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Рачунар (занимање)
Термин „ рачунар “, у употреби од раног 17. века (прва
позната писана референца датира из 1613. године), [1]
значи „онај који рачуна“: особу која изводи математичке
прорачуне , пре него што су електронски рачунари постали
комерцијално доступни. Алан Тјуринг је описао „људски
рачунар“ као некога ко би „требао да следи фиксна
правила; он нема овлашћења да одступи од њих у било ком
детаљу“. [2] Тимови људи, често жена од касног
деветнаестог века надаље, коришћени су за предузимање
дугих и често заморних прорачуна; посао је подељен да би
НАЦА станица за велике брзине
се ово могло радити паралелно. Исти прорачуни су често
"Компјутерска соба" (1949)
независно обављали одвојени тимови да би проверили
тачност резултата.

Од краја 20. века, термин "људски рачунар" се такође примењује на појединце са

невероватним моћима менталне аритметике , такође познате као ментални калкулатори .

Порекло у науци
Астрономи у доба ренесансе користили су тај израз отприлике онолико често колико су себе
називали „математичарима“ за свој главни посао израчунавања положаја планета . Често су
ангажовали "компјутер" да им помогне. За неке људе, као што је Јоханес Кеплер , помоћ
научнику у рачунању била је привремена позиција док не пређу на веће напредовање. Пре
него што је умро 1617, Џон Нејпијер је предложио начине на које би „учени, који можда
имају много ученика и компјутера“ могли да направе побољшану табелу логаритама .
[3] : стр.46

Рачунарство је постало организованије када је Француз Алексис Клод Клер (1713–1765)

поделио израчунавање како би одредио време повратка Халејеве комете са двојицом колега,
Жозефом Лаландом и Никол-Реин Лепо . [4] Људски компјутери су наставили да планирају
будућа кретања астрономских објеката како би направили небеске табеле за алманахе
касних 1760-их. [5]

Компјутери који су радили на Наутичком алманаху за Британски Адмиралитет

укључивали су Вилијама Велса , Израела Лајонса и Ричарда Данторна . [6] Пројекат је
надгледао Невил Маскелајн . [7] Маскелин би позајмљивао табеле из других извора што је
чешће могао како би смањио број прорачуна које је његов тим компјутера морао да направи.
[8]

Жене су углавном биле искључене, са неким изузецима као што је Мери Едвардс која је
8 8 ј Б

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радила од 1780-их до 1815. године као један од тридесет пет рачунара за Британски
наутички алманах који се користио за навигацију на мору. Сједињене Државе су такође
радиле на сопственој верзији наутичког алманаха 1840-их, при чему је Марија Мичел била
један од најпознатијих компјутера у особљу. [9]

Остале иновације у људском рачунарству укључивале су посао који је обавила група дечака
који су радили у октагон соби Краљевске опсерваторије у Гриничу за краљевског астронома
Џорџа Ерија . [10] Ејријеви рачунари, ангажовани после 1835. године, могли су да имају и
петнаест година и радили су на заостатку астрономских података. [11] Начин на који је Ери
организовао Октагон собу са менаџером, унапред одштампаним рачунарским формуларима
и стандардизованим методама израчунавања и провере резултата (слично начину на који су
функционисали рачунари Наутичког алманаха ) остаће стандард за рачунарске операције у
наредних 80 године. [12]

Women were increasingly involved in computing after 1865.[13] Private companies hired them for
computing and to manage office staffs.[13]

In the 1870s, the United States Signal Corps created a new way of organizing human computing to
track weather patterns.[14] This built on previous work from the US Navy and the Smithsonian
meteorological project.[15] The Signal Corps used a small computing staff that processed data that
had to be collected quickly and finished in "intensive two-hour shifts".[16] Each individual human
computer was responsible for only part of the data.[14]

In the late nineteenth century Edward Charles Pickering organized the "Harvard Computers".[17]
The first woman to approach them, Anna Winlock, asked Harvard Observatory for a computing job
in 1875.[18] By 1880, all of the computers working at the Harvard Observatory were women.[18] The
standard computer pay started at twenty-five cents an hour.[19] There would be such a huge
demand to work there, that some women offered to work for the Harvard Computers for free.[20]
Many of the women astronomers from this era were computers with possibly the best-known being
Florence Cushman, Henrietta Swan Leavitt, and Annie Jump Cannon, who worked with Pickering
from 1888, 1893, and 1896 respectively. Cannon could classify stars at a rate of three per minute.
[21] Mina Fleming, one of the Harvard Computers, published The Draper Catalogue of Stellar

Spectra in 1890.[22] The catalogue organized stars by spectral lines.[22] The catalogue continued to
be expanded by the Harvard Computers and added new stars in successive volumes.[23] Elizabeth
Williams was involved in calculations in the search for a new planet, Pluto, at the Lowell
Observatory.

