Module 3 ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

The word environment is derived from the French word ‘environ’ meaning surroundings.
Definition
Environmental psychology is the study of the interrelationship between behaviour and the
built and natural environment.
Other Definitions
• Russell & Snodgrass, (1987) define Environmental psychology as the branch of
psychology attempting to provide a systematic account of relationship between
person and environment.
• A multidisciplinary behavioural science, both basic and applied in orientation, whose
foci are the systematic interrelationships between the physical and social
environments and individual human behaviour and experience.
• Environmental psychology could, therefore, be defined as a behavioural science that
investigates the interrelationships between the physical environment and human
behaviour.
• Environmental psychology is discipline that is concerned with the relationship
between human behaviour and the physical environment (Heimstra & McFarling,
1978).
• Environmental psychology is that area of psychology which brings into conjunction
and analyses the transactions and interrelationships of human experiences and
actions with pertinent aspects of the socio-physical surroundings (Canter & Craik,
1981)
• Environmental psychology is defined as the attempt to establish empirical and
theoretical relationships between the behaviour and the experience of the person
and his built environment (Proshansky, 1976).
Nature and Characteristics of Environmental Psychology
• It is part of an interdisciplinary field. They work with biologists, architects, city
planners, industrialists, anthropologists, etc.
• Environmental psychology includes many other areas of psychology (applied field)
among which perception, learning etc. are very important.
• The perspective Environmental Psychology takes is different from other applied fields
of Psychology. Since environment affects behavior, studies and analysis are done in
natural settings not in labs or manipulated environments.
• The kinds of problems and settings are different. We cannot cause damage to
environment to study its effect so we can study only after the event has occurred.
Field studies, ex post facto studies.
 • The definitions also mean a bi- directional relationship between behavior and
environment. There is an inter relationship.
The environment does indeed influence and constrain behavior, but behavior also
leads to changes in the environment.
E.g.; Life styles cause pollution; pollution forces us to change lifestyle.
• It has a more wholistic approach (systems approach) than other fields of Psychology.
So, unit of study is broader. If we study behavior without considering various factors,
we may get an entirely different conclusion for our study. Environment cannot be
studied without behavior and behavior cannot be studied without environment.
Environmental psychology studies environment-behavior relationships as a unit,
rather than separating them into supposedly distinct and self-contained components.
Traditional approaches to the study of sensation and perception assume that the
environmental stimuli are distinct from each other and that the perception of (or
response to) the stimulus, being distinct from the stimulus itself, can be studied
somewhat independently of it. Environmental psychology looks upon the stimulus
and its perception as a unit that contains more than just a stimulus and a response.
• Goals of Environmental psychology are broad and different. Environmental
psychology attempts to solve some practical, real & immediate problem that is of
general concern to all humans.
Scope of environmental psychology
• Environment is the setting in which behavior takes place.
• It can be natural or built environment and it affects human behavior. Our actions
change environment and these changes affect our behavior.
E.g.: carbon release affect environment and increase temperature which in turn
causes mood fluctuations and even affect cognitive skills.
1. The affordances provided by the environment shapes our behavior. a green park
forces us to walk slower and relax, taking in fresh oxygen, while a polluted road
makes us tensed and keep our lungs filled with toxic fumes.
2. Environmental psychology attempts to find the determining effect of environment on
mood and behavior.
3. The environment provides meaning to behavior. E.g., an adult removing shirt in heat
v/s removing shirt in snow.
4. Environmental psychology is also concerned with consequences of behavior on
environment. How far environmental problems are caused by human behavior? How
to change destructive behaviors? Which therapies can be applied?
5. Principles of learning, cognition, motivation, perceptions and attitudes are applied to
understand, modify, change and maintain environment related human behaviors.
 6. Environmental psychology attempts to remove and reduce behaviors that cause
damage while behaviors that help us to maintain healthy environment are installed
and maintained.
7. Behavior modification, social learning, reinforcement and punishment, cognitive and
attitude change methods are implemented for this purpose.
Research in environmental psychology
Environmental psychology studies how specific environment affect people:
1. Comparative studies
2. Cross sectional studies
3. Longitudinal studies
4. Intervention studies
Comparative Studies:
Investigations to analyse and evaluate, with quantitative and qualitative methods, a
phenomenon and/or facts among different areas, subjects, and/or objects to detect
similarities and/or differences.
E.g.; how people living near polluted areas and non-polluted areas are studied and children
from polluted areas show reduced cognitive skills (intelligence, language and problem-
solving skills) and increased behavior problems (attention deficit, aggression) in addition to
physical problems.
Cross sectional studies:
A type of observational research that analyses data of variables collected at a given point in
time across a sample population or a pre-defined subset.
E.g.; how pollution or lack or clean drinking water or heat affects children, adults, older
people or men and women differently.
Longitudinal studies:
Observational studies that employ continuous or repeated measures to follow particular
individuals over prolonged periods of time.
For e.g., child exposed to nuclear pollution during 1 year continues to suffer even during
adulthood even after moving into a healthy place.
Interventional studies:
A study in which the participants receive some kind of intervention, such as a new medicine,
in order to evaluate it.
E.g.; What reinforcements help to reduce littering or whether fines (punishment) help to
reduce waste production. How to encourage people to use renewable energy sources or
segregate bio and plastic waste.
Environmental Perception
Perception – Experience of the world through the senses
Object perception – Experience of isolated stimulations or objects in a laboratory situation
and their characteristics; colour, form, depth and apparent movement
Environmental perception – The basic psychological process through which we collect
information on the environment – Perception of large scale, “real-world” environments
(landscapes, buildings, cities, etc) – A holistic approach to these environments and to the
responses to them – Connection to a situation via an aim or an intention is characteristic of
environmental perception.
Even though environment of two people could be the same, their perceptual experience
could vary.
Environmental perception is the process of gathering information about our world and are
the source of affective responses and associations.
It studies how do we make the mental picture of present environment around us. Which
stimuli are detected by us (sensation), Which aspects of the environment do we attend to.
