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INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1:
TO
Statistics
1.1 WHAT IS STATISTICS?
The word statistics derives from classical Latin roots, status which means
state.
As potential users of statistics, we need to master both the “science” and the
“art” of using statistical methodology correctly.
Specific definition:
Statistics is a collection of procedures and principles for
gathering data and analyzing information to help people
make decisions when faced with uncertainty.
Nowadays statistics is used in almost all fields of human effort such as:
Education Agricultural
1. Sport
Sports
A statistician may keeps records of the number of hits a baseball player gets in
a season.
Financial
Financial advisor uses some statistic information to make reliable predictions
in investment.
Public Health
An administrator would be concerned with the number of residents who
contract a new strain of flu virus during a certain year.
Others
Any Idea?…..
2. Applied Statistics
o Involves the applications of those theorems, formulas, rules and laws to
solve real world problems.
o Applied Statistics can be divided into two main areas, depending on how data
are used. The two main areas are:
ASPECTS OF STATISTICS
Theoretical/Mathematical Applied
Statistics Statistics
Descriptive Inferential
Statistics Statistics
Example 1
Determine which of the following statements is descriptive in nature and which is
inferential.
a. Of all U.S kindergarten teachers, 32% say that “knowing the alphabet” is an
essential skill.
b. Of the 800 U.S kindergarten teachers polled, 32% say that “knowing the
alphabet” is an essential skill.
Population Sample
Average/Mean - µ Average/Mean - s
Standard deviation - s Standard deviation -
e.g. The “average” age at time of e.g. The “average” height, found by
admission for all students who using the set of 25 heights.
have ever attended our college.
Variable
A characteristic of interest about each individual element of a population or
sample.
e.g. : A student’s age at entrance into college, the color of student’s hair.
Data value
The value of variable associated with one element of a population or
sample. This value may be a number, a word, or a symbol.
e.g. : Farah entered college at age “23”, her hair is “brown”.
Data
The set of values collected from the variable from each of the elements that
belong to sample.
e.g. : The set of 25 heights collected from 25 students.
Example 2
A statistics student is interested in finding out something about the average ringgit
value of cars owned by the faculty members of our university. Each of the seven
terms just describe can be identified in this situation.
i) Population : the collection of all cars owned by all faculty members at our
university.
ii) Sample : any subset of that population. For example, the cars owned by
members the statistics department.
iv) Data value : one data value is the ringgit value of a particular car. Ali’s
car, for example, is value at RM 45 000.
vi) Parameter : which we are seeking information is the “average” value of all cars
in the population.
vii) Statistic : will be found is the “average” value of the cars in the sample.
e.g. Number of courses for which e.g. Weight of books and supplies
you are currently registered. you are carrying as you attend
class today.
EXERCISE 1
1. Of the adult U.S. population, 36% has an allergy. A sample of 1200 randomly selected
adults resulted in 33.2% reporting an allergy.
2. The faculty members at Universiti Utara Malaysia were surveyed on the question
“How satisfied were you with this semester schedule?” Their responses were to be
categorized as “very satisfied,” “somewhat satisfied,” “neither satisfied nor
dissatisfied,” “somewhat dissatisfied,” or “very dissatisfied.”
3. A study was conducted by Aventis Pharmaceuticals Inc. to measure the adverse side
effects of Allegra, a drug used for treatment of seasonal allergies. A sample of 679
allergy sufferers in the United States was given 60 mg of the drug twice a day. The
patients were to report whether they experienced relief from their allergies as well as
any adverse side effects (viral infection, nausea, drowsiness, etc)
Types of Data
Necessary data obtained through survey Data obtained from published material
conducted by researcher by governmental, industrial or
individual sources
Primary Data Collection Techniques
• Data is collected by researcher and obtained Published records from governmental,
from respondent industrial or individual sources.
Historical data.
1. Face to face interview
Various resources.
Two ways communication where researcher(s)
Experiment is not required.
asks question directly to respondent(s).
Advantages: Advantages:
Precise answer. Lower cost.
Appropriate for research that requires huge data Save time and energy.
collection.
Increase the number of answered questions. Disadvantages:
Obsolete information.
Disadvantages:
Data accuracy is not confirmed.
Expensive.
Interviewer might influence respondent’s
responses.
Respondent refuse to answer sensitive or
personal question.
2. Telephone interview
Advantages:
Quick.
Less costly.
Wider respondent coverage.
Disadvantages:
Limited interview duration.
Demonstration cannot be performing.
Telephone is not answered.
3. Postal questionnaire
A set of questions to obtain related information of
conducted study.
Questionnaires are posted to every respondent.
Advantages:
Wider respondent coverage.
