ME-445

THERMODYNAMICS AND FLUID MECHANICS II LAB

ISO 9001:2015 MEL-05-S Rev. # 06 Date: Sept 07, 2020

Students Lab Manual

FOR

Thermodynamics and Fluid Mechanics II Lab

(MEL 5)
IN FME

Name Signature
Updated by: Engr. Samar Abbas
Edited and
Mr. Faheem Ahmed (Lecturer)
Reviewed by:
ISO 9001
Dr. Massab Junaid
Section:
Approved by
Dr. Khalid Rahman
Dean FME
Issued by
In-charge Dr. Muhammad Ilyas
student section

i
 Contents
Standard Procedure for Lab Experiments ........................................................................................v
Lab Rules and Evaluation Criteria ...................................................................................................vi
Evaluation ................................................................................................................................ vi
Laboratory preparation ........................................................................................................... vi
Laboratory performance ........................................................................................................ vii
Experimental results ............................................................................................................... vii
Discussion of results and conclusion ...................................................................................... vii
General Lab Rubrics ...................................................................................................................... viii
Health & Safety Regulations ............................................................................................................x
Experiment No. 01 “Air Conditioning”......................................................................................... 1
Experiment No. 02 “Refrigeration” .............................................................................................. 8
Experiment No. 03 “Recirculation Air Conditioning” ............................................................... 12
Experiment No. 04 “Boundary Layer Development”................................................................ 19
Experiment No. 05 “Drag Force Measurement”........................................................................ 27
Experiment No. 06 “Universal Pump Test Rig” ......................................................................... 32
Experiment No. 07 “Francis Turbine”........................................................................................ 38
Experiment No. 08 “Compressible Flow through Nozzles” ..................................................... 45
Experiment No. 09 “Pelton Wheel Turbine” ............................................................................. 49
Experiment No. 10 “Steam Engine” ........................................................................................... 53
11: Problem-based learning (PBL) activities ............................................................................ 61
11.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................... 61
11.2 Debriefing ............................................................................................................................ 61
11.3 General guidelines .............................................................................................................. 61

ii
 Mechanical Engineering Lab V

Pre Mid-Term Course Content

The following experiments will be performed before Mid-Term Exam:

1. Air Conditioning

2. Refrigeration

3. Recirculation Air Conditioning

4. Boundary-Layer Development

5. Drag Force Measurement

6. Universal Pump Test Rig

Mid Term Exam will be conducted in the 8th week of the semester, course content for
the mid-term exam will be above-mentioned experiments.

iii
 Mechanical Engineering Lab V

Post-Mid-Term Course Content

The following experiments will be performed after the Mid-Term Exam:

1. Francis Turbine

2. Compressible Flow Through Nozzles

3. Pelton Wheel Turbine

4. Steam Engine

Final Exam will be conducted in the 15th week of the semester. Final exam course
content will include the above-mentioned experiments as well as Pre- Mid Term
content.

iv
 Standard Procedure for Lab Experiments

1. Students are expected to have read the students manual before commencing the
experiment so that they are well-versed in the experimental procedure, related theory
as well as health and safety procedure.
2. Students must write a concise procedure before starting the experiment that shall
contain key steps necessary for performing the experiment. This procedure should be
discussed with the lab engineer before performing the experiment.
3. Lab engineers will instruct students on the apparatus operating method, precautionary
measures and related theory (if necessary) that is needed to complement the overall
experiment.
4. Students are then expected to perform the experiment according to the guidelines
provided by the students manual and lab engineer. However certain equipment may
only be operated by the respective lab technician.
5. Lab engineers will continuously monitor the progress made by the students.
6. Lab viva will be conducted by the lab engineers related to the experiment performed
and associated theory. Students are expected to know the grading policy as stated in the
lab rubrics.
7. Do not operate any equipment if not sure how to use it. Your safety comes first.
8. For general lab and Problem Based Learning (PBL) instructions please refer to your lab
manual.
9. Students are not allowed to enter the lab without a respective lab manual, scientific
calculator and relevant reading material.

v
 Lab Rules and Evaluation Criteria

Eating in Lab: Eating and drinking is strictly prohibited in the lab, anyone eating or
drinking in the lab will be marked absent for that lab
Makeup Lab: No Makeup lab. However, without the permission from the Dean one
can perform experiments. Such lab experiments will not be graded.
Late Comers: Students should come on time for the lab. Latecomers will be marked
absent.
Lab Exam: Lab exam will be conducted during the last week of classes.
Schedule: Lab Schedule will be provided at the beginning of the course.
Duration: Duration of each practical experiment is 3 hours and no student will be
allowed to leave the Lab before time. The students should keep themselves busy and
acquire a full understanding of the apparatus and the experiments. Any student who
leaves the Lab before the end of time will be marked absent.
Cheating cases will be handled in accordance with the FME policy, the details are
provided on the FME website http:// 10.1.16.11.
Note:
1. Each member of every group should bring the lab manual and scientific calculator
2. Students should hand in lab reports before leaving the lab
3. Next-day submission of lab report will not be accepted
4. Students are required to switch off mobile phones during the lab session

Evaluation
The Lab report will have to be handed in at the end of the 3-hour laboratory session. Every
effort will be made to ensure that data collection for all experiments can easily be completed in
1.5 to 2 hours, leaving 1.5 to 1 hour for discussion of results and conclusions. The following is
the point allocation used to determine the marks for the reports.
Lab Sessions Performance 30%
Mid Practical Assessment 15 %
Final Practical Assessment 30 %
Assessment of PBL Experiments 25 %

vi
Laboratory Preparation
Advance preparation before running the experiments is most important to enable you to
perform the experiments and complete your report within the allotted 3-hour laboratory
session. Before the experiments, you should have prepared the following
 A clear statement of apparatus i.e. what you want to achieve from this experiment.
 A schematic diagram of the apparatus showing the location of all the instrumentation
 Datasheets for recording the primary data
 Datasheets for calculating data to be plotted
You should have the following items with you before performing the laboratory experiments:
 Appropriate course notes/textbook
 Laboratory notes on individual experiments as contained in this lab manual
Note: Previously filled Student Lab Reports are not permitted during the performance of the
lab.

Laboratory Performance
Your performance in the laboratory, to a large extent, will depend on how well prepared you
are as a team. This will improve your efficiency and accuracy in collecting data, calculating
errors and final results, and submitting the final reports writing within the three-hour time
limit.

Experimental Results
Neatness, Accuracy and Completeness of the results and figure will be considered as an
important metric for evaluation.

Discussion of Results and Conclusion

The correct interpretation of your results, their comparison with the results in the literature,
and the conclusions drawn will be evaluated. The Lab Engineers will evaluate your performance
in these categories according to the following Rubric form.

vii
 General Lab Rubrics
Levels of Proficiency
Obtained
Score (S) → 0≤S≤4 4<S≤6 6<S≤8 8 < S ≤ 10 PLO↓
Score↓
Performance Expected Outcome
Poor Fair Good Excellent
Criteria ↓ (CLO)↓
Demonstrate a basic Demonstrates Demonstrates a Demonstrates a Demonstrates
understanding of a poor fair good excellent
Aims and
experiment understanding understanding understanding of understanding of
Objectives
objectives of experiment of experiment experiment experiment
objectives objectives objectives objectives
Demonstrate the Demonstrates Demonstrates Demonstrates good Demonstrates PLO9
ability to design a either no, fair knowledge knowledge of excellent PLO12
solution to open- incomplete or of design and design and knowledge of
Open Ended ended engineering incorrect proposes proposes design and
Experiment problems knowledge, reasonable reasonable proposes sound
Design and is unable solutions but in solutions solutions
to need of extreme
design/propose supervision
as a solution
Demonstrate the Demonstrates Has a basic idea Establishes Demonstrates PLO4
operational either no, but in need of groundwork comprehensive
procedure for given incomplete or extreme successfully, knowledge and
apparatus and incorrect supervision and identifies and proposes
identify necessary operational steering in the describes steps improvements
Apparatus
parameters and skills and is right direction involved
Handling
uncertainties unable to
identify
parameters
and
uncertainties
Demonstrate Demonstrates Has a basic idea Establishes Demonstrates PLO5
proficiency in either no, but in need of groundwork comprehensive
mathematical incomplete or extreme successfully, knowledge and
Modeling and modeling and/or incorrect supervision and identifies and proposes
Simulation engineering software knowledge of steering in the describes steps improvements or
handling interface right direction involved is able to adopt a
and/or tools different
used methodology

Demonstrate the Results are Results are Results are Results are PLO4
ability to present neither repetitive but do repetitive and repetitive and
results that are repetitive nor not match with match with match with
Accuracy and repetitive and match accurate theory/literature theory/literature theory/literature
Precision the theoretical with some errors with minimal
and/or errors
established/published
work or standard

viii
 Demonstrate the Demonstrates Has a basic idea Describes the Demonstrates PLO10
ability to present either no, but in need of methods of data comprehensive
relevant experimental incomplete or extreme analysis, able to knowledge in data
data (in the form of incorrect supervision and identify potential analysis and
tables/graphs) taking knowledge, steering in the errors, identifies presentation and
Data Analysis in to account the unable to right direction trends and requires no
and Deductions statistical analysis analyze or presents supervision and
and interpreting process data scientific/processed conclude clearly
results into data in a coherent and precisely.
meaningful way
conclusions and/or
recommendations
Demonstrate Demonstrate Has a basic idea Demonstrates the Demonstrates the PLO10
adequate knowledge no or little but in need of understanding of understanding of
necessary for knowledge of extreme orthographic orthographic
orthographic reading orthographic supervision and reading and writing reading and
Graphical and writing reading and is steering in the and formatting and writing and
Communication unable to right direction. scaling, with few formatting and
format and errors. scaling, keeps
scale views views neat and
words properly
lettered