Based on our past knowledge (memory) we may consider some information as more
important than others which in turn affect our decisions.
Ittelson & colleagues studied environmental perception during 1970s.
According to them Environmental perception include thoughts(cognition), emotions (affect)
and interpretive (perceive), evaluative (attitude) components operating on all sensory
modalities.
As we perceive, we also think (cognition)about what we can do in the environment, compare
(evaluate and interpret) it with other places we have seen(memory).
In addition to cognitive and affective process, environmental perception encompasses the
meaning we derive from an environment. Also, environmental perception include valuation,
or the determination of good and bad elements. The perceived quality of an environment is
then the part of the overall perception. The affective and evaluative components of
perceptions are the roots of forming the attitudes toward the environment.
In sum, cognitive, affective, interpretive, and valuative processes are involved in
environmental perception.
Conventional Approaches to Perception
A stimulus is an event in the environment external to the organism. The organism becomes
aware of these stimuli by means of receptor nerve cells, which are sensitive to specific forms
of energy, such as light, sound, or temperature. When these energy sources are sufficiently
strong to stimulate the receptor cells (the organism may or may not be aware of the
stimulus), we refer to the process as sensation. Whan a number of sensations are put
together by mediational processes in the brain so that we recognize or organize a pattern
out of these sensations, the process is called perception. According to constructivist
tradition, we construct theses perceptions from sensations and from long-term memory of
past experiences with similar sensations. That is, perceptions consist of the information
processed through inferring or constructing meaning out present sensations and memory of
past sensations.
Structuralists approach to perception, emphasize the role of physiological structures in the
brain as it produces perception. Perception involves more than just physiological structures,
however. When we perceive, we actively process information and rely on memory of past
stimulation for comparison with newly experienced stimuli.
According to functionalist’s view, our perceptual processes are moulded by the necessity of
the organism to get along with the environment.
3 characteristics of environmental perception:
1. Person-environment system is the ultimate unit of study in environmental
perception. The person brings individual goals and values into the perceptual
experience, as well as group sociocultural influences. The perceptual experience
consists of many significant or meaningful, functional awareness, that is, we most
likely notice those things of significance to us. These significances are experiences
through the whole setting. When perceiving an environment, one does not
simply look from one angle at those things which can be seen without turning the
head. Rather, one explores the whole environment from different angles through
all sensory processes.
2. It involves taking in information about the setting. In fact, the environment
contains more information than we can comprehend at once, so we must
selectively process it. Part of this processing includes the meaning or interpretive
component, and it is influence by the personality, goals, and values we bring with
us.
3. The perceptual process involves action by us. We bring expectations, values, and
goals to the environment and it provides us with information, but we perceive it
through activity. Part of this activity is simple exploration to orient us in the
environment. Part of it is designed to meet the needs and goals, and part of it is
related to establishing confidence and feelings security within the environment.
The activity is always influenced by the search for meaning, our feelings, and how
we evaluate the environment.
Perception of movement
When a stimulus changes its position with the passage of time it is called as motion. To
detect the motion in an object is called motion perception or perception of movement.
Movement perception is a process through which people and different creatures orient
themselves to their own or others’ physical movements.
Movement can be of two types:
1. Real movement
2. Apparent movement
Real movement: When a stimulus or object actually changes its position with the passage of
time, it is called real movement. E.g., human beings, animals, vehicles.
Apparent movement: When a stimulus does not change its position with the passage of time
it is called apparent movement, e.g., phi phenomenon, auto kinetic effect.
Phi phenomenon occurs when two stationary spots of lights in different positions in the
visual field are turned on and off alternatively at the rate of about 4 to 5 times per second.
Auto kinetic effect is composed of two terms, viz., auto means ‘self’ and kinetic means
‘motion’. When we see a tiny point of light moving, it is often because we ourselves are
moving or our eye is moving. The human eye is always making tiny involuntary motions as
well as opposing small movements that compensate for the involuntary ones.
Factors in perception of movement are as follows:
x Speed: If stimulus is too low then its movement cannot be detected. We cannot detect the
motion of progress. For example, growth of children and plants.
x Size: Besides the speed, size of stimulus is also very important. Extraordinarily big or small
stimulus may move at same speed but their perception of movement cannot be the same.
x Distance: Distance also plays an important role in perception of movement. For example,
when aeroplane flies at a high speed, we perceive that it is moving at a slow speed.
At the receptor level, perception of movement is instigated by successive stimulation of
neighbouring receptors. Similarly, direction of sounds is detected by the slightly different
arrival times of the sound at the ears or by the slightly different intensities of sound for the
two ears. As an object that either emits or reflects sound crosses our auditory field, these
different times or intensities change, so that we detect the movement.
Habituation or adaptation
If a stimulus is constant, the response to it becomes weaker and weaker across time.
Introduction to a specific environment may bring about habituation or adaptation, i.e., how
the weakening of responses follows repeated exposure to a stimulus. Habituation is physical
or neural. The nerve firing decreases due to exhaustion. Adaptation is cognitive. We increase
our threshold after repeated exposure. So even when sensory system reports it out, mind
chooses to ignore it.
Habituation is a decrease in response to a stimulus because of recurring introductions to it.
For instance, a new sound in our current situation such as a new mobile ringtone may at first
draw your attention. Over the long run, as you become acquainted with this sound, you pay
less heed to the noise and your reaction to the sound will lessen gradually. This reduced
reaction is habituation.
Habituation is one of the least difficult and most regular types of learning. It permits
individuals to block out insignificant stimuli and focus on the things that truly request
attention. Habituation is something that happens routinely in our regular daily lives, yet we
are likely to be uninformed about it. For instance, we are studying with the TV playing in
background. The TV may distract us at first, but habituation allows us to block out the
distraction from the TV and focus on the thing we are attempting to learn.
Characteristics
Habituation generally does not happen in the same way and there are various components
that can impact how rapidly you become habituated to a stimulus.
