prevent congestion and maintain service quality.
Quality of Service (QoS):
Different applications have distinct QoS requirements. The bandwidth manager
prioritizes traffic based on application needs to meet QoS expectations.
User Fairness:
In multi-user networks, fairness in resource allocation is vital. The bandwidth
manager distributes resources fairly among users, preventing one user from
dominating.
Q14 Explain the reaction of standard TCP in case of packet loss.
In response to packet loss, standard TCP initiates congestion control, reducing its
sending rate by half (multiplicative decrease), triggering retransmission of lost
packets, and dynamically adjusting the retransmission timeout. It also employs fast
retransmit and fast recovery mechanisms. These actions help TCP adapt to network
congestion and maintain reliable data transmission.
Q15 Explain location aware services with respect to location dependent services in
mobile computing.
Location-Aware Services:
Definition: Location-aware services refer to applications or functionalities that are
aware of the geographical location of a mobile device and use this information to
enhance user experience or provide contextually relevant content.
Example: An application that adjusts its interface, content, or functionality based on
the user's current location. For instance, a weather app providing local weather
updates or a mapping app adjusting the displayed map based on the user's location.
Location-Dependent Services:
Definition: Location-dependent services generally imply a stronger dependence on
the user's location for the service to be meaningful or effective. These services might
not function optimally or may be irrelevant if the user's location is not taken into
account.
Example: An emergency services app that automatically contacts local emergency
services based on the user's current location. This type of service is highly
dependent on accurate location information to provide timely and relevant
assistance.
5mrks
Q1 Name the encryption and generation of a cipher key algorithm used to provide
security services in GSM and describe data encryption.

Algorithm A5 is used for encryption

To ensure privacy, all messages containing user-related information are encrypted in

GSM over the air interface. After authentication, MS and BSS can start using
encryption by applying the cipher key Kc (the precise location of security functions
for encryption, BTS and/or BSC are vendor dependent).Kc is generated using the
individual key Ki and a random value by applying the algorithm A8.The SIM in the
MS and the network both calculate the same Kc based on the random value RAND.
The key Kc itself is not transmitted over the air interface.
MS and BTS can now encrypt and decrypt data using the algorithm A5 and the cipher
key Kc.As fig shows,Kc should be a 64 bit key-Which is not very strong, but is at
least a good protection against simple eavesdropping. However, the publication of
A3 and A8 on the internet showed that in certain implementations 10 of the 64 bits
are always set to 0, so that the real length of the key is thus only 54 consequently, the
encryption is much weaker.
Q2 List the three subsystems of GSM system architecture and discuss RSS with
the help of suitable diagram.
1. Radio subsystem
2. Network and switching subsystem
3. Operation subsystem
 RSS
It is also known as Base station subsystem, provides and manages radio transmission
paths between the mobile station and the Mobile Switching Centre (MSC). RSS also
manages interface between the mobile station and all other subsystems of GSM. It
consists of two parts.
A. Base Transceiver Station (BTS):
It encodes, encrypts, multiplexes, modulates and feeds the RF signal to the antenna.
It consists of transceiver units.
It communicates with mobile stations via radio air interface and also communicates
with BSC via Abis interface.
B. Base Station Controller (BSC):
It manages radio resources for BTS. It assigns frequency and time slots for all mobile
stations in its area.
It handles call set up, transcoding and adaptation functionality handover for each MS
radio power control.
It communicates with MSC via A interface and also with BTS.
Q3 Explain Cellular system with advantages and disadvantages.
The cellular system replaced a large zone with a number of smaller hexagonal cells
with a single BS (base station) covering a fraction of the area. Evolution of such a
cellular system is shown in the given figures, with all wireless receivers located in a
cell being served by a BS.
Wireless devices need to be supported for different types of services, the wireless
device could be a wireless telephone laptop with wireless card, personal digital
assistant (PDA), or web enabled phone. For simplicity, it could be called an MS.
In a cellular structure, a MS (mobile station) needs to communicate with the BS of
the cell where the MS is currently located and the BS acts as a gateway to the rest of
the world. Therefore, to provide a link, the MS needs to be in the area of one of the
cells (and hence a BS) so that mobility of the MS can be supported. Several base
stations are connected through hard-wires and are controlled by a BS controller
(BSC), which in turn is connected to a mobile switching center (MSC).
Advantages of the cellular network:
It provides voice and data services.
 It links users on both fixed and mobile phones.
It has increased capacity
It is easy to upgrade the equipment.
It has consumed less power.
Because of its wireless existence, it is used in the place where cables cannot be laid
out.
It is flexible enough to use the features and function of almost all public and private
networks.
Disadvantages of the cellular network:
Macrocells are affected by the multipath signal loss.
As the contact is over the air, it has security vulnerabilities.
The cost of setting up cellular network infrastructure is higher.
The capacity is lower and depends on channel/multiple access techniques employed
to serve subscribers.
Physical obstruction, climatic conditions, and inclement weather all have an effect
on wireless communication.
Q4 Describe Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) transmitter and receiver.