Respondent have enough time to answer
questions.
Interviewer influences can be avoided.
Lower cost.
Disadvantages:
One way interaction.
Low response rate.
Any Idea?.......
Levels of Measurement
EXERCISE 2
1) Classify each as nominal-level, ordinal-level, interval-level or ratio-level.
4) The scale of measurement that is simply a label for the purpose of identify-
ing the attribute of an element is the
a. ratio scale.
b. nominal scale.
c. ordinal scale.
d. interval scale.
5) Some hotels ask their guests to rate the hotel’s services as excellent, very
good, good, and poor. This is an example of the
a. ordinal scale.
b. ratio scale.
c. nominal scale.
d. interval scale.
10) The summaries of data, which may be tabular, graphical, or numerical, are
referred to as
a. inferential statistics.
b. descriptive statistics.
c. statistical inference.
d. report generation.
EXERCISE 3
4. At Sintok Community College 150 students are randomly selected and asked the
distance of their house to campus. From this group a mean of 5.2 km is
computed.
25
TUTORIAL CHAPTER 1
1. You asked five of your classmates about their height. On the basis of this
information, you stated that the average height of all students in your university or
college is 65 inches. This is an example of:
a. descriptive statistics
b. statistical inference
c. parameter
d. population
2. A company has developed a new computer sound card, but the average lifetime is
unknown. In order to estimate this average, 200 sound cards are randomly selected
from a large production line and tested and the average lifetime is found to be 5
years. The 200 sound cards represent the:
a. parameter
b. statistic
c. sample
d. population
5. When data are collected in a statistical study for only a portion or subset of all
elements of interest, we are using a:
a. sample
b. parameter
c. population
d. statistic
9. A politician who is running for the office of governor of a state with 4 million
registered voters commissions a survey. In the survey, 54% of the 5,000 registered
voters interviewed say they plan to vote for her. The population of interest is the:
a. 4 million registered voters in the state
b. 5,000 registered voters interviewed
c. 2,700 voters interviewed who plan to vote for her.
d. 2,300 voters interviewed who plan not to vote for her
10. A company has developed a new battery, but the average lifetime is unknown. In
order to estimate this average, a sample of 500 batteries is tested and the average
lifetime of this sample is found to be 225 hours. The 225 hours is the value of a:
a. parameter
b. statistic
c. sample
d. population
11. The process of using sample statistics to draw conclusions about true population
parameters is called
a. inferential statistics
b. the scientific method
c. sampling method
d. descriptive statistics
13. Researchers suspect that the average number of credits earned per semester by
college students is rising. A researcher at Michigan State University (MSU)
wished to estimate the number of credits earned by students during the fall
semester of 2003 at MSU. To do so, he randomly selects 500 student transcripts
and records the number of credits each student earned in the fall term 2003. He
found that the average number of semester credits completed was 14.85 credits per
student. The population of interest to the researcher is
a. all MSU students
b. all college students in Michigan
c. all MSU students enrolled in the fall semester of 2003
14. The collection and summarization of the graduate degrees and research areas of
interest of the faculty in the University of Michigan of a particular academic
institution is an example of
a. inferential statistics
b. descriptive statistics
c. a parameter
d. a statistic
15. Those methods involving the collection, presentation, and characterization of a set
of data in order to properly describe the various features of that set of data are
called
a. inferential statistics
b. the scientific method
c. sampling method
d. descriptive statistics
16. The estimation of the population average student expenditure on education based
on the sample average expenditure of 1,000 students is an example of
a. inferential statistics
b. descriptive statistics
c. a parameter
a. a statistic
17. A study is under way in a national forest to determine the adult height of pine trees.
Specifically, the study is attempting to determine what factors aid a tree in
reaching heights greater than 50 feet tall. It is estimated that the forest contains
32,000 pine trees. The study involves collecting heights from 500 randomly
selected adult pine trees and analyzing the results. The sample in the study is
a. the 500 randomly selected adult pine trees
b. the 32,000 adult pine trees in the forest
c. all the adult pine trees taller than 50 feet
d. all pine trees, of any age in the forest
19. Most colleges admit students based on their achievements in a number of different
areas. The grade obtained in senior level English course (A, B, C, D, or F) is an
example of a ________________, or ________________ variable.
20. For each of the following examples, identify the data type as nominal, ordinal, or
interval.
a. The letter grades received by students in a computer science class
________________
b. The number of students in a statistics course
________________
c. The starting salaries of newly Ph.D. graduates from a statistics program
________________
d. The size of fries (small, medium, large) ordered by a sample of Burger King
customers. _____________________
e. The college you are enrolled in (Arts and science, Business, Education, etc.)
_________________