Following are the characteristics of habituation:
x Change: Changing the intensity or length of the stimulus may bring about a reoccurrence
of the first reaction.
x Duration: If the habituation stimulus is not introduced for a long enough period of time
before an abrupt renewed introduction, the reaction will indeed reappear.
x Frequency: The more often a stimulus is introduced, the quicker habituation will take
place. For example, when you apply the same perfume consistently, you will probably stop
noticing it earlier each time.
x Intensity: Very intense stimulus in general result in gradual habituation. Sometimes, for
example, loud noise of vehicles in traffic or an alarm, habituation will never happen (a car
alarm will be less effective if people stop noticing it after some time, for instance).
Humans also adapt according to the environment or get habituated, for example in high
altitude areas people adapt by greater depth of breathing, high capacity of lungs and larger
tidal volumes. Blood has a higher affinity for oxygen.
Human adaptation
Changes in the environment can be characterized as intentional, accidental, favourable or
destructive. All the environments are meant to be changed. We as humans need to
determine if the costs are worth the benefits or how to offset the negative consequences
associated with it. Like all, people must adapt to the climate, landforms, vegetation, and
natural resources to find a place to live. However, unlike most animals’ humans have the
ability to modify or change the environment. There are numerous factors that affect our
survival such as water bodies, landforms, climate, seismic activities, etc. Humans must
respond to the conditions of extreme environment or weather such as floods, tsunamis,
volcanoes, etc. Humans sometimes modify the environment in order to adapt to it. They
modify the environment by following ways:
x Agriculture: growing of food
x Urban growth: people modify the nature by building towns and cities
x Dams: dams swap and prevents swamps and store water
x Energy: humans modify the environment to fulfil their energy needs
Perception of change
Weber-Fechner function of psychophysics is based on increment in intensity of a stimulus
that is required before a difference is detected between the new and old intensities. The
intensity of a new stimulus required for it to be perceived as different from the present
stimulus is proportionate to the present stimulus.it takes only a small increment to detect a
difference in very low-intensity stimuli but a much larger increment is needed for high-
intensity stimuli. This function generally applies to all form of sensation, including light,
sound, pressure, and smell.
Perception of natural hazards
Factors involved in the perception of natural hazards are: crisis effect, levee effect, and
adaptation.
The crisis effect refers to the fact that perception of a disaster is greatest during and
immediately following its occurrence, but greatly dissipates between disasters.
The levee effect pertains to the fact that once measures are taken to prevent a disaster,
people tend to settle in around the protective mechanism.
We adapt to threats of disaster.
Several variables appear to influence adaptation to potential hazards. When the hazard is
closely related to the well-being or resource use of a community, the inhabitants are more
aware of the danger.is one’s well-being is closely related to the resource that poses a hazard,
one is less likely to adapt in perceiving the hazard.
In addition, frequency of disasters influences cognitive judgements of potential harm, as
does personal experience with similar disasters. Probably because each repetition of disaster
serves to remind us of the dangers, the more times we experience a disaster the more
conscious we are of potential risks.
Another phenomenon involved in hazard perception appears to be personality. People with
internal locus of control believe they are in control of their own fate, whereas externals
believe outside forces, such as powerful persons, government, God, or fate, control their
destinies.
Individual with repressor personality tend to deal with threat by denying the existence of the
threat and not verbalizing uneasy feelings about a potential danger. By doing so, they feel
they are in a better position to deny or avoid damage if a disaster did occur in the area.
Factors affecting perception:
Emotions
Our emotions also affect our perception and perceptions change our emotions. (Neisser).
E.g., Some people may find urban buildings with decorative lighting beautiful (happy) while
another may discuss how it is damaging our environment and depleting resources (angry
and distressed) there by changing our happiness.
Social and cultural factors
Social and cultural factors affect our perception.
There are differences in how people from different sex, race, socioeconomic status, from
different lifestyles perceive environmental 0 0features.
E.g.; Young urban mother may find paddy field as mosquito ridden and muddy and assumes
that it may cause diseases to her child while a teenage girl may find it beautiful and may
jump in.
Theories of environmental perception
Theories of perception help to explain our behavior towards environment.
There are a wide number of theories of environmental perception. In this section we are
going to focus primarily on 3 theories; namely
1. Affordance theory by Gibson
2. Gestalt Theory
3. Learning theory
4. Probabilistic Functionalism
5. Signal detection theory of modern Psycho physics
1. Affordance theory by Gibson
Affordance theory, developed by James J. Gibson, is a perceptual theory that focuses on the
relationship between the environment and the actions or behaviours that are possible for an
individual. Gibson introduced this theory as a reaction to the prevailing behaviourist and
cognitivist theories that emphasized internal mental representations and subjective
interpretations.
According to Gibson, affordances are the properties or qualities of an object or environment
that offer opportunities for action. Affordances are not subjective or dependent on an
individual's perception alone; rather, they are inherent properties of the environment that
are directly perceivable. In other words, affordances are the action possibilities that the
environment provides to an organism, based on its perceptual capabilities and the
properties of the environment itself.
Gibson argued that perception is an active process that involves the direct pickup of
information from the environment. He proposed that perception is not just about
recognizing and interpreting sensory input, but also about perceiving the possibilities for
action that the environment presents. Affordances are perceived through direct perception,
without the need for complex mental representations or cognitive processes.
Gibson identified several types of affordances, including:
1. Possibilities for manipulation: These affordances relate to the physical interaction
between an organism and an object, such as grasping, pushing, or pulling.
2. Possibilities for locomotion: These affordances refer to the opportunities for movement or
navigation in the environment, such as walking, climbing, or swimming.
3. Possibilities for perception: These affordances involve the opportunities for obtaining
information or perceiving the properties of the environment, such as seeing, hearing, or
touching.
4. Social affordances: These affordances are related to the opportunities for social
interaction and communication within a social context.
Gibson's affordance theory emphasizes the ecological nature of perception and highlights
the importance of the environment in shaping behaviour. It suggests that perception is an
active process that occurs in real-time, with the environment providing direct cues for
action.
