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Aesthetic and Affective Response To Natural Environment Roger S. Ulrich
Aesthetic and Affective Response To Natural Environment Roger S. Ulrich
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INTRODUCTION
During the last two decades, very substantial progress has been
made in the area of emotions theory and research, primarily as the result
of efforts by clinically trained research psychologists. This work is po-
tentially a rich resource for environment-behavior researchers, and
much of it is relevant to an understanding of affective and aesthetic
reactions in the natural environment. One clear theoretical trend is to-
ward viewing affects as adaptive. Different authors have construed the
adaptive functions of emotions in terms of evolutionary survival require-
ments, the fostering of well-being defined broadly, or both. An impor-
tant implication of this extensive literature is that in order to understand
why a given natural view elicits certain feelings, it is necessary to consid-
er adaptive functions of preference and other affects in the situation. In
the area of landscape aesthetics, Appleton, a geographer, has advanced
a rather extreme, ethologically based adaptive position, postulating that
aesthetic pleasantness is a response to elements having either real or
symbolic significance for survival (1975).
Both the experimental and intuitive schools in landscape aesthetics
have failed to incorporate advances from the emotions literature. This
may partly explain why theoretical statements in landscape aesthetics
have not addressed in any depth fundamental issues such as the link
between affects and adaptive behavior, or what internal processes are
involved in generating feelings. By venturing briefly into the recent
emotions literature, it is possible to shed light on these and other critical
issues and to establish a much firmer foundation for a theoretical con-
ception of affective response to the natural environment. These issues
must be addressed; as will become evident, they are central to an under-
standing of why different natural stimuli or configurations can elicit
quite different aesthetic reactions.
The notion of preferenda, and the position that affect precedes cog-
nition, are important features of the conceptual framework described
here, which is intended as a step toward an integrated theory of aesthet-
90 Roger S. Ulrich
OBSERVER'S INITIAL
AFFECTIVE/AROUSAL, STATE
(and Cognitive History, including
Affective/Cognitive Structures)
INITIAL AFFECTIVE
(e.g., Like-Dislike)
CULTURE,
EXPERIENCE
4
COGNITION
Appraisal of Scene
as Beneficial or
Harmful; Signif~cance
for Well-Being
POST-COGNITIVE
MOTIVATION OR
ACTION IMPULSE
Which may
or may not
lead to:
v
ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR
or FUNCTIONING
Motivating state
Interest and strong prefer- Maintained if initial level is Ongoing activity or perfor-
encelpleasantness (ela- moderately high mance is sustained; chal-
tion, exhilaration, joy) Increased if initial level is lenging activity under-
low taken
ture of intuitive design and art where concepts such as "harmony" and
"composition" have long been emphasized. In experimental contexts,
several authors have proposed structural variables or dimensions. A
notable example is Kuller's semantic factor-unity-which has been
consistently identified in a series of studies, including cross-cultural
replications, and emerges for built as well as rural scenes (e.g., Kuller,
1972; Kwok, 1979). Concepts such as unity, order, and coherence are
extremely general, which suggests they can be broken down into more
specific component variables. Wohlwill (1980) has called attention to the
neglect by investigators of several related issues, such as pattern percep-
tion and unit chunking, that would lead to a deeper understanding of
the role of structure.
Focality
The author has identified a "focality" variable that is considerably
less general than the above notions, and appears to tap an important
gross structural property (Ulrich, 1977). Focality refers to the degree to
which a scene contains a focal point, or an area that attracts the ob-
server's attention. It is present when textures, landform contours, and
other patterns direct the observer's attention to a part of the scene.
Focality is also produced when a prominent feature, or grouping of
features, creates a point or subarea of dominance that attracts the view-
er's eye. Compared to other structural variables, a major advantage of
focality is that it can be unambiguously applied to scenes ranging from
very low to very high levels of complexity. Empirical support for a link
between focality and preference comes from a study using rural road-
side scenes (Ulrich, 1977). The views were scaled for focality using rat-
ings by trained judges and then were shown to two groups (American
suburbanites and Swedish university students) who rated the scenes for
aesthetic preference. The rank correlation coefficients between focality
and preference were .46 for the Americans, and .54 for the Swedes.