NOTES:-

(1) For all the MEL's PLO12 is a mandatory selection for CLO-PLO mapping
(2) The course CLOs may only be mapped to PLO 4, 5, 9, 10, 12
(3) The PLO 4, 5 9 and 10 may be selected as and where applicable
(4) One (01) OEL/PBL experiment cannot be used to evaluate more than one PLO. To have
two (02) different PLOs for OEL/PBL experiment you should conduct at least one more
lab.
(5) The Expected Outcome may be rephrased according to the given lab to form the lab
CLOs after considering the Blooms Taxonomy level and adding relevant level phrases.
(6) The rubric graphical communication is more specifically presented for the use in
Engineering Graphics Lab (ME102L). But maybe used for other relevant labs Ex.
CAD/CAM. But, be sure that you have separate experiments/lab sessions in a case you
are using more PLO's. In other words, one lab session can be used to evaluate the
attainment of a student in only one PLO.

ix
 Health & Safety Regulations

Users of any FME Laboratory must comply with the following safety instructions. At the
beginning of the course, the instructor should brief the students about health and safety. The
students should know where the fire exits, fire extinguisher, fire alarm and the assembly point
are in case of an emergency such as fire or earthquake etc.
• No experiments should be conducted without the presence of Lab engineer and
technician.
• Smoking is strictly prohibited inside the Lab.
• Always wear trousers, overall and safety shoes when you operate any machine and
perform any experiment.
• There should be no over-crowding. Only one person should operate one machine. In
case, the experiment needs more than one person for the operation, other group mates
would join.
• Make sure that you stay away from moving parts of machines. This is more pertinent to
high speed rotating machine experiments i.e. experiments No. 5
• Before operating any machine, you must be aware of the following:
a. Location of fire extinguishers, fire blanket and the outside exits.
b. How the machine operates. Read instructions or manual of the machine before
operating it.
c. How to turn off the machine in case of damages/Emergencies relevant to
rotating machine experiments
• When you hear or see a danger alarm from the machine that you use, stop the machine
right away, using an emergency stop button.
• Make sure that there is no fuel or oil spill on the floor.
• When moving heavy equipment, use trolley available in the lab.
• Always use the right tools for the given task.
• Handle the tools and equipment’s with extreme care and returns the tools to their
proper places or the lab attended.
• Please leave the Lab clean and tidy at the end of the experiment.
• Before leaving the lab, ensure the chairs are pushed back under the table

x
 Experiment No. 01 “Air Conditioning”
1.1 Objective:
Application of energy and mass balances to different processes involved in the air
conditioning while using different temperature and pressure measurements as well as flow
rates.

1.2 Introduction:
Air conditioning is the process of altering the properties of air (primarily temperature and
humidity) to more favorable conditions. The control of these conditions may be desirable
to maintain the health and comfort of the occupants or to meet the requirements of
industrial processes irrespective of the external climatic conditions.

1.3 Nomenclature:
Symbols Description Units
̇ Air mass flow rate kg/s
mm
z Orifice differential pressure drop
H2O
The specific volume of air at station B m3/kg
The specific volume of air at station B m3/kg
̇ The mass flow rate of water vapors from the boilers kg/s
A Specific humidity at station A g/kg
B Specific humidity at station B g/kg
̇ Boiler Heat input kW
̇ Preheater power input kW
Fan power input kW
Specific enthalpy of air at station A kJ/kg
Specific enthalpy of air at station B kJ/kg
Specific enthalpy of steam between A and B kJ/kg
̇ kW
Specific enthalpy of air at station C kJ/kg
̇ The mass flow rate of water condensate kg/s
Specific enthalpy of water condensate kJ/kg
̇ The refrigerant mass flow rate kg/s
Specific enthalpy of the refrigerant at the compressor inlet kJ/kg
Specific enthalpy of the refrigerant at the evaporator inlet kJ/kg
̇ Reheater power input kW
̇ Volume flow rate of the refrigerant at compressor suction m3/kg

1
1.4 Theory:
Air conditioning is used to add or remove heat from a space. Heating, cooling, cleaning,
humidification, dehumidification and air motion (circulation) are the processes which are
involved in air conditioning.

Heating:
It is the transfer of energy to the air in a space.

Cooling:
It is the transfer of energy from the air in a space.

Humidification:
The process in which the moisture or water vapor or humidity is added to the air without
changing its dry bulb (DB) temperature is called humidification process.

Cleaning:
The removal of particulate and biological containments from the air in a space.

Air motion/Circulation:
It is the movement of air through the spaces in a building to achieve the proper ventilation
and facilitate the energy transfer, humidification (or dehumidification), and cleaning
processes described above.

1.5 Equipment Description

Air-conditioning laboratory unit as shown in Fig. 1.1 is a model A574 computer test unit
that allows the user to study various air-conditioning processes, as the air passes through
various conditioning processes that take place in a closed square-duct section mounted on
a steel frame. There are seven heaters installed on the system (two preheat, two reheats
and three in the boiler) that are controlled through a control panel consisting of buttons for
each heater as well as fan speed control and the compressor power button. An atmospheric
boiler, that has three heating elements, can be switched to create various rates of steam
production which provides the steam to the unit. The water level in the boiler is controlled
by a float valve and observed through a sight glass.

2
 Figure 1.1: Schematic diagram of an air conditioning unit

When the compressor is turned on, the following refrigeration cycle starts:

The refrigerant R-134a vapor is drawn from the evaporator (or the cooling coil) into a
hermetic (sealed) compressor which discharges into an air-cooled condenser. The
refrigerant liquid then passes through a flow meter and thermostatically controlled
expansion valve to the evaporator. Four thermometers and two pressure gauges enable the
state points of the refrigeration cycle to be determined.

Air is drawn into a variable speed centrifugal fan past wet and dry bulb thermometers at A
and discharged into the duct. For humidification, steam is added at the fan intake i.e. after
A. Once in the duct, the air can be pre-heated by two 1 kW finned electric heating coils, and
then into a stabilizing section, where its condition is measured by both wet and dry bulb
thermometers at point B. Then the air flows over the evaporator coils of R-134a vapor-
compression unit whose operation is discussed in the previous paragraph. Here between B

3
and C, the air is cooled and, under certain conditions, dehumidified, releasing some of its
moisture content as condensed water. The condensate is drained into a calibrated flask for
analysis purpose. Thermometers again measure the air conditions before it passes over 0.5
kW finned heating coils that are used for reheating purpose to provide desired conditions.
The final condition of the air is determined by thermometers at point D. The mass flow rate
can be derived from a differential pressure drop across the sharp-edged orifice which is the
exit portion of the duct.

1.6 Operating Instructions

(Please refer to schematic diagram)
 Before turning on the unit, be sure that the refrigeration cycle is off.
 Switch on the unit at the main switch. The fan should run as soon as the switch is
turned on. Allow the fan to run for at least 5 minutes, and then turn on the
refrigeration cycle.
 Switch on pre-heaters as indicated in Table 1.1.
 Adjust the fan speed to 10 and allow the unit to run for 10 minutes.
 Take values of temperature and pressure etc. at different points and note it in Table
1.1.
 Take at least five readings at different fan speeds and complete Table 1.1 and 1.2.
 Turn off the heaters.

Steam Option
 Turn on the water supply to the boiler and check that the water level in the gauge
glass stabilizes at a depth, which will cover all the heater elements (i.e. about
120mm from the bottom of the boiler).
 For the steam to be generated, turn on the three boilers switches and wait until
steam starts to eject from the distributor (this takes about 5 minutes). Now adjust
the boiler output to the desired rate by switching up to any level by 1kW
increments up to a maximum of 5kW.
 Now repeat the above operating instructions and complete Table 1.2.

1.7 Precautions
Before switching off
 Switch off all boiler heaters.
 Switch off all air heaters.
 Switch off refrigeration circuit.
 Set the fan to maximum speed.
 Then, allow the fan to run for at least five minutes after which the main isolator may
be switched off

4
1.8 Data Analysis:
Calculation of air mass flow rate:
̇ √ (kg/s)

Where
̇ , (kg/s)
(m3/kg)
( )

Application of energy-mass balance between A & B:

By conservation of mass between A and B:
̇ ̇ ̇ ̇ (kg/s)
Where
̇

( )

( )

Applying steady flow energy equation between A and B:

Now the left-hand side:

̇ ̇
Where
̇
̇
̇

And the right-hand side:

̇ ̇
Where
, (kJ/kg)
, (kJ/kg)
(kJ/kg)

5
Application of energy-mass balance between B & C:
Mass Balance:

The rate of condensation from air stream  m a (B  C ) ……………………... (4) (Kg/s)
Where

( )

( )

Energy Balance:
(kW)
̇ ̇ ̇ ̇ … ………… (6) (kW)
Where
̇ (kW)
(kJ/kg)
(kJ/kg)
̇ (kg/s)
̇ (kg/s)
(kg/s)
(kg/s)

Energy balance between C & D:

Between C and D there is re-heater only. Applying energy balance to the duct between C and D:
 
Qr  ma (hD  hC ) …. …. ……..(7) (kW)
̇ (kW)
(kJ/kg)
(kJ/kg)

Volumetric efficiency of compressor:

Volume flow rate at the compressor intake:
 
V 1  m r v1 … … … … …. (8) ( )
(m3/kg)
̇
The volumetric efficiency of the compressor is

V1
 vol 
swept _ volume

6
Figure 1.2: Psychometric chart

7
 Experiment No. 02 “Refrigeration”

2.1 Objective
Production of Energy Balances of Special Refrigeration Laboratory Unit.
Find COP for the refrigeration cycle.
2.2 Introduction
The refrigeration cycle in various forms finds applications in countless industrial and
domestic situations throughout the world. For example, the storage and transport of
perishable foodstuffs and drugs be extremely difficult if not impossible without
refrigeration. It is for these reasons that engineers of many disciplines must have a good
working knowledge of refrigeration cycle.

Condenser

Compressor Throttling
Device

Evaporator

Figure 2.1: Refrigeration cycle

2.3 Theory
A refrigerator is defined as a machine whose prime function is to remove heat from a low-
temperature region. Since the energy extracted cannot be destroyed, it follows that this
energy, plus the energy required to operate the machine, must be rejected to the
surroundings at a higher temperature. If the temperature of rejection is high enough to be
useful (e.g for space or water heating) and this is the prime objective of the machine, the
machine is called a Heat Pump. The most common type of refrigerator or heat pump
operates on the Vapor Compression Cycle and requires a work unit. The Hilton
Refrigeration Laboratory Unit is a vapor compression refrigerator of this form and has
been designed to enable students to safely study the cycle in detail.