Through interaction we can add or remove affordances. We can also think about short term
and long-term affordances. The concepts of short-term and long-term affordances are
related to how affordances can change over different timescales based on the individual's
current goals and intentions. Here's a breakdown of each:
1. Short-term affordances: Short-term affordances refer to the immediate or temporary
action possibilities that are relevant in the present moment. These affordances are
dependent on the current context, goals, and the individual's immediate needs. Short-term
affordances can be influenced by factors such as the current task at hand, the individual's
abilities and skills, and the immediate environmental conditions.
For example, if you are carrying a heavy box and see a chair nearby, the short-term
affordance of the chair would be the action possibility of resting or sitting to relieve the
burden. In this case, the chair's affordance is perceived in relation to your immediate need
to rest.
2. Long-term affordances: Long-term affordances refer to action possibilities that are more
enduring or persist over extended periods. These affordances are shaped by an individual's
long-term goals, experiences, and learned associations with objects and the environment.
Long-term affordances are often influenced by the individual's prior knowledge, cultural
factors, and learned associations. They can also be influenced by the individual's past
experiences and expectations. These affordances are not necessarily tied to the immediate
context but are more generalized action possibilities that are relevant over longer
timescales.
For example, a long-term affordance of a staircase would be the action possibility of
ascending or descending. This affordance is based on our prior knowledge and experience
with stairs as a means of vertical movement, regardless of the specific context or immediate
goals.
In summary, short-term affordances are immediate action possibilities that arise based on
the current context and goals, while long-term affordances are more enduring action
possibilities that are influenced by an individual's long-term goals, experiences, and learned
associations. Both types of affordances play a role in guiding our perception and interactions
with the environment.
2. Gestalt Theory (Kohler&Koffka,1929,1935)
Gestalt theory focuses on how humans perceive and experience the world around them. The
term "Gestalt" comes from the German word meaning "form" or "configuration." The theory
originated in the early 20th century, primarily through the work of German psychologists
Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka.
At its core, Gestalt theory suggests that the whole is different from the sum of its parts. In
other words, when people perceive objects or scenes, they tend to perceive them as
organized and meaningful wholes rather than a collection of individual elements. The theory
emphasizes the importance of perception and how it influences our understanding of the
world.
Gestalt psychologists identified several principles or laws that describe how humans organize
sensory information. Some of these principles include:
1. Law of Closure: People tend to perceive incomplete or fragmented figures as complete by
mentally filling in the missing parts.
2. Law of Proximity: Objects that are close to each other are perceived as belonging
together.
3. Law of Similarity: Objects that are similar in appearance are grouped together.
4. Law of Continuity: People tend to perceive continuous patterns and lines even when they
are interrupted.
5. Law of Figure-Ground: People naturally separate objects into a central object (figure) and
its surrounding background (ground).
Overall, Gestalt theory provides insights into how humans perceive and make sense of the
world by emphasizing the role of perception, organization, and the integration of sensory
information into meaningful wholes.
3. Learning theory
• Our perceptions are not innately determined, but rather we must learn to perceive
critical aspects of our environment.
 • Learning theorists propose that an important result of experience and learning in
perception is the development of assumptions about the world around us.
• These assumptions facilitate our interactions with the environment because they
save us time and effort in coping with new stimuli.
• Thus, we bring to the present situation learned assumptions in the form of
expectancies about what is likely to happen. These expectancies are usually correct,
making for easy processing of information and adaptive functioning
Learning theory in environmental perception refers to the study of how individuals acquire
and process information about their environment through learning processes. It focuses on
understanding how people's past experiences, knowledge, and cognitive processes influence
their perception of the environment.
One prominent learning theory that relates to environmental perception is the concept of
perceptual learning. Perceptual learning refers to the process by which individuals develop
and refine their perceptual abilities through experience and practice. It involves becoming
more adept at recognizing and interpreting environmental stimuli based on previous
encounters.
Perceptual learning can occur through various mechanisms, including:
1. Sensory Adaptation: When individuals are repeatedly exposed to a specific environmental
stimulus, their sensory receptors become less responsive to it over time. This adaptation
allows individuals to attend to novel or changing stimuli more effectively.
2. Discrimination Training: Individuals can improve their ability to discriminate between
similar environmental stimuli through training and practice. For example, a person can
become more skilled at distinguishing between different bird species by repeatedly
observing and studying them.
3. Category Learning: Individuals learn to categorize and classify environmental stimuli based
on their common features or properties. This allows them to make quicker and more
accurate judgments about new stimuli encountered in their environment.
4. Contextual Learning: Environmental perception is influenced by the context in which
stimuli are encountered. Learning to associate specific environmental cues with particular
contexts or events enables individuals to anticipate and respond to environmental situations
more effectively.
Learning theory in environmental perception also considers the role of cognitive processes,
such as attention, memory, and problem-solving, in shaping individuals' perception of their
surroundings. Attentional processes determine which aspects of the environment are
selectively attended to and processed. Memory processes store and retrieve information
about the environment, enabling individuals to recognize familiar stimuli and make
comparisons between past and present experiences. Problem-solving processes help
individuals interpret ambiguous or novel environmental situations and make informed
judgments or decisions.
Overall, learning theory in environmental perception highlights the dynamic nature of
perception and how it is influenced by an individual's past experiences, learning processes,
and cognitive mechanisms. It emphasizes the adaptive nature of perception, as individuals
continually update their perceptual abilities based on their interactions with the
environment.
4. Probabilistic functionalism (Egon Brunswik, 1956)
• Stimuli are assigned probabilities based on their ecological validity, i.e. how useful
they are in making correct perception possible.
Probabilistic functioning in environmental perception refers to the idea that our perception
of the environment is inherently uncertain and subject to probabilistic reasoning. It
recognizes that our perceptual processes are not perfect or deterministic, but rather involve
estimating the likelihood of different sensory inputs and making inferences based on those
probabilities.