In 1893, Francis Galton created the Committee for Conducting Statistical Inquiries into the
Measurable Characteristics of Plants and Animals which reported to the Royal Society.[24] The
committee used advanced techniques for scientific research and supported the work of several
scientists.[24] W.F. Raphael Weldon, the first scientist supported by the committee worked with his
wife, Florence Tebb Weldon, who was his computer.[24] Weldon used logarithms and mathematical
tables created by August Leopold Crelle and had no calculating machine.[25] Karl Pearson, who had
a lab at the University of London, felt that the work Weldon did was "hampered by the committee".
[26] However, Pearson did create a mathematical formula that the committee was able to use for

data correlation.[27] Pearson brought his correlation formula to his own Biometrics Laboratory.[27]
Pearson had volunteer and salaried computers who were both men and women.[28] Alice Lee was
one of his salaried computers who worked with histograms and the chi-squared statistics.[29]
Pearson also worked with Beatrice and Frances Cave-Brown-Cave.[29] Pearson's lab, by 1906, had

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mastered the art of mathematical table making.[29]

Mathematical tables
Human computers were used to compile 18th and 19th century Western European mathematical
tables, for example those for trigonometry and logarithms. Although these tables were most often
known by the names of the principal mathematician involved in the project, such tables were often
in fact the work of an army of unknown and unsung computers. Ever more accurate tables to a high
degree of precision were needed for navigation and engineering. Approaches differed, but one was
to break up the project into a form of piece work completed at home. The computers, often
educated middle class women whom society deemed it unseemly to engage in the professions or go
out to work, would receive and send back packets of calculations by post.[30] The Royal
Astronomical Society eventually gave space to a new committee, the Mathematical Tables
Committee, which was the only professional organization for human computers in 1925.[31]

Fluid dynamics
Human computers were used to predict the effects of building the Afsluitdijk between 1927 and
1932 in the Zuiderzee in the Netherlands. The computer simulation was set up by Hendrik Lorentz.
[32]

A visionary application to meteorology can be found in the scientific work of Lewis Fry Richardson
who, in 1922, estimated that 64,000 humans could forecast the weather for the whole globe by
solving the attending differential primitive equations numerically.[33] Around 1910 he had already
used human computers to calculate the stresses inside a masonry dam.[34]

Wartime computing and electronics

It was not until World War I that computing became a
profession. "The First World War required large numbers of
human computers. Computers on both sides of the war
produced map grids, surveying aids, navigation tables and
artillery tables. With the men at war, most of these new
computers were women and many were college educated."[35]
This would happen again during World War II, as more men
NACA human computers –
joined the fight, college educated women were left to fill their
Supersonic Pressure Tunnel staff in
positions. One of the first female computers, Elizabeth Webb
1950s
Wilson, was hired by the Army in 1918 and was a graduate of
George Washington University. Wilson "patiently sought a war
job that would make use of her mathematical skill. In later years, she would claim that the war
spared her from the 'Washington social whirl', the rounds of society events that should have
procured for her a husband"[35] and instead she was able to have a career. After the war, Wilson
continued with a career in mathematics and became an actuary and turned her focus to life tables.

Human computers played integral roles in the World War II war effort in the United States, and
because of the depletion of the male labor force due to the draft, many computers during World

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p , y p g
War II were women, frequently with degrees in mathematics. In the 1940s, women were hired to

examine nuclear and particle tracks left on photographic

emulsions.[36] In the Manhattan Project, human computers
working with a variety of mechanical aids assisted numerical
studies of the complex formulas related to nuclear fission.[37]

Human computers were involved in calculating ballistics tables

during World War I.[38] Between the two world wars,
computers were used in the Department of Agriculture in the
United States and also at Iowa State College.[39] The human
computers in these places also used calculating machines and
early electrical computers to aid in their work.[40] In the 1930s, 1954, NACA computer working with
The Columbia University Statistical Bureau was created by microscope and calculator
Benjamin Wood.[41] Organized computing was also established
at Indiana University, the Cowles Commission and the National
Research Council.[42]