8
2.4 Nomenclature

Symbols Description Units

̇ Heat absorbed by the refrigerant in the evaporator kW
Evaporator Volts Volts (V)
Evaporator Amperes A
̇ The refrigerant mass flow rate kg/s
Specific enthalpy at compressor suction kJ/kg
Specific enthalpy at the evaporator outlet kJ/kg
The specific heat capacity of water kJ/kg.oC
The temperature of cooling water before the condenser oC

The temperature of the cooling water after the condenser oC

Specific enthalpy at the compressor exit kJ/kg

Specific enthalpy at the condenser exit kJ/kg
Shaft power of the compressor kW
T The torque exerted by the motor on the compressor N-m
F Force required to move the spring load N
n The angular velocity of the compressor or motor Rpm
̇ The mass flow rate of water kg/s
Frictional Power kW
Motor load cell reading with the compressor suction valve
N
closed
Compressor indicated power kW
̇ Heat losses from the compressor kW
Electrical Power input kW
Motor Volts V
Motor Amperes A
Cos inverse of power factor Rad
̇ Net heat input to the plant kW
Net Power output by the plant kW
̇ Heat transfer to the refrigerant in the condenser kW
̇ Heat transfer in the evaporator kW

9
 2.5 Major Uses
Some of the major uses of Refrigeration are:
 In the process of cooling i.e. for Air-conditioning.
 Processing and preservation of food.
 Removing heat from substances in chemical, petroleum and petrochemical plants.
 Other numerous applications as those in the manufacturing and construction
industries warehouses etc.
2.6 Precautions
 Set all the knobs to initial position before starting the equipment.
 Do not touch the fittings as it might result in a refrigerant leak.
 Wait for the readings to normalize before noting them.
 At the end of experiment switch off the equipment and terminate the water supply.

2.7 Procedure
 Fully rotate evaporator input control in the anti-clockwise direction
 Switch on the unit after one minute.
 Adjust the evaporator-input control to give 150 volts.
 Set the condenser pressure to 1050 kN/m2 by adjusting the condenser water flow
rate. The condenser pressure should remain constant at 1050 kN/m2 throughout
the experiment.
 Take 9 readings to complete the table with an increment of 10 volts by adjusting the
voltage with evaporator input control.
 The unit should be given at least (7 minutes for all the processes to be in the steady-
state condition.
Shutting down at the end of the test
Reduce the refrigeration load (evaporator heat input control) to zero. After about one
minute switch off at the main switch and turn off the cooling water.

10
2.8 Data Analysis
Evaporator
Evaporator Heat Input:
̇ ………………..(1) (kW)
R134a Enthalpy Change Rate = ̇ (kW)
Condenser
Heat Transfer to Cooling Water:
̇ ̇ ………………….(2) (kW)
R134a Enthalpy Change Rate = ̇ (kW) ; h3 = h4
Compressor
Shaft Power:
……………………….. (3a) (kW)
(kW)
Friction Power:

Where Ff is the motor load cell reading with the compressor suction valve closed, i.e.
the compressor doing no net work on the gas.
Compressor Indicated Power:
……………………….. (4) (kW)
R134a Enthalpy Change Rate= ̇ (kW)
Thus loses from the compressor in the form of radiated and convected heat is
represented,
̇ ̇ ……………….(5) (kW)
Electric Motor
 (kW)
Hence the heat loses from the motor in the form of radiation and convection,
̇ (kW)
For the Complete Plant
̇ (Ist Law) (kW)
̇ ̇ ̇ (kW)
Some Useful Data
If Compressor RPM = 480
Motor RPM = 480 * 3.08 = 1478 (3.08 = Belt Pulley Ratio)
Compressor Friction Force = 5 N
Torque Arm Radius = 0.165 m
Sp. Heat of water = 4.18 kJ/kg

11
 Experiment No. 03 “Recirculation Air Conditioning”

3.1 Objective
Determination of overall heat transfer coefficient at various air velocities of recirculation
air conditioning unit and estimation of volumetric efficiency of the compressor.

3.2 Introduction
The function of air conditioning equipment is to change the state of entering air to the
desired state by controlling the temperature and humidity of the specified space. Air
conditioning makes air comfortable for human. In comfort air conditioning, it is necessary
to control simultaneously the temperature, relative humidity, cleanliness and distribution
of air to meet the comfort requirements of the occupants.

3.3 Nomenclature
Symbols Description Units
̇ Air mass flow rate kg/s
z Orifice differential pressure drop mm H2O
V Specific volume of air at the orifice m3/kg
E Pre heater Voltage V
Pre heater current A
̇ air mass flow rate kg/s
Enthalpy of air before pre heater kJ/kg
Enthalpy of air after pre heater kJ/kg
̇ Boiler Power input kW
Boiler current A
Specific humidity at pre heater inlet kg/kg
Specific humidity of air before the evaporator kg/kg
Specific enthalpy of steam kJ/kg
Specific enthalpy of condensate water kJ/kg
̇ Rate of change of enthalpy kW
̇ Rate of change in enthalpy of air by passing thorough fan kW
Specific enthalpy of air at the evaporator exit kJ/kg
̇ Condensate flow rate kg/s
Specific enthalpy of condensate kJ/kg
Compressor current A
Cos inverse of compressor power factor rad
Specific volume at compressor suction m3/kg
̇ Volume flow rate of refrigerant at compressor suction m3/s

12
 Compressor swept volume m3/s
̇ Heat transfer rate to the junction between stations A and B kW
̇ Re heater power input kW
Re heater current A
Fan power kW
Fan current A
Enthalpy of air after the evaporator kJ/kg
Enthalpy of air after re heater kJ/kg
̇ Mass flow rate at fan inlet kg/s
̇ Air mass flow rate before pre heater kg/s
̇ Air mass flow rate ventilated kg/s
Specific enthalpy of air after entering through the orifice kJ/kg
Specific humidity of air at the ventilation entrance kg/kg
Specific humidity of air at pre heater inlet kg/kg
Specific humidity of air after re heater kg/kg

13
Figure 3.1: Recirculation Air Conditioning Unit

14
3.4 Theory
Air conditioning is the process of adding to or removing heat from a space. Coolant In
recirculating air conditioning system is used again and again. Once it completes cycle it
becomes ready for next cycle. Air conditioning plant usually consists of a number of
components (e.g. fans, filters, heat exchanger, humidifiers, etc.) Enclosed in a sheet metal
casing. Following are the major components in a typical recirculating air conditioning unit:

1. Filter
It is used to remove insects, leaves and airborne particles.
2. Fans
Fans are required to cause the air movement and to make good the pressure drop due
to the duct and system resistance.
3. Heat Exchanger
Heat exchangers are finned on the air side, are need to increase or decrease the air
temperature.
4. Humidifier
It is used to increase the moisture content of the air
5. Dehumidifier
It is used to reduce the moisture content of the air
6. Eliminator
It is specially shaped baffles through which the air flows and which remove entrained
water droplets from the air stream.
7. Mixer
It is employed to blend two streams of air to achieve the desired condition and/or
economy.

3.5 Operating Instructions:

Before turning on the unit make sure that refrigeration cycle is off.
1. Rotate the fan speed controller fully clockwise.
2. Switch on the electric supply at the isolator.
3. Switch on the unit at the main switch. The fan should run as soon as the switch is
made on. Allow the fan to run for at least 5 minutes. Then turn on the refrigeration
cycle (compressor).
4. Switch on re-heaters and pre-heaters as indicated in the Table given below. As will
be seen from the diagram. The lower row of switches controls the adjacent
components in the lower duct.
5. Fully close the re-circulation control window to give 100% re-circulation.
6. Allow the unit to run for sufficient time to bring the system in equilibrium.
7. Take values of temperature and pressure etc. at different points and record in Table
8. Take readings at different window opening positions and complete the Table.

15
3.6 Precautions
 Before switching off
 Switch off all boiler heaters. Switch off all air heaters.
 Switch off refrigeration circuit. Set the fan to maximum speed.
 Then, allow the fan to run for at least five minutes after which the main isolator may
be switched off.

3.7 Data Analysis

Heating:
 z
m a  0.0757 (kg/s)
v
Where
̇ = Air mass flow rate, kg/s
ʋ = Specific volume of air at orifice, m3/kg
Pre-heater heat transfer = EI p (kW)

Enthalpy change rate= m(hC  hB ) (kW)

Steam Injection:
 z
m a  0.0757 (kg/s)
v

Q s  EI s (kW)

Enthalpy change rate= m(hC  hB ) (kW)

Increase of moisture:

Moisture Increase= m a (C   B ) (kg/s)

Qs
Theoretical evaporation at boiler= (kg/s)
hs  hw

Cooling and Dehumidification:

  
 H  m a (hD  hC )  m w hw  W (kW)

16
Refrigerator:
Electrical power input to compressor (kW)
Over-all Coefficient of Performance:
COP=Cooling Rate/Power Input
Specific Volume at compressor suction= v13 (m3/kg)
Volume flow rate at compressor suction = ̇ (m3/s)
̇
Volumetric Efficiency =
Reheating and Fan Power Input:
 
 H  Q P

Q r  EI r
Pf  EI f (kW)
 
 H   m(hE  hD )
 
difference   H   H 
Recirculation/Mixing:
   (kg/s)
m E  m m a
    (kW)
Q  m B hB  (m A hA  m E hE )
Assuming adiabatic flow
 
m A hA  m E hE
hB  
(kJ/kg)
mB
By water balance
 
m A  A  m E E
B  
(kg/kg)
mA

17
Figure 3.2: Psychometric Chart

18
 Experiment No. 04 “Boundary Layer Development”

4.1. Objective
The objective of this experiment is to investigate the development of boundary layer in the
entry length of a circular pipe, to determine the thickness and development of boundary
layer at various positions along the pipe and to compare the results with the existing
theoretical solutions.