When we perceive the environment, our sensory systems receive a multitude of information
through various modalities such as vision, hearing, touch, and so on. However, this
information is often incomplete, noisy, or ambiguous. Probabilistic functioning takes into
account these uncertainties and employs statistical reasoning to make sense of the sensory
data.
One important aspect of probabilistic functioning is the integration of prior knowledge or
expectations with sensory information. Our prior knowledge about the world helps us to
interpret sensory inputs and fill in missing information. For example, if we see only a partial
view of an object, our prior knowledge about its typical shape and context can help us infer
the complete object.
Probabilistic functioning also involves the concept of Bayesian inference. Bayesian inference
is a mathematical framework that allows us to update our beliefs or perceptions based on
new evidence. It combines prior probabilities (our initial beliefs) with likelihood functions
(the probability of observing the sensory data given a particular hypothesis) to calculate
posterior probabilities (our updated beliefs). This process allows us to continuously refine
our perception as new information becomes available.
Overall, probabilistic functioning in environmental perception acknowledges the inherent
uncertainty in our perceptual processes and highlights the role of probabilistic reasoning,
prior knowledge, and Bayesian inference in shaping our perception of the world.
6. Signal detection theory
Signal detection theory can be applied to the field of environmental perception to
understand how individuals detect and interpret meaningful signals in their environment
amidst background noise or distractions. It provides a framework to analyze the decision-
making process and the accuracy of detecting relevant signals. Here's an explanation of how
signal detection theory applies to environmental perception:
1. Signal: In the context of environmental perception, a signal refers to relevant information
or cues from the environment that individuals are trying to detect or perceive. For example,
in a natural disaster situation, the sound of an alarm or a visual warning sign can be
considered a signal.
2. Noise: Noise represents irrelevant or distracting stimuli in the environment that can
interfere with the detection of signals. In environmental perception, noise can come in
various forms, such as background sounds, visual clutter, or other sensory distractions that
may hinder the perception of relevant information.
3. Sensitivity (d'): Sensitivity in signal detection theory refers to an individual's ability to
distinguish between signals and noise. In the context of environmental perception,
sensitivity reflects how well an individual can detect and differentiate relevant signals from
the background noise. A higher sensitivity indicates a better ability to discriminate between
signals and noise, resulting in a lower chance of missing signals or experiencing false alarms.
4. Response bias (c): Response bias represents an individual's predisposition or tendency to
respond in a certain way when detecting signals. It reflects a person's subjective decision
criterion or threshold for perceiving a signal. In environmental perception, response bias can
manifest as being more cautious or conservative in identifying signals (e.g., being less likely
to experience false alarms) or being more lenient and prone to false alarms.
By analyzing sensitivity and response bias, signal detection theory allows researchers to
evaluate and understand an individual's perceptual performance and decision-making in
environmental perception tasks. Researchers can calculate metrics such as hit rate (the
proportion of correctly detected signals), false alarm rate (the proportion of false alarms),
and generate receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves to assess an individual's
detection ability.
Signal detection theory can help analyze our decision-making process. The four possible
outcomes are:
1. Hit: This means accurately detected the signal.
2. Miss: This means failed to detect the signal.
3. False alarm: This means identified a signal that was not present.
4. Correct rejection: This means accurately determined that there was no signal.
Applying signal detection theory to environmental perception helps in designing
environments, warning systems, and displays that optimize the detection of important
signals while minimizing false alarms. It aids in understanding the factors that influence
individuals' perception and decision-making in complex and dynamic environmental
contexts, such as emergency situations, transportation systems, or information displays.
In summary, signal detection theory as applied to environmental perception focuses on how
individuals detect and interpret signals in the presence of noise. It considers an individual's
sensitivity to signals and their response bias, providing insights into the perceptual processes
and decision-making strategies in environmental perception tasks.
Environmental Cognition
Perception of natural cognition includes the way in which we deal with information. While
perception alludes to methods of getting information from our environment, cognition talks
about the processes such as remembering, learning, solving problems and orientation. The
process involved in environmental perception is closely connected to and interacts with
other processes relating to environmental cognition and attitudes. All these processes
constantly influence each other. Environmental cognition refers to the process by which
information is categorized, sorted, organized and structured, and placed in meaningful
categories
The term, cognition, refers to thought processes. Thus, environmental cognition concerns
thinking about the environment (i.e., the ways in which individuals process information and
organize their knowledge about characteristics of their environment).
Environmental cognition concerns how variations in the environment affect the ability to
understand the setting.
Even when we are not actively viewing, smelling, or hearing an environment, we can still
experience it mentally and determine something about our location in it from this mental
experience.
When people are exposed to new situations, six different but interrelated types of responses
occur:
1. Affect: a heightened degree of awareness and arousal occasioned by the need to
know, predict, and therefore to feel in control of and secure in an unknown setting.
This is about how we feel when faced with something new. It involves being aware and alert,
wanting to understand and predict what's going on, and feeling a need to be in control and
secure. For example, imagine you're going on a roller coaster for the first time. You might
feel excited, a bit nervous, and curious about what the experience will be like.
2. Orientation: Individuals in a new setting actively seek to find their place, their
"niche." This is primarily a cognitive process and to use a slang expression involves
"scoping out" a place.
When we're in a new setting, we actively try to find our place and figure out where we fit in.
It's like "scoping out" or exploring the environment to understand it better. For instance, if
you join a new school, you might spend time observing different groups of students, trying
to understand the social dynamics and finding friends with similar interests.

3. Categorization: The individual evaluates the new environment and imposes his or
her own unique meaning to various aspects of it.
This is the process of evaluating the new environment and giving it meaning based on our
own understanding. We categorize or classify things to make sense of them. For example,
when visiting a new city, you might categorize places as restaurants, parks, museums, or
shopping areas based on their characteristics and purposes.
4. Systemization: At some point individuals organize their environments into more
meaningful and more complex structures.
Once we've gathered some information about the new environment, we organize it into
more meaningful and complex structures. We create mental frameworks or systems to make
sense of things. For instance, if you start a new job, you might gradually develop a clear
understanding of the company's hierarchy, departments, and how different roles interact
with each other.