It is contended that focality is one type of gross configurational
property that is important in eliciting initial affect and which retains a
central role in subsequent stages of processing and appraisal. Support
for this position is provided by Janssens's pioneering investigation of
eye movements in relation to outdoor scenes (1976). Although buildings
were prominent in all the views that Janssens analyzed, his major find-
ings may also hold for natural settings. His recordings of eye-fixation
sequences strongly suggest that immediately after onset of a view, sub-
jects sought a salient feature or pattern (i.e., a focal area), which nearly
all individuals located within about 1.25 seconds. Importantly, Jan-
100 Roger S. Ulrich
'A few individuals may have phobic reactions of extreme dislike, fear, or even panic when
they encounter vast expanses (Balint, 1955). However, such agoraphobic disorders much
more commonly involve fear of being in spaces that contain people (American Psychiatric
Association, 1980) and therefore are strongly tied to social as well as physical aspects of
environment. By contrast, claustrophobia (fear of restricted or closed spaces) does not
involve the presence of people and is almost exclusively related to spatial conditions
(American Psychiatric Association, 1980).
102 Roger S. Ulrich
Authors from different fields have pointed out that preference and
curiosity are elicited when the line of sight in a natural or urban setting is
deflected or curved, signaling that new landscape information is just
beyond the visual bounds defined by the observer's position. This prop-
erty is highly cognitive, and therefore is probably not a major factor in
the initial affective reaction. Cullen called attention to this notion in his
analysis of townscapes, referring to it as "anticipation" (1961). Using
views of curving city streets as his principal examples, he argues that
such settings "clearly arouse one's curiosity as to what scene will meet
our eyes upon reaching the end of the street" (p. 49). Analogous config-
104 Roger S. Ulrich
Clamp, 1976; Coughlin & Goldstein, 1970; Daniel & Boster, 1976; Pen-
ning-Roswell, 1979; Shafer et al., 1969; Zube et al., 1975, p. 157). Al-
though some of these investigations measured preference (like-dislike),
and others used affect-saturated scales such as beautiful-ugly, ratings
from these different measures are highly intercorrelated (Zube et al.,
1975, p. 162). Therefore, despite somewhat different measures, the stud-
ies support the same general picture of agreement. There is absolutely
nothing in this substantial body of findings to suggest that aesthetic
preferences for natural environment are random or idiosyncratic. To the
contrary, the strong implication is that aesthetic preference can be ana-
lyzed in terms of underlying principles that are quite general from indi-
vidual to individual. To the extent that some differences exist between
groups of individuals, such variations may often be greater between the
public and certain professions (Brush, 1976, p. 54) than among groups
defined on the basis of such traditional variables as income or rural
versus urban background. In this regard a number of studies have found
that preferences of professionals such as architects, landscape architects,
and range managers can vary significantly from those of the public (e.g.,
Buhyoff, Wellman, Harvey, & Fraser, 1978; Daniel & Boster, 1976; R.
Kaplan, 1973; Kiiller, 1972).
antness) were virtually the same, and they closely matched the factors
obtained for the Ugandans and Canadians in the earlier study. These
similarities are especially striking in view of the fact that some variance
must have been introduced by translation of the scales into the Luganda
(Ugandan) and Hindu languages, and because the scales were admin-
istered by oral interview to the illiterate groups.