4.2. Introduction
The movement of air inside tubes or over bodies is encountered in many disciplines in
engineering. The losses incurred in pipes or ducts, the losses associated in fittings,
measurement of airflow and boundary layer development form a basic part of most
engineering courses and demand a practical demonstration in the laboratory.

4.3. Nomenclature
Symbols Description Units
Thickness Of The Boundary Layer Mm
x Distance Between Upstream Fluid Entrance To Point Of Mm
Consideration
V The Velocity Of The Fluid m/s
Wall Shear Stress Kg/(m.s2)
Density Of Fluid Kg/m3
ν The Kinematic Viscosity Of Fluid m2/s
The Dynamic Viscosity Of Fluid Kg/m.s
g Acceleration Due To Gravity m/s2
h The Manometric Head Of The Fluid Under Consideration (Air) Mm
p Pressure Difference Between The Pitot Tube And The Wall Pa
Pressure Taping Measured By The Manometer Bank
Reynolds Number based on distance from Upstream Fluid Dimensionless
Entrance

4.4 Theory

19
4.4.1 Inviscid Fluid Flow
Shearing forces develop in a moving fluid close to the solid surface because of the viscosity
of the fluid. Flow fields far away from solid walls in which the shearing stresses are
negligible are said to be inviscid, non- viscous, or frictionless.

4.4.2 Boundary Layer Development

Near the solid-fluid interface, the velocity changes rapidly from zero at the wall (no-slip
condition) to some relatively large value in a short distance from the interface. This rapid
change in velocity gives rise to a large velocity gradient normal to the boundary and
produces significant shearing stresses even though the viscosity may be small. Of course, if
we had a truly inviscid fluid, the flow would be irrotational everywhere. But this is not the
case for real fluids, so we typically have a layer (usually very thin) near any fixed surface in
a moving stream in which shearing stresses are not negligible. This layer is called The
Boundary Layer. Outside the boundary layer, the flow can be treated as irrotational flow.
The thickness of the boundary layer increases in the direction of flow, starting from zero at
the forward or leading edge of the flow conduit. The flow within the boundary layer may be
laminar or turbulent depending upon the Reynolds number Re.

4.4.3 Boundary Layer Structure

Entrance length is the distance a flow travels after entering a pipe before the flow becomes
fully developed. The fluid typically enters the pipe with a nearly uniform velocity profile. As
the fluid moves through the pipe, viscous effects cause it to stick to the pipe wall (the no-
slip boundary condition). This is true whether the fluid is relatively inviscid air or very
viscous oil. Thus, a boundary layer in which viscous effects are important is produced along
the pipe wall such that the initial velocity profile changes with distance along the pipe, x,
until the fluid reaches the end of the entrance length, beyond which the velocity profile
does not vary with x.

Figure 4.1: Development of velocity profile

20
The boundary layer has grown in thickness to completely fill the pipe. Viscous effects are of
considerable importance within the boundary layer. For fluid outside the boundary layer,
viscous effects are negligible.

Figure 4.2: Shear stress distribution and velocity profile within the fluid in a pipe (laminar
or turbulent flow)

4.5 Introduction to the Equipment

The equipment consists essentially of a long smooth-walled pipe supported on a steel
frame; the pipe can be broken at the center for the insertion of an orifice plate. One half of
the pipe is connected to the suction side of a centrifugal fan via a conical inlet duct whilst
the other half is open to atmosphere. Pressure tapings along the complete length of the
pipe permit the pressure gradient to be determined.
The fan discharge duct terminates in a flow control damper and a jet dispersion orifice
gate, which is easily adjustable. Air jet dispersion experiments are carried out on the
discharge side of the fan. A vertical Pitot tube mounted on a graduated traversing carriage
enables the Pitot tube to be moved laterally across the jet and longitudinally along the jet
for jet dispersion profiles at various distances. The velocity in the pipe can be varied by
adjustment of the flow control damper. A traversing Pitot tube enables the measurement of
the velocity profile at five different stations along the pipe and hence the boundary layer
growth can be determined.
The centrifugal fan is mounted on a floor-standing metal frame and is driven by a constant
speed motor. A fourteen-bank manometer allows head loss and velocities within the pipe
to be measured and can be inclined to increase its sensitivity. A large and small nozzle
permits flow rates to be measured. A large bend and a metered cascade elbow allow

21
comparison of pressure losses for each fitting. A flow splitter can also be fitted to the inlet
nozzle of the pipe to prevent turbulence.

1. Fan support frame 2. Test pipe support frame

3. Inlet pipe test section 4. “U” clamp
5. Static pressure tapings 6. Pitot tube sections
7. Fan conical inlet 8. Test pipe
9. Bolts 10. Ring clamp
11. Manometric board 12. Support rods
13. Reservoir 14. Support frame end section
15. Support member 16. Instrument rails
17. Reservoir tube 18. Traversing carriage
19. Cursor 20. Vertical Pitot tube assemble

Figure 4.3: Details of equipment

22
Figure 4.4: Pitot tube mounting positions
(The distances are in ‘’mm’’)

23
 Figure 4.5: velocity profiles along the test pipe

4.6 Procedure

24
Before performing the experiment, it is necessary to know the use and underlying principle
of a Pitot tube.

4.6.1 Pitot Tube

A Pitot tube can be used to measure fluid flow velocity by converting the kinetic energy in a
fluid flow to potential energy. The Pitot tube is used to determine the velocity distribution
profiles at multiple cross-sections in the pipe at different distances from the pipe inlet. A
Pitot tube is used to explore the developing boundary layer in the entry length of a pipe,
which has air drawn through it. Because the air is drawn along (sucked) by connecting the
fan inlet to the pipe outlet, the developing airflow in the entry length of the pipe is
unaffected by flow disturbances caused by the fan. The profiled bell-mouth ensures that
there is no flow separation from the pipe at the inlet and flow straightening vanes suppress
any tendency for an inlet vortex to form.
Velocities in the pipe are determined by using the Pitot tube to measure the dynamic
pressure of the moving air in the pipe and comparing this with the static pressure in the
pipe at the same cross-section and flow velocity. The Bernoulli equation applied to the tip
of a Pitot tube gives the following relationship for the air velocity V.

(m/s)

Where
Δp is the pressure difference between the Pitot tube and the wall pressure taping
measured by the manometer bank
ρ is the density of air at room temperature and atmospheric pressure
g is the acceleration due to gravity
h is the manometric head of the fluid under consideration (air)

4.7 Steps for Performing the Experiment

Five mounting positions are provided for the Pitot tube assembly. These are 54, 294, 774,
1574, and 2534 mm from the pipe inlet as shown in Figure 4.3.
1. Ensure that the standard inlet nozzle is fitted for this experiment and that the orifice
plate, which can be inserted at the pipe break line, is not in position.
2. Mount the Pitot tube assembly at 54 mm position (nearest to the pipe inlet).
3. Connect the pressure tapping at the outer end of the assembly to a convenient
manometer tube.
4. Connect the appropriate pipe wall static pressure tapping to the neighbouring
manometer tube. This should always be the one immediately upstream from the
Pitot tube position in use at that time

25
5. Position the Pitot tube in the center of the pipe and start the fan with the outlet
throttle closed.
6. Open the throttle slowly making sure that the fluid levels in the manometer tubes do
not approach too close to the top and bottom of the visible tubes. Ideally, this
throttle should be set such that the difference in level between the ‘dynamic’ and
‘static’ manometer tubes is almost 2/3 of the maximum available range. If the
separation of the manometer tube levels is not achieved with the filly open fan
discharge throttle, then incline the manometer board from its normal vertical
position until this ratio is achieved.
7. Carry out the velocity traverse of the pipe with the Pitot tube, being sure to record
its transverse position at each reading point using the short scale provided on the
Pitot tube assembly. Ensure that the Pitot tube traverses right across the pipe until
it is in contact with the wall of the pipe.
8. Read and record both manometer tube levels and the transverse position scale at
each measurement station, in the tables given in the observations section. Space the
measurement station more closely together in regions where the velocity gradient is
large.
9. Repeat the velocity traverse for the same airflow at each of the other cross-sections.
Replace the blanking plugs provided in the Pitot tube mounting holes, not in use. If
the manometer is used in an inclined position, record the correct manometer head.
10. Record the air temperature and barometric pressure in the laboratory at the time of
the experiment to obtain accurate values of air properties.

4.8 Precautions
 Do not exceed specified maximum operating conditions (e.g. temperature, pressure,
speed etc.)
 Do not touch the fittings as it might result in a liquid leak.
 Wait for the readings to normalize before noting them.
 At the end of the experiment, switch off the equipment.

26
 Experiment No. 05 “Drag Force Measurement”

5.1 Objective:
Part I: To measure drag force on a range of axi-symmetrical models utilizing a force
balance.
Part II: To show how drag on an object depends on the flow velocity.
Part III: To derive drag coefficients for different bodies and show how they depend on the
Reynolds number.
Part IV: To demonstrate how altering the shape of a body can decrease its drag coefficient.

5.2 Introduction
A body immersed in a moving fluid, experiences a resultant force due to the interaction
between the body and the fluid surrounding it that is referred to as drag. Drag is the net
force in the direction opposite to flow direction due to the pressure and shear forces on the
surface of the object.

Table 5.1: Nomenclature

Symbols Description Units
P Atmospheric Pressure Pa
Density kg/m3
R Gas constant for air J/kg K
T Absolute temperature K
Re Reynolds No. none
V Velocity of flow m/s
d Characteristic linear dimension Dimensionless
Dynamic viscosity of air Kg/m.s
u uniform velocity m/s
y height of the working section m
D Drag N
A Area m2
Coefficient of Drag Dimensionless

5.3 Constants
Density of air, ρ = 1.19 kg/m3
Disc diameter, d = 0.0443 m
Dynamic Viscosity of air @ 250C, μ = 18.3 kg/m.s

27
5.4 Theory
It is essential that the students should have a firm grasp of the following key elements of
the theory of the ‘Mechanics of Fluids’ to fully understand the significance of the
experiments. More comprehensive treatment of this material can be found in most
standard books on ‘Fluids Mechanics’.

5.4.1 Reynolds Number

This is a dimensionless group defining the relative magnitudes of viscous and inertia forces
in a fluid in motion. Low Reynolds numbers correspond to viscous flow with little or no
turbulence, whereas high Reynolds numbers are associated with predominantly turbulent
flows.

where:
ρ is density, kg/m3
V is velocity of flow, m/s
d is characteristic linear dimension, m
μ is dynamic viscosity of air, kg/m.s

5.4.2 Bernoulli Equation

The Bernoulli equation defines the total energy of an incompressible fluid in a steady flow
in the absence of losses. It may be applied without significant error to air in the
experiments, as the pressure differences are small enough to permit compressibility to be
ignored.
The equation states that the sum of the pressure energy and the kinetic energy remains
constant. There is a third term, the potential energy due to gravity, dependent on the height
above some datum level, which is significant where liquids are concerned but negligible in
the case of gases.
Consider a mass of 1 kg of air, density ρ kg/m3 subject to a pressure P Pa. Its volume will be
1/ρ m3 and its pressure energy will be P/ρ joules per kg, the product of volume and
pressure of air. If the air is also moving at the velocity v m/s, its kinetic energy will be v 2/2
joules per kg. Then the Bernoulli equation states that

P/ρ + v2/2 = Constant (m2/s2)

This is an essential tool for the analysis of flow in the contraction and working section of a
wind tunnel.

28
5.5 Description of the Apparatus
The disc, hemisphere and streamlined model have an identical cross-sectional area normal
to flow. When suspended in airflow on a balance, the drag flow on the models in the flow
direction can be measured. In this way, the effect of changing the shape of the models can
be demonstrated and some general rules developed for devising shapes with low drag.
As different airspeeds can be provided in the working section, the variation of drag with
the airspeed can be demonstrated for each shape. To eliminate the main effect of flow
velocity the use of drag coefficients can be demonstrated. Calculating the drag coefficients
at different flow velocities shows the effect of the Reynolds number.

5.6 Procedures
Fit the exit flange assembly with drag balance at the working section outlet. Mount the
model on the balance with the balance rod clamped in its guide by knurled screw. Screw
the model on to the long rod, which is threaded at both ends, and then screw the long rod
into the balance rod. It may be simpler to do this with the working section window
removed.
Hang the balance on its top support and move the support until the balance can be hooked
into the hole in the top of the balance rod. Raise the support until the balance shows the
force of about three Newton and then clamp the top support with the knurled screw
holding the balance rod.
Do not undo the balance rod locking screw unless the balance is supporting the balance rod
otherwise the rod and model will fall into the tunnel and may damage the gauze.
When the model is secure, move the balance until the model is centered in the working
section and fit the plain front and rear windows to the working section if they are not
already in place. Connect the vertical tube manometer across the reference pressure
tapping points and adjust the zero. Record the balance reading and, measure and record
the atmospheric pressure and temperature.
Start the fan and adjust the fan inlet valve to set a suitable airspeed as indicated by the
reference pressure difference. The drag of the model will decrease force on spring balance,
which should be recorded. The difference between the two balance readings with and
without flow gives drag of the model at that airspeed.

5.6.1 Dependence of Drag on the Air Speed

Open the fan inlet valve fully and when flow becomes steady, as indicated by steady values
of the reference pressure difference and balance reading, note down the values of the
aforementioned readings. By closing the fan inlet valve, reduce the reference pressure in
ever-decreasing steps to obtain approximately equal steps of velocity. At each valve

29
position, record the balance reading and pressure. The final reading will be with the fan
inlet valve fully closed.
The velocity of flow can be calculated for each test from the reference pressure and the
measured values of drag plotted against the velocity. The curve appears to be parabolic, i.e.
proportional to V2, and this can be demonstrated by plotting drag against the dynamic
head, or dynamic pressure of the flow. The straight line shows that drag-velocity
relationship is parabolic. The demonstration can be performed with all three shapes, the
disc, the hemisphere or the streamlined shape.

5.6.2 Dependence of Drag on the Shape and Area

As the drag is a force, which has been shown to depend on the dynamic pressure, it is
simple to deduce that drag force also depends on the area of the body. This being the case,
it is possible to define a drag coefficient Cd for a body. Cd is dimensionless and takes the area
and dynamic pressure into account.

(N)

ρ = Density of Air, kg/m3

V = velocity of Air, m/s
A = Frontal Area, m2
Cd= Drag Coefficient

The drag coefficient depends mainly on the shape of the body and is a convenient way of
comparing different shapes. Changes of drag coefficient for a car, for example, will affect
the fuel consumption and considerable effort is put into designing shapes which have a low
drag coefficient.
Comparing the drag coefficients of the disc, the hemisphere and the streamlined model
shows how “streamlining” the shape can reduce the drag to well under one half that of the
disc. The typical values being,

Cd for Disc = 1.8

Cd for Hemisphere =1
Cd for Streamline body = 0.5

If the drag coefficients are plotted against velocity (Fig. 5.1), it can be seen that they are not
constant for each shape. There is a trend for the drag coefficients to increase as the velocity
decreases. This is most likely to be due to the effect of Reynolds number changing with the
velocity of flow.

30
 Figure 5.1: Coefficient of drag vs. velocity

5.7 Precautions
 The fan should not be run with working section walls removed.
 Users should not put their faces near the jet from the working section.
 Do not change the models while the fan is running.
 Use of air muff is recommended because of sound levels of up to 90-95 dB while
operating the wind tunnel.

31
 Experiment No. 06 “Universal Pump Test Rig”

6.1 Objective
To investigate the characteristics of Axial-Flow pump, centrifugal pump, Peripheral pump
and Gear Pump, and hence draw performance curves for each pump.

6.2 Introduction
Fluids, when circulating through the interior of pipes, suffer a load loss, due to the friction
between the fluid and the walls that contain them. For this reason, it is necessary to give
mechanical energy to the fluid in the form of work. Turbomachines are mechanical devices
that either extract energy from a fluid or add energy to a fluid as a result of dynamic
interactions between the device and the fluid.

6.3 Theory
There are two types of turbomachines
 Pumps
 Turbines
Mechanical devices that add energy to a liquid and therefore cause the fluid to flow
(through pipes etc) are called pumps. While those that extract energy from the fluids are
called turbines. The fluid used can be either a gas or a liquid.
Many turbo machines contain some type of housing or casing that surrounds the rotating
blades or rotor, thus forming an internal passageway (duct) through which the fluid flows.
Others such as a windmill or a window fan do not have ducts. Some turbomachines include
stationary blades or vanes in addition to rotor blades. These stationary blades can be
arranged to accelerate the flow and thus serve as nozzles. Or these can be set to diffuse the
flow and act as diffusers.
Turbomachines are classified as axial-flow, radial-flow, or mixed-flow machines depending
on the predominant direction of the fluid motion relative to the rotor’s axis as the fluid
passes the blades. For an axial-flow machine, the fluid maintains a significant axial-flow
direction component from the inlet to outlet of the rotor. For a radial-flow machine, the
flow across the blades involves a substantial radial flow at the rotor inlet, exit. or both. In
other machines designed as mixed-flow machines, there may be significant radial and axial-
flow velocity components for the flow through the rotor row. Each type of machine has
advantages and disadvantages for different applications and in terms of fluid mechanical
performance.

6.3.1 Gear Pump

In gear pumps (see Figure 6.1), two or more gears mesh to provide the pumping action. In
these types of pumps, one of the gears should be capable of driving the others. The
mechanical contacts between the gears form a part of the moving fluid seal between the
32
inlet and the outlet port. and the outer radial tips and the sides of the gears form a part of
the moving fluid seal between inlet and outlet ports. The gear contact locus moves along
the tooth surfaces and then jumps discontinuously from tooth to tooth as the gears rotate.
The positive displacement gear pump installed on the universal pump test rig has a casing.
The two gear-shaped impellers rotate with close clearance, enmeshing such that water
entering the suction port is trapped in the spaces between adjacent teeth and carried round
to be squeezed and discharged through the outlet port. High pressures are achieved with
gear pumps and a pressure relief valve is in-corporate which is set to a certain head, to
protect the pump and system. The suction port is connected directly to the sump tank and
its delivery port is followed by a valve after which the water is discharged through a weir
back to the tank.
An important advantage of this type of pump is that no valves are required in the suction or
delivery: it is capable of pumping air, gas or liquid without any detrimental effect and does
not require priming. High pressures are possible although the flow rates are limited. The
main disadvantage of this type of pump is that very close clearances are required between
the ends of the rotors and the casing. Any wear or corrosion in this region by the materials
being pumped will reduce the efficiency of the pump.

Figure 6.1: Gear Pump

6.3.2 Axial-Flow Pump

Axial-flow pumps (see Figure 6.2) are used for applications where high flow rates at low
heads are required, such as those associated with drainage, sewage and irrigation. Axial-
flow pump or a propeller pump consists of a propeller confined within a cylindrical casing.
The flow is in the axial direction and the head developed is due to the tangential force
exerted by the rotor blades on the fluid. The rotor is connected to a motor through a shaft
and as it rotates, the fluid is sucked in through the inlet. The fluid is discharged through a

33
row of fixed stator (guide) vanes used to straighten the flow leaving the rotor. Axial-flow
pumps may also have inlet guide vanes upstream of the rotor row, and some are multistage
in which stages of rotor blades and stator blades are arranged in series.
Water enters the propeller axially through a ring of fixed inlet guide vanes. In passing
through the propeller, the blades impart a whirl component into the fluid which the outlet
guide vanes remove before the fluid entering the discharge pipe. The propeller is mounted
on an extended shaft running on a bearing. The volumetric tank is utilized to provide an
increased suction head to the axial-flow pump. Delivery is controlled at a gate valve
mounted on the working surface top and feeding the channel direct.

Figure 6.2: Axial Flow Pump

6.3.3 Centrifugal Pump

The Pedestal type, Centrifugal Pump (see Figure 6.2) has a shrouded impeller running on
an extension of the main spindle, supported on double ball bearings. This type of pump is
not self-priming but operates with flooded suction. Its single impeller rotates in the snail-
shaped volute casing. Water enters the impeller axially through the eye, spirals outwards
and discharges around the impeller circumference into the casing.
As the fluid passes through the impeller, energy is imparted to it by the curved blade of the
impeller resulting in fluid leaving the impeller with an increase of both pressure and
velocity.
The pump has a suction connected to the sump tank. Its delivery is connected to the
selection manifold and measuring system via a global valve

34
 Figure 6.3: Centrifugal Pump
Centrifugal pumps can transfer large volumes without any dependence on valves or fine
clearance and can be run against a closed valve without developing a very high pressure.
They can handle a wide range of slurries, or solids in suspension, in addition to liquids with
high viscosities.
The main disadvantages of centrifugal pumps are:
a. The limitation of delivery pressure
b. Their inability to prime themselves
The former can be overcome by using twin or multi-stages usually on the same spindle axis.
The fitting of a self-primer will eliminate the latter disadvantage.

6.3.4 Peripheral Pump

A peripheral pump is a niche product in-between a displacement pump and a centrifugal
pump, in which the medium is pumped into a peripheral channel. When the pump is
started, the fluid is sucked through the suction flange directly into an annular channel in
which the peripheral impeller rotates. The impeller consists of straight vanes that set the
fluid into a circular motion. After passing through the annular channel, the fluid exits the
pump through the outlet. In the annular channel, kinetic energy is imparted to the fluid by
the vanes, increasing the fluid pressure. Today, the peripheral pump has become crucial in
many applications.

6.3.5 Characteristic curves

When a pump is put under the test the usual objective is the determination of its
characteristics curves. These curves show the relationship between the rate of discharge
and head, rate of discharge and power, and rate of discharge and efficiency.

35
 Power Output (W)
Head (m)
Eff (%)

Figure 6.4: Characteristic curves

6.4 Operating Procedure

 Fill the tank with clean water. Check that all the drainage valves are closed.
 Press all the pump selector switches to connect them.
 Connect the equipment by means of the “luminous red switch” placed in the right
lower part of the main panel.
 Every pump has its suction connected to the tank while the outlet has a valve. Open
the valve corresponding to the pump we need to analyze;
 Make sure all the other valves are closed;
 Start the PBOC software from the computer and turn on the respective pump;
 Set the rpm to a value in the range of the pump as shown in table 6.1;
 Keeping the rpm value fixed, change the flow rate by gradually closing the valve
each time;
 For each value of flow rate take the readings given in the worksheet table 6.1;
 Now repeat the above 3 steps for another value of rpm as shown in the worksheet;
 In any case, do not exceed a maximum pressure of 3 bars in any of the pumps;
 Plot the characteristic curves (Power output, efficiency and head versus flow rate)
for each pump following the above procedure;
 Quit the software and turn off the computer.

Flow Rate
Flow rate is displayed by the software interface in real-time. This value is calculated by
the software by sensing the height of water level over the weir and gives us the flow
rate accordingly. The discharge of each pump flows through a weir. The higher the flow
rate the higher would be the water level.

36
Data Analysis
 Flow rate for Gear and Centrifugal pumps is calculated by
Q  V/ t

 Input power for the pumps is determined by

Input Power( Watts)  2NT

60
Where:
N = Pump rev. /min
T = Torque N.m
 RPM for different pumps is determined by the gear ratio formula. The gear ratio for
the pumps used in the lab. Is given as under

 Output power for pumps is determined by

Output Power(Watts) =
Where:

ρ = Density of Water
g = Gravity 9.81m/s2
Q = Rate of Flow liter/sec
H = Pump Head at mH2O

Plot characteristic curves for each pump individually, i.e. Head, Efficiency and BHP Vs flow
rate.

37
 Experiment No. 07 “Francis Turbine”

7.1 Objective
To test a Francis Reaction Turbine and plot the turbine Characteristic curves for the
distributor’s various opening.

7.2 Introduction
The Francis turbine is a type of water turbine that was developed by James B. Francis.
Francis turbines are the most commonly used water turbine in use today. They operate in a
water head ranging from 40 to 600 m and are primarily used for electrical power
production. Their power output generally ranges from just a few kilowatts up to 800 MW.
Penstock (input pipes) diameters are between 3 and 33 feet (0.91 and 10.06 metres). The
speed range of the turbine is from 83 to 1000 rpm.

Figure 7.1: Section view of Francis Turbine

38
7.3 Nomenclature

Table 7.1: Nomenclature

Symbols Description Units

Hydraulic power of water W

Specific weight N/m3

Total head m

The height difference between the position of the pressure m

gauge and the turbine shaft on our bench
Dynamic head due to the velocity of the water at the m
pressure gauge location
Static head due to static pressure m
of water
Q Volumetric flow rate m3/s
V Velocity of water m/s

m Mass flow rate of water kg/s

g Gravity acceleration m/s2

Mean velocity of water m/s

Pipe cross-sectional area m2

Static pressure of water Pa

P Mechanical power of the turbine shaft W
 Angular velocity of the turbine shaft Rad/s
n Angular velocity of the turbine shaft rpm

C Torque of the turbine shaft N.m

7.4 Theory
The Francis turbine is a type of reaction turbine. The working fluid enters the turbine
under immense pressure and the energy is extracted by the turbine blades from the
working fluid because of pressure changes occurring in the blades of the turbine.

39
7.5 Equipment Set-Up

Figure 7.2: Schematic of Francis Turbine Unit

A - Francis turbine G - Electric main switch

B - Centrifugal pump H - Mechanical rpm meter
C - Flow meter LI - Water level gauge
D - Distributor lever L - Dynamometric brake
E - Pressure gauge M - Check valve
F - Feeding tank N - Drain Valve

40
 Figure 7.3: Braking System (denoted by L in Fig 7.2)

7.6 Procedure for Setting at work:

 Fill with softened water the feeding tank F up to 3/4 of its capacity (black upper
notch of the water level gauge 1);
 Close valve M;
 Close the distributor by means of the lever D;
 Connect the unit to the three-phase electric supply;
 Check that the braking system L is balanced; if not, proceed as follows (see fig. 7.3):
 Remove the weights 7 from the shaft 8;
 Loosen nuts located near the counterweight 4 so that the latter is free to move;
 Move the counterweight (to the right or to the left) until the rod 3 is exactly
balanced;
 Lock again the counterweight by means of the nuts;
 Pull the knob 2 outwards, by turning it by 9O0 (in such a way, a pin fixed to a
shaft inside the fulcrum 1 allows to lift the rod 3 making the braking system
idle).
 Switch on G to start the electric pump B;
 Gradually open the valve M;
 Open the distributor by means of the lever D;
 Check that there are no water losses in the circuit and the instruments C, E, H, are
indicating the respective readings;

41
  Pull again the knob 2 outwards, by turning it by 90O, so making the braking system L
operational.
Manual Tests (need to be removed)
7.7 Procedure for Experiment values reading
To carry out the experiments, proceed as follows:
a. Set the value of the distributor opening z at 100% (fully open) by means of the lever
D;
b. Gradually increase the breaking torque C by means of the weights 7 (in fig 7.3);
c. For each value of the weight, read the values of Pm, n, Q on the corresponding
instruments and determine the value of the braking torque C by means of the
diagram above. C (Nm) is plotted as a function of p (N);
d. Note down the values so obtained in table 7.2.
e. Repeat steps (a) to (d) for the values of the distributor opening z of 75%, 50%, &
25%.

7.8 Precaution
 The main valve should be closed before starting the machine.
 Do not load the turbine suddenly.
 Loading should be done gradually and at the same time supply of water should be
increased so that the shaft runs at normal speed.

7.9 Inlet and outlet power and turbine efficiency calculation

The hydraulic power available at the turbine inlet port (usually expressed in watt) can be
calculated as follows:

where:
Q is the volume flow rate (read by the instrument), (m3/s)
is the water weight per unit volume, 9820 (N/m3)
Htot is the total head, (m)

Htot which can be calculated (using Bernoulli’s theorem), in the circuit section just
upstream the turbine where the pressure gauge is located, as the sum of three terms:

Htot = Hman + Hkin + Hpress (m)

Where Hman is the height difference between the position of the pressure gauge and the
turbine shaft on our bench
Hman = 0.35 m (m)

42
Hkin is the kinetic term due to the velocity Vm (m/s) of the water at the pressure gauge
location, where the pipe cross-section is Sm

Hkin = Vm2/2g (m)

where
g = gravity acceleration = 9.82 m/s2
Vm= Q/Sm (m/s)
Sm = 555 mm2

Hpres is the term arising from the pressure Pm (N/m2) of the Water; as measured by the
mentioned pressure gauge:

Pm(N/m2) = 105 Pm(bar)

Hpress(m)=Pm/ (m)

In table 7.2, for each line note down the values so calculated: Vm, Hman, Hkin, Hpress ,Htot , Phyd.
Then calculate the output mechanical power P (watt) by the following relationship:

P = ω C = 2 π n C/60 (watt)

Finally, the turbine global efficiency η can be calculated, as the ratio between the output
power and the power available at the inlet port:

η = P/Phyd

43
Graphs

1. Torque C versus turbine speed n.

2. Flow rate Q versus turbine speed n.

44
 Experiment No. 08 “Compressible Flow through Nozzles”

8.1 Objective:
Determination of mass flow rate through a convergent and convergent-divergent nozzle at
different pressure ratios.

8.2 Introduction
This experiment will allow a comprehensive study to be made on the laws which govern
the expansion of a compressible fluid through a nozzle, as in steam or gas turbine.

Table 8.1: Nomenclature

Symbols Description Units

Pressure at the exit of a convergent nozzle or the throat Pa
of the convergent-divergent nozzle
Inlet pressure to the nozzle Pa
m Mass flow rate for the standard orifice Kg/s
Head difference of water in the inclined manometer mm
Temperature of air at inlet to the nozzle K
Temperature of air at the outlet of the orifice plate K
Specific heat ratio i.e. Ratio of specific heat at constant Dimensionless
pressure and specific heat at constant volume.

8.4 Theory
A nozzle is a duct of smoothly varying cross-section in which a steady flowing fluid can be
made to accelerate by a pressure drop along the duct. There are many applications in
practice, which require a high-velocity stream of fluid, and the nozzle is the best means of
obtaining this. The important types of nozzles are convergent nozzle, divergent nozzles,
and convergent-divergent nozzles.

8.4.1 Critical Pressure Ratio

45
The ratio of the pressure at the section where sonic velocity is attained to the inlet pressure
of a nozzle is called the critical pressure ratio.
Mathematically the critical pressure ratio is defined by:

Where is the critical pressure of a convergent nozzle or convergent-divergent nozzle. P1

is inlet pressure to the nozzle. γ is the specific heat ratio (i.e. specific heat at constant
pressure and specific heat at constant volume).
It can be seen from above that for a perfect gas the pressure required to attain sonic
velocity in a nozzle depends only on the value of γ for the gas.
For example, for air with γ = l.4:

=0.528

Figure 8.1: Convergent divergent nozzle configuration

8.4.2 Maximum Mass Flow or Choked Flow

Consider a convergent nozzle expanding in space, the pressure of which can be varied,
while the inlet pressure remains fixed. When the backpressure Pb is equal to P0, no fluid can
flow through the nozzle. As Pb is reduced, the mass flow through the nozzle increases, and
because the enthalpy drops, the velocity also increases. However, when the backpressure
reaches the critical value, it is found that no further reduction in backpressure can affect
46
the mass flow. When the backpressure is exactly equal to the critical pressure Pc then the
velocity at the exit is sonic and the mass flow through the nozzle is at maximum. If the
backpressure is reduced below the critical value, the mass flow will remain at maximum
value and the nozzle is said to be choked. It can be seen that the maximum mass flow
through a convergent nozzle is obtained when the pressure ratio across the nozzle is the
critical pressure ratio. Also for a convergent-divergent nozzle, with a sonic velocity at the
throat, the cross-section of the throat fixes the mass flow through the nozzle for fixed inlet
conditions.

8.5 Introduction to the Equipment

This equipment permits a comprehensive study to the laws which govern the expansion of
a compressible fluid through a nozzle, as in a steam or gas turbine.
The inlet chest may be supplied with either air or steam at a pressure of up to 700 kPa. The
inlet connections are arranged at the right angle to each other and each equipped with a
throttling valve to regulate the flow in the chest.
A nozzle is screwed into seating in the center of the inlet chest. Three nozzles are supplied.
A convergent, a convergent-divergent or Laval nozzle, and a convergent nozzle with
parallel extension. The first two nozzles have a nominal diameter of 6.4 mm (the exact
diameter is stamped on the nozzle and shown in the datasheet), while the parallel nozzle
has a nominal diameter of 4.8 mm.
To enable the pressure variation along the nozzle to be observed, a stainless steel search
tube or probe of nominal diameter 3.31 mm may be traversed along the nozzle axis. A cross
drill of diameter 1.0mm in the wall of the probe transmits the local pressure to a high-
grade pressure gauge mounted on the probe carrier. The probe is traversed in increments
of 2mm by rotating a calibrated dial. A pointer attached to the probe carrier moves over a
replica of the nozzle profile in order to indicate the position of the measuring point in the
nozzle.
At the upper limit of its travel, the pressure sensing hole is well clear of the nozzle and
registers the inlet chest pressure while at its lower limit it registers the pressure
downstream of the nozzle. The length of the probe is such that it projects well beyond the
downstream end of the nozzle irrespective of the position of the setting dial.
The nozzle discharges into a vertical tube of large-bore fitted with a throttling valve by
which the downstream or backpressure may be regulated. The chest also carries a
mercury-in-glass thermometer in an oil pocket, a pressure gauge for indicating the chest
pressure.
Downstream of the backpressure throttling valve, in the case of the air only unit, the nozzle
discharge is taken by way of a long straight pipe and a flow straightener to an orifice plate.
The pressure difference across the orifice plate is indicated by an inclined manometer,
permitting calculation of the airflow through the test nozzle. A manometer is provided
downstream of the orifice to measure the air temperature.

47
8.6 Procedure
The upstream pressure Po (pressure of air at inlet to nozzle) must be constant during a
series of observation by adjusting the upstream flow control valve. The backpressure is
regulated by the downstream control valve. The upstream temperature To (temperature of
the air at inlet to the nozzle) and the standard temperature T1 at the standard orifice are
observed using mercury thermometers. The pressure drop across the standard orifice is
measured by an inclined water manometer. The mass flow rate for the standard orifice can
be determined from the following relation:

h
m  0.2288 (kg/s)
1000
where
h is the head difference of water in the inclined manometer

8.7 Precautions
 Ensure that the inclined manometer is correctly levelled and zeroed.
 Pressure limits should be not be crossed.
 Reading at both ends for pressure should be taken at the same time.
 Use of air muff is recommended because of sound levels of up to 90-95 dB while
operating.

48
 Experiment No. 09 “Pelton Wheel Turbine”

9.1 Objective
To determine the efficiency and operating characteristics of a Pelton wheel Turbine at
various speeds.

9.2 Introduction
The Pelton wheel is an impulse type water turbine. It was invented by Lester Allan
Pelton in the 1870s. The Pelton wheel extracts energy from the impulse of moving water, as
opposed to water's dead weight like the traditional overshot water wheel. Many variations
of impulse turbines existed prior to Pelton's design, but they were less efficient than
Pelton's design.

9.3 Theory
Devices that extract energy from the flowing fluid are called turbines. The fluid that flows
through the turbine exerts a torque on the rotor in the direction of its rotation. The shaft
power generated is available to drive generators or other devices. Turbines can be
classified into two basic types~ Impulse Turbines and Reaction Turbines. Impulse turbines
are used where high heads and relatively smaller flow rates are available whereas reaction
turbines are used where low heads and relatively high low rates are available.
The Pelton Wheel shown in Figure 9.2, is an example of an impulse turbine. A high jet of
water coming out of a nozzle strikes the Pelton wheel buckets and is deflected. It is most
efficient when operated with a large head. The head loss that occurs in the pipe
transporting the water to the turbine is the major design consideration along with the
design of the nozzle and the design of the buckets. In these turbines, the total head of the
incoming fluid which, is the sum of the pressure head, velocity head, and elevation head, is
converted into a large velocity head at the exit of the supply nozzle

49
 Figure 9.2: Schematic of Pelton Wheel Turbine

9.4 Introduction to Apparatus

Figure 9.3 shows the apparatus. It is positioned on the side channels of the benchtop and
the inlet pipe connected to the bench supply. A fully retractable spear valve controls the
flow. Water discharges into the volumetric tank through an orifice in the base of the Pelton
Turbine base plate. The Pelton wheel buckets are clearly visible due to the transparent
turbine cover. A pressure gauge mounted on the support assembly allows the inlet
pressure of the turbine to be monitored. A simple band brake connected to spring a balance
allows the load applied to the turbine to be varied by adjustment of the tensioning device. A
description of the parts is shown in figure 9.3. The speed of the turbine is determined by a
remote type tachometer.

50
 Figure 9.3: Transverse View of the unit

9.5 Procedures
 Cheek the water and electric supply connections.
 Lift the band brake assembly until it is clear of the brake drum.
 Switch on the bench pump.
 Open bench control valve fully. Adjust spear control valve until maximum rpm are
indicated on the tachometer.
 Lower the band brake assembly over the brake drum and adjust the band brake for
a range of readings on the spring balances.
 Record the spring balance and tachometer readings for each band brake setting.
 Measure the flow rate using a timed volume collection, and record the readings from
the inlet pressure gauge.
 Adjust the flow rate using the spear valve, and repeat the experiment. Continue to
do this until you have sets of readings for a variety of different flow rates.

51
Data Analysis
 The total force is given by
Ft  F2  F1 …………….. (1)
 Torque is calculated by.
T  ( F2  F1 )r .....................(2)

 Where r is Brake Drum Radius and is equal to 3  102 m

 Flowrate in m3/S is determined by
Qv  V
t ……………..(3)
 Input Power
PF  gHQv
…………………(4)

 Output Power
Ps  2nT ……………………..(5)
 % Efficiency
   Ps P   100
 F 

52
 Experiment No.10 “Steam Engine”

10.1 Objectives:
 Steam Motor and Energy Conversion Studies.

10.2 Introduction:
The Steam Motor and Energy Conversion Test Set (Model: TH 15, Fig 10.2) has been
designed to introduce thermodynamics and energy conversion principles of a steam engine
plant.
The unit consists of two-cylinder, a double-acting reciprocating model steam engine
powered by steam generated from an electrically heated boiler. The boiler comes with an
electric pump, safety valve, water level gauge, blowdown valve and all necessary
accessories. An electric pump draws water to the boiler from a sump tank to maintain
sufficient water in the boiler. The engine discharges exhaust steam to a water-cooled heat
exchanger and condenses as condensate.

10.3 Nomenclature:

Symbols Description Units

F Load Cell loads g
Speed Rotational speed of the steam engine, measure with portable tachometer RPM
Power, Q1 Boiler power, read from panel Watt
P1 Boiler steam pressure Bar
P2 Steam supply pressure to the steam engine Bar
TT1 Temperature of boiler steam
TT2 Temperature of steam condensate
TT3 Temperature of the cooling water inlet
TT4 Temperature of the cooling water outlet
Condensate Condensed steam flow, measured with the volumetric method mL/min
Water Cooling water flowrate L/min
h Specific enthalpy kJ/kg
S Specific entropy kJ/kg.K
h3 Condensate specific enthalpy kJ/kg
ho Feed water specific enthalpy kJ/kg
m Steam mass flow rate kg/hr

53
 ms Specific steam consumption kg/h.W
h1 Specific enthalpy of steam leaving the boiler kJ/kg
hw Specific enthalpy of water in the boiler kJ/kg
W1 Engine work done / Mechanical power output of the engine Watts
Q1 Boiler power input Watts
Q2 Boiler power output Watts
Q3 Heat loss from the engine Watts
Q5 Heat loss from the condenser Watts
W2 Mechanical losses Watts
W3 Indicated work done Watts

10.4 Theory:
A steam engine is a heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working
fluid. Steam engines are external combustion engines, where the working fluid is separate
from the combustion products. The ideal thermodynamic cycle used to analyze this process
is called the Rankine cycle.
In this experiment, the steam engine consists of a two-cylinder, double-acting
reciprocating model steam engine powered by steam generated from an electrically heated
boiler. Engine power is measured by a simple band brake. The engine output torque is
calculated using the readings of both balances and the radius of the flywheel. The steel
boiler is heated by an electric immersion heater. An electric pump fills the boiler with the
water from the reservoir (supplied) of water placed next to the boiler. The water passes
through a non-return valve from the pump to the boiler. The exhaust steam from the
engine is connected to a plate heat exchanger. Cooling water circulates through the heat
exchanger network, cooling the exhaust steam. The condensate drains out of a connection
below the condenser. The unit is supplied with all necessary and various measuring
instruments like a power meter, temperature sensor, speed sensor (tachometer), and
weight balance.

10.4.1 The Energy Balance

The TH15 apparatus provides an excellent illustration of the First Law of Thermodynamics,
in the form of Steady Flow Energy Equation. Figure 3 shows the thermodynamics system
and the various control surfaces that maybe drawn.

54
 Q2 Q3 Q4

BOILER ENGINE CONDENSER

Cooling Water
mh1 mh2
Out

Q1 Q5

hw

Cooling Water In

mho W1 mh3
Figure 1: The Thermodynamic System of the Steam Motor and Energy Conversion Test Set

Considering first the complete system of boiler, motor and condenser, surrounded
by the control surface shown by a dotted line in the Figure 3, the Steady Flow
Energy Equation may be written:

W1 = Q1 – Q2 – Q3 – Q5 + mh0 – mh3 (1)

Where, W1: Engine Work Done

Q1: Boiler Power Input
Q2: Boiler Power Output
Q3: Heat Loss from Engine
Q5: Heat Loss from Condenser
m: steam mass flow rate
ho: Feed Water Specific Enthalpy
h3: Condensate Specific Enthalpy

Note: Feed pump is not included in the system. In a real steam power plant, the
work required to drive the pump must be debited on the left-hand side of the
equation.

It is better to take readings with the feed pump at rest; in these circumstances,
equation (1) becomes:

W1 = Q1 – Q2 – Q3 – Q5 + m (h0 – h3) (2)

The overall thermal efficiency of the plant is given by:

55
 W1
 th  (3)
Q1  m(hw  h3 )

Considering next left – hand section of the control surface in Figure 2, enclosing the
boiler only, we may write the Steady Flow Energy Equation:

Q1 + mh0 = Q2 + mh1 (4)

or, with the feed pump at rest:

Q1 + mhw = Q2 + mh1 (5)

and boiler efficiency:

m(h1  hw )
b  (6)
Q1

The center section of the control surface encloses the stem motor and the
corresponding Steady Flow Energy Equation is

mh1 = W1 + mh2 + Q3 (7)

Finally, for the control surfaces enclosing the condenser:

mh2 = Q4 + Q5 + mh3 (8)

10.4.2 Throttling Calorimeter

When wet steam is throttled to a low pressure (usually atmospheric), steam

becomes superheated. The temperature of the superheated steam is measured.
Knowing the pressure and temperature of the steam in the calorimeter, its enthalpy
can be determined.

he  h1  xhg  1  x hf = hf  xhf g (9)

Knowing the value of hg and hf at inlet pressure, the dryness fraction of the steam, x
can be calculated from the above relation.

For example, a throttling calorimeter is used to measure the quality of the wet steam
from the boiler carrying steam at 149.9°C. The pressure in the calorimeter is at
atmospheric and the temperature is measured as 100°C.

Throttling process is an isentropic process. Therefore,

56
 h1  he = 2676.2 kJ/kg at 1 atm, 100°C

2676.2 kJ/kg = hf  xhf g = 632.2 + x 2114.3

x = 0.967

10.5 Unit Assembly:

Pressure Gauge Load Cell

Condenser
Steam Engine
Oil Distributor
Throttling Calorimeter Sample Collection

Pressure Regulator
Panel
Boiler

Figure 10.2: Unit Assembly of Steam Motor and Energy Conversion Test Set
(Model: TH15)

57
Figure 10.3: Process Diagram of Steam Motor and Energy Conversion Test Set

58
10.6 PROCEDURES
1. Ensure all valves are closed.
2. Fill in 5 ml of oil into the oil tank. Partially open valve V6 to allow some oil to
lubricate the pipe leading to the steam engine.
3. Lubricate all moving parts of the steam engine and the displacement lubricator
with the cylinder oil.
4. Make sure that the engine protecting covers are properly installed.
5. Open the cover of the pressure regulator in anti-clockwise direction before
running any experiment.
6. Supply water to the equipment, make sure that water is flowing into the water
tank by opening valve V2 and flowing through the heat exchanger by opening
valve V7.
a. Make sure valve V2 is fully opened.
b. Make sure valve V3 is fully closed.
7. Close the steam supply valves, V3, V4, and V5 from the boiler and to the steam
engine. Then, switch on the boiler and allow sufficient time to start producing
steam at the set pressure.
8. When the boiler pressure has reached approximately 400kPa at PI3, open the
boiler stop valve, V3. Adjust the steam pressure regulator clockwise until PI1
reads about 400kPa.
9. To drain out condensate and to heat up the engine, turn to open the 4 drain cocks
located beside the steam engine cylinders. Open steam supply valve, V5, the
condensate will drain out through the 4 drain cocks and flow in steam into steam
engine slowly until the steam engine starts to move.
Warning: Condensate will be displaced out from the engine cylinder.
10. Check that there is sufficient cooling water flowrate to condense the steam at the
engine exhaust. Cooling water at approximately 2 – 5 LPM is sufficient.
11. Let the engine running for a few minutes until no condensate flowing out through
the 4 drain cocks.
12. Close the boiler stop valve, V3 and close all 4 drain cocks at the head of steam-
engine cylinder.
13. Before taking a set of readings, run the apparatus for at least 2-3 minutes for
conditions to stabilize.
14. Take the results when the feed pump is not in operation; when the pump is
operating steam pressure and power output will fall.
15. Adjust the nut of the pulley to give the engine load and tighten the nut once there
is some preload show on the indicator panel for instance 60 or 100grams.
Note: Do not adjust the engine load once it is fixed at that position and even though
the engine load varies throughout the experiment.

59
 16. Run the engine at different speed by controlling the opening of valve V5 to obtain
at least 5 sets of readings.
17. Record the boiler power, boiler pressure (PT1), engine inlet pressure (PT2), all
temperatures, engine speed, load cell loads, condenser cooling water inlet flow
rate and condensate flow rate by measuring the volume collected in measuring
cylinder for a period of 1 minute.
18. Analyze the result as in the theory section.
19. To obtain the dryness fraction, close valve V5. Open valve V4 and collect the
temperature reading for the throttling calorimeter, TT5 and TT1 once the
readings are stable.
20. Perform the general shutdown procedure.
Note: Please exercise caution as the component will be hot. Do not lean to close to the
steam engine as the steam is hot.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
The TH15 apparatus uses electricity, water and steam. Some surfaces will get hot,
small amounts of the steam may vent, and some water and oil may drip from the steam
engine.
1. The apparatus is fitted with safety devices to protect the user from any potential
dangers. Never use the apparatus without the guards or safety devices fitted.
2. Do not adjust, open or alter any parts of the apparatus other than those
described in the experiments, especially when there is hot water or steam in the
system.
3. Wear Eye protection and suitable clothing when using this apparatus.
4. Never allow the boiler to run dry.
5. All operating manuals supplied with the unit must be completely read and
understand before conducting any experiment on the unit.
6. Used oil is hazardous to health. Wear oil resistant gloves when working with oils.
Dispose of used oil in accordance with local regulations.

60
 11: Problem-based learning (PBL) activities

11.1 Introduction

A PBL lab is where students are given the freedom to develop their own approaches to solve a
given problem instead of merely following the already set guidelines from a lab manual or
elsewhere. Working on PBL pushes students to develop critical thinking skills. The students here
must devise their own strategies and back them with explanations, theory, and logical
justification. An important aspect of PBL is that a given problem may be solved in different
ways, therefore, student groups are encouraged to investigate different methods and justify
and execute the adopted approach.

11.2 Debriefing

Lab in-charge/instructor will have a debriefing session with the students every week. The
teacher may drop pointers for the students and perhaps talk about the difficulties that the
students faced while doing the experiments. This may be in the form of a lecture or a discussion
and could emphasize the essential learning points. The list of the experiment from
Thermodynamics and Fluid Mechanics are given on subsequent pages. Each group will choose
one experiment from the list and will spend six labs sessions to complete the experiments and
report on the expected outcomes.

11.3 General guidelines

 Complete post-midterm is dedicated to Problem-Based Learning (PBL) experiments.

 PBL Introductory Session will be given by the lab team. Attendance is mandatory as it will be
an opportunity to discuss specific PBL experiments and address student concerns/queries.

 List of PBL experiments is attached below. Student groups should email a prioritized list of
at least 5 preferred experiments. Allotment of PBL topics will be based on time of response
and availability of topic.

 Attendance in PBL sessions is mandatory. Each group submits a hand-written or printed

detailed summary of progress at the end of each session. Submission cannot be postponed
to the next day in any circumstances.

61
 Students will email a final report in the form of a technical paper in PDF format on Monday
of 15th week of the semester. Hard copies are not required unless specifically asked for.

 Demonstration of final PBL results/outcomes and viva will be held in the 15th week of the
semester.

Plagiarism policy
All the PBL reports will be submitted by students in PDF format which will be checked for
plagiarism through software. Violation of academic integrity in this regard will be penalized
with marks deduction. A very high similarity index may sanction an F grade in the laboratory
course. PBL Introduction Session will outline explicit guidelines for students to avoid
plagiarism.

62