5. Manipulation: If people have ordered their environment, they usually can
manipulate it or control it to their advantage.
After we've organized the environment, we often try to manipulate or control it to our
advantage. This means making changes or adjustments to fit our needs or preferences. For
example, if you move into a new apartment, you might rearrange the furniture, decorate the
space, and personalize it to make it more comfortable and aligned with your style.

6. Encoding: Finally, to communicate with others and to form mental maps of new
environments, people must agree on what the component parts of the environment
are called.
When we encounter new situations, we need to communicate with others and create
mental maps of the environment. This involves agreeing on what things are called and how
we talk about them. For instance, when learning a new language, you need to understand
and use the correct vocabulary to express your thoughts and communicate effectively with
others.
These responses are interconnected and help us navigate and adapt to new situations,
enabling us to understand, interact with, and eventually become comfortable in unfamiliar
environments.
Cognitive Maps
Without an understanding of spatial relationships between objects of importance in the
environment, we would not only be lost, but we would be literally paralyzed, unable to
function in the setting.
These mental representations of the environment are referred to as cognitive maps. The
processes of perception, learning, and memory are all involved in the study of spatial
cognition.
A common approach to studying spatial cognition is to ask people to draw "sketch maps" of
environments.
Lynch (1960) conducted one of the first comprehensive studies of the nature of cognitive
maps which resulted in the identification of five major characteristics:
1. paths: major arteries of traffic flow through the city (e.g., Main Street)
2. edges: major lines (either natural or built) that divide areas of the city or delimit the
boundaries (e.g., river)
3. districts: large sections of the city that have a distinct identity (e.g., "Chinatown")
4. nodes: points of intersection of major arteries (e.g., the corner of Twelfth Street and
Vine); and
5. Landmarks: architecturally unique structures that can be seen from a distance and
can be used as reference points (e.g., a tall building)
Errors in cognitive maps
1. Cognitive maps tend to be incomplete. Minor paths and details are left out. Districts
and major landmarks can also be omitted.
2. Our representation of the environment can be distorted by placing things too close,
too far apart, or aligning them improperly. We also distort spatial relationships based
on our ideas of larger categories within which we place smaller concepts.
3. Augmentation: the addition of features to a map that are not there.
Familiarity, gender, and socioeconomic class
the major factor influencing cognitive maps is familiarity. The more familiar we are with the
environment, the more accurate and detailed are our cognitive maps. Males sometimes
draw more thorough sketches. Higher socioeconomic status groups draw more thorough
maps than less well-off groups. That is, upper-class individuals probably have more
experience with a broader area of the city than lower-class individuals whose mobility is
restricted. In sum, the longer we have experience with an area and the more mobile we are
within it, the more thorough our cognitive maps of it are likely to be.
Functions of cognitive maps
Cognitive maps serve the adaptive functions of letting us around in our environment
efficiently and of helping us locate valuable items (food, shelter, meeting places) within the
environment. Without a cognitive map, we would have to search for locations in our
environment in a haphazard manner, hitting or missing the desired location in a very
inefficient way. The organization of the layout of the environment in our memory solves this
inefficiency problem, and helps us find new as well as old locations. Moreover, we can use
cognitive maps to communicate locations to others and to understand others’
communications about location to us. Being able to visualize the directions someone gives
us, and associating the directions with familiar landmarks, paths, and districts enhances our
ability to follow directions.
Memory and cognitive maps
Cognitive map is a mental picture or replica of the environment in our memory. This view,
termed analogical (meaning the mental map is analogous to the real world) or imaginal
(meaning we have an image of the environment in the mind), says that the cognitive map
roughly corresponds point for point to the physical environment, almost as I few have a
picture of the environment stored in the brain. Another view, the propositional approach,
advocates more of q meaning-based storage of material. That is, the environment is
represented as a number of concepts or ideas, each of which Is connected and has a number
of associations, such as colour, name, associated sounds, and height. When we call on this
propositional map, we search our memory for these various associations, which may be
represented through a sketch we draw. Cognitive maps contains both propositional and
analogical elements. For e.g., most information about the environment may be stored in
memory through propositions, but we can use the propositional network to construct an
analogical image.
Legibility
Lynch (1960) coined the term legibility to refer to the extent to which the spatial
arrangement of a city facilitates a clear and unified image in the minds of its inhabitants.
We remember and learn based on our legibility (Kevin Lynch).
We attend and easily distinguish legible aspects more readily than others.

Environmental Attitude
An attitude can be defined as a tendency to evaluate an object or an idea in a positive or
negative way. That is, attitudes involve affect or emotions- feelings of pleasantness or
unpleasantness, like or dislike, for something. Attitudes also involve cognitions or a set of
beliefs that support, justify, or derive from the affective feelings. Attitudes are set of
behaviours, or behavioural dispositions consistent with affect and cognitions.
Basically, attitude formation involves principles of learning: most attitudes appear to be
formed through classical conditioning or instrumental conditioning, or through social
learning.
An attitude is typically defined as consisting of a cognitive component, an affective
component, and a behavioural component. That is, an attitude involves the way, we think
about, feel about, and behave toward an object.
Classical conditioning of attitudes
The basic attitude formation process follows the principles of classical conditioning. In
classical conditioning (Pavlovian conditioning, Type I conditioning, or respondent
conditioning), an automatic or unconditioned responses evoked for an unconditioned
stimulus. Then the neutral or conditioned stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus
for several trials. That the conditioned stimulus id followed by the unconditional stimulus
and observe the unconditioned response. After enough trials the unconditioned stimulus is
omitted and the same conditioned response can be observed to the previously neutral (but
now conditioned) stimulus. In other words, from an attitudinal standpoint, we learn an
unfavourable attitude toward something (an environment, a person, an object, an idea)
because it is associated with something we did not like in the first place. Favourable
attitudes are learned in the same way- through association with a liked stimulus. Thus,
whether we like or dislike an environment depends to a large extent on the positive and
negative experiences associated with it.
