Process Control Lab Manual Students

PROCESS CONTROL (LAB)
CHE – 427
LAB MANUAL
(7th SEMESTER)
LAB RESOURCE PERSON:
Dr. Mehwish Batool
LAB INCHARGE`S:
DR. MARIA MUSTAFA
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
COMSATS UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD, LAHORE CAMPUS.
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Table Contents
EXPERIMENTS LIST................................................................................................4
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES (CLO`S).............................................................5
PROGRAMME LEARNING OUTCOMES (PLO`S).....................................................5
Assessment Plan.........................................................................................................6
MECHANISM OF LAB ASSESSMENT......................................................................6
Safety Rules and Regulations.......................................................................................8
Experiment 01..........................................................................................................10
Experiment 02..........................................................................................................18
Experiment 03.........................................................................................................25
Experiment 04..........................................................................................................29
Experiment 05..........................................................................................................33
Experiment 06..........................................................................................................38
Experiment 07..........................................................................................................41
Experiment 08.....................................................................................................................45
RECOMMENDED BOOKS...............................................................................................53
GLOSSARY........................................................................................................................54
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Table Contents
Table 1.1...................................................................................................................19
Table 2.1....................................................................................................................29
Table 3.1....................................................................................................................35
Table 4.1....................................................................................................................47
Table 5.1...................................................................................................................53
Table 6.1…................................................................................................................60, 61
Table 7.1....................................................................................................................68, 69
Table 8.1....................................................................................................................78
Graphs:
Graph 1.1..............................................................................................................................20
Graph 2.1.............................................................................................................................30
Graph 3.1.............................................................................................................................36, 40
Graph 4.1.............................................................................................................................48
Graph 5.1.............................................................................................................................54, 55
Graph 6.2.............................................................................................................................62, 64
Graph 7.1.............................................................................................................................70
Graph 8.1.............................................................................................................................79, 80
Figures
Figure 1.1...............................................................................................................................17
Figure 2.1...............................................................................................................................27
Figure 3.1...............................................................................................................................33
Figure 4.1...............................................................................................................................46
Figure 5.1...............................................................................................................................52
Figure 6.1...............................................................................................................................59
Figure 7.1...............................................................................................................................66
Figure 8.2...........................................................................................................................73, 75
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EXPERIMENTS LIST
CALIBRATION EXPERIMENTS:
1. Draw the calibration curve and report the accuracy of the given Thermocouple with the
help of Thermometer.
2. Draw the calibration curve and report the accuracy of the given Thermistor with the help
of Thermometer.
3. Draw the calibration curve and report the accuracy of the given RTD with the help of
Thermometer.
4. Draw the calibration curve and report the accuracy of Bourdon Gauge using dead weight
tester.
5. Draw the calibration curve and report the accuracy of Bourdon Gauge using U-Tube
Manometer.
6. Draw the calibration curve and report the accuracy of Bourdon Gauge using Inclined
Tube Manometer.
PROCESS CONTROL EXPERIMENTS:
7. Determine the Time Constant of the given liquid level system

8. Determine the effect of variation in PID characteristics on the response of the level
control unit:
 Change in Gain in Proportional (P) Mode
 Change in Gain and Reset Time in Proportional-Integral (PI) Mode
4
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES (CLO`S)
The course learning outcomes for the process control lab are presented below:
1. Describe fundamentals of Process Control & associated lab equipment.

2. Analyze the raw data and results of process control experiments.
3. Perform all assigned work in compliance with established policies and procedures.
4. Organize the lab work including lab procedures, results, discussions, analysis and
conclusions through written report and be able to present and communicate at different
levels.
5. Behave according to safety standards, established for laboratory operation.
6. Commit to professional ethics, while working in a group.
PROGRAMME LEARNING OUTCOMES (PLO`S)
The program learning outcomes are depicted as below:
1. Engineering Knowledge
2. Investigation
3. Modern Tool Usage
4. The Engineer and Society
5. Ethics
6. Individual and Teamwork
7. Communication
8. Life-Long Learning
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Assessment Plan
Description Weightage CLO`s Covered

Lab Rubrics / Assignment # 1 8% 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Sessional – 1 Examination 10% 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Sessional – 2 Examination 15% 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Terminal Examination 50% 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
MECHANISM OF LAB ASSESSMENT
Semester Start to Mid Examination
 Lab Rubrics # 1 (Weightage = 8 marks)
 Midterm (25 marks)
 50% weightage of paper + viva
 50% weightage of Lab Rubrics # 1 & Lab Rubrics # 2
After Mid Examination to Terminal Examination
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 Lab Terminal Examination (50 marks)
 50% weightage of paper + viva
 50% weightage of Lab Rubrics # 6, Lab Rubrics # 7 & Lab Rubrics # 8.
 All the lab assessment cover CLO # 1 to CLO # 6.
 Overall weightage of lab rubrics is 62.5%.
Lab
Rubrics
Pre-Lab (30%) In-Lab (50%)

Goals, Hypothesis,
Experimental
Performance,
Post-Lab (20%)
Experimental Procedure Observations and Report formatting, results
Methodology, Calculations, Ethics, presentation, Analysis of
Equipment, Acessories, Safety, Team-work, the results.
PPE`s. Performance of the tasks
independently.
Safety Rules and Regulations

PRE-CHECKS:
Before starting any laboratory operation, ask and answer the following questions by yourself:
1. Have I done this before?

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2. Do I have the proper equipment?
3. Does anything look wrong?
4. What are the hazards?
5. Should I work in a fume hood?
6. Do I need goggles or other safety equipment?
7. Do I need additional help?
8. Should I check further with my instructor?
9. Have I planned this experiment or exercise?
10. Do I know what to do, if there is an accident?
11. Do I know where the fire extinguishers are located?
LABORATORY SAFETY RULES
1. NO SMOKING IS ALLOWED IN THE LABORATORY PREMISES.
2. Safety glasses must be worn at all times (where applicable) during laboratory periods. These
glasses should be kept between laboratory sessions in the racks provided.
3. Wear apron (lab overall) in the lab when running apparatus and handling liquids.
4. Wear rubber gloves when handling liquids.
5. Find out the location of First Aid Box.
6. Before operating any valve, switch, etc., know precisely what the effect of your
manipulation will be.
7. Report all injuries to the instructor and to COMSATS doctor immediately. Dial 1122.
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8. Keep all inflammable liquids or gases away from open electrical equipment and other
sources of ignition.
9. Gas cylinders must be kept in a stand or chained vertically to a bench.
10. Do not leave cables trailing across the floor of the lab.
11. Practice good housekeeping. Clean all spills at once. Return all equipment to proper storage
when not in use. Place all trash in appropriate receptacles.
12. Avoid direct blasts of air on the skin from high-pressure compressed air-lines. Never play
with air hoses.
13. Use special vacuum cleaner from the laboratory for the immediate removal of mercury
spills. The arrangement should be made to contain mercury.
14. Make sure any system being heated is properly vented.
15. Know the location and use of all emergency, protective, and firefighting equipment.
16. Do not smell directly any chemical being heated.
17. Remember that, if a lab smells, do not use it. Inform instructor/lab technician.
18. Do not leave lab while apparatus is on, always inform the instructor if you are in a situation
to leave the lab.
19. When working with others, be especially careful not to drop tools.
20. Do not wear loose clothing or neckties when working with machinery. You will not be
allowed to enter the lab if you are in loose dress or not wearing covered shoes.
21. Report to the instructor any conditions that are safety hazards.
22. All power wiring is to be installed by an approved electrician.
23. Always remember: SAFETY IS GOOD TECHNIQUE!
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Experiment 01
Equipment Title: THERMOCOUPLE
Pre-Lab
1.1. Objective:
Draw the calibration curve and report the accuracy of the given Thermocouple with the help of
Thermometer.
The hypothesis of this experiment could be following:
 The calibration curve should be a straight line, showing that thermocouple is accurate and
ready to use.
 The accuracy of the thermocouple should be 100%, and there should be no average error.
1.2. Process and Applications:
The thermocouple is a temperature measuring device. It uses for measuring the temperature
at one particular point. In other words, it is a type of sensor used for measuring the
temperature in the form of an electric current or the EMF.
Working Principle of Thermocouple:
The working principle of the thermocouple depends on the three effects.
 See back Effect – The See back effect occurs between two different metals. When
the heat provides to any one of the metal, the electrons start flowing from hot metal
to cold metal. Thus, direct current induces in the circuit
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In short, it is a phenomenon in which the temperature difference between the two different
metals induces the potential differences between them. The See beck effect produces
small voltages for per Kelvin of temperature.
 Peltier Effect – The Peltier effect is the inverse of the Seebeck effect. The Peltier
effect state that the temperature difference can be created between any two
different conductors by applying the potential difference between them.
 Thompson Effect – The Thompson effect state that when two dissimilar metals
join together and if they create two junctions then the voltage induces the entire
length of the conductor because of the temperature gradient. The temperature
gradient is a physical term which shows the direction and rate of change of
temperature at a particular location.
Construction of Thermocouple:
The thermocouple consist two dissimilar metals. These metals are welded together at the
junction point. This junction considers as the measuring point. The junction point
categorizes into three types
1. Ungrounded Junction – In ungrounded junction, the conductors are entirely

isolated from the protective sheath. It is used for high-pressure application
works. The major advantage of using such type of junction is that it reduces
the effect of the stray magnetic field.
2. Grounded Junction – In such type of junction the metals and protective

sheath are welded together. The grounded junction use for measuring the
temperature in the corrosive environment. This junction provides resistance to
the noise.
3. Exposed Junction – Such type of junction uses in the places where fast
response requires. The exposed junction is used for measuring the temperature
of the gas.
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Figure: Construction of Thermocouple (junctions)
Nickel-alloy thermocouples
Characteristic functions for thermocouples that reach intermediate temperatures, as covered by

nickel-alloy thermocouple types E, J, K, M, N, T. Also shown are the noble-metal alloy type P
and the pure noble-metal combinations gold–platinum and platinum–palladium.
 Type E
The Type E thermocouple is suitable for use at temperatures up to 900°C (1650°F) in a

vacuum, inert, mildly oxidizing or reducing atmosphere. At cryogenic temperatures, the
thermocouple is not subject to corrosion. This thermocouple has the highest EMF output
per degree of all the commonly used thermocouples.
 Type J
The Type J may be used, exposed or unexposed, where there is a deficiency of free
oxygen. For cleanliness and longer life, a protecting tube is recommended. Since JP (iron)
wire will oxidize rapidly at temperatures over 540°C (1000°F), it is recommended that
larger gauge wires be used to compensate. Maximum recommended operating temperature
is 760°C (1400°F).
 Type K
Due to its reliability and accuracy, Type K is used extensively at temperatures up to

1260°C (2300°F). It's good practice to protect this type of thermocouple with a suitable
12
metal or ceramic protecting tube, especially in reducing atmospheres. In oxidizing
atmospheres, such as electric furnaces, tube protection is not always necessary when other
conditions are suitable; however, it is recommended for cleanliness and general
mechanical protection. Type K will generally outlast Type J because the JP (iron) wire
rapidly oxidizes, especially at higher temperatures.
 Type M
Type M (82%Ni/18%Mo–99.2%Ni/0.8%Co, by weight) are used in vacuum furnaces for the

same reasons as with type C (described below). Upper temperature is limited to 1400 °C. It is
less commonly used than other types.
 Type N
This nickel-based thermocouple alloy is used primarily at high temperatures up to 1260°C

(2300°F). While not a direct replacement for Type K, Type N provides better resistance to
oxidation at high temperatures and longer life in applications where sulfur is present.
 Type T
This thermocouple can be used in either oxidizing or reducing atmospheres, though for
longer life a protecting tube is recommended. Because of its stability at lower
temperatures, this is a superior thermocouple for a wide variety of applications in low and
cryogenic temperatures. It's recommended operating range is— -200° to 350°C (-330° to
660°F), but it can be used to -269°C (-452°F) (boiling helium).
Platinum/rhodium-alloy thermocouples
Characteristic functions for high-temperature thermocouple types, showing Pt/Rh, W/Re, Pt/Mo,
and Ir/Rh-alloy thermocouples. Also shown is the Pt–Pd pure-metal thermocouple.
Types B, R, and S thermocouples use platinum or a platinum/rhodium alloy for each conductor.
These are among the most stable thermocouples, but have lower sensitivity than other types,
approximately 10 µV/°C. Type B, R, and S thermocouples are usually used only for high-
temperature measurements due to their high cost and low sensitivity.
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 Type B
Type B (70%Pt/30%Rh–94%Pt/6%Rh, by weight) thermocouples are suited for use at up

to 1800 °C. Type-B thermocouples produce the same output at 0 °C and 42 °C, limiting
their use below about 50 °C. The emf function has a minimum around 21 °C, meaning
that cold-junction compensation is easily performed, since the compensation voltage is
essentially a constant for a reference at typical room temperatures.
 Type R
Type R (87%Pt/13%Rh–Pt, by weight) thermocouples are used 0 to 1600 °C.
 Type S
Type S (90%Pt/10%Rh–Pt, by weight) thermocouples, similar to type R, are used up to

1600 °C. Before the introduction of the International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-
90), precision type-S thermocouples were used as the practical standard thermometers for
the range of 630 °C to 1064 °C, based on an interpolation between the freezing points of
antimony, silver, and gold. Starting with ITS-90, platinum resistance thermometers have
taken over this range as standard thermometers.
Tungsten/rhenium-alloy thermocouples
These thermocouples are well suited for measuring extremely high temperatures. Typical uses
are hydrogen and inert atmospheres, as well as vacuum furnaces. They are not used in oxidizing
environments at high temperatures because of embrittlement.[18] A typical range is 0 to 2315
°C, which can be extended to 2760 °C in inert atmosphere and to 3000 °C for brief
measurements.
 Type C
(95%W/5%Re–74%W/26%Re, by weight) maximum temperature will be measured by

type-c thermocouple is 2329 ℃.
 Type D
(97%W/3%Re–75%W/25%Re, by weight)
 Type G
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(W–74%W/26%Re, by weight)
Chromel–gold/iron-alloy thermocouples
Thermocouple characteristics at low temperatures. The AuFe-based thermocouple shows a

steady sensitivity down to low temperatures, whereas conventional types soon flatten out and
lose sensitivity at low temperature.
In these thermocouples (chromel–gold/iron alloy), the negative wire is gold with a small fraction
(0.03–0.15 atom percent) of iron. The impure gold wire gives the thermocouple a high sensitivity
at low temperatures (compared to other thermocouples at that temperature), whereas the chromel
wire maintains the sensitivity near room temperature. It can be used for cryogenic applications
(1.2–300 K and even up to 600 K). Both the sensitivity and the temperature range depend on the
iron concentration. The sensitivity is typically around 15 µV/K at low temperatures, and the
lowest usable temperature varies between 1.2 and 4.2 K.
Type P (noble-metal alloy) or "Platinel II"
Type P (55%Pd/31%Pt/14%Au–65%Au/35%Pd, by weight) thermocouples give a thermoelectric

voltage that mimics the type K over the range 500 °C to 1400 °C, however they are constructed
purely of noble metals and so shows enhanced corrosion resistance. This combination is also
known as Platinel II.
Platinum/molybdenum-alloy thermocouples
Thermocouples of platinum/molybdenum-alloy (95%Pt/5%Mo–99.9%Pt/0.1%Mo, by weight)

are sometimes used in nuclear reactors, since they show a low drift from nuclear transmutation
induced by neutron irradiation, compared to the platinum/rhodium-alloy types.
Iridium/rhodium alloy thermocouples
The use of two wires of iridium/rhodium alloys can provide a thermocouple that can be used up
to about 2000 °C in inert atmospheres.
Pure noble-metal thermocouples Au–Pt, Pt–Pd
Thermocouples made from two different, high-purity noble metals can show high accuracy even
when uncalibrated, as well as low levels of drift. Two combinations in use are gold–platinum and
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platinum–palladium.[22] Their main limitations are the low melting points of the metals
involved (1064 °C for gold and 1555 °C for palladium). These thermocouples tend to be more
accurate than type S, and due to their economy and simplicity are even regarded as competitive
alternatives to the platinum resistance thermometers that are normally used as standard
thermometers.[23]
Applications:
Thermocouples are used in almost every industry such as in;
 Thermocouples can be used for a wide variety of applications in the food and
beverage industry including Clean-In-Place sensors, Oven Control, Food Chain
Monitoring, Hotplate Control and Monitoring and Steam Kettle temperature
control.
 In the gasification industry, it is used in the energy sector for monitoring

temperature in a gasifier.
 In the polymer industry, Extruders require high temperatures and high pressures.
They also have a unique threaded adapter to position the sensor tip in the molten
plastic under the high-pressure conditions found there.
 Measuring the temperature of molten metal is difficult due to the high

temperature and severe conditions encountered. Because of the temperatures
involved, Type K and N Base Metal and Types R, S and B Platinum
thermocouples are the only choices for contact measurements in this area.
1.3. Apparatus:
 Potentiometer
 Thermocouple
 Water Beaker
 Mercury Filled Thermometer
1.4. Diagram:
16
Figure: Labeled figure of thermistor setup
1.5. Line Tracing of Thermocouple:
IDEA REALTED NOT EXACT
Figure: Line Tracing of Thermocouple
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1.6. Experimental Procedure:
1. The standardization of potentiometer is done, when the thermocouple is not connected to

it.
2. After connecting the thermocouple with potentiometer, the thermocouple and a mercury
filled thermometer are inserted into water beaker.
3. The water in beaker is heated up to 50°C, then for every 5°C increase in temperature, a
corresponding change in E.M.F. is noted via potentiometer.
4. The change in E.M.F. along with the change in temperature of the system