Transmitter

Receiver
Direct-sequence spread spectrum in Wireless Networks is a technique that transmits
a data signal over a range of frequencies, spreading it uniformly across the allocated
spectrum. Direct-sequence spread spectrum is used to ensure that a particular
frequency band (and its corresponding range of frequencies) is kept free from
interference.
DSSS Transmitter:
Digital data is encoded and modulated using a pseudorandom sequence (spreading
code).
The spreading code increases signal bandwidth.
The spread signal is combined with a carrier signal, amplified, and transmitted.
DSSS Receiver:
The spread signal is received and demodulated.
The spreading code is applied to narrow the bandwidth (despreading).
Bit synchronization and integration are performed.
The despread signal is demodulated, error-corrected, and output as the original data.
Q5 List the entities and terminology in Mobile IP and explain the same in detail.

Mobile Node (MN):

The mobile device that can change its point of attachment to the Internet and maintain
connectivity while moving. The Mobile Node is assigned a Home Address, which is
its permanent IP address.
Correspondent node(CN):
Atleast one partner is needed for communication. In the following the CN represents
this partner for the MN. The CN can be a fixed or mobile node.
Home Network:
The network where the Mobile Node has its permanent IP address. The Home
Network is responsible for managing the Mobile Node's mobility and is associated
with a Home Agent.
Home Agent (HA):
A router on the Home Network that assists in managing the mobility of the Mobile
Node. The Home Agent maintains the binding between the Home Address and the
Care-of Address.
Care-of Address (CoA):
The IP address temporarily assigned to the Mobile Node when it is visiting a foreign
network. The Care-of Address is associated with the network the Mobile Node is
currently connected to.
Foreign Network:
The network that the Mobile Node is currently visiting. It is not the home network of
the Mobile Node.
Foreign Agent (FA):
A router on the Foreign Network that assists in the mobility management of the
Mobile Node. The Foreign Agent helps in establishing and maintaining a
communication path between the Mobile Node and its home network.
Q6 Illustrate packet delivery to and from the mobile node.

STEP 1: CN sends the packet as usual to the IP address of MN. With Source address
as CN and Destination address as MN .The internet, which does not have any
information of the current location of MN, routes the packet to the router responsible
for the home network of MN. This is done using the standard routing mechanisms of
the internet.
 STEP 2: The HA now diverts the packet, knowing that MN is currently not in its
home network. The packet is not forwarded into the subnet as usual, but encapsulated
and tunnelled to the COA. A new header is put in front of the old IP header showing
the COA as new destination and HA as source of the encapsulated packet.
STEP 3: The foreign agent (FA) now decapsulates the packet, i.e., removes the
additional header(newly added as COA as destination and HA as source), and
forwards the original packet with CN as source and MN as destination to the MN.
Again, for the MN mobility is not visible. Finally the MN Receives the packet with
the Source address as CN and Destination address as MN.
STEP 4: The MN sends the packet MN as Source Address and CN as Destination
Address. The router with the FA acts as default router and forwards the packet in the
same way as it would do for any other node in the foreign network. Simple
mechanism works if CN is Fixed at a location if it has got mobility then the above
Steps 1 to 3 are to be followed to deliver the packet from MN to CN.
Q7 Explain agent advertisement in Mobile IP.