Reinforcement-affect model of evaluative responses by Byrne and Clore (1970): rewarding
and punishing reinforcing stimuli from the physical and social environment elicit covert
affective responses in the recipient. That is, rewarding stimuli make us feel good, and
aversive make us feel bad.
Classical conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus  unconditioned response
Byrne-Clore Model
Rewarding or punishing stimuli  implicit affective reaction
Any neutral stimulus (such as an environment or person) associated with the rewarding or
punishing stimuli will come to elicit the same degree pf positive or negative affect. That is,
neutral stimuli are conditioned to elicit unpleasant or pleasant feelings. The overt evaluation
response toward either the reinforcing stimuli or the conditioned stimulus is then a function
of the degree of pleasantness or unpleasantness of the affective state associated with that
stimulus. Thus, when it comes to evaluating the environment, pleasant and unpleasant
associations with an environment are averaged. Any neutral or stimulus associated with
pleasant or unpleasant environmental events (i.e., with the unconditioned stimulus) will
come to elicit positive or negative affect and will be evaluated accordingly. Stimulus
generalization also occurs, meaning that a variety of related stimuli eventually evoke the
same response.
Instrumental conditioning of Attitudes
Attitudes can be learned through instrumental conditioning, also known as operant
conditioning, or Skinnerian, or Type II conditioning.
Expression of an attitude leads to positive or negative consequences, and the attitude that is
rewarded will be maintained and strengthened. Environmental attitudes are often formed in
a similar manner. Thus, rewards and punishments frequently instrumentally condition our
attitudes toward the environment.
From the instrumental conditioning perspective of attitude formation then, the polarity (pro
or con) of an attitude is a function of the positive and negative consequences of holding that
attitude.
Social Learning of Attitudes
Another way in which attitudes are formed is through social learning. According to social
learning theory (Bandura, 1974), if we observe another person (model) behave in a certain
way, we may imitate that behaviour. If we see the model rewarded for the behaviour, or if
we as observers are rewarded for imitating, we are more likely to reproduce the behaviour.
If, on the other hand, we see the model punished or are punished ourselves, we are less
likely to imitate.
All the processes of attitude formation are not necessarily independent of each other. That
is, social learning, classical conditioning, and instrumental conditioning are all playing a part
in the formation of our attitudes toward the environment.
PEQI
The Perceived Environmental Quality Index (PEQI) is designed to serve a number of
assessment purposes. It incorporates a support function for the preparation of
environmental impact statements and provides baseline for evaluating environmental
intervention programs. It also facilitates comparison of trends in the same environment over
time, comparison of different environments at the same time, and detection if aspects of the
environment that observers use in assessing quality. PEQIs exist for assessing air, water, and
noise pollution, residential quality, landscapes, scenic resources, outdoor recreation
facilities, transportation systems, and institutional or work environments.
Environmental Attitude-Behaviour Relationship
Attitudes influence behaviour. And sometimes attitudes can follow from a behaviour.
Fishbein (1967): attitudes are influenced by social norms. These norms, together with
attitudes, predict behavioural intentions, which in turn predict overt behaviours.
O’Riordan (1976): Not only specific attitudes can create specific behaviour, but also, a set of
attitudes can create a specific behaviour.
Bruvold (1973): clusters of attitudes or cognitions are interwoven with behaviours and
behaviour alternatives. So that in order to change environmental behaviours we must
change attitudes and behaviours at the same time.
Environmental Beliefs
Environmental beliefs play a crucial role in shaping individuals' understanding and
perceptions of environmental issues. Here are some key aspects related to environmental
beliefs:
1. Scientific Understanding: Environmental beliefs can be influenced by an individual's
understanding of scientific concepts and findings. People who are well-informed about
environmental science may hold beliefs aligned with scientific consensus on topics such as
climate change, biodiversity loss, or pollution.
2. Worldviews and Ideologies: Environmental beliefs can be influenced by broader
worldviews and ideologies. For example, individuals with an ecocentric worldview prioritize
the well-being of the entire ecosystem and emphasize the intrinsic value of nature. In
contrast, individuals with an anthropocentric worldview prioritize human interests and see
nature primarily as a resource to be utilized.
3. Cultural and Social Influences: Cultural and social factors, including upbringing, education,
and peer groups, can shape environmental beliefs. Cultural beliefs, traditions, and values
passed down through generations can influence perceptions of the environment and
conservation practices.
4. Environmental Risk Perception: Beliefs about environmental risks and their severity can
vary among individuals. Some may perceive certain environmental issues as immediate
threats requiring urgent action, while others may downplay or deny the severity of those
issues.
5. Technological Optimism or Pessimism: Beliefs about technology's role in solving
environmental problems can vary. Some individuals may believe that technological
advancements will provide solutions to environmental challenges, while others may be more
sceptical about relying on technology and emphasize the need for behavioural and systemic
changes.
6. Faith and Spirituality: Religious and spiritual beliefs can shape environmental beliefs.
Some religious traditions emphasize stewardship and the responsibility to care for the Earth,
while others may have different perspectives on humanity's relationship with nature.
Environmental beliefs can be complex and multidimensional, and individuals may hold a
combination of beliefs influenced by various factors. Understanding these beliefs can help in
designing effective environmental communication, education, and advocacy efforts to foster
positive attitudes and behaviours towards the environment.
Daryl Bern (1970) has suggested that beliefs constitute the cognitive "building blocks" of
attitudes. Bern distinguished between primitive beliefs and higher-order belief.
Primitive beliefs are non-conscious (i.e., they are accepted as givens, and are seldom
consciously questioned). They are either based on direct experience (e.g., the belief in the
validity of our sense impressions) or on external authority (e.g., the belief that if Mommy
says so, it must be true).
Primitive beliefs, also known as "folk beliefs" or "lay theories," are intuitive or culturally
transmitted ideas that individuals hold about various aspects of the world. These beliefs
often arise from common sense, personal experiences, or cultural traditions. While they may
not align with scientific explanations, they play a significant role in shaping individuals'
perceptions and behaviours. Here's an example of a primitive belief related to
environmental psychology:
Understanding the primitive beliefs related to the environment allows researchers and
practitioners in environmental psychology to design interventions and strategies that align
with people's intuitive understanding of the environment and promote positive interactions
with nature.