Although far from conclusive, these findings nonetheless cast some
doubt on the position that preferences vary fundamentally as a function
of culture. One interpretation is that learning experiences may be much
more ubiquitous than the descriptive cultural literature suggests. Alter-
natively, as Berlyne has posited (1971, 1975, p. 328), it may be that
preference responses are influenced by characteristics of the nervous
system that are universal in our species. Likewise, the psychoevolution-
ary framework outlined earlier gives rise to theoretical arguments for
expecting some similarity to characterize the preferences of different
cultures for natural scenes. It will be recalled that emotions are universal
and have the same qualities across different cultures. A plausible as-
sumption is that, irrespective of culture, liking motivates the approach
class of behaviors and dislike motivates avoidance. In this light, scenes
characterized by, for instance, disordered high complexity and restricted
depth should tend to elicit initial reactions of dislike in different societies
because avoidance is initially adaptive regardless of culture. It would be
surprising if one culture liked such views, and individuals accordingly
engaged in approach actions that would be maladaptive because observ-
ers could not have grasped a setting or completed an appraisal process.
Therefore, some correspondence in preference should be evident, since
the general approach or avoidance behavior appropriate in a given set-
ting should be more or less similar across cultures.
Another major argument for similarity derives from the fact that
there is no evidence that fundamental perceptual and cognitive pro-
cesses vary between cultures (Cole & Scribner, 1974; Kennedy, 1974).
The similarities across cultures in terms of perception and cognition are
much more impressive than the differences. Thus, it would be quite
unexpected if, for instance, one culture liked views having focality and
other structural properties, while another culture liked unordered
scenes. Such an outcome would imply nothing less than major dif-
ferences between the groups in terms of information processing, chunk-
ing, and other aspects of cognition. This finding would also conflict with
a vast body of intuitive literature, produced over centuries by many
cultures, that stresses the importance of structure and composition in
landscape design and art, and which implies a measure of cross-cultural
agreement in aesthetic preferences (Ulrich, 1977).
110 Roger S. Ulrich
highly with: high color contrast between the feature and its surround-
ings, high textural contrast, size of the feature, and low congruity of
shape (Wohlwill & Harris, 1980). Working in Scandinavia, Sorte (1971)
has shown that fittingness and unity are usually greater when the fea-
ture is appraised as permanent rather than temporary. Examples of
permanent features are most buildings, whereas elements such as bill-
boards and cars are temporary (Sorte, 1971). Although Wohlwill's find-
ings strongly suggest that fittingness can be quite important in influenc-
ing liking, this property does not correlate with the judged interesting-
ness of a setting, or with curiosity as measured by number of voluntary
exposures to a scene (Wohlwill & Harris, 1980). These results are con-
sistent with the point made earlier that aesthetic preference and interest
(curiosity) are largely independent dimensions of affect and can in some
instances be influenced in different directions by the same combination
of visual properties. Wohlwill's research clearly shows there is no simple
general relationship between aesthetic preference and the presence or
extent of man-made features in natural settings. Rather, preference can
vary widely as a function of the degree of integration of the feature into
its surroundings. Interestingly, it appears that in certain instances pref-
erence may be greater when there is some degree of contrast or
obtrusiveness, which suggests the hazardousness of applying a con-
trast-minimizing approach to design problems in natural environments
(Wohlwill, 1979). Because of their relevance to the design of harmonious
blends of the man-made and the natural, more studies are needed to
confirm and extend these findings.
tive/arousal states (Ulrich, 1979a, 1981). The first study addressed the
restoration hypothesis (see Table 1)-that is, the notion that stressed or
anxious individuals tend to feel better after exposure to natural rather
than urban views (Ulrich, 1979a). University students who were experi-
encing anxiety because of a course examination viewed color-slide pre-
sentations of either (1) everyday natural scenes dominated by green
vegetation, or (2) unblighted urban views lacking vegetation or water.
The individuals' feelings were measured both immediately before and
after the slide exposures using the Zuckerman Inventory of Personal
Reactions (Zuckerman, 1977). Results showed a clear pattern of restora-
tion for the natural scenes, whereas exposure to the urban views actu-
ally tended to be detrimental to emotional well-being on some dimen-
sions. The principal differences between the influences of the natural
and urban scenes were for factors of Sadness and Positive Affect. Also,
exposure to the natural scenes significantly reduced anxiety in terms of a
Fear Arousal factor, although the reduction did not differ significantly
from a Fear Arousal decline associated with the collection of urban
views. The two categories of environment produced quite different
changes in emotional states despite the fact that the complexity levels of
the slide samples were equivalent. Since complexity has received con-
siderable emphasis as a variable influencing emotional activation, the
findings imply that other visual properties, related to natural versus
man-made content, were primarily responsible for the differences.