Following World War II, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) used human
computers in flight research to transcribe raw data from celluloid film and oscillograph paper and
then, using slide rules and electric calculators, reduced the data to standard engineering units.
Margot Lee Shetterly's biographical book, Hidden Figures (made into a movie of the same name in
2016), depicts African-American women who served as human computers at NASA in support of
the Friendship 7, the first American crewed mission into Earth orbit.[43] NACA had begun hiring
black women as computers from 1940.[44] One such computer was Dorothy Vaughan who began
her work in 1943 with the Langley Research Center as a special hire to aid the war effort,[45] and
who came to supervise the West Area Computers, a group of African-American women who worked
as computers at Langley. Human computing was, at the time, considered menial work. On
November 8, 2019, the Congressional Gold Medal was awarded "In recognition of all the women
who served as computers, mathematicians, and engineers at the National Advisory Committee for
Aeronautics and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) between the 1930s
and the 1970s."[46]

As electrical computers became more available, human

computers, especially women, were drafted as some of the first
computer programmers.[47] Because the six people responsible
for setting up problems on the ENIAC (the first general-
purpose electronic digital computer built at the University of
Pennsylvania during World War II) were drafted from a corps
of human computers, the world's first professional computer
programmers were women, namely: Kay McNulty, Betty Computers for the Explorer 1
Snyder, Marlyn Wescoff, Ruth Lichterman, Betty Jean trajectory.
Jennings, and Fran Bilas.[48]

Human-assisted computation
The term "human computer" has been recently used by a group of researchers who refer to their
work as "human computation".[49] In this usage, "human computer" refers to activities of humans
in the context of human-based computation (HBC).

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p ( )

This use of "human computer" is debatable for the following reason: HBC is a computational

technique where a machine outsources certain parts of a task to humans to perform, which are not
necessarily algorithmic. In fact, in the context of HBC most of the time humans are not provided
with a sequence of exact steps to be executed to yield the desired result; HBC is agnostic about how
humans solve the problem. This is why "outsourcing" is the term used in the definition above. The
use of humans in the historical role of "human computers" for HBC is very rare.

See also
Difference engine – an early automatic mechanical calculator
Mathematics portal
designed to replace human computers
Mathematical Tables Project – a project of the Works Progress
Administration (WPA) that employed human computers
Mentat – fictional human computers in the Dune universe
Women in computing

Notes
1. "computer". Oxford English Dictionary (Third ed.). Oxford University Press. March 2008. "1613
'R. B.' Yong Mans Gleanings 1, I have read the truest computer of Times, and the best
Arithmetician that ever breathed, and he reduceth thy dayes into a short number."
2. Turing 1950.
3. Napier, John (1889) [1619]. The Construction of the Wonderful Canon of Logarithms (https://w
ww.yumpu.com/en/document/read/21654776/the-construction-of-the-wonderful-canon-of-logarit
hms/Nepero/ConstructioEnglishVersion.pdf) (PDF). Translated by Macdonald, William Rae.
Edinburgh: Blackwood & Sons. "Also available on Wikisource"
4. Grier 2005, pp. 22–25.
5. Grier 2005, pp. 29–30.
6. Grier 2005, pp. 30.
7. Grier 2005, pp. 29.
8. Grier 2005, pp. 31.
9. Grier 2005, pp. 61.
10. Grier 2005, pp. 50.
11. Grier 2005, pp. 50–51.
12. Grier 2005, pp. 54.
13. Grier 2005, pp. 81.
14. Grier 2005, pp. 77.
15. Grier 2005, pp. 76.
16. Grier 2005, pp. 76–77.
17. Grier 2005, pp. 82–83.
18. Grier 2005, pp. 82.
19. Sobel 2016, p. 31.
20 S b l 2016 105

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20. Sobel 2016, p. 105.

21. Evans 2018, p. 23.
22. Sobel 2016, p. 37.
23. Sobel 2016, p. 181.
24. Grier 2005, pp. 106.
25. Grier 2005, pp. 106–107.
26. Grier 2005, pp. 107–108.
27. Grier 2005, pp. 108.
28. Grier 2005, pp. 110.
29. Grier 2005, pp. 111.
30. Campbell-Kelly & Croarken 2003, p. 10.
31. Grier 2005, pp. 173.
32. Beenakker, C. "Lorentz and the Zuiderzee Project" (https://www.lorentz.leidenuniv.nl/history/zui
derzee/zuiderzee.html). Instituut-Lorenz for Theoretical Physics, University of Leiden.
Retrieved November 19, 2015.
33. Hunt 1998, pp. xiii–xxxvi.
34. Roache 1998.
35. Grier, David Alan (March 1, 2001). "Human Computers: The First Pioneers of the Information
Age". Endeavour. 25 (1): 28–32. doi:10.1016/S0160-9327(00)01338-7 (https://doi.org/10.101
6%2FS0160-9327%2800%2901338-7). PMID 11314458 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1131
4458).
36. Light 1999, p. 459.
37. Kean 2010, p. 10.
38. Grier 2005, pp. 151–152.
39. Grier 2005, pp. 164.
40. Grier 2005, pp. 166.
41. Grier 2005, pp. 190.
42. Grier 2005, pp. 195.
43. Howell, Elizabeth (January 24, 2017). "The Story of NASA's Real 'Hidden Figures' " (https://ww
w.scientificamerican.com/article/the-story-of-nasas-real-ldquo-hidden-figures-rdquo/). Scientific
American. Retrieved January 26, 2017.
44. Evans 2018, pp. 24.
45. "DOROTHY VAUGHAN (nee JOHNSON)" (http://crgis.ndc.nasa.gov/crgis/images/2/29/Vaugha
nBio.pdf) (PDF). NASA. February 3, 2016.
46. "H.R.1396 - Hidden Figures Congressional Gold Medal Act" (https://www.congress.gov/bill/116t
h-congress/house-bill/1396?q=%7B%22search%22%3A%5B%22hr1396%22%5D%7D&r=1&s
=1). Congress.gov. November 8, 2019. Retrieved November 9, 2019.
47. Light 1999, p. 462.
48. ENIAC Programmers Project – Awards (http://www.eniacprogrammers.org/awards.shtml)
Archived (https://archive.today/20130414161648/http://www.eniacprogrammers.org/awards.sht
ml) April 14, 2013, at archive.today
49. Law & von Ahn 2011.

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Campbell-Kelly, Martin; Croarken, Mary, eds. (2003). The History of Mathematical Tables: From
Sumer to Spreadsheets. Oxford University Press. p. 10 (https://books.google.com/books?id=O
170gWPZ7M8C&pg=PA10). ISBN 0198508417.
Campbell-Kelly, Martin (September 2009). "The Origin of Computing" (https://www.scientificameric
an.com/article/origin-of-computing/). Scientific American. 301 (3): 62–9.
Bibcode:2009SciAm.301c..62C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009SciAm.301c..62C). doi:
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ISBN 978-0-691-09157-0. Archived from the original (http://www.pupress.princeton.edu/titles/7
999.html) on August 21, 2006. Retrieved January 24, 2006.
Hayles, Katherine N. (2005). My Mother Was a Computer: Digital Subjects and Literary Texts.
Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226321479. Excerpt (http://www.press.uc
hicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/321487.html).
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Intelligence and Machine Learning. 5 (3): 1–121. doi:10.2200/S00371ED1V01Y201107AIM013
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Light, Jennifer S. (1999). "When Computers Were Women". Technology and Culture. 40 (3): 455–
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ttps://books.google.com/books?id=ENRlQgAACAAJ). Hermosa Publishers.
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Measure of the Stars (https://books.google.com/books?id=AeY3DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1). New
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External links
Early NACA human computers at work (http://www.dfrc.nasa.gov/Gallery/Photo/People/HTML/
E49-0053.html), photograph, October 1949.
The Age of Female Computers (http://www.thenewatlantis.com/archive/12/skinner.htm)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20060616074110/http://www.thenewatlantis.com/archiv
e/12/skinner.htm) June 16, 2006, at the Wayback Machine, by David Skinner
Sonoma State University (http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu/BruceMedalists/Pickering/Pickeri
ngRefs.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210422213305/http://www.phys-astro.so
noma.edu/brucemedalists/Pickering/PickeringRefs.html) April 22, 2021, at the Wayback
Machine
Wellesley (http://www.wellesley.edu/Astronomy/Annie/career.html)
Description of model of H. A. Lorentz (http://lorentz.leidenuniv.nl/history/zuiderzee/zuiderzee.ht
ml)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_(occupation)&oldid=1193057779"

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