Agents advertise their presence by periodically broadcasting their agent

advertisement messages. The mobile node receiving the agent advertisement
messages observes whether the message is from its own home agent and determines
whether it is in the home network or foreign network.
Mobile IP defines two methods: agent advertisement and agent solicitation which
are in fact router discovery methods plus extensions.
Agent advertisement: For the first method, FA and HA advertise their presence
periodically using special agent advertisement messages. These messages
advertisement can be seen as a beacon broadcast into the subnet. For this
advertisement internet control message protocol (ICMP) messages according to
RFC 1256, are used with some mobility extensions.
Agent solicitation: If no agent advertisements are present or the inter arrival time is
too high, and an MN has not received a COA, the mobile node must send agent
solicitations. These solicitations are again bases on RFC 1256 for router
solicitations.
Q8 Explain registration process
These registration processes allow Mobile IP to maintain the connectivity of a mobile
device as it moves across different networks. The choice between FA Registration
 and HA Registration depends on the specific requirements and configurations of the
mobile network.
Foreign Agent Registration (FA Registration):
In this process, the Mobile Node (MN) registers its Care-of Address (CoA) with the
Foreign Agent (FA) when it moves to a foreign network.
The FA then informs the Home Agent (HA) about the Mobile Node's new location.
This type of registration is typically used in scenarios where the MN moves to a
foreign network and registers its location with the FA on that network.
Home Agent Registration (HA Registration):
In this process, the Mobile Node directly registers its new Care-of Address with its
Home Agent, irrespective of the foreign network it is currently in.
The Home Agent is responsible for updating its binding cache with the new location
information of the Mobile Node.
This type of registration is used when the Mobile Node does not want to register with
a Foreign Agent and prefers to directly notify its Home Agent about the change in its
location.

Q9 Describe Mobile TCP. List advantages and disadvantages of Mobile TCP.

Dropping of packets due to a handover or higher bit error rate is not the only problem
occurs.The occurence of lengthy and/or frequent disconnections in another problem.
I-TCP when mobile disconnected:-Has to buffer more and more data - need more
buffer.
Snooping TCP when mobile disconnected:-Mobile will not able to send ACK.
It splits the TCP connection into two parts as l- TCP:An unchanged TCP is used
between Host-Supervisory Host while an optimized TCP is used on the SH-MH
connection.
Assumption - M-TCP assumes low bit error rate on wireless link.
M-TCP does not perform caching/retransmission of data.
SH monitors all packets sent to the MH and ACKS returned from the MH.
If the SH does not receive an ACK for some time, it assumes that the MH is
disconnected.
It chokes the sender by setting the sender's windows size 0.
It means sender will not retransmit data.
Advantage:
 Disadvantage:

Q10 Define encapsulation. Describe IP-in-IP encapsulation.

Encapsulation means putting a packet made up of a packet header and data into the
data fields of a new packet

Ver.(version): Version field denotes the version number and set to 4 for IPv4
IHL(Internet header length): IHL indicates the length of outer header
Dd(TOS):It just copied from the inner header
Length: It denotes the complete length of the encapsulated packet
TTL(Time To Live):It indicates the period of validity of the packet.TTL should be
high enough so the packet can reach the tunnel end point
IP-in-IP:This denotes the type of protocol used in the IP payload
IP checksum:This is used for error detection mechanism.
The fields of inner header are almost same as the outer header the only difference
are:
The address fields consistbof address of original sender and receiver
The TTL value of inner header is decremented by 1.This means that the whole tunnel
considered a single hop from the original packet’s point of view.
The TCP/UDP payload contains the actual user data to be transmitted