The second experiment, which was performed in Sweden, mea-
sured certain physiological as well as emotional responses to natural and
urban scenes (Ulrich, 1981). Physiological influences were evaluated in
part through recordings of alpha wave amplitude. Alpha is a valid indi-
cator of cortical arousal and is associated with feelings of wakeful relaxa-
tion. Unstressed individuals in normal arousal states viewed lengthy
color-slide presentations of either (1) nature dominated by vegetation,
(2) nature with water, or (3) Scandinavian urban environments without
water or vegetation. The three slide samples were equivalent in terms of
complexity and information rate. Results revealed a clear-cut pattern for
the two categories of natural scenes-especially water-to have more
positive influences on affective states. A major finding was that settings
with water, and to a lesser extent vegetation views, sustained attention
and interest much more effectively than the urban scenes. Importantly,
alpha was significantly higher when subjects viewed vegetation as op-
posed to urban slides and was higher on average during the water than
during the urban exposures. Apart from indicating that the scenes had
different effects on arousal as a function of environment, the alpha
findings strongly suggest that individuals felt more wakefully relaxed
while viewing the natural settings. These results, together with those of
Aesthetic and Affective Response to Natural Environment 115
the first study, clearly suggest that the significance of visual encounters
with natural environment is by no means limited to aesthetic response,
but can also include important influences on other emotions and
arousal. Although this pattern of evidence favoring natural environ-
ments is impressive, it was apparent in these studies that exposure to
nature did not have a global, or comprehensively, restorative influence
relative to the urban views (Ulrich, 1981). Also, it is likely that the
differences between the effects of the environmental categories would
have been less if the urban settings had contained prominent amounts
of natural content such as vegetation.
Explanatory perspectives stressing either cultural conditioning or
adaptation are only weakly consistent with the findings from these two
studies. The results were similar for individuals who had grown up in
either rural or urban environments. Also, despite the fact the studies
were performed in different countries, there was considerable accord in
terms of the different emotional influences of natural versus urban con-
tent. Cultural traditions and attitudes with respect to nature are quite
different in America and Sweden-as expressed, for instance, in folk-
lore, holidays, and common law. The possibility remains, however, that
people in both countries tended to associate certain positive experi-
ences, such as vacations, to a greater extent with natural settings, and
this may have been a factor in the results.
An alternative explanation for these differential reactions to natural
and urban material is implied by the work of authors who contend that
response to environment is affected by unlearned factors of evolutionary
origin. They assume that because humans evolved over a long period in
natural environments, we are to some extent biologically adapted to
natural as opposed to built content (e.g., Driver & Greene, 1977; Iltis,
Loucks, & Andrews, 1970; Stainbrook, 1968). A theme common to this
perspective is that individuals are innately predisposed to respond
positively to many natural settings. Such evolutionary notions are not
new. For instance, William McDougall argued more than 70 years ago
that instinctive or unlearned factors are important in the elicitation of
emotional responses (1908). McDougall's views should not be lightly
dismissed, because he originated a number of other, remarkably pres-
cient ideas about emotions that have been adopted by contemporary
theorists, and which in some instances have been empirically substanti-
ated. McDougall defined an instinct as
an inherited or innate psycho-physical disposition which determines its pos-
sessor to perceive, and to pay attention to, objects of a certain class, to
experience an emotional excitement of a particular quality upon perceiving
such an object, and to act in regard to it . . . or at least to experience an
impulse to such action. (1908, p. 29, as quoted in Izard, 1977)
116 Roger S. Ulrich
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