Higher-order beliefs. According to Bern these beliefs involve the insertion of a conscious
premise in the thought process of arriving at the belief. Thus, a belief can be thought of as a
conclusion to a syllogism.
Higher-order beliefs, also known as meta beliefs or second-order beliefs, are beliefs that
individuals hold about their own beliefs or the beliefs of others. These beliefs reflect
individuals' reflections on the nature, validity, or reliability of their own beliefs and the
beliefs of others.
Higher-order beliefs can play a significant role in shaping individuals' attitudes, behaviours,
and interactions with others. They can influence how individuals interpret and respond to
new information, how they engage in discussions or debates, and how they form judgments
about the beliefs of others.
These meta beliefs can vary greatly among individuals and can be influenced by factors such
as personal experiences, education, cultural background, and social influences. For example,
someone with a strong conviction in their own beliefs may hold a higher-order belief that
their beliefs are superior or more valid than those of others, leading to a more rigid and
resistant attitude toward alternative viewpoints.
Higher-order beliefs can also impact how individuals respond to challenges to their beliefs. If
someone holds a meta belief that their beliefs are open to revision and improvement, they
may be more receptive to opposing viewpoints and willing to engage in constructive
discussions. Conversely, if someone holds a meta belief that their beliefs are unquestionably
correct, they may be less open to considering alternative perspectives or changing their
beliefs in light of new evidence.
Understanding higher-order beliefs can provide insights into how individuals evaluate and
navigate their own belief systems and interact with the beliefs of others. It highlights the
role of metacognition and self-reflection in shaping our attitudes, decision-making
processes, and interactions within social and cognitive contexts.
Environmental Values
Values are fundamental guiding principles or ideals that individuals consider important in
their lives. When it comes to the environment, environmental values reflect the importance
and significance individuals place on nature, sustainability, and the well-being of ecosystems.
Here are some key environmental values:
1. Sustainability: This value emphasizes the need to live in a way that meets present needs
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It involves
responsible resource use, minimizing waste, and preserving natural resources for the long-
term benefit of society and the environment.
2. Conservation: Conservation values prioritize the protection and preservation of natural
habitats, species, and ecosystems. It involves recognizing the intrinsic value of nature and
the importance of maintaining biodiversity and ecological balance.
3. Stewardship: Stewardship values entail a sense of responsibility and care for the
environment. Individuals with this value see themselves as custodians of the Earth, with a
duty to protect and sustainably manage natural resources for the benefit of present and
future generations.
4. Ecological Integrity: This value emphasizes the importance of maintaining the health,
resilience, and functioning of ecosystems. It recognizes the interconnectedness of all living
beings and supports actions that promote the integrity and well-being of natural systems.
5. Environmental Justice: Environmental justice values focus on the fair distribution of
environmental benefits and burdens across different communities and social groups. It
involves addressing and mitigating environmental inequalities, ensuring that all individuals,
regardless of their socioeconomic status or background, have equal access to a clean and
healthy environment.
6. Interconnectedness: This value recognizes the interdependence and interconnectedness
of all elements of the natural world. It emphasizes the understanding that human actions
have ripple effects on ecosystems, and that the well-being of humans is intimately linked to
the health of the environment.
7. Aesthetic Appreciation: Aesthetic values centre on the appreciation of the beauty and
intrinsic value of nature. It involves recognizing and valuing the emotional, inspirational, and
spiritual connection that individuals have with natural landscapes, wildlife, and the overall
natural environment.
These values can influence individuals' decision-making, lifestyles, and support for
environmental policies and initiatives. They provide a moral and ethical foundation for taking
actions to protect and conserve the environment and contribute to a more sustainable and
harmonious relationship between humans and nature.
Environmental Dispositions
Dispositions, in the context of environmental attitudes and behaviour, refer to the
behavioural tendencies, inclinations, or habits individuals have towards the environment.
These dispositions can shape how individuals interact with the environment and their
likelihood of engaging in pro-environmental actions. Here are some common environmental
dispositions:
1. Environmental Concern: Individuals with a high level of environmental concern exhibit a
genuine care and worry for environmental issues. They may express empathy for the natural
world, be attentive to environmental problems, and feel a personal responsibility to take
action.
2. Environmental Responsibility: This disposition reflects an individual's sense of personal
responsibility for the environment. People with this disposition feel accountable for their
own environmental impact and are willing to make changes in their behaviour to reduce
their ecological footprint.
3. Environmental Activism: Some individuals have a disposition towards active
environmental engagement. They may participate in environmental activism, advocacy, or
volunteering, and actively work towards promoting environmental awareness and
sustainable practices.
4. Conservation-oriented Behaviour: This disposition manifests in individuals who have a
strong inclination towards conserving natural resources and minimizing waste. They may
adopt behaviours such as recycling, energy and water conservation, and reducing
consumption to minimize their environmental impact.
5. Nature Connection: Some individuals have a strong disposition towards connecting with
nature. They may seek out opportunities to spend time in natural environments, engage in
outdoor activities, and derive well-being and fulfilment from their interactions with nature.
6. Environmental Education and Learning: Individuals with a disposition towards
environmental education and learning actively seek out knowledge and information about
environmental issues. They may engage in self-education, attend workshops, or take part in
formal environmental education programs to deepen their understanding and awareness.
7. Sustainable Decision-making: This disposition reflects a tendency to prioritize
sustainability in decision-making processes. Individuals with this disposition consider
environmental factors when making choices about consumption, transportation, housing,
and other aspects of daily life.
Environmental dispositions can vary among individuals and can be influenced by a range of
factors, including upbringing, education, values, and personal experiences. Environmental
dispositions can be nurtured and encouraged through environmental education, awareness
campaigns, and providing opportunities for meaningful environmental engagement.
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx