MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND HO CHI MINH NATIONAL

TRAINING ACADEMY OF POLITICS

ACADEMY OF JOURNALISM AND COMMUNICATION

Bui Thuy Duong

GENDER STEREOTYPING IN VIETNAM’S TELEVISION

COMMERCIALS: VIDEO COMMERCIALS ON VTV1 AT PRIME TIME
(18.00 - 20.00) FROM DECEMBER 2020 TO FEBRUARY 2021

DISSERTATION

Hanoi, 2021
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND HO CHI MINH NATIONAL
TRAINING ACADEMY OF POLITICS

ACADEMY OF JOURNALISM AND COMMUNICATION

GENDER STEREOTYPING IN VIETNAM’S TELEVISION

COMMERCIALS: VIDEO COMMERCIALS ON VTV1 AT PRIME TIME
(18.00 - 20.00) FROM DECEMBER 2020 TO FEBRUARY 2021

DISSERTATION

MAJOR : PUBLIC RELATIONS

CODE : 7 32 01 08
Specialization : Marketing Communication

Supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Dinh Thi Thuy Hang

Student: Bui Thuy Duong

Hanoi, 2021
 SUMMARY OF DISSERTATION/CREATIVE PROJECT
(Decision No … - QĐ/HVBCTT-ĐT …./…./2021 on the establishment of the
Council to grade dissertation or creative project for the year of …..)
Topic: Gender stereotyping in Vietnam’s television commercials
Student's full name: Bui Thuy Duong
Student code: 1757090013
Faculty: Public Relations and Advertising Course: 2017 - 2021
Full name of student’s supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Dinh Thi Thuy Hang
Summary of dissertation/creative project:
Gender equality is one of the sustainable development goals of the United Nations
towards 2030. As one of the member countries of the United Nations, Vietnam
also affirms its role in promoting gender equality and empowering girls and
women. In order to change the social norms that cause gender inequality, the
media plays a very important role in disseminating relevant issues. Although the
press and television have created a lot of content to raise awareness of gender
equality, some television commercials still contain elements of gender stereotypes.
Realizing that advertisements have a strong influence on the public, the author
has carried out this research to synthesize theoretical framework on gender
stereotyping and analyze the current state of gender stereotyping in television
advertisements, as well as understanding the public’s perception of gender
stereotypes.
This dissertation used case study methodology as the main method in line with
the interpretivism and the constructionist paradigm. Research used content
analysis to analyze the case study which was commercials on VTV1 channel. The
study also used survey methods with a questionnaire survey and interviews to
gather rich data on the public’s perception of gender stereotyping in commercials.
During the case study analysis, the author found that the stereotypes used in
advertisements were problems that existed years ago according to previous studies.
There was, however, a change in the roles of male and female characters and the
challenging of social standards in advertisements nowadays. From the public’s
view, these stereotypes were also mentioned and it was agreed that a change was
needed in future advertisements to promote gender equality.
The research results are expected to be used as a reference for future research, and
the positive and negative components of media portrayals of men and women can
be used in creating gender-sensitive commercials.
 1

Abstract
Gender equality is one of the sustainable development goals of the United
Nations towards 2030. As one of the member countries of the United Nations,
Vietnam also affirms its role in promoting gender equality and empowering girls
and women. In order to change the social norms that cause gender inequality, the
media plays a very important role in disseminating relevant issues. Although the
press and television have created a lot of content to raise awareness of gender
equality, some television commercials still contain elements of gender stereotypes.
Realizing that advertisements have a strong influence on the public, the author
has carried out this research to synthesize theoretical framework on gender
stereotyping and analyze the current state of gender stereotyping in television
advertisements, as well as understanding the public’s perception of gender
stereotypes.
This dissertation used case study methodology as the main method in line
with the interpretivism and the constructionist paradigm. Research used content
analysis to analyze the case study which was commercials on VTV1 channel. The
study also used survey methods with a questionnaire survey and interviews to
gather rich data on the public’s perception of gender stereotyping in commercials.
During the case study analysis, the author found that the stereotypes used in
advertisements were problems that existed years ago according to previous studies.
There was, however, a change in the roles of male and female characters and the
challenging of social standards in advertisements nowadays. From the public’s
view, these stereotypes were also mentioned and it was agreed that a change was
needed in future advertisements to promote gender equality.
The research results are expected to be used as a reference for future research,
and the positive and negative components of media portrayals of men and women
can be used in creating gender-sensitive commercials.
 2

Acknowledgements
I would like to express my greatest gratitude to all those who supported me
throughout this dissertation, and without their help I am sure that I would have
given up a long time ago. I am deeply indebted to my supervisor, Assoc. Prof. Dr.
Dinh Thi Thuy Hang, who has been a pillar of support and wisdom. I have been
extremely lucky to have a supervisor who cared so much about my work, and her
patient guidance, constant support, and inspiring suggestions will not be forgotten.
With sincere affection, I would like to express my gratitude to the Board of
Directors, Scientific Management, Faculty of Public Relations and Advertising -
Academy of Journalism and Communication, Ho Chi Minh National Academy of
Politics and the lecturers have participated in managing, teaching and helping me
throughout the process of studying and researching.
Furthermore, I would like to thank all my classmates and my friends for all
their friendship, support and encouragement. My appreciation also goes to all
those who participated in the research for their time and their cooperation during
the data collection process, especially Hope Box organization for sending my
survey via their email and Mrs. Vu Phuong Ly from UN Women for participating
in the interview.
This scientific research is completed based on reference and experiences
from related research results, specialized books and newspapers of many authors
at universities and research organizations. Despite many efforts, this dissertation
cannot avoid shortcomings. I hope that teachers, experts, people who are
concerned with the topic, colleagues, family and friends will continue to give
suggestions and help to improve the topic.
 3

Table of content
Abstract ............................................................................................................ 1

Acknowledgements ........................................................................................... 2

Table of content ................................................................................................ 3

List of figures and tables .................................................................................. 6

List of abbreviations ......................................................................................... 8

Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................... 9

1.1. Topic and context ..................................................................................... 9

1.2. Focus and scope ..................................................................................... 10
1.3. Objectives and Tasks .............................................................................. 10
1.4. Methodology and research design .......................................................... 11
1.5. Overview of the structure ....................................................................... 12
Chapter 2: Literature review ......................................................................... 15

2.1. Introduction ............................................................................................ 15

2.2. Perspectives of gender stereotyping ........................................................ 15
2.3. Television advertisements ...................................................................... 18
2.3.1. The development of television advertisements ................................. 18
2.3.2. The impacts of television advertisements ......................................... 21
2.3.3. Functionalism and cultural theory of television advertisements ........ 22
2.3.3.1. The functional dimension of television advertisements............... 22
2.3.3.2. The cultural dimension of television advertisements .................. 23
2.4. Gender stereotyping in advertisements ................................................... 24
2.5. Feminist theory surrounding gender stereotyping in television
commercials .................................................................................................. 26
2.5.1. Feminist theory................................................................................. 26
2.5.2. Connecting the feminist communication theory and gender
stereotyping in television commercials ....................................................... 27
2.6. Chapter review ....................................................................................... 28
Chapter 3: Methodology ................................................................................ 30

3.1. Research Paradigm ................................................................................. 30

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3.2. Research Design ..................................................................................... 32

3.3. Research Methods .................................................................................. 33
3.4. Research Strategy ................................................................................... 34
3.5. Instrument Design .................................................................................. 37
3.5.1. Content analysis ............................................................................... 37
3.5.2. Questionnaires and interviews .......................................................... 37
3.6. Method of Data Analysis ........................................................................ 37
3.6.1. Content analysis ............................................................................... 37
3.6.2. Questionnaires and interviews .......................................................... 38
3.7. Ethical Considerations ............................................................................ 38
3.8. Problems and Limitations ....................................................................... 39
3.9. Conclusion ............................................................................................. 40
Chapter 4: Findings ....................................................................................... 41

4.1. Case study: Gender stereotyping in television commercials on VTV1 -

Vietnam Television ....................................................................................... 41
4.1.1. Overview of VTV ............................................................................. 41
4.1.2. Gender stereotyping in television advertisements on VTV1 ............. 43
4.1.2.1. Gender stereotyping based on the character’s position................ 44
4.1.2.2. Gender stereotyping based on the character’s behavior and role . 53
4.1.2.3. Gender stereotyping based on the character’s occupation ........... 59
4.2. Public awareness on media portrayals of women and men ..................... 61
4.2.1. Questionnaire results ........................................................................ 61
4.2.1.1. Media portrayals ......................................................................... 61
4.2.1.2. Role and impact of the media ..................................................... 65
4.2.1.3. Comments on television video advertisements ........................... 67
4.2.1.4. Ways to change .......................................................................... 68
4.2.2. Personal interview results ................................................................. 69
4.4. Chapter review ....................................................................................... 70
Chapter 5: Discussion .................................................................................... 72

5.1. Interpretations ........................................................................................ 72

5.1.1. Comments on case study content analysis ........................................ 72
5.1.1.1. Gender stereotyping based on the character’s position................ 72
 5

5.1.1.2. Gender stereotyping based on the character’s behavior and role . 74

5.1.1.3. Gender stereotyping based on the character’s occupation ........... 75
5.1.2. Comments on survey results ............................................................. 76
5.2. Implications ............................................................................................ 78
5.2.1. Monitor the changing process of gender stereotyping in
advertisements ........................................................................................... 78
5.2.2. References in building gender-sensitive advertisements ................... 79
5.3. Chapter review ....................................................................................... 80
Chapter 6: Conclusion ................................................................................... 81

6.1. Recapitulation ........................................................................................ 81

6.2. Limitations ............................................................................................. 82
6.3. Recommendations for further study ........................................................ 83
Reference list .................................................................................................. 85

Appendices ...................................................................................................... 90

Appendix 1: Research Invitation ................................................................... 90

Appendix 2: Questionnaire Survey ................................................................ 92
Appendix 3: Interview Script ........................................................................ 97
Appendix 4: Worked example of data analysis ............................................ 100
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List of figures and tables

Figure 1. The process of content analysis ................................................. 35
Figure 2. The recruitment and data collection process .............................. 36
Figure 3. Character’s positions by gender (%) .......................................... 44
Figure 4. Nam Ngu Fish Sauce TVC with the message “I’m here smiling
with delicious food to welcome you home” ...................................................... 45
Figure 5. Neptune Light TVC with message “From now on, mom can
safely cook delicious food for the whole family” ............................................. 45
Figure 6. Vinamilk TVC has a baby girl who also uses milk but the boy is
the central character ......................................................................................... 45
Figure 7. Karo TVC, the female characters are hidden behind the brand’s
logo .................................................................................................................. 46
Figure 8. C2 TVC, main female character drink tea to solve problem....... 46
Figure 9. Noodles Jomo TVC with male image that used as an alternative
to a package of noodles .................................................................................... 46
Figure 10. Gender of main character in pharmaceutical advertisements
(Number) .......................................................................................................... 47
Figure 11. Abipolis Throat Spray with message “mommy don’t worry” .. 47
Figure 12. RiTANA Skin whitening pills TVC, the image of a woman
wearing a bikini and men looking at her ........................................................... 48
Figure 13. Tay Thi Showel Gel TVC with image of a woman walking on
the street followed by men ............................................................................... 48
Figure 14. Romano Shampoo TVC with message “Successful scent,
masculine quality” ............................................................................................ 49
Figure 15. X-men for Boss and Romano TVC in which women are
attracted by the man’s quality ........................................................................... 49
Figure 16. Honda City TVC describes the life of main male character with
a woman supporting him in daily life ............................................................... 50
Figure 17. Kia Sorento TVC with main male character is a leader and a
female character is his wife who takes care of their children ............................ 50
Figure 18. Ford Ranger Wildtrak TVC with image of main female
character climbing mountains and driving with her friends, and they look
physically strong .............................................................................................. 50
Figure 19. Cuckoo Electric Cooker TVC with image of two main
characters cooking together .............................................................................. 51
Figure 20. Bluestone TVC with the question “Girly” men or men know
sharing? ............................................................................................................ 51
Figure 21. Bobby Diaper TVC with image of both father and mother
playing with the child ....................................................................................... 52
Figure 22. Proportion of families in the ads with boys and girls (%) ........ 52
 7

Figure 23. Skin Bibi TVC with message “Safe for children, mother rest
assured”............................................................................................................ 53
Figure 24. Thai Duong Ginger Oil TVC, image of mother taking care of
children, wife massaging her husband’s back ................................................... 54
Figure 25. Prospan Cough Medicine TVC, 1 of 3 ads with male caregivers
......................................................................................................................... 54
Figure 26. Ford Everest car TVC, the main female character prepares food
for the family.................................................................................................... 54
Figure 27. Thuan Phat Fish Sauce TVC, father did not know how to handle
the dish when it was bland ................................................................................ 55
Figure 28. The Max Kleen Laundry Detergent TVC conveys the message
“Strong and gentle like a mother” that indirectly links laundry with women .... 55
Figure 29. Kaori spray scent diffuser TVC using women wearing bikini .. 56
Figure 30. Rossi heater TVC with image of main female character relaxing
with a calendar reminding her to go shopping and to the hairdresser ................ 56
Figure 31. X-men for boss TVC with the message “awakening the boss
inside you” ....................................................................................................... 57
Figure 32. Nestle Milk TVC with message “For a strong generation” has a
main male character ......................................................................................... 57
Figure 33. Colgate Toothpaste TVC with message that females can play
football too ....................................................................................................... 58
Figure 34. Nhat Nhat activating blood pills TVC with women in a home
context and men in an office context ................................................................ 58
Figure 35. Coffee Wake-up 247 TVC, office has both male and female
office workers but the boss is a man ................................................................. 59
Figure 36. Aqua City TVC with a female character plays leader role ....... 59
Figure 37. Chinsu Chili Sauce TVC with female cartoon character working
on a farm .......................................................................................................... 60

Table 1. Information of VTV Channels .................................................... 42

Table 2. Themes and Categories of Media Portrayals of Women by Female
and Male participants (%) ................................................................................ 62
Table 3. Themes and Categories of Media Portrayals of Men by Female
and Male participants (%) ................................................................................ 65
Table 4. Themes and Categories of Role and Impact of the Media ........... 66
Table 5. Themes and Categories of Role and Impact of the Media ........... 67
Table 6. Themes and Categories of Ways to Change ............................... 69
 8

List of abbreviations
Ad(s) Advertisement(s)
TV Television
TVC Television Video Commercials
 9

Chapter 1: Introduction
Gender equality is a development goal that has always been featured in
national policies. In the process of promoting gender equality, the media is used
to propagate related issues. However, there are still gender stereotypes that appear
in the media. This research is going to examine gender stereotyping in Vietnam’s
television commercials through product advertisements (ads) on VTV1, the
national television channel. Thereby, the dissertation will point out gender bias
and propose recommendations to minimize gender discrimination in media
products in Vietnam.
1.1. Topic and context
In 2015, all United Nations Member States adopted the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development providing a shared blueprint for peace and prosperity
for people and the planet. This agenda includes 17 Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) which are an urgent call for action by all countries - developed and
developing. One of those goals is achieving gender equality and empowering all
women and girls. In Vietnam, as of 2020, there are 86 projects dedicated to this
goal and 7,18% of resources from UN Funds spent on maintaining these activities
(United Nations, 2021). However, in our society, issues causing gender inequality
still exist including gender stereotypes. In general, mass media has always had the
power to influence the public’s perception and change their behaviors. Previous
studies have shown that people readily believe what they read and hear from
media sources.
In the process of promoting gender equality, the press and television (TV)
are two important tools to propagate related issues. There have been numerous
articles and TV shows discussing gender and gender equality in an effort to
achieve gender equality and empower women and girls. However, the media also
has power to enforce negative social norms which include upholding unequal
stereotypes of both genders.
As a part of television, television video commercials (TVC) are also a source
of messages that affect society. According to the Nielsen Global Video-on-
 10

Demand 2016 survey, Vietnamese people tend to avoid advertising when

watching online videos. In another study, it showed that a regular television
viewer can spend 73 minutes a day watching commercials because people can not
completely avoid television advertising (Nielsen, 2010). Traditional
advertisements on television are highly attractive to viewers. In Vietnam, gender
stereotyping persists in many advertisements which reach millions of people.
Under the influence of the television industry in general and television advertising
in particular, content containing gender stereotypes can still affect public
perception and influence the promotion of gender equality in Vietnam.
In the current Vietnamese advertising market, in addition to the
advertisements with characters presented in stereotyped ways, there are
advertising products that break out of social gender stereotypes. To be aware of
these changes, I decided to do the dissertation “Gender stereotyping in
Vietnam’s television commercials: Video commercials on VTV1 at prime
time (18.00 - 20.00) from December 2020 to February 2021” to statistic and
clarify the gender stereotyping situation on national television channel
advertisements, thereby raising awareness of public and differentiating media
portrayals of men and women on business ads, supporting the community to better
protect their interests.
1.2. Focus and scope
The focus of my research is gender stereotyping in Vietnam’s television
commercials. Television advertisements are a popular form of advertising and it
includes media portrayals of both genders in either positive or negative ways.
The research scope of this dissertation is video commercials on the
Vietnamese national channel VTV1 between the prime time of 18:00 to 20:00 in
3 months from December 2020 to February 2021. This channel and the specific
time are selected due to its popularity among Vietnamese audiences.
1.3. Objectives and Tasks
On the basis of reviewing media theories related to media and gender
representation, the research aims to examine gender stereotyping in Vietnam’s
 11

television advertisements and identify the elements that make those

advertisements more or less effective in the overall development of gender
equality in Vietnam. Thereby, I will propose some solutions and suggestions for
enterprises and media agencies to create advertisements ensuring gender
sensitivity.
In order to achieve the research aim, this dissertation focuses on the
following research objectives:
- Clarify the theory of gender stereotyping, the impact of media portrayals of
genders and the gender stereotyping in television commercials on the gender
equality movement.
- Examine the current situation of gender stereotyping in television
commercials and compare the different gender stereotypes in television
commercials today with 10 years ago based on some specialized reports.
- Survey the public’s attitudes towards gender stereotyping in television
commercials.
- Propose recommendations to increase the coverage and quality of television
video commercials challenging gender stereotypes and promoting women’s rights.
1.4. Methodology and research design
The research involves two stages of data collection. The first stage uses case
study research and content analysis as research instruments. Case study
methodology is a research technique in which the researcher investigates a
program, situation, operation, procedure, or one or more individuals in depth
(Stake, 1995). The case studies used in this research are advertisements on
national channel VTV1 at a specific time. The research intends to describe gender
stereotyping in television commercials. For the second stage, the study uses
surveys in order to gain a complex understanding of how audiences respond to
gender-sensitive television advertising and their identification of elements
presenting gender equality. This research uses a combination of qualitative and
quantitative data research to analyze the results.
Method of Research
 12

In the first stage, this study observes and analyzes all the advertisements on
the national channel VTV1 shown during the prime time 18:00 to 20:00 over three
months from December 2020 to February 2021.
The dissertation also intends to use online surveys conducted through a
Google Form. There are a total of 14 survey questions, six related to the
respondents’ background and frequency of watching television and eight for
identification of media portrayals of both genders, impacts of media and ways to
change gender-sensitive commercials.
Research Design
The advertisements were collected through the website VTVGo belonging
to the national television channel. There was a total of 315 video commercials
collected during this stage.
To collect data from the audience, the research used a link dispersed
throughout social media, specifically Facebook, that directs respondents to the
survey and sent emails via HopeBox, an organization which empower women
who have experienced gender-based violence. The advantages of this design are
the results can be manipulated in order to measure the elements of gender-
sensitive advertising and social media in a convenient way for participants.
However, the disadvantage is that it measures data at a specific point in time.
Population of analysis
The study sample is expected to be 200 participants who are 16 years old or
older. The findings are used to clarify the gender-sensitive elements in
respondents’ mindsets.
1.5. Overview of the structure
The dissertation contains six chapters which are presented as follows:
 Chapter 1: Introduction
 Chapter 2: Literature Review
 Chapter 3: Methodology
 Chapter 4: Findings
 Chapter 5: Discussions
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 Chapter 6: Conclusion
My first chapter introduces the dissertation in general. This chapter focuses
on introducing the context of the research, the research gap, aims, objectives, and
scope of the research, then gives an overview of the research structure. This is an
essential chapter to guide the dissertation and plan the dissertation process in the
future. The chapter begins by giving the context of gender equality in modern
society and the general situation of the television industry in Industry 4.0, thereby
drawing the importance of studying gender stereotyping in television
commercials. After identifying the research focus and scope, I will take a review
of previous studies and draw out the limitations of these studies to provide the
main research aims and objectives for my dissertation.
The second chapter presents the theory of gender, gender stereotypes, and
gender stereotyping. Then, I will introduce the concept of television and television
video commercials. After providing the essential theoretical frameworks, I will
introduce the current state of television advertising in Vietnam. Thereby I will
offer the theory surrounding television advertisements that relate to gender
stereotypes in commercials. Finally, I will frame the theoretical framework with
a focus on feminist theory and television advertisements.
In chapter 3, matters relating to the methodology and methods are introduced.
This chapter introduces the paradigm of the study and the qualitative methodology
used to collect data. Practical matters are also described, such as how the
respondents are recruited, how the research is conducted, the use of back-
translation and the steps taken for data analysis. Chapter 3 concludes with the
expectations of the respondents and the results.
Chapter 4 introduces national television channel VTV1 and the prime time
from 18:00 to 20:00. By observing and analyzing documents, I will quantify the
images of men and women in advertisements from 6p.m to 8p.m in 3 months from
December 2020 to February 2021 on channel VTV1. At the same time, I will
examine the audience’s perceptions of the image of male and female characters
in television video commercials and the factors they need to meet gender equality.
 14

Chapter 5 discusses the findings in relation to the research aims and

objectives constructed in this dissertation. This chapter begins by comparing the
findings of this dissertation with the previous studies about gender stereotyping
in television advertising and assesses the development of advertising containing
gender-sensitivity. The discussion about how gender stereotyping in television
advertisements influences society nowadays by experts is also provided.
Finally, chapter 6 will contain my conclusion. The significant commitments
of this dissertation on hypothetical, methodological, and administrative grounds
are provided. This chapter concludes by presenting the restrictions of this
dissertation and signals opportunities for future research.
 15

Chapter 2: Literature review

2.1. Introduction
The aim of this chapter is to review current research on gender stereotyping
in media, with particular attention paid to exploring perspectives of gender
stereotyping. In particular, this chapter highlights a number of gaps in the current
body of literature and the knowledge surrounding perspectives of gender
stereotyping. This chapter proposes that many changes have occurred within
gender stereotyping in media these days due to the development of technology
and feminist theory, and that the gender stereotyping issues in Vietnam have not
received adequate attention.
This chapter begins by reviewing the literature on the perspectives of gender
stereotyping. This first part of the literature review offers a detailed discussion of
the changes in a contemporary context, which has led to the focusing of attention
on research in order to understand perspectives of gender stereotyping. Then,
literature investigating gender stereotyping in the broadcasting industry will be
reviewed. I will review both international and Vietnamese studies. The second
part of the literature review frames the theoretical framework with a focus on
feminist theory and the connection of feminism and gender stereotyping in
television commercials. Finally, a conclusion for the chapter is offered.
2.2. Perspectives of gender stereotyping
According to Hoffman and Hurst (1990), stereotypes are a form of “scheme”
believed to have as its aim the portrayal of an external reality, even though they
may achieve only a selective or condensed version of this reality. In the
perspective of social psychology science, many previous studies affirmed
“stereotyping” as an aspect of human social behaviors. For human society,
therefore, stereotypes are used to describe the characteristics of some class of
individuals. Hence, the process of stereotyping appears as “the tendency to
attribute generalized and simplified characteristics to groups of people in the form
of verbal labels” (Vinacke, 1957).
 16

Society, in general, describes stereotypes as a kind of prejudice. Stereotypes

are thought to be a bad and flawed trait in social interaction. However, researchers
have shown that stereotypes and prejudice have a complex connection. It is
suggested that a stereotype is a particular concept and prejudice is a particular
attitude. According to Vinacke (1957), stereotyping is a conceptual process and
stereotypes are a kind of concept, with fundamentally the same functions and
general characteristics as other concepts.
In fact, stereotypes are features of certain classes of objects and these traits
are solely recognized to be typical of a class by a group of people. However, this
also means that stereotypes contain at least one social reality. Stereotypes,
therefore, can be accepted as a result of social learning, as the components of the
stereotype and how the stereotype operates in behavior are the means by which
different kinds of objects (people) are classified. In other words, stereotypes are
beliefs about a social group, particularly those that distinguish genders (Ashmore
and Del Boca, 1981).
Before reviewing the literature on gender stereotyping in detail, I shall first
briefly consider what is known about gender. Gender is a scientific terminology
that was first introduced to differentiate biological sex by sexologist John Money
(1995), whereby sex is a biologically distinguishable term and gender is a social
role. Prior to his work, it was phenomenal to utilize the word gender to refer to
anything but grammatical categories (Urdy, 1994; Haig, 2004).
However, the word’s meaning has not been widespread until feminist theory
favored the idea of separating biological identity from the social construct of
gender in the 1970s (Haig, 2004). Nowadays, the World Health Organization
defines gender as “the socially constructed roles, behaviors, activities, and
attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women”. The
distinction of two terms were also followed in science studies and documents
related to gender. In Vietnam, the Law on Gender Equality (2006) provides that
gender indicates the characteristics, positions, and roles of men and women in all
social relationships.
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In sum, gender includes the scope of characteristics relating to and separating

feminine and masculine. According to Lindsey (2015), gender refers to the social,
cultural, and psychological characteristics that are associated with males and
females in specific social settings. Sex determines whether people are male or
female while gender determines whether people are masculine or feminine. In
other words, gender is the social relation between men and women, and aspects
of gender vary greatly between different human societies. This can be understood
as sex-based social structures called gender roles or sex roles. The term is
employed to denote a repertoire of emotions, attitudes, behaviors, and perceptions
that are commonly associated more with one sex than with the opposite (Levesque,
2011). There have been many studies on gender roles in the world. These
extensive studies demonstrate that gender role self-concepts appear early in
adolescence and that socialization processes play an important role in the
formation of gender role self-concepts. According to Eagly et al. (2004), the
outcomes of gender roles and stereotypes are sex-typed social behavior with
gender roles and stereotypes both collectively shared expressive and prescriptive
norms. These “role-based” and “gender-based” differences of men and women,
according to Eagly and Steffen (1984), are largely responsible for gender
stereotypes.
UN Human Rights defines “a gender stereotype as a generalized view or
preconception about attributes or characteristics, or the roles that are or ought to
be possessed by, or performed by women and men”. While gender stereotyping
refers to “the practice of ascribing to an individual woman or man specific
attributes, characteristics, or roles by reason only of her or his membership in the
social group of women or men”. According to Vinacke (1957), there is nothing
inherently “bad” about stereotyping, just as there is nothing inherently “bad”
about forming any kind of concept. Vinacke (1957) has proposed that, if each
person sees the stereotype as a concept, and learns these stereotypes by religious,
racial group, etc. but with different levels of prejudice, then stereotypes cannot be
equated with prejudice. It also suggested by Sommer and Killian (1954) that “the
 18

content of the stereotypes of persons high and low in prejudice is different”. This
also means, nonetheless, that stereotypes become problematic once they cause
expectations about one social category over another or restrict opportunities for
one social category over another. Accordingly, gender stereotyping is wrongful
when it leads to a violation or violations of human rights and fundamental
freedoms (UN Human Rights, 2020). In the Vietnam Law on Gender Equality
(2006), gender stereotypes are negative and biased awareness, attitude, and
assessment of the characteristics, position, role, and capacity of a man or woman.
Stereotypes are often said to contain at least a kernel of truth, and gender
stereotypes in particular have often been believed to represent genuine
distinctions within the classes in question. Eagly and his colleagues (Eagly, 1987;
Eagly & Steffen, 1984) provide evidence that the fundamental pillar of the myths
is the belief that men are more “agentic” (self-assertive and determined to master)
than women and women are more “communal” (selfless and concerned with
others) than men. This belief, it is argued, is primarily based on observations of
men and women in various social positions. Women are more likely than men to
be stay-at-home mothers and caregivers, while men are more likely than women
to be breadwinners (i.e., to work outside the home) (Hoffman & Hurst, 1990).
Furthermore, it is thought that these positions bestow various characteristics of
action and personality on their occupants, which is where the majority of the
kernel of reality in stereotypes resides. In fact, the stereotypes emphasize a variety
of aspects from which men and women vary either marginally (e.g.,
influenceability) or do not differ at all (kindness, patience, ability to make
decisions, ability to think clearly, and many others) (Hoffman & Hurst, 1990).
However, gender stereotyping continues to exist in society and constrains the
development of both genders, especially women.
2.3. Television advertisements
2.3.1. The development of television advertisements
Before reviewing the development of television advertisements, I would like
to go through concepts of televisions and advertisements to provide an initial
 19

insight into these communications. Communication, in general, is a process that

includes forms and models. It is the demonstration of creating significance among
entities or groups using adequately, commonly understood signs, images, and
semiotic conventions. In sociology, mass communication is a sub-field of
communication studies. Mass communication is “the process by which a person,
group of people or organization creates a message and transmits it through some
type of medium to a large, anonymous, heterogeneous audience” (Pearce, 2009).
Through mass communication, messages can be transmitted quickly to the people
who are far away from the source. According to previous studies, mass media
refers to a diverse exhibit of media technologies that reach an enormous audience
via mass communication. Mass media includes various forms of communications
(i.e., broadcast, film, video games, internet, etc.) and various types of information
(i.e., economy, culture, politics, etc.).
In the system of mass media, television is a type of communication that
transmits information by motion pictures and sound. Thereby, television has the
ability to reach all classes of the public, even those outside the influence of other
mass communication mediums. According to G.V. Cudonhetxop et al. (2004),
television has its own unique features and capabilities that make it popular with
the public, including: omnipotence, screen visibility, live nature, and
instantaneous broadcast capabilities. These characteristics enable television to
perform the common functions of the media (Cudonhetxop, 2004). Besides its
advantages, television also has its limitations. Ta Ngoc Tan (2001) affirmed that
the content of television normally repeats and is boring. This is reflected in
advertisements, although advertisements have important economic implications
for the existence and development of television, it is the cause of the inhibitions
and strong psychology towards the public.
However, it is undeniable that television has always been commonplace in
homes, businesses and organizations, primarily as a medium for entertainment,
advertising and news over the years. Due to the evolution of technology,
television also developed to be suitable for the social context. Since 2016, with
 20

the development of smart television, Internet television has expanded the

accessibility of television shows and movies via the Internet through streaming
video services such as iPlayer, Netflix, Hulu or FPTplay, VTVGo in Vietnam, etc.
However, the exclusive growth of streaming services has led to the slowdown of
broadcast television. In Vietnam, the time spent watching television by urban
population groups in some big cities has decreased significantly over the last five
years. In 2020, the average time spent watching TV per viewer was more than 200
minutes per day and women spent more time watching TV than men (VIETNAM-
TAM, 2021). Nonetheless, according to Nguyen Thi Hien (2020), the rate of
television viewers in Vietnam compared to many countries in the world is still
high.
During the development of network television, advertisements have become
indispensable content. Advertising is basically a method of transmitting
information from people who want to advertise through different communications
to reach the public. In the Cambridge Dictionary, advertising is defined as “the
activity of making products or services known about and persuading people to
buy them”. In marketing studies, advertising is a marketing communication tool
that utilizes a straightforwardly supported, non-individual message to advance or
sell an item, service or idea (William, 1984). Vietnam’s Law on Advertising 2012
stipulates that advertising is the employment of various means in order to present
the public with the profitable products, goods and service; non-profitable products
and services; organizations and individuals trading and providing the presented
products, goods and services, except for news, social policies; personal
information. To sum up, advertising is an essential activity to promote products.
Advertising can be classified in many ways, the most common of which is
classified by three categories: media advertising, outdoor advertising and direct
advertising. Many previous studies have shown that advertising in the mass media
has gone through a long process of development in parallel with the development
of mass media. In particular, after World War II, the development of television
created a medium in response to the rapidly increasing demand for advertising.
 21

Television is described by industrialists as the most important factor affecting the

size, essence and effectiveness of advertising in the twentieth century (Ta Ngoc
Tan, 2001). Nonetheless, due to the strong growth of online communications in
recent years, traditional television advertisements have gone from overwhelming
to underdog compared to advertising on digital platforms. In Vietnam, according
to the report of the Ministry of Information and Communications 2018, the
country has 67 television stations and television centers, 34 paid television
companies, and advertising revenue in the television field reaches 414 million
USD per year (Anh, 2018). However, looking at Vietnamese television ratings,
traditional advertising on television remains attractive.
2.3.2. The impacts of television advertisements
According to Dinh Thi Thuy Hang (2018), advertising plays a role in
economics, politics, information and entertainment. To the economy,
advertisements support trade promotion, promote consumption of goods and
services, indirectly enhance competitiveness and create a strong developing
motivation for the economy, especially to a developing country like Vietnam. In
the field of politics, there are many researchers who agree that the media has a
huge role for politics in Western countries. However, whether or not political
advertisements affect viewers greatly depends on different governing conditions.
Regarding the role of information, advertisements are evaluated by consumers as
consuming a lot of information when they want to learn about a product. In
particular, there are many advertisements nowadays whereby, instead of focusing
on the product, creators create interesting content in order to provide moments of
relaxation for customers. According to a study by USA Today, customers agree
that the most popular advertisements are those that are fun and entertaining.
It can be seen that advertisements have made significant positive
contributions in many aspects of social life. However, advertisements also have
many consequences for society. First of all, Ta Ngoc Tan (2001) thinks that
advertisements influence the materialization process and support shopping thirst,
thereby forming a lifestyle of consumption. Besides, advertising content contains
 22

too “ideal” or biased images which can lead consumers to make the wrong
shopping decisions or to behaviors that harm their health when they try to become
the ideal role models in advertising. In addition, cultural constraints in
advertisements can also lead to negative effects on the socio-cultural standards of
the community. There are also many negative impacts of advertisements such as
advertisements of products that are harmful to health or concerns about media
manipulation by corporations behind television advertisements (Hang, 2018).
However, there is an undeniable truth that advertising plays an important role
in shaping society nowadays, especially television advertisements due to its wide
coverage.
2.3.3. Functionalism and cultural theory of television advertisements
2.3.3.1. The functional dimension of television advertisements
Functional theory is a school of theory developed by British social
anthropologists, known as functionalism. Functionalism encompasses two
schools of theory with different theoretical points: functionalism associated with
the ideas of Bronislaw Malinowski (1884-1942) and structural-functionalism
associated with the ideas of Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown (1881-1955) (Flis,
1992).
According to functionalism, society is conceived as a block which consists
of many interrelated elements, each with its own function. One of these elements
is the mass media. Functionalism often emphasizes the “needs” of a society. Mass
media is considered as a social institution to meet the needs of maintaining
stability and continuity of a society, as well as the needs of integration and
adaptation of individuals in that society. More specifically, it is through these
information channels that social values, written and unwritten rules and laws of
the society are disseminated and repeated to convince everyone to comply. Mass
communication is a means by which to make society united and committed, and
to integrate individuals into said society.
According to Robert Merton (1968), the social influence of the mass media
should be analyzed based on both the publicity objective and the actual effect (i.e.,
 23

function). Merton has shown that the social functions of the mass media do not
necessarily correspond to the overt goals the communicator wants to achieve. He
called the effects that people want to achieve “manifest” functions, and the effects
that occur unexpectedly “latent” functions. In his theory, Merton also
distinguishes between “function” and “dysfunction”. Function is what enables a
system to maintain its existence and continue to function smoothly, and counter-
function is what interferes with that process. An activity can have both functions
and counter-functions.
Lasswell (1948), one of the pioneering authors in the study of mass
communication, pointed out three main functions of mass communication
including (1) controlling the social environment; (2) linking parts of society
together; and (3) transmitting social heritage from generation to generation.
Charles Wright (1960) later added a fourth function: entertainment.
In short, television and television advertisements are part of the mass media,
hence it also includes all of the above functions. On the basis of functionalism,
the informational function of advertising is the manifest function while the
educational function is the latent function. Content and images conveyed through
advertisements not only help viewers grasp product information, but also invisibly
maintain and even contribute to creating gender stereotyping and stereotypes in
society.
2.3.3.2. The cultural dimension of television advertisements
The cultural theory of G. Gerbner (1994) affirmed that television, the most
powerful of all mass media, contributes to the public’s perception of reality. It
was television that reinforced and perpetuated the people’s traditional ways of
thinking and behaviors. Therefore, television is a tool to preserve the social status
quo. The cultural function of television is to disseminate and maintain social
norms, but also encourage social changes. Television is a means of socializing
roles in society, and thus reinforcing the social order. Contrary to many other
authors, Gerbner argues that television has a lasting influence on the formation of
public opinion. Television is not only a source of information and entertainment,
 24

it also presents to the public an “ideal image” of society, which guides and shapes
attitudes, tastes, and the interests of the public. According to Gerbner’s theory,
commercial television advertisements also help shape society. Television
advertisements have a characteristic that they repeat frequently and continuously.
When an event is repeated many times, the public will gradually accept and
normalize it, which is also how advertising products get stuck in the minds of
consumers. This subconsciously imposes the portrayals in advertisements on
society and shapes the public’s thoughts.
2.4. Gender stereotyping in advertisements
Kolman and Verčić (2012) affirmed that stereotypes of cultures, especially
gender stereotypes, have a significant impact on commercial content and design.
There are multiple studies aimed at exploring portrayals of men and women in
advertisements and whether or not genders are shown equal or not. According to
Grau and Zotos (2016), gender portrayals in advertising have been examined
extensively in the last five decades and remain an imperative subject. Previous
scholars have been interested in the kinds of stereotypes that are used to portray
women and men, the cultural implications of using stereotypes in advertising, and
the social consequences of these stereotypes (McArthur and Resko, 1975;
Hawkins and Coney, 1976; Lundstrom and Sciglimpaglia, 1977, according to
Grau and Zotos, 2016).
Over the years, many content analyses have examined and come to the
conclusion that women are portrayed as sexual objects and passive subjects, while
male positive traits are over-represented (Soley and Kurzbard, 1986; Ferguson,
Kreshel and Tinkahm, 1990; Klassen, Jasper and Schwartz, 1993, according to
Kolman and Verčić, 2012). Some components were examined by researchers such
as ranking, physical characteristics, roles, occupations, family dynamics and traits.
According to Eumham and Mak (1999), the most prominent fields of stereotyping
are age and physical appearance. Accordingly, women are portrayed as younger
and more attractive, owing to their decorative function. They also state that men
are more often than not the ones who deliver the key message in a commercial.
 25

Moreover, there is a significant difference in how men and women are portrayed
in terms of working roles. In general, men are shown as employed and are referred
to as specialists and experts. Women, on the other hand, are seen to be in non-
working occupations, which is nothing new and has been published in research
dating back nearly forty years. Courtney and Lockeretz (1971, according to
Kolman and Verčić, 2012) identify three categories of advertisement job positions
that all “belong” to men: top-level administrators, individuals in the film sector,
and professional athletes, while women are mid-level managers and white-collar
employees. According to Gamman and Makinen (1994), women are used to being
viewed as sexual objects. Women are often shown as subjects in advertising for
cosmetics, cigarettes, and alcohol. Nonetheless, it should also be noted that the
degree of objectification of male roles in commercials has grown over time.
Another example of stereotyping is the setting in which men and women are
viewed. Women are often depicted at home, with children and doing housework,
while men are depicted outside the home, engaged in activities (Euham and Mak,
1999).
Until recent years, gender roles in advertising have changed due to the
historical context. However, gender stereotyping in advertising still exists and is
prevalent in many countries around the world (Eisend, M., J. Plagemann, and J.
Sollwedel, 2014).
Of no exception, in Vietnam, gender stereotyping is a problem that has been
widespread for decades. Gender in the media is a subject of intrigue to researchers
in Vietnam. Most studies show that the media is a critical factor in promoting
gender equality and empowering women. Gender stereotyping in the media has
subconsciously maintained inequality in Vietnamese society (Nguyen Thu
Phuong, 2003; Tran Thi Minh Duc and Do Hoang, 2004). According to author
Nguyen Thu Phuong (2003), women’s daily life has changed a lot but gender
stereotypes have changed little compared to the last decade since the media still
praises the image of women who are gentle, patient, take care of the family while
men are the breadwinners and hold power. In a study on gender stereotyping in
 26

media products by Nguyen Thi Tuyet Minh (2011), the author pointed out gender
issues, gender stereotypes, and gender patterns in messages communicated on
print and online newspapers and television commercials. The author asserts that
gender stereotypes and gender division of labor are shown quite clearly in
commercials with female characters doing more household chores than male
characters. Besides the aforementioned academic studies, there are very few
large-scale reports on gender in the media in Vietnam like the “Challenging
gender stereotypes in the Vietnamese Media to catalyze social change” project by
Oxfam and CSAGA (2008) created to help increase awareness about gender
equality in mass media.
In general, all these studies in Vietnam showed exactly the same media
portrayals of women and men that were examined in foreign studies. Uncovered
in these studies, there was an undeniable truth that the positions of men and
women in commercials reflected inequality and reinforced commonly accepted
tropes of men and women that have existed for a long time in Vietnamese society.
2.5. Feminist theory surrounding gender stereotyping in television
commercials
2.5.1. Feminist theory
According to Osmond and Thorne (1993), feminist theory has a wide range
of perspectives besides singular “feminist theory”. In general, feminist theory is
the application of feminist principles to theoretical, literary, or intellectual debate,
which aims to comprehend the essence of gender inequality. It investigates the
social roles, perspectives, desires, chores, and feminist politics of men and women
in many fields. Gender equality is a common subject in feminist theory.
Discrimination, objectification (especially sexual objectification), inequality,
sexism, stereotyping, art history and contemporary art, and aesthetics are all
common themes throughout feminist theory.
Linda Gordon (1979) provided a useful starting definition which said that
feminist theory is “an analysis of women’s subordination for the purpose of
figuring out how to change it”. This concept combines three themes: a focus on
 27

women and their experiences; awareness that women are subordinated or

marginalized under current social arrangements; and a dedication to eliminating
that unequal subordination. From these questions arose a fourth critical theme: the
importance of identity and gender relations in all aspects of social life, including
men’s and women’s lives.
There are many separate feminist disciplines in which scholars from other
fields adapt feminist techniques and concepts on their own. Furthermore, there are
controversies that form feminist philosophy, and they can be used interchangeably
in feminist theorists’ claims. In this study, the researcher used the feminist
communication theory approach.
2.5.2. Connecting the feminist communication theory and gender
stereotyping in television commercials
Cuklanz (2016) said that feminist studies of dialogue address a wide range
of topics but focus on the same study and interpretation of identity and gendered
control in communicative texts. However, many scholars such as Dow and Condit
(2015) said that feminist theory should take into account not just the interplay of
gender and authority, but also the significance of other textual factors such as race,
sexuality, and class.
Since its inception in the 1970s, feminist theory has evolved over many
decades. The media representations and theories started developing from the
baseline of significant underrepresentation of women in mass media due to
women’s loss of control and authority in media culture. By the late 1980s, feminist
theory of cultural research was also mostly concerned with documenting women’s
underrepresentation in the media and identifying forms of discrimination in media
activities. In the 1990s and early 2000s, many studies made inroads into the
abundance of gendered and sexualized abuse depictions in mass culture, as well
as the ways in which these representations mirrored dominant ideology (Moorti,
2002). According to Cuklanz (2016), feminist communication theory has recently
made a deliberate attempt to analyze and criticize a variety of linguistic objects in
 28

regard to their capacity to allow for the intersectionality of a variety of

subjectivities.
All these theories and the feminist movement changed the gender
stereotyping in commercials. The literature during this period observed the
changes over the time. Grau and Zotos (2016) compiled their results and classified
them according to three waves of feminism. First, the advent of feminism in the
1970s called into question equal opportunity for men and women, sparking a
gradual shift in workplace opportunities and household systems, especially for
women. Second, developments in the labour market have resulted in major
differences in both male and female roles, as well as how they are represented in
advertisements. Third, the evolving family gender dynamic has resulted in major
differences in the female and, more recently, male roles.
During these years, women appeared in the media at a lower level than men.
Men appeared as the head of society and women were not as important. The media
messages created often contained content that perpetuated stereotypes of men and
women. In male-female relationships, messages often emphasized traditional
masculinity and femininity and normalized violence towards women.
2.6. Chapter review
From the literature review, it was said that gender stereotypes can be
understood as traits, behaviors, and roles that society defaults to classifying based
on gender. Through the functionalism and cultural theory of television
advertisements, television advertisements can be seen as a tool for perpetuating
gender stereotypes and men’s social position. Most of the previous studies have
demonstrated that elements of gender inequality are shown in television
commercials. Through the feminist theoretical approach, the study can see the
changes of media portrayals of men and women over time. These changes,
however, are extremely slow. In short, gender stereotyping in the media is an issue
that spans from the first waves of feminism to the present day. This is an issue
that requires not only further comparative assessment, but also an evaluation of
the components that may change this inequality.
 29

The following chapter expands on this literature review, especially in terms

of how research can be done. It first describes the interpretive analysis paradigm
that was used for this analysis, and then it addresses the research technique used
to achieve an interpretation of gender stereotyping in Vietnamese television
commercials. The methods used in this analysis are also defined, as are the steps
taken to analyze and interpret the results.
 30

Chapter 3: Methodology
This chapter will begin by presenting the ontological, epistemological, and
empirical choices taken in researching the gender stereotyping shown in Vietnam
television commercials. Case study methodology is introduced as the main
method of this study. This dissertation is accompanied by a review of the analysis
approach, which includes the techniques, sampling, recruitment, data processing,
and methodological measures used to elicit the results. Finally, the general
approach would be explored, as well as a personal reflection on methodological
issues.
3.1. Research Paradigm
The value of defining one’s study model has long been recognized as a way
of assisting researchers in choosing the appropriate framework. According to
Guba and Lincoln (1994), to create research methods, researchers first need to
select a research paradigm. Research paradigm is defined as the basic collection
of beliefs that direct action that can be viewed as consisting of three main elements:
ontology, epistemology and methodology (Denzin and Lincoln, 1994). Choosing
a worldview for research is a highly important matter, Groff (2004) stated that the
researchers who identify the worldview from the outset have the benefit of having
a clear framework for further study and discussion.
Since various data collection and interpretation techniques may have a
variety of effects on the overall study process, it is important for researchers to
consider their primary orientation and the interaction between research and theory
in terms of deductive and inductive methods (Gilbert, 2002). Deductive methods,
according to Bryman (2008), include the examination of assumptions, the
confirmation or rejection of hypotheses, and the revision of theories as a result.
While inductive strategy applies grounded theory and considers the effects of
researchers on their findings for the generation of data or theory. This study aims
to explore and describe gender stereotyping in today’s television advertisements
while gathering the features that help promote gender equality and remove gender
stereotypes from the public’s perspective. To clarify, this study attempts to
 31

generate a framework to assist academics and practitioners in understanding

gender stereotyping through feminist theory in order to find media portrayals of
gender in television advertisements that can then help to curate the public’s
awareness and opinions about gender stereotypes. In this regard, an inductive
strategy provides the best fit for the study. As a result, it is essential to think of
the investigator’s paradigm from an epistemological and ontological standpoint.
The issue of what constitutes sufficient awareness in a field is addressed
through epistemological consideration. In general, there are two opposing
viewpoints on epistemological issues: positivism and interpretivism (Bryman,
2008). Weber (2004) and Bryman (2008) suggested that the positivist view of
knowledge is objective, founded on natural scientific methodology and data
observation. In contrast to the positivism paradigm, an interpretivist paradigm
viewed knowledge and meaning as intersubjective, socially constructed and
varied, depending on whom it associated with (Weber, 2004). Gender stereotypes
or gender stereotyping, as human social behaviors, are complex and socially
constructed, hence it is appropriate to adopt an interpretivist position in this study.
Ontological orientation examines whether social institutions can be viewed
as having an empirical truth that is external to social actors (objectivism) or as
social constructions dictated by social actors’ expectations and behavior
(constructionism). Many previous studies agree that marketing should be regarded
as a social construction and marketing in an analytical sense is likely to be
concerned in the comprehension of human phenomena. This research is based on
the concept that gender stereotypes are constituted by society and are different
depending on culture, geographical area, and socio-economic conditions. The
research is placed in the socio-cultural context of Vietnam including both case
studies and survey participants, so the constructionist paradigm is appropriate for
this research.
In general, the researcher believes that perceptions and attitudes constitute
reality, and gender stereotyping is created by society’s views. Accordingly,
 32

interpretivism and the constructionist paradigm seem to be the best fit for the aim
and direction of this study.
3.2. Research Design
There are two methods available for data analysis - quantitative and
qualitative. Quantitative research is focused on data interpretation to generate
authenticity, while qualitative research is based on words rather than
quantification in the processing and analysis of data. This study employs both
qualitative and quantitative methods. The qualitative method is used to conduct
in-depth explorations of gender stereotyping represented in Vietnam national
television advertisements and the public’s opinions on gender stereotyping in
these commercials, while the quantitative method is used to calculate the
frequency of occurrence of gender stereotypes in advertisements and in survey
responses.
For this study, the case study research served as the main methodology.
According to Stake (1995), case study methodology is a research technique in
which the researcher investigates a program, situation, operation, procedure, or
one or more individuals in depth. Cases are bounded by time and activity, and
researchers gather accurate information using a series of data collection methods
over a long period of time. For this research, the phenomenon under investigation
was gender stereotyping that was represented in television advertisements. The
cases for the current study were advertisements from VTV1 prime time from
December 2020 to February 2021. Case study researchers gather accurate
information using a series of data collection techniques over a long period of time.
For this study, I collected data through observations. Specifically, observations
were conducted and noted, video advertisements were transcribed into word
documents and data was coded for emergent themes. Another element of the case
study is the unit of research, which is described as the study’s main subject
(Merriam, 1988; Yin, 2009). For this study, this unit of analysis was the
advertisements shown at prime time on channel VTV1 from December 2020 to
February 2021.
 33

Additionally, I also used survey research for this study. Survey study entails
asking a group of people questions and interpreting the answers to learn more
about them. For this study, I used the survey to curate the public’s perspective of
gender stereotyping in television advertisements by using elements found through
the case study observations. Also, questions about media and ways to change the
gender stereotypes in advertisements were added for further discussions. Besides,
an in-depth interview was also taken during this process. The interview was only
used for discussions to compare with the results in case study research and survey
responses.
The validity and the advantages and disadvantages of the tools used to
implement the research strategy will be discussed next.
3.3. Research Methods
The study is conducted by two methods including descriptive and
comparative methods. The main type of research used in this study is descriptive.
Descriptive research is an important part of communication study. It focuses on
expanding knowledge on current issues through a process of data collection.
Therefore, the descriptive method was employed in the dissertation to present a
detailed description of gender stereotyping represented in television
advertisements. The description was then delicately analyzed using the
comparative method. After both of these measures, the results were compiled. The
descriptive approach is the primary method since it cannot be compared without
being described; moreover, the study’s goal can only be accomplished by
comparative approach, which is the supporting method.
For the purposes of this study, the researcher has chosen to use a hybrid of
two traditional social science analysis instruments based on the descriptive
method - content analysis and questionnaires. The content analysis was conducted
with advertisements collected from the channel VTV1 for the first stage. In the
second stage, the researcher conducted questionnaires with multiple participants
which were categorized by their gender in the findings. The pros and cons of each
strategy are discussed below.
 34

Content analysis was chosen for this dissertation because it is a research

method that identifies patterns in documented communication. The research used
a case study, which was television advertisements, therefore content analysis was
the most suitable tool. The content analysis used in this study focused on
interpreting and understanding gender stereotyping in television advertisements.
This research intends to describe the stereotypes and frequency of stereotyping in
commercials nowadays.
In order to understand the public’s perspective of gender stereotyping in
television advertisements, I chose questionnaires for the second stage of the
research. Questionnaires are a quick method to collect information from a large
number of respondents in a timely and effective manner. Due to the limited time,
questionnaires were a simple and efficient way for the researcher to reach out to
a large number of people in a short period of time. The predetermined and strict
structure of the questionnaires, on the other hand, excludes the opportunity of
pursuing a more in-depth or abstract observation (Bell, 2005; Sarantakos, 2013).
This study was no different, as the questionnaires yielded consistent and
straightforward data, but certain aspects of the studies were left unexplored.
To build an accurate data source, the author also used an in-depth interview
with an expert in gender equality activities. In research, interviews have long been
used to gather extensive information on a topic or issue (Wilkinson and
Birmingham, 2003). This study used interviews to extend the knowledge of
gender stereotypes and comments on advertisements nowadays.
3.4. Research Strategy
The aim of this dissertation is to examine gender stereotyping in Vietnam
TV commercials and the public’s awareness of it. In order to represent the gender
stereotyping shown in commercials, the advertisements were collected and
categorized to meet the aim of contributing to the evidence of the differences
between female and male representations in commercials. It was also to curate the
public’s perception of gender stereotypes in commercials. Participants were
collected from social platforms to ensure rich data for precise analysis.
 35

The research involved two stages of data collection. In the first stage, the
data was collected directly from the advertisements shown during the prime time
18:00 to 20:00 on the channel VTV1 over the course of three months from
December 2020 to 2021. Due to the back-up data of VTV1 on online platform
VTVGo, all the advertisements were collected to be analyzed. The advertisements
sampling was open source therefore the researcher could easily collect and
categorize. There were 315 video commercials collected during this process. The
process of content analysis is illustrated in Figure 1.
Identify the topic of the
research

Establish content
categories

Test the categories

generated

Collect data from

VTVGo

Analyse content of data

and provide results

Figure 1. The process of content analysis

In the second stage, the sampling was collected through online surveys using
Google Forms. There were 200 participants involved in the survey. The author
attempted to construct a study that was as representative as possible, with an equal
number of men and women included and more importantly that they were of
varied backgrounds. Figure 2 depicts the recruitment and data collection process.
 36

Invitation
(Facebook, Instagram, Email)

Questionnaire survey

Information collecting

Figure 2. The recruitment and data collection process

Recruitment was carried out through social media, specifically Facebook,
and emails that directed respondents to the survey. The invitation announced the
study’s focus on the awareness of gender stereotyping in television commercials.
There were two versions of the invitation on social media and in the email. A copy
of those is shown in Appendix 1.
All the participants who were interested in the study completed the
individual questionnaires by submitting the Forms, then the results were
automatically returned to the researcher. To ensure diversity within the survey,
information on the participants’ backgrounds and demographic information, such
as gender, age and field of study or work was also gathered. The questionnaires
were also designed only for participants who watch television. This stage took
place over the course of one week.
There are five stages in collecting interview data, including (1) draft the
interview, (2) pilot the questions, (3) select interviewees, (4) conduct the
interviews, and (5) analyze the interview data.
The interviewee selected in this study was Mrs. Vu Phuong Ly, programme
specialist of UN Women. She worked in UN Women for 11 years with many
projects to help promote gender equality and prevent gender-based violence.
 37

Therefore, she has a lot of experience and knowledge about gender stereotypes to
be able to give accurate opinions and recommendations.
3.5. Instrument Design
3.5.1. Content analysis
The gender stereotyping shown in television advertisements was not the
current case. However, due to the feminism movement, gender stereotyping in
commercials has changed in recent years. For the purpose of this research, the
researcher established the data into three dimensions of gender stereotyping. All
the advertisements were then categorized into these groups. These themes were
built based on Nguyen Thi Tuyet Minh (2011) research for further discussion.
3.5.2. Questionnaires and interviews
The questionnaire was separated into two parts. The first section of the
questionnaire asked demographic questions, related to age, gender, field of study
and work. This part also consisted of questions about frequency of watching
television to select the appropriate participants. The core questions were arranged
in sequence from questions related to media portrayals of women and men
including negative and positive portrayals, to questions about media influences
and evaluation of television commercials in gender representation. The final
question is about how to address gender stereotypes in advertising. The
information and full script of the questionnaire is available in Appendix 2.
The interview started with the core questions about gender stereotyping and
media in the questionnaires. However, the author also added some questions about
the state situation of gender equality movements in Vietnam to raise a base
knowledge in this field. The full script of the interview is shown in Appendix 3.
3.6. Method of Data Analysis
3.6.1. Content analysis
Since content analysis is typically performed with the aim of providing a
summary of an occurrence in the population linked to the message or symbol
(Neuman, 2011), the data analysis approach employed is statistically descriptive.
Descriptive statistics are used to calculate frequencies, means, and averages in
 38

accordance with content analysis of gender stereotyping in television

advertisements. All the advertisements observed by the researcher were
categorized by the purpose of the products, then turned into the dimensions that
the researcher established.
The images and content of messages related to gender and gender stereotypes
were described in detail according to the criteria of classification. The author also
measured the frequency of appearance through the number of ads. A worked
example of the data analysis of one advertisement is provided in Appendix 4.
The results of the content analysis were presented in the format of charts and
descriptions.
3.6.2. Questionnaires and interviews
Thematic analysis was used to analyze the questionnaire and interview
responses. The study used both qualitative and quantitative data method, however
the author did not use some of the available statistical software, such as SPSS or
STRATA.
There were three steps in conducting the questionnaire, including (1)
collecting responses from Google Forms, (2) dividing the responses into male
participants and female participants, and (3) measuring the responses against the
core questions. The results of the questionnaire were presented in the format of
tables.
3.7. Ethical Considerations
For this study, the researcher had to consider several kinds of ethical
problems. The research involved two stages of data collection, in the second stage,
the study’s purpose, data collection process, and participants’ right to
confidentiality and anonymity were all disclosed at the outset. All the information
gathered during the course of this dissertation was used only for the purposes of
the dissertation and will be kept strictly confidential. The researcher served as the
study's custodian, taking appropriate steps to ensure that all data (hard copy and
electronic) was securely stored. The anonymized data were exchanged with
supervisors and was first used by a small group of researchers, along with the
 39

observations that contributed to this study. Overall, the data will be stored for no
longer than is required and will only be used for research purposes as part of this
study and possible academic publications.
3.8. Problems and Limitations
Several difficulties and obstacles were faced by the researcher when carrying
out studies for this dissertation.
The first challenge was that advertisements’ metrics could be missed and the
analysis may be biased due to the content analysis being performed by the
researcher individually. The study used the descriptive methods under the
interpretivism paradigm, all the content analyses were performed by text with the
researcher’s personal observations. However, the study used a combination of
content analysis and questionnaires of the public’s perception, this allowed the
author to verify the results of the analysis.
The second difficulty was recruiting a sufficient number of survey
participants. Although I posted the survey on my personal social platforms, in
related groups and sent newsletters through the mailbox of a domestic violence
organization, the number of people accessing it is limited. The potential of the
research is limited, and the size of this study is not large, so the author did not
have a larger enough platform to reach more people. Another problem of limited
access was that the number of participants by gender was hard to keep equal.
However, the questionnaire focused on the general public’s opinion instead of
analysis by gender, so the unbalanced demographics are still acceptable.
Another flaw in the methodology was the researcher’s use of an interpretivist
approach, which was dictated by the purpose and goals of the study. In this way,
the project’s conclusions and accomplishments can be considered biased, since
the relations between the various variables were calculated not on the basis of
scientific data, but on the basis of the researcher’s observational and judgmental
abilities in a specific academic area.
 40

3.9. Conclusion
This chapter has documented the qualitative and quantitative approach to
data collection that has been adopted in this dissertation. A case study
methodology was employed in order to gain a richer and more complex
understanding of gender stereotyping in Vietnamese television advertisements.
This involved two data collection stages and a combination of descriptive and
comparative methods.
There was a total of 315 advertisements observed as a case study of this
dissertation. The research was carried out through a content analysis in the first
stage. For the second stage, 200 participants were involved in the questionnaire
survey for the public research. The dissertation’s main findings were analyzed
using descriptive statistics and thematic analysis and will be addressed in depth
in the following sections.
 41

Chapter 4: Findings
This chapter presents an analysis of the data collected from the television
advertisements in 3 months from December 2020 to February 2021 and a survey
about awareness of gender stereotypes on media taken online. Data was collected
in two stages: the first stage (analyzing data collected from the video commercials
on VTV1) helped identify the stereotypes used in advertisements. The second
stage (the online survey and interview) focused on the public’s definition of the
elements that present gender stereotypes to clarify gender stereotypes from the
social perspective. Therefore, the study captures rich data on media portrayals of
genders in order to provide insight into gender stereotyping and the public’s
reflections on media representations of male and female.
4.1. Case study: Gender stereotyping in television commercials on
VTV1 - Vietnam Television
This research aims to gain a holistic understanding of the gender stereotypes
used in television advertisements on VTV1. Accordingly, the study will present
broader view of media portrayals of gender.
4.1.1. Overview of VTV
VTV stands for Vietnam Television and is the national television broadcaster
in Vietnam under the direction of the government of Vietnam. The station is
tasked with “propagating the view of the Party, the policies and laws of the
government, contributing to education, raising the awareness, and serving the
spiritual life of the people”.
Going through a long development process from its inception to present,
VTV has nine main channels, each of them playing a different role. Table 1 offers
a summary of each channel.
News and current affairs channel available 24/7. Important
national affairs and parliament sessions are also shown live on
VTV1
the channel. Music and film are the only areas that largely
deviate from its format. It is one of seven must-carry national
 42

channels in Vietnam, and both satellite and cable providers must

carry it free of charge.
Science and education channel; broadcast 24/7. TV series from
VTV2
China and South Korea are also broadcast on the channel.
Entertainment channel, broadcast 24/7. This channel is the first
VTV3
in the VTV network to transmit in High Definition.
A foreign station, broadcasts a best-of bundle of programming
VTV4 from VTV's domestic networks to Vietnamese around the globe,
now available at Taiwan CHT MOD Channel 215.
VTV5 Ethnic language channel, broadcast 24/7.
Sports shows and activities are shown 24/7 on a youth channel
VTV6
that serves an audience of 18–34 years old.
National educational television station, broadcast from 06:00 to
VTV7
24:00.
Dedicated station broadcasting 24/7 in the Central and Central
VTV8
Highlands of Vietnam.
A specialized channel for viewers in Vietnam's southern
VTV9
province.
Table 1. Information of VTV Channels
Besides that, VTV also owns 50 paid - television channels on VTVCab, K+
and SCTV.
These days, the ratio of people who watch TV is not as high as in the past
due to the development of the internet and online broadcasting system. However,
in comparison to other countries in the region, the market share of people who
watch TV remains exceptionally higher (Nguyen Thi Hien, 2020). In which,
VTV1 with the main role as the channel that delivers news has extremely high
ratings. Especially in the prime time, from 18:00 to 20:00, which includes
Vietnam Today, 24h Movement and News. In the age of the “information
explosion” and fake news, the demand for rapid and highly accurate news on
mainstream media has led people to channels such as VTV1. Because of the
 43

undeniable popularity of VTV1, advertisements in the prime time also have an

immense impact on viewers.
From December 2020 to February 2021, there are two of the biggest holidays
in the year to Vietnamese people: New Year and Lunar New Year. In this time of
year, the corporations that belong to the FMCG category will continuously release
new advertisements to attract customers and also boost the need for shopping.
Since these holidays are centered around human relationships, these corporations
will focus on advertisements that express this relationship. Therefore, by
researching advertisements in this period, conclusions about gender stereotyping
by the media can be drawn out unbiased.
4.1.2. Gender stereotyping in television advertisements on VTV1
Commercial video advertisement is a popular form of marketing that helps
bring product information to the public quickly. These advertisements influence
consumers’ perceptions, emotions and behaviors, thereby stimulating product
consumption. In this study, commercial advertisements will be sorted by
categories based on product properties as follows: Food & Beverage includes
confectionery, soft drinks, milk, ready-to-eat packaged foods, raw foods, and
spices; Pharmaceutical products includes medicines, functional drugs and
nutritional products (i.e., energy drinks); Cosmetics includes body care products
such as shampoo, lotion, etc. and chemicals such as washing powder, toothpaste,
etc.; Household appliances and home-life appliances include kitchen tools,
electronic devices and home furniture; High-tech industry includes cars,
motorbikes, mobile phones, etc.; Construction materials include construction iron
and steel, paving stone, etc.; Real estate; Financial services; and other service and
product categories, including financial services, shopping services, human
services (tourism, convalescence, medical examination), telecommunications
services, transportation services, and child care products. Gender stereotyping is
exploited in three ways including (1) the character’s position by gender, (2) the
character’s behavior and role by gender, and (3) the character's occupation by
gender.
 44

4.1.2.1. Gender stereotyping based on the character’s position

Commercial advertisements are presented in the form of a short film with a
script content accompanying the media messages. Hence, the division between
protagonist and supporting characters is extremely important. Character by gender
is analyzed based on the correlation of gender and the main or supporting role in
the advertisement.
Of a total of 315 observed advertisements, 50 of them that did not include
any person or the gender could not be identified, the ratio of the advertisements
where the main role is male is higher than female and vice versa when it comes
to supporting characters.

Figure 3. Character’s positions by gender (%)

In particular, male characters account for 37% more main roles than that of
females by 10%. Meanwhile, in the supporting characters group, female
characters accounted for 18,1%, 7% higher than advertisements with male
supporting characters.
a) Food and beverage commercials
The ratio also fluctuates by different industries. In the food and beverage
commercials, the number of advertisements with male protagonists and female
protagonists is rather equal, 29 and 30 respectively. However, the female
protagonist is not the character that directly enjoys the product but rather this is
elucidated by the male character. Most of the advertisements use images of family
 45

to further enhance the attraction, but in those advertisements, female protagonists

use the advertised product to serve their family.

Figure 4. Nam Ngu Fish Sauce TVC with the message “I’m here smiling
with delicious food to welcome you home”

Figure 5. Neptune Light TVC with message “From now on, mom can
safely cook delicious food for the whole family”
When it comes to milk for children, in 15 of these advertisements, 6 had boys
as the main character, 4 had girls as the main character and 5 included both boys
and girls.

Figure 6. Vinamilk TVC has a baby girl who also uses milk but the boy is
the central character
 46

Figure 7. Karo TVC, the female characters are hidden behind the brand’s
logo
By using female characters as the people who choose and use the product it
has slowly sent a message that only women have the responsibility to care for the
family. This has created prejudice and maintains gender stereotyping around the
role of women in the family. However, there are advertisements whereby women
directly benefit from the product.

Figure 8. C2 TVC, main female character drink tea to solve problem

In addition, there was an advertisement that used a male image as an
alternative to a package of noodles which is an example of objectifying men. Just
like female reification, male objectification is an image that uses human sexuality
to stimulate attention.

Figure 9. Noodles Jomo TVC with male image that used as an alternative
to a package of noodles
 47

b) Pharmaceutical commercials
Nevertheless, in the pharmaceutical commercials, this ratio has a certain
difference.

Figure 10. Gender of main character in pharmaceutical advertisements

(Number)
Of 27/63 advertisements the main character was male and of 17/63 the main
character was female. If products for only females are not included, most of the
male characters who needed treatment in the rest of the advertisement received
care from female characters. Although the one who needs treatment is a man there
is always a female character to care for them or to introduce the product. This
continues to contribute to the already serious problem of gender stereotyping of
women.

Figure 11. Abipolis Throat Spray with message “mommy don’t worry”
In advertisements on dietary supplements for men or women, the sexual
instinct is used repeatedly to attract the attention of viewers. However, the
repetition of women’s images in this category denigrates the value of women and
 48

turns them into sexual targets. This is a kind of gender stereotyping in which
women are only known by their beauty.

Figure 12. RiTANA Skin whitening pills TVC, the image of a woman
wearing a bikini and men looking at her
c) Cosmetic and chemical products commercials
In the cosmetic and chemical products commercials, the ratio between male
and female is relatively equal as 14 of them are about the female main characters
and 11 are about male characters. Despite this equality, images of women whose
main responsibility is to only care for the family are widely used again.
The roles of male and female characters in beauty products’ advertisements
are also markedly different. The message in the advertisements of women’s
products focuses on external beauty, while in advertisements for men’s products,
it focuses on other values such as “awakening the boss in you” (Perfume X-men
for boss) or “Successful scent, masculine quality” (Romano Shampoo). In
addition, women appear in advertisements for men’s products with the behavior
of being attracted and conquered by the “masculine quality” presented.

Figure 13. Tay Thi Showel Gel TVC with image of a woman walking on
the street followed by men
 49

Figure 14. Romano Shampoo TVC with message “Successful scent,

masculine quality”

Figure 15. X-men for Boss and Romano TVC in which women are
attracted by the man’s quality
The above advertisements have positive elements when presenting men like
success and leadership, but at the same time, they also put the men’s personality
into the stereotype of “typical masculinity”. The image of women being
conquered by the main male character in the end of these advertisements also
reduces the value of women as they become one of the after effects of men’s
success.
d) Hi-tech products commercials
Similarly, the ratio between the gender of the main character in
advertisements of hi-tech products is equal with 8/34 of including female
characters and 10/34 having male main characters, 3/4 have both male and female
characters and 13/34 did not include a character at all. However, in the supporting
character line, there is only one character who is male and seven advertisements
have a female sub-character. Advertisements with a female as a sub-character
normally depict them as wife or girlfriend of the male character in auto-mobile
advertisements.
 50

Figure 16. Honda City TVC describes the life of main male character with
a woman supporting him in daily life

Figure 17. Kia Sorento TVC with main male character is a leader and a
female character is his wife who takes care of their children
Besides these advertisements, in some of the commercials for technology
products, women are also portrayed as more proactive.

Figure 18. Ford Ranger Wildtrak TVC with image of main female
character climbing mountains and driving with her friends, and they look
physically strong
e) Household appliances commercials
In the case of household appliances, there are 7/21 with both male and female
characters, five with male characters and only one including female characters
only. Although these commercials use family images, they do not carry gender
stereotyping. The images of sharing in household chores between the male and
female characters is always included.
 51

Figure 19. Cuckoo Electric Cooker TVC with image of two main
characters cooking together
In particular, in the advertisement of Bluestone brand, the message used is
very new and challenging to gender stereotypes. The main male characters in the
commercial play the roles of caring, cooking and ironing clothes for his child.
Each image is accompanied by a message that goes against the old social norms
imposed on men and ends with the message “Housework is sharing”.

Figure 20. Bluestone TVC with the question “Girly” men or men know
sharing?
f) Construction materials commercials
For the building materials commercials, gender stereotypes can be observed
in the frequency of advertisements with female characters. Although there are
only 14 advertisements in total, half of them used men as the main character, while
only 1 had a female protagonist, and two had both male and female characters as
main characters. The remaining four advertisements include no main characters.
The building materials industry has always been considered as an industry
for men, and the lack of the appearance of women in the advertisements in this
industry further contributes to reinforcing the stereotype that women are not
suitable for manual work.
g) Other services commercials
 52

In other services commercials, overall, the proportion of men as protagonists

is higher than that of women. Out of 38 advertisements, there are 21/38
advertisements featuring male and female protagonists, 9/38 advertisements
featuring male protagonists, and 5/38 advertisements featuring female
protagonists. This is particularly true for baby care products, although there is
only 1 advertisement, the main characters in this advertisement are both male and
female.

Figure 21. Bobby Diaper TVC with image of both father and mother
playing with the child
h) Real estate commercials
Finally, the real estate commercials had only 11 advertisements. There were
up to 9 advertisements without people, the remaining 3 advertisements included
1 ad with a female protagonist and 2 ads with both male and female main
characters.
During the research, the researcher also found that the number of families
with male children is much more than the number of families with girls in
promotional videos with family images.

Figure 22. Proportion of families in the ads with boys and girls (%)
 53

4.1.2.2. Gender stereotyping based on the character’s behavior and role

After observing the advertisements as mentioned above, the researcher
noticed that gender stereotyping is reflected in the activities of male and female
characters. The behavior of male and female characters in the advertisement is
remarkably different based on the roles of the characters. Therefore, this study
analyzes the role of characters in the context of family activities and social
activities.
a) The character’s behavior and role in house-works
Family activities analyzed in the study include caregiving and basic care and
maintenance tasks for the family. The main jobs that can be observed are taking
care of family members, cooking, washing, shopping and cleaning the house. For
these advertisements, the appearance of female characters is higher than that of
males. To compare the roles of family characters, it can be easily seen that out of
four advertisements featuring housework, three have male characters, and only
one of these has female characters. Whereas most of the homemaker’s activities
in the family are associated with women.
Of the 31 advertisements with caregiving activities, 24 have a woman
performing this behavior, four ads have men, and three ads have both male and
female characters involved in taking care of the family. Specifically, the image of
women appears not only with the role of taking care of children but also taking
care of her husband.

Figure 23. Skin Bibi TVC with message “Safe for children, mother rest
assured”
 54

Figure 24. Thai Duong Ginger Oil TVC, image of mother taking care of
children, wife massaging her husband’s back

Figure 25. Prospan Cough Medicine TVC, 1 of 3 ads with male caregivers
Even in the commercial for the Ford Everest car, although the female
character focuses on working out, there is still an image in which she plays the
role of a caregiver for the family.

Figure 26. Ford Everest car TVC, the main female character prepares food
for the family
Besides that, advertisements with family activities that involve cooking
clearly show gender prejudice in the division of roles in the family. In 25
commercials featuring cooking, there are 21 in which a female character cooks,
only 3 where the cooking is done by men, and 1 has both men and women cooking
together. However, in the advertisements of Thuan Phat Fish Sauce, where the
male character did not know how to handle the dish when it was bland, the female
character appeared and offered a solution to use fish sauce.
 55

Figure 27. Thuan Phat Fish Sauce TVC, father did not know how to handle
the dish when it was bland
These advertisements simultaneously show two kinds of gender stereotypes:
(1) men are not suitable for cooking and (2) cooking jobs are more suitable for
women.
Another family activity is doing laundry. Although only 5 advertisements
featured laundry, 4 of them featured women washing clothes, 1 ad featured both
men and women, and none of the advertisements featured men doing this. In
addition, among cleaning-related activities such as washing dishes and cleaning
the house, these two activities only appear in 2 advertisements for dishwashing
liquid, 1 spray scent diffuser and 1 hand-care cream ad. However, all four
advertisements above have only female characters who perform these acts. It is
important to mention that the messages coming with the product always assume
these roles are for women only. For example, an advertisement for Sunlight
dishwashing liquid has the message “For hands that are always caring and
concerned” with the image of a female character washing dishes and taking care
of children or advertising Valentine’s cracked heel and hand cream with the main
content that people who often use detergent are mostly women.

Figure 28. The Max Kleen Laundry Detergent TVC conveys the message
“Strong and gentle like a mother” that indirectly links laundry with women
 56

In the advertisement for Kaori spray scent diffuser, the advertiser also uses
the image of a female character wearing a bikini next to the product. This is an
abuse of a woman’s image when advertisers take the advantage of sexual instincts
to attract viewers.

Figure 29. Kaori spray scent diffuser TVC using women wearing bikini
And for the last, shopping behavior appears in 7 advertisements in total. In
which, 5 advertisements have women performing this behavior with 3
advertisements for clothes shopping, 2 advertisements for grocery shopping; 1 ad
for men ordering technology products online and 1 ad for both men and women
to go shopping together in a shopping mall. In the Rossi heater, although the main
female character is described as an active person, her behavior is all related to
personal needs including shopping and beauty.

Figure 30. Rossi heater TVC with image of main female character relaxing
with a calendar reminding her to go shopping and to the hairdresser
b) The character’s behavior and role in social activities
In contrast to advertisements with family activities, in advertisements with
social activities, the frequency of appearance of male characters is more than
female characters. Out of the 46 advertisements, 24 featured male protagonists
performing social activities, but only 11 featured female protagonists who were
socially active while 11 featured both male and female characters.
 57

The difference in the role in society between male and female characters is
very obvious. While 15/17 advertisements featured a man as a leader, 10/15
advertisements featured a female protagonist as an employee. Only 1/17 of the
advertisements featured a female as a leader, and only 1/15 of the advertisements
featured a male protagonist as an employee. The ad for men’s perfume X-men for
boss also emphasizes the leadership role of the male character with the message
“awakening the boss inside you”.

Figure 31. X-men for boss TVC with the message “awakening the boss
inside you”
In addition, 3/4 of advertisements with male characters present the male lead
as a successful person and only 1/4 advertisements show this with female
characters.
In commercials with social activities, male characters appear to be stronger,
more adventurous, and more active in sports than women. In 6 advertisements that
show a strong and adventurous personality, 4 are associated with male images and
only 2 have female images.

Figure 32. Nestle Milk TVC with message “For a strong generation” has a
main male character
 58

Of 14 advertisements featuring sports activities, there is a male protagonist

in 5 advertisements, 3 advertisements have only female characters, and 5
advertisements have both male and female characters participating in sports. In
particular, the Colgate toothpaste ad also builds the image of a girl participating
in soccer and challenging other boys to play.

Figure 33. Colgate Toothpaste TVC with message that females can play
football too
Although the appearance of men is slightly higher than that of women in
advertisements with sports activities, the participation of women with a positive
status shows that the stereotype of “women are not good at sports” is being
countered albeit gradually.
Besides that, there are 4 advertisements that deal with intelligent behavior
and all 4 of these advertisements have male characters. These are milk
advertisements that develop children’s intelligence and the main characters in the
advertisements are all boys.
In general, the behavior and role of characters in advertising are significantly
different between men and women, especially in the division of activities between
the family and the society. Male characters appear more in the role of workers
than female characters, while female characters often appear in family activities.

Figure 34. Nhat Nhat activating blood pills TVC with women in a home
context and men in an office context
 59

4.1.2.3. Gender stereotyping based on the character’s occupation

Based on the occupational hierarchy in society, the researcher can determine
the position of the individual. Therefore, the study analyzes the occupations of
male and female characters in advertising to find out gender stereotypes from the
difference.
The occupations that appear most often in the advertisements are experts.
These characters appear in food advertisements (mostly in formula milk ads) to
pharmaceutical and cosmetic advertisements. In 20 advertisements having experts,
14 have male experts, 3 have female experts, and 3 have both male and female
experts. Another job with similar characteristics is doctor, 5/6 advertisements
have male doctors and only 1/6 advertisements have female doctors.
For 15 advertisements describing office workers, 1 has male employees, 10
have female employees, and 4 have both genders. In the same office-related job,
men appear to have a higher role than women.

Figure 35. Coffee Wake-up 247 TVC, office has both male and female
office workers but the boss is a man
In addition, although there is only one advertisement that mentioned the
work investor, the job is performed by a female character. At the same time, this
is also one of two female characters who played a leading role in the ads studied.

Figure 36. Aqua City TVC with a female character plays leader role
In eight advertisements that mention teachers, there is an equal number of
advertisements featuring male and female teachers. However, while female
 60

teachers only appear in the classroom and impart knowledge, there are
advertisements using male teachers as instructors in physical education.
For work that is related to cooking, cooking in the family is associated with
female characters more, but when the character in the advertisement works in a
restaurant or hotel, that character is male. 3/3 of the advertisements featured a
male chef character. Cooking in the family is considered an inevitable and unpaid
job, so it is counted as housework and is normally associated with the image of a
woman. Whereas being a chef in hotels and restaurants is a paid job and counts as
a profession, advertisers having associated this job with men.
In addition, there are some jobs that are less common, but the frequency of
appearance of men and women in these jobs also shows gender bias. There are
2/3 of the advertisements featuring both male and female characters as flight
attendants, one ad featured only female flight attendants, and 1/3 featured male
pilots. The number of advertisements mentioning factory workers is 6, there are 3
advertisements with male characters only, 1 ad with female characters only, and
2 advertisements with both male and female characters. The image of a farmer
appearing only once in a Chinsu chili sauce ad is animated with a female character.

Figure 37. Chinsu Chili Sauce TVC with female cartoon character working
on a farm
Contrary to heavy jobs that require strength, there is an equal appearance of
both men and women, 1/3 advertisements included a male engineer. In addition,
delivery jobs that have recently appeared in the job market are described in 3
advertisements with male characters. Advertisements that mentioned the retail
industry had 2/3 of advertisements with both genders, and 1/3 of advertisements
 61

with female characters. Finally, the actress/singer appearing in the 3

advertisements are all female characters.
In summary, advertisers are still affected by the gender division in labor
which makes video advertisements subject to gender stereotypes about
occupations between men and women.
4.2. Public awareness on media portrayals of women and men
4.2.1. Questionnaire results
The questionnaire method revealed eight patterns, each with several
categories. These themes are grouped into four domains that connect them based
on what they are discussing - (1) media portrayals, (2) role and impact of the
media, (3) comments on television video advertisements, and (4) ways to change.
The survey has collected 206 responses with 154 valid answers from watching
TV commercials, these participants include 97 women and 57 men.
4.2.1.1. Media portrayals
Although there is a difference in the number of response samples of the two
genders, when calculating proportionally, the media portrayals of both men and
women are shown to have a certain agreement between male and female
participants. This is evidence that these gender stereotypes are an existential
problem that both genders recognize.
Female Male
Category Both (%)
participants (%) participants (%)
Role and behaviors of women in advertisements
Cooking/house-working 89,7 80,7 86,4
Shopping 75,3 66,7 72,1
Laundry 69,1 52,6 63
Officer 49,5 59,6 53,2
Investor 8,2 10,5 9,1
Expert 13,4 10,5 12,3
Athletes* 1 0 0,6
 62

Actress* 0 7 2,6
Positive portrayals of women in advertisements
Independent 85,6 63,2 77,3
Strong 55,7 45,6 51,9
Confident 84,5 68,4 78,6
Leadership 39,2 45,6 41,6
Successful 64,9 42,1 56,5
Decisive 52,6 38,6 47,4
Be themselves* 0 1,8 0,6
Beautiful* 0 1,8 0,6
Negative portrayals of women in advertisements
Weak 68 54,4 63
Shopping Addicted 69,1 59,6 65,6
Objectified/Sexualized 29,9 36,8 32,5
Housewife* 11,3 8,8 10,4
Jealousy* 1 1,8 1,3
*: Additional factors beyond the options available in the survey
Table 2. Themes and Categories of Media Portrayals of Women by Female
and Male participants (%)
The table 2 of media portrayals of women include three themes - role and
behaviors of women in advertisements, positive portrayals of women and negative
portrayals of women. The negative and positive portrayals of women in the media
were coded based on a literature review and case study observed by this study of
whether these characteristics were generally a “good” or “bad” quality for women.
The theme “role and behaviors of women in advertisements” featured 6
different jobs that had been associated with women in commercials that
participants observed. The first three jobs related to housework are seen at a very
high rate. In which, cooking accounted for 86,4%, laundry accounted for 63%
and shopping accounted for 72,1%. It can be seen that the frequency of women
appearing in housework is high enough for the audience to recall these images
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when it comes to TV commercials. Although not doing housework, the image of

women working as office workers in television commercials was mentioned quite
a lot by 49,5% of female participants and 59,6% of male participants. However,
the percentage of the public referring to the image of women in both investment
and specialist jobs is significantly low. Expert work was mentioned only in 12,3%
of the answers and investors only accounted for 9,1%. In addition, among female
respondents, 1 person mentioned athlete, and 4 male respondents (7,0%)
mentioned actress.
The theme of positive portrayals of women included 6 different
characteristics cited as ways that women are positively portrayed in the media.
Positive representations of women mentioned were positive traits. In which, the
confident trait was the most mentioned factor with 78,6% of the total responses
(84,5% from female participants and 68,4% from male participants).
Independence is also mentioned with approximately 77,3% of the total responses.
Other positive traits accounted for a rather high rate (successful [56,5%], strong
[51,9%], decisive [47,4%], and leadership [41,6%]). However, the leadership
trait has a difference between male and female answers. Female participants only
accounted for 39,2% while 45,6% of male participants agreed. In addition, among
male respondents, 1,8% of the answers mentioned “be themselves” and 1,8%
mentioned “beautiful”. According to previous studies, beauty is not a positive
trait when it is mentioned in video advertisements. Women should not only be
known for their beauty but also for other values. This is an example of the media
orientating how people think of women by their body values only.
Negative portrayals of women were mentioned a lot when the researcher
reviewed the case study. In this survey, I only mentioned three negative traits
including weak, shopping addicted, and objectification/sexualization. The first
two traits cover high percentages of total answers with 63,0% belonging to weak
and 65,6% belonging to shopping addicted. The objectification or
sexualization feature only accounted for 32,5% of total responses, specifically
29,9% of the female participants’ responses and 36,8% of male participants.
 64

Recently, there has been a decline in the number of advertisements containing

women being objectified and sexualized, whereby participants are less likely to
see such images. In addition, although the housework was not mentioned in the
available answers, it was mentioned by a certain number of participants with 11,3%
of the answers coming from the female participants and 8,8% from male
participants. It can be seen that the public agrees that housewives are a negative
portrayal of women. Another characteristic mentioned by participants was
jealousy with 1,0% of answers from female participants and 1,8% of answers
from male participants. In fact, the jealousy trait was not mentioned in the ads the
author observed. However, the audience’s mention of this characteristic shows
that there is an imposition of this negative personality on the image of women in
the media.
After analyzing the case study, I found that the characteristics of men are
mostly positive, so I focused on learning about media portrayals of men and
stereotypes about men that exist in advertisements from the public’s perspective.
Female Male
Category Both (%)
participants (%) participants (%)
Role and behaviors of men in advertisements
Being cooked for
63,9 38,6 54,5

Strong 63,9 50,9 59,1

Leadership 72,2 66,7 70,1
Proactive in love affairs 37,1 29,8 34,4
Expert 53,6 45,6 50,6
Investor* 0 1,8 0,6
Paternalistic* 0 7 2,6
Getting sick* 0 1,8 0,6
Cooking* 0 1,8 0,6
Stereotypes of men in advertisements
Being masculine 45,4 40,4 43,5
 65

Not good at cooking 73,2 78,9 75,3

Physically strong* 1 0 0,6
Successful* 2,1 1,8 1,9
Strong* 3,1 0 1,9
*: Additional factors beyond the options available in the survey
Table 3. Themes and Categories of Media Portrayals of Men by Female
and Male participants (%)
The role and behavior of men in commercials mostly have positive
characteristics such as leadership, proactive in love affairs, expert and strong.
Most participants confirmed these traits to be present a lot in male characters.
Among these characteristics, the leadership role had the highest approval rate
with 70,1% of the total answers, and the expert role accounted for 50,6%. Other
characteristics such as strong covered 59,1%, the being cooked for trait
accounted for 54,5%. Finally, the percentage of the proactive in love affairs trait
was only 34,4% of the total responses. In addition, male participants added several
factors that they assessed as male roles and behaviors represented in the
advertisements including paternalistic (7,0%), getting sick (1,8%), cooking
(1,8%), and investor (1,8%).
The theme of stereotypes of men in advertisements only gave two available
answers including being masculine and not good at cooking. The trait of not good
at cooking covers up to 75,3% of the total answers while the being masculine
trait was only 43,5%. However, female participants added three more categories
which were physically strong (1%), successful (2,1%) and strong (3,1%). Male
participants also added a successful category and these were 1,8% of the answers.
These added characteristics are considered to be positive traits, however a part of
the audience said that these are stereotypical factors imposed on men.
4.2.1.2. Role and impact of the media
This domain relates to the ways the public described how the media functions
and the impact of it on society in general. All the categories were collected from
the participants’ answers.
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Participants
Category
N %
Role and impact of the media
Social orientation 35 22,7
Important 31 20,1
Transmission of Information 20 13,0
Positive (impact) 19 12,3
Influential 17 11,0
Wide coverage/Diffuse 17 11,0
Shaping society 12 7,8
Powerful 8 5,2
Negative (impact) 8 5,2
Shaping prejudices/stereotypes 6 3,9
Acute 4 2,6
Changing the perception of viewers 4 2,6
Manipulating 3 1,9
Table 4. Themes and Categories of Role and Impact of the Media
The role and impact of the media includes 13 categories that describe what
the media’s role is within society, and how it functions. Most of the participants
(22,7%) described media as a social orientation tool. Participants (20,1%) also
indicated that the media has an important role within society. 13% of participants
described the role of media in society as the transmission of information. While
12,3% of participants agreed that media has positive impacts on society, 5,2%
believed media has a negative influence. Besides that, some participants
described media as being influential (11%), powerful (5,2%), and acute (2,6%).
Participants (11%) also commented on the wide coverage and diffuse of the
media. Although covering only a small percentage, 7.8% of participants said that
the media was shaping society and manipulating (1,9%) the public. Participants
(2,6%) described the media as changing the perception of viewers as well.
 67

Notably, 3,9% of participants said that the media shapes prejudices and
stereotypes.
4.2.1.3. Comments on television video advertisements
The third domain within the analysis included participant’s comments on
television video advertisements. The answers were oriented toward gender
stereotyping and media portrayals of men and women in commercials.

Participants
Category
N %
Comments on television video advertisements
There has been a change in the roles of men
82 53,2
and women
Lack of portrayal of women in leadership roles 69 44,8
Narrow definition of women 58 37,7
Strengthen the power of men 40 26
Provide an incomplete definition of both men
1 0,6
and women*
“Traditional” masculine and femininity* 1 0,6
Modern and realistic* 1 0,6
Young and equal* 1 0,6
Annoying* 1 0,6
Creative* 1 0,6
*: Additional factors beyond the options available in the survey
Table 5. Themes and Categories of Role and Impact of the Media
Although gender stereotypes are perceived to still exist in advertisements
today, there is no denying that certain changes have taken place. Most participants
(53,2%) agreed that there has been a change in the roles of men and women.
44,8% of participants agree that the current ads still lack portrayals of women
in leadership roles. With the opinion that the media has a narrow definition of
women, the proportion of participants agreeing was about 37,7%. Only 26% of
participants said that the media strengthen the power of men. In addition, 6
 68

additional comments were added that further revealed the public’s view of
television advertisements. On the subject of gender, television advertisements are
said to provide an incomplete definition of both men and women. They still have
the expectation of “traditional” masculinity and femininity despite a reduction in
gender stereotypes. The ads were referred to as modern and realistic, young and
equal, annoying and creative.
4.2.1.4. Ways to change
The final domain included the participants’ agreement about what they
would do to limit gender stereotyping in advertisements.

Participants
Category
N %
Ways to change
Creating new inspirational models 114 74
Reframing media messages 111 72,1

Changing the roles of men and women

46 29,9

Diversify the models and show the sharing and

companionship of both gender in all areas of
1 0,6
life*

Truly understand about gender stereotypes*

1 0,6

Changing messages in family-related

advertisements* 1 0,6

Continuity renewing*
1 0,6

Storytelling*
1 0,6
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Restrict “traditional” masculine and

1 0,6
femininity*
*: Additional factors beyond the options available in the survey
Table 6. Themes and Categories of Ways to Change
The ways chosen by most participants (74%) was creating new
inspirational models. Another solution chosen by the participants (72,1%) was
reframing media messages. In contrast to the previous two choices, there were
few participants (29,9%) in agreement with changing the roles of men and
women. In addition, 6 participants gave additional comments for change. One of
them said that advertisers should diversify the models and show the sharing and
companionship of both genders in all areas of life. Another participant said that
the marketer needs to truly understand gender stereotypes, thereby creating equal
content. One opinion focused on changing messages in family-related
advertisements. Participants also said that commercials need continuity renewal
and to try storytelling. The last opinion argued that it is necessary to restrict
“traditional” masculinity and femininity.
4.2.2. Personal interview results
The expert interview questions are similar to the questionnaire for the
general public to get a more specialized perspective on gender stereotypes and
possibilities for change to advertisers. Mrs. Vu Phuong Ly, program specialist
from UN Women has provided comments compiled by the author under four main
domains, including (1) media portrayals, (2) role and impact of the media, (3)
comments on television video advertisements, and (4) ways to change.
- About media portrayals:
When mentioning media portrayals of men and women, Mrs. Vu Phuong Ly
said that women in advertisements are associated with a soft personality, giving
up the position of head of the family to the husband, women also always appear
with beautiful appearance or stay in the family to take care of the children.
Messages in ads related to household chores are also associated with women, for
example, dishwashing ads had the message “for soft hands” and images of women.
 70

Regarding the male image, she said that men in advertising always appear
with strong personalities, being breadwinners, and making decisions.
- About role and impact of the media:
Commenting on the role of the media, she mentioned the importance of it
in promoting gender equality. She believes that old social standards are being
maintained continuously through communication channels. The media is
reinforcing the factors that hinder the promotion of gender equality. However, she
also said that there are many programs on social networking sites that encourage
men to participate in housework or have content that challenges gender
stereotypes.
- About television video commercials:
Mrs. Vu Phuong Ly commented that the advertisements contain stereotypes
because they are commercial products and are built on the views of the public in
general. This type of content influences the development of women, and
advertisements are reproducing traditional masculinity and femininity.
However, she also believes that current ads have changed in content like
Bluestone’s ads.
- About possibilities for change:
Mrs. Vu Phuong Ly thinks that the core of the problem is not really in the
promotional videos. She affirmed that in order to change gender stereotyped
media messages, it is necessary to change social standards. According to her,
although there is a provision banning advertisements that perpetuates gender
stereotypes in Vietnam advertising law, it does not have a clear sanctioning
mechanism. Thus, the government and media agencies need to have a clearer
sanctioning mechanism for gender-biased videos and need to train relevant teams
about gender stereotypes. Thus, the new ads limit gender-biased images
4.4. Chapter review
From our findings, the stereotypes used in television advertisements have
been discovered using three themes (1) the character’s position by gender, (2) the
character’s behavior and role by gender, and (3) the character’s occupation by
 71

gender. The study shows that gender stereotypes persist in TV commercials. The
issues of positions between men and women in a family context and society
context such as homemaker, leader, expert, etc. or issues of behaviors of male and
female characters do not seem to have changed much compared to previous
studies. These advertisements still represent “traditional” masculinity and
femininity. The survey also showed agreement with the results obtained in the
case study. However, although not many, it is still undeniable that there were
changes in the media messages of some brands selling family-related products.
These are positive signs showing movement on the role of gender equality and the
response to the public from brands.
Overall, the case study and the survey have contributed to understanding
more about gender stereotypes that still appear in television commercials, and
some opinions in developing a gender-sensitive media environment. Further
discussions of the meanings of results will be provided in the next chapter.
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Chapter 5: Discussion
The purpose of this discussion is to compare the study findings to theory,
some of which has been examined in the literature review. This study is interested
in gender stereotyping in television commercials and the public’s awareness of it.
This chapter begins by discussing the gender stereotyping analyzed in chapter 4,
then argues about the public perception of gender stereotyping in commercials.
Finally, the chapter describes the possible applications of the findings.
5.1. Interpretations
5.1.1. Comments on case study content analysis
In general, gender stereotypes are still quite evident in commercials. Gender
stereotyping is expressed through characters, images, content and slogans used in
advertisements. This content mostly divides labor by gender through traditional
masculinity and femininity. Research results show that women are described as
caregivers and appear more in family activities, while men are described as strong,
active, and more appropriate for leading roles. They also appear more in social
activities. However, alongside ads with gender stereotypes, there have been ads
that challenge old social norms such as Bluestone’s commercials. According to
Robert Merton’s functional theory, commercials have not only the manifest
function of spreading information, but also a latent function of educating viewers.
As a result, each message sent to the audience will perpetuate and enhance gender
preconceptions in society, while simultaneously generating new ideas to
challenge established standards.
5.1.1.1. Gender stereotyping based on the character’s position
According to research results, the percentage of male main characters
appearing is 10% higher than female main characters while the percentage of
supporting female characters is 7% higher than supporting male characters.
Normally, the main character is the character that leaves an impression on the
audience and plays a key role in the video. Thus, the above result means that the
male protagonist has a more decisive role than the female character. This search
result is fully consistent with the conclusion that men are the ones who deliver the
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key message in a commercial (Eumham and Mak, 1999) . In addition, the use of
multiple male protagonists and multiple supporting female characters will create
an implicit truth that men have a more important role than women, contributing
to reinforcing the stereotype that men are more suitable to dominant positions than
women.
When compared with Minh’s research (2011), gender bias expressed through
character position is still an issue that needs to be solved. Her research also
concluded that male main characters appear more than the female lead characters
in commercials, whereas the supporting female characters appear more than
supporting male characters.
Considering each product category, the food and beverage commercials have
the same number of female leads in advertising compared to male leads. The
number of ads with female leads is only one more than ads with male leads.
Meanwhile, the pharmaceutical advertisements have a higher number of ads with
male leads than ads with female leads out of 10 ads. When it comes to cosmetic
and chemical product commercials, the number of ads with female leads is more
than male leads by three ads. There are two more male leads in the high-tech
commercials than female leads. Household appliance commercials have a higher
number of ads with both male and female leads than ads with only male or female
leads. The building materials industry has 14 ads, but half of the ads use male lead
characters, only one ad uses a female main character. With regard to real estate
commercials, although most ads do not have characters, there is 1 ad with a female
lead and no ads with a male lead. Finally, the ads of other services and products
have the same number of advertisements with male and female leads.
Brands use advertisements with male or female leads depending on the
gender division of labor for their products. Male protagonists appeared a lot in the
pharmaceutical, high-tech, and building materials commercials, while female
protagonists appeared a lot in the food and cosmetic and chemical products
commercials. In addition, the results also pointed out the diversity of characters
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in advertisements when there are ads using both male and female protagonists or
an equal number of male and female leads.
The supporting character line that had a higher percentage of supporting
women than men maintained the stereotype that women are more suitable for
supporting roles. In commercials, supporting female characters have always been
described as caregivers, especially in the pharmaceutical industry with a high
number of advertisements featuring male leads, which also use supporting female
characters to take care of main male characters.
In addition, the proportion of families in the commercials having boys is 27,3%
higher than that of girls. A report from the General Statistics Office of Vietnam
showed that the sex index at birth in 2019 was 111.5 boys/100 girls. Repetition of
advertisements with male children in a family perpetuates the perception of son
preference in Vietnamese families. However, the proportion of family images
with both boys and girls in the ads is quite high, accounting for 33,3%. The
continuous maintenance of such images can help to form the concept of gender
balance at birth in families.
5.1.1.2. Gender stereotyping based on the character’s behavior and role
According to the old standard of Vietnamese society, the role of women is
always related to taking care of the family. Among the observed advertisements,
the female characters’ range of activities in the family context is larger than that
of the male characters. The images of mothers taking care of children or wives
taking care of their husbands are repeated a lot in advertisements just to emphasize
the “divine function” that society places on women. In fact, taking care of family
members should be a job for both men and women. Commercials that constantly
emphasize these images reinforce gender stereotypes about women’s role of being
caring and submissive to men. However, there are now advertisements that feature
men as caregivers in the family. Although the number of ads with such content is
not much, it is also a form of content that shows a change in gender roles in
advertisements.
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In contrast, the number of ads with male protagonists who are active in
society is more than that of female protagonists 11 ads. The operating background
of the male protagonists was diverse and included workplaces, schools, sports
fields, factories or construction sites. In these ads, the male protagonists were
usually strong, liked to take on challenges or took on a leadership role, while there
were more ads with female characters as employees. These positive traits, in fact,
reinforce notions of traditional masculinity. This subconsciously creates social
pressure on men.
However, the main female characters’ behavior and role were also extended
beyond family activities. In some commercials, the female character participates
in sports, driving, and performing adventurous activities such as mountain
climbing. In contrast, the male character also participates in family activities
skillfully.
5.1.1.3. Gender stereotyping based on the character’s occupation
Through analyzing the occupations of the characters in the advertisements,
it shows that male characters often take on jobs that require intelligence and stay
at higher positions than female characters. Male characters often play the role of
leaders, researchers, doctors, engineers while female characters take on the
positions of office workers or performers. In particular, there is a paradox that the
image of female characters is associated with the family kitchen, but male
characters are in charge of the kitchen at restaurants and hotels. This illustrates
the stereotype that only men are suitable for certain jobs in society or at being the
breadwinners.
The data from this study is similar to the study of Minh (2011) which shows
that the prejudice on the division of labor by gender persists. Gender stereotyping
creates a disadvantage for both men and women when they cannot pursue their
preferred occupation due to social prejudice.
However, the results of this study also showed some differences from
advertisements from ten years ago. In some current advertisements, the image of
female characters in charge of intellectually demanding jobs such as leaders,
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investors and researchers has appeared in a significant proportion. As can be seen,

advertisements are gradually changing to accommodate women’s power
movements, although these changes happen very slowly (Grau and Zotos, 2016).
In summary, the research results continue to show that there are no new
problems withmale and female images in commercials: women are often depicted
at home, with children and doing housework, while men are depicted outside the
home, engaged in activities (Eumham and Mak, 1999). However, research has
also shown that men actively participate in housework or that the kitchen work is
shared by both men and women in advertisements, which is different from the
conclusion that there is no sharing of housework by Minh (2011). At the same
time, the frequency of female characters appearing in ads with social activities
and holding high positions is also higher than previously reported.
5.1.2. Comments on survey results
Four domains, including (1) media portrayals, (2) role and impact of the
media, (3) comments on television video commercials, and (4) ways to change,
have helped the author raise a better understanding of the public’s views on gender
stereotypes. The results of a public questionnaire and expert interviews all show
that current advertising is reproducing and perpetuating gender stereotypes.
- About media portrayals:
Communication messages today are still built on old stereotypes. There was
a higher percentage of respondents who agreed that female images in commercials
are associated with behaviors and roles such as cooking or houseworking,
shopping, laundry, and office workers rather than investors and experts. As for
the behavior and role of male characters in advertisements, the percentage of the
audience that agreed that men were depicted in leadership roles, being cooked for,
strong, proactive in love affairs, and experts was very high.
As for female characters, the participants all agreed that the components that
make the image of women in advertisements become more positive included
independent, strong, confident, leadership, successful, decisive, and athleticism.
In which, the leadership factor is highly appreciated. This showed that the public’s
 77

desire for the representation of women in leadership roles is very high. In contrast,
factors that contribute to a negative female image include shopping addiction,
weakness, being objectified or sexualized, and doing housework. These negative
factors were all mentioned in present and previous studies.
The media’s representation of men is that they are not good at cooking, and
participants feel that this is a more negative gender stereotype than traditional
masculinity. In addition, participants described the stereotypes of men in
commercials as physically strong, successful and strong. For female characters,
these are seen as positive traits, but for male characters, these are the old norms.
The answers from the experts are similar to the answers from the public. This
survey result is not surprising at all, what interests the author is whether the public
really considers these factors as negative and what is a positive factor in building
gender image in advertisements.
- About role and impact of the media:
When talking about the role and influence of the media, the public and the
expert who participated in the survey all said that the media plays a very important
role in daily life. The media shapes social views, so it has the ability to recreate
and perpetuate gender stereotypes that have always existed. For the same reason,
the media has the potential to change social norms if the public is more aware of
these gender stereotypes.
- About television video commercials:
Commenting on current commercials, most participants agreed that there has
been a change in the roles of men and women. This has been proven through the
previous content analysis, however, this changing process takes place very slowly
when compared to the survey results of 10 years ago.
In addition to the factors cited by the author, the expert pointed out that
current advertisements are reinforcing traditional masculinity and femininity with
images of men and women built into the ads.
- About ways to change:
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Finally, the research explores the public reflections on ways for changing
gender stereotyping in commercials. Most participants agreed that advertisers
should create new inspirational models and reframe media messages, only a few
participants finding that changing the roles of men and women was necessary. In
addition, the participants provided some solutions related to changing gender
stereotypes. However, according to the expert, changing gender stereotypes in
advertising needs to start from changing public perception. In particular, the
government and the law play an extremely important role in eliminating gender
stereotypes in advertisements. Mrs. Vu Phuong Ly (personal interview, 2021)
suggested that there should be ministries and agencies to manage and penalize ads
that perpetuate gender stereotypes, and there should be more specific laws to
determine what is gender in advertisements at the same time. To achieve these
goals requires a process. Although the Vietnamese government has programs to
change public views on gender, to be able to completely change, Mrs. Vu Phuong
Ly said it will take more time.
5.2. Implications
This study provides two types of findings: gender stereotyping was shown
in television commercials and insights into the public’s perspectives of gender
stereotypes. These findings can be applied as reference for gender stereotypes
studies and changing gender equality commercials.
5.2.1. Monitor the changing process of gender stereotyping in
advertisements
The results of this study can contribute to research on gender stereotypes in
advertisements. With the knowledge gathered in the literature review, the study
can be used as a reference for future studies on gender stereotyping and the impact
of media and television advertisements on shaping gender stereotypes in society
and changing media portrayals of women and men in commercials.
The analysis results of 315 ads on VTV1 channel from December 2020 to
February 2021 described the existing prejudices in the ads and pointed out the
 79

changes compared to the ads of 10 years ago. The results of the study contribute
to further demonstrating the changes in advertising to promote gender equality.
5.2.2. References in building gender-sensitive advertisements
The results of advertisements, observations and public perception
questionnaires, as well as expert suggestions, analyzed in this dissertation can be
used as monographs for marketers in creating commercials with gender sensitivity.
This study has shown negative and positive components of media portrayals
of women and men. Marketers can rely on these factors to change the images of
gender stereotypes inherent in advertisements, avoiding abuse of the traditional
gender division of labor.
In addition, research has identified the importance of media and
advertisements for shaping society and promoting gender equality. Once they
realize the importance and potential for change, creators can redefine the role
advertisements play in society. Besides conveying product information,
advertisements can also educate the public about the freedom to choose work
according to personal preferences without being limited by their gender.
Through the survey, the author has synthesized some recommendations of
the public and experts in changing advertisements containing gender stereotyping.
New media images with a modern and equal human appearance can be a factor
that advertisers need to consider in order to build more friendly commercials. For
ads with family activities, images of male and female characters sharing
housework should be done more. For ads with social activities, advertisers need
to limit the gender division of labor and increase the image of female leaders in
future ads.
According to the expert’s suggestion, it is not only the media that need to
change, the government needs to take tougher measures in controlling ads with
gender-biased content such as establishing sanctions and handling agencies for
infringing advertisements. Therefore, this document with its description of gender
stereotyping can be used as a reference in identifying gender-biased
advertisements.
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5.3. Chapter review

The findings of this present study have pointed out the recent gender
stereotyping in commercials through case study analysis as well as the public’s
perspectives of gender stereotypes by questionnaire survey and an in-depth
interview.
By the descriptive methodology approach, the author described the
stereotypes that were shown in VTV1 commercials. The results analyzed were not
surprising and the gender stereotypes in commercials were not new, however, it
also showed the changes and positive representation of women in recent television
advertisements. The survey not only described gender stereotyping from the
public perceptions but also proposed some recommendations for advertisements
in the future.
The chapter also highlighted implications of the findings. The findings can
be applied to further studies of gender stereotyping in media and documents for
creating gender-sensitive commercials.
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Chapter 6: Conclusion
In this chapter, a brief review of what has been studied in this dissertation
will be presented. Then, the limitations will be offered. Also a detailed discussion
of future research possibilities is provided.
6.1. Recapitulation
This dissertation, “Gender stereotyping in Vietnam’s television commercials”
was carried out to describe how gender stereotypes are shown in commercials
nowadays and to explore the public’s perception towards gender stereotyping in
television commercials.
Theoretically, this study synthesized knowledge about gender stereotyping,
showing that gender stereotyping is a social behavioral phenomenon that
distinguishes an individual woman or man who possesses certain features, traits,
or roles only because of her or his participation in the social group of women or
men. The study also synthesized media portrayals of women and men by
reviewing literature to compare with the images that could be observed through
this study. In previous studies, women were shown in advertisements as gentle,
caring, mid-level administrators, whereas men were shown as strong, decision-
making, and top-level administrators. In addition, women often appeared with
youthful and beautiful images due to the prejudices of women’s decorative
functions, which is also why female images were shown as sex objects.
The results of the case study content analysis and questionnaire and
interview survey show that the traditional stereotypes persist in observed
commercials, however the public has a good awareness of gender stereotypes and
has contributed some solutions in building gender-sensitive advertisements.
Through the approach to functional theory and cultural theory of communication,
combined with feminist theory, the research has shown the negative and positive
media portrayals of both genders. The methods employed to facilitate this
research helped describe gender stereotypes in television commercials including
(1) images of women associated with housework and family caring, (2) men must
be strong and intelligent, (3) men are suitable for leadership roles, whereas women
 82

are suitable for supporting roles, (4) women’s values lie in beauty and men’s
values lie in success, and (5) both men and women were objectified and
sexualized. These stereotypes are similar to those identified in previous studies,
however, there are also a number of changes in current advertising that challenge
social standards including (1) men are also suitable for household chores, (2) men
and women share housework, and (3) women are also suitable for intellectually
demanding jobs.
In addition, approaching media portrayals of women and men through the
public’s perspective helps researchers to build rich data and understand the
public’s perception of gender stereotyping. This data can be applied by marketers
in creating advertisements that have gender-sensitivity. A better understanding of
gender stereotypes and getting feedback from the public can help ads avoid
gender-biased content.
This dissertation can be used to understand gender stereotyping and the
influence of the media on social standards. To apply the research results on
changing advertisements in the future, advertisers need to understand what gender
stereotyping is, thereby the theoretical part of this study can be used as a reference.
6.2. Limitations
One of the most important things in a study is the limitations in the project.
Firstly, this study used case study research, therefore, all research results and
information will only reflect the study sample. The case study used content
analysis as data analysis so the results might be biased because of the author’s
individual comments.
During the survey, there were four main limitations that were identified by
the author. The first limitation is that the project is limited in questions due to
restrictions on the length of the survey. The length of the survey could have been
longer; however, if it were too long, people would not complete it. The survey
was for people who were at least 16 years old. Most people preferred to complete
a short questionnaire survey rather than a long one.
 83

Time constraints for data collection was a limitation. The time allotted for
the data collection was approximately one week. In one week, it was hard to
collect all the responses. There were 206 responses returned. The survey was sent
out through Facebook groups, Instagram and emails. The number of people who
respond “yes” to watching advertisements was 154, thereby, there were 154
responses to analyze.
The questions in the survey were not comparative between the role and
behaviors of men and women. However, different answers for the same themes of
men and women help the author analyze the level of public recall for the media
portrayals that appear in daily commercials.
Without holding the email lists, the author had trouble deciding when to send
out the emails and it was hard to know how many times the emails should be sent
as reminders. As the close of the survey approached, the author could gently
nudge those who had not finished yet. However, the author could not control the
time of day and the day of the week to send out the reminders. The goal was to
reach as many different respondents as possible. Without the email lists, it was
hard for the team to keep track of everything.
6.3. Recommendations for further study
All the limitations of this present study can be opportunities for future
research. The researcher hopes that this research can be used as a source of
information for other researchers who are interested in gender equality related
studies. Furthermore, the researcher suggests that there should be more research
about femvertising - a new type of advertisements related to women’s power and
identifying the elements that make it more or less effective. The topic of this
dissertation has been studied before, but the survey on public perspective of
gender stereotypes has not appeared a lot. Therefore, there will still be some topics
related to this problem left for further research:
1) Conducting a questionnaire with comparative answers and more questions
about gender stereotypes of men, further study with a larger sample size will
increase the reliability of these findings;
 84

2) Studying gender stereotyping in advertisements on online platforms such

as Youtube, Facebook, and Instagram;
3) Studying gender stereotyping in messages from online communication
campaigns.
Mistakes are unavoidable due to time constraints, the dissertation’s structure,
and the author’s inadequate understanding. Constructive comments from
individuals who are concerned would be highly welcomed.
 85

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 90

Appendices
Appendix 1: Research Invitation

Social media invitation:

Hello everyone! I am a senior of Marketing Communication class 37A1,
Faculty of Public Relations and Advertising, Academy of Journalism and
Communication. Currently, I am conducting a dissertation named Gender
stereotyping in Vietnam’s television commercials. Therefore, I really want to find
out about the public’s perception of media portrayals of gender in today’s
advertisements.
This survey includes 2 parts with 14 questions overall. The survey is for
research purposes only. Any information you share will be completely
confidential. Thank you for taking the time to complete the survey.
After completing the survey, I would like to give you a gift set attached at
the end.
For any questions, please contact: Bui Duong - duongbui.0311@gmail.com
Link to the survey: https://forms.gle/JQ64QUTWGk9x54GB7
 91

Email invitation:
Awareness of Media Portrayal of Gender in Television’s
Advertisements
How do you view women in the Vietnamese media? Are they too sexualized?
Do they only play one role? We want to hear from you! This is a survey about the
public’s awareness of gender stereotyping in television commercials. The survey
aims to gain a complex understanding of the public’s identification of elements
presenting gender stereotyping.
Women and girls are repeatedly objectified and their bodies hypersexualized
by the media which further contributes to harmful gender stereotypes that often
trivialize violence against girls. Advocating for women is at the heart of what we
do. If you’re interested in contributing to a research report that challenges the
perception of women in Vietnamese media, then you’re invited to fill out this
survey.
This survey is part of the research “Gender stereotyping in Vietnam’s
television commercials” (conducted by Bui Thuy Duong, senior, Academy of
Journalism and Communications). It includes two parts with 14 questions overall.
The survey is for research purposes only. Any information you share will be
completely confidential.
For any questions, please contact: Bui Duong - duongbui.0311@gmail.com
Link to the survey: https://forms.gle/JQ64QUTWGk9x54GB7
 92

Appendix 2: Questionnaire Survey

Awareness of Media Portrayal of Gender in Television’s
Advertisements
Hello, I am a senior of Marketing Communication class 37A1, Faculty of
Public Relations and Advertising, Academy of Journalism and Communication.
Currently, I am conducting a dissertation named Gender stereotyping in
Vietnam’s television commercials. Therefore, I really want to find out about the
public’s perception of media portrayals of gender in today’s advertisements.
This survey includes 2 parts with 14 questions overall. The survey is for
research purposes only. Any information you share will be completely
confidential. Thank you for taking the time to complete the survey.
After completing the survey, I would like to give you a gift set including:
- Ebook Marketing Gam7 Magazine
- Ebook Content Marketing
- Ebook National Geographic (2017 - 2020)
- Templates CV
- Ebook The Questions of Criminal
For any questions, please contact: Bui Duong - duongbui.0311@gmail.com

Part 1 - Background information

1) What is your sex?
Male
Female

2) How old are you?

Under 18
From 18 - 25 years old
From 25 - 30 years old
From 30 - 40 years old
Over 40 years old
 93

3) What is your work/study field?

Communication
Education
Services
Translators
Banking
Others

4) Rate how often you watch television?

Never (Move to the thank you note)
Rarely (Move to next part)
Sometimes (Move to next part)
Every day (Move to next part)

5) Do you watch VTV1 between 18:00 and 20:00 (including 24h News and
News)?
Never (Move to the thank you note)
Rarely (Move to next part)
Sometimes (Move to next part)
Every day (Move to next part)

6) Do you skip ads when watching TV?

Yes, I do skip
Sometimes I do, sometimes I don’t
No, I don’t skip

Part 2 - Media portrayals of gender in commercials

7) What traits do you often see in a female character who appears in
commercials?
 94

Multiple choices
Cooking/houseworking
Shopping
Laundry
Officer
Investor
Expert
Others

8) What traits do you often see in a male character who appears in

commercials?
Multiple choices
Being cooked for
Strong
Leadership
Proactive in love affairs
Expert
Others

9) In your opinion, what factors make the female representation become

more positive? (Please fill in what you think is a positive portrayal)
Multiple choices
Independent
Strong
Confident
Leadership
Successful
Decisive
Others
 95

10) In your opinion, what factors show prejudice against women in

advertisements? (Please fill in the factors that you consider this to be a negative
portrayal)
Multiple choices
Weak
Shopping Addicted
Objectified/Sexualized
Others

11) In your opinion, what factors show prejudice against men in

advertisements? (Please fill in the factors that you consider this to be a negative
portrayal)
Multiple choices
Traditional masculinity
Not good at cooking
Others

12) In your opinion, what role and impacts does the media have on society?
(Please use adjectives to describe)
Short form answer

13) What do you think about the advertisements showing on television today?
Multiple choices
There has been a change in the roles of men and women
Lack of portrayal of women in leadership roles
Narrow definition of women
Strengthen the power of men
Others

14) In your opinion, what factors can help ads limit gender stereotypes?
 96

Multiple choices
Creating new inspirational models
Reframing media messages
Changing the roles of men and women
Others

Part 3 - Thank you note

For invalid answers
Thank you for taking part in the survey. However, you are not suitable for
the following reasons:
1. Don’t watch TV
2. Don’t watch commercials on TV
Thank you very much for your interest in my survey. If possible, please share
this survey with your friends so that they can build the best survey results!

For valid answers

Thank you for taking part in the survey. To show my appreciation, I would
like to send you a gift set including:
- Ebook Marketing Gam7 Magazine
- Ebook Content Marketing
- National Geographic Ebook (2017 - 2020)
- CV templates
- Ebook The Questions of Criminal
Everyone can download it from the drive link here:
https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1GZxVxvVieweVzuHf-
vJqSCDjeuxY2C9er?usp=sharing
 97

Appendix 3: Interview Script

1. Interviewee information
Full name: Vu Phuong Ly
Position: Senior Programme Officer, UN Women
Tel: +84 4 3942 1495
Email: ly.phuong@unwomen.org
2. Interview script
Hello Mrs.! My name is Bui Thuy Duong, a senior majoring in Marketing
Communication at the Academy of Journalism and Communication. Currently, I
am writing a dissertation on the topic “Gender stereotyping in Vietnam’s
television commercials”. Thank you for taking your time meeting with me. I’m
having this interview to know more about gender equality and gender stereotyping
in Vietnam society and media, therefore I would like to ask you some questions.

What do you think about the current situation of gender equality in

Vietnam? Have there been any changes in the policy that you find most
striking?
Over the past 10 years, there have been many changes in gender equality in
terms of legislation, gender equality law, domestic violence law and more
programs on gender equality. Ten years ago, the issue of gender equality was not
as rampant as it is now. In the past, when talking about gender equality, it was
called the advancement of women. It can be seen that our nation has had a change
in awareness and responsibility. The survey on gender equality awareness has
increased a lot, there was a program called “month for gender equality and gender-
based violence prevention”, many organizations and agencies have launched these
programs.
However, there are still many obstacles: the ratio of female leaders is very
low, the new government has only one female minister, and the Member of
parliament has 26% women in the current term, which is quite high. But there are
provinces with no representation of women like the People’s Council of Hue or
 98

the percentage of women holding important positions in the lower positions

accounted for only 12%. This is a huge problem.
The second issue is gender-based violence. A survey 10 years ago showed
that in the life cycle of women, about 58% of women experience various forms of
violence, in 2019 it is more than 60%, higher than in the past. This number may
indicate that people have a better understanding of what violence is. In fact, there
is a decrease in violence such as physical violence and emotional violence,
however sexual violence increases, and violence caused by someone not
acquaintance increases. In 2010, 89% of women experiencing violence did not
call for help, in 2019 it was 91%. This shows that the available services are not
effective. It may be because these services are not friendly to people, do not create
connections, solvers such as police do not have professional skills or social
standards do not create conditions for women to ask for help.
The third problem is that the rate of women participating in the labor market
in Vietnam is very high, more than 70% (in some countries there is only 40%),
but most women are in the informal sector. This is a type of self-employed laborer
without social security, insurance, and a formal labor contract, leading to high
risks in the case of a financial crisis.
Fourth is son preference. The sex index at birth of boys is very high.
Fifth is the social norm. The media continuously reinforced old standards
and maintained standards promoting gender equality. This is also the problem that
you are researching. The root of changing gender equality is changing this norm.
Sixth is a very high percentage of women working unpaid jobs, women doing
housework 2.5 times more than men.

What do you think about the gender image built in the media nowadays?
About men, there is a problem of masculinity in the integration period. About
women, the media portrayals of them are very influential on their development.
They must be soft, must step back and let their husbands lead the family, must be
 99

beautiful, must stay in the family to take care of children. And men, they have to
be strong, have to earn money, have to make decisions.
However, there have also been changes in the media including encouraging
men to participate in housework, and there are many fanpages of young people
with content that challenges gender norms.
Changing requires the time and effort of many generations. At present, many
young people have taken initiative, this is the premise to create change.

Do you have any suggestions to change the gender stereotypes in the ads?
Advertising is commercial in nature, they follow the masses and what you
are seeing is due to social norms. Of course there are some ads that have changed
like Bluestones.
The problem here is that the legal provisions exist but are not effective. The
law on advertisement has a provision prohibiting commercials that perpetuates
gender stereotypes, but who is the sanctioning agency? Who is the processing
team? We must have training for the team involved and have a clear sanctioning
mechanism. Currently, policy enforcement is very poor. Poor censorship, poor
capacity. Especially, no one has invested in these issues, so they cannot be
changed.
As you can see, even the image of dishwashing liquid must be soft for women.
People are reproducing old standards against gender equality.
However, the most important thing is human development, the desire here is
that each individual in society has freedom to make decisions and not think about
what a girl should be or what a boy should be. Every individual needs to be able
to do their best. To do that, we need to break free of gender stereotypes. The media
has a very important role to play in this, but the law must be stronger.
 100

Appendix 4: Worked example of data analysis

TVC: Neptune Light

Product Character Pictures
Details Messages
Category Main Supporting
Both
Main character cooked for her From now on, mom can
Food & (main
Female family and concerned for their safely cook delicious food
Beverage character’s
health for the whole family
family)

Conclusion to Neptune Light TVC: Gender stereotypes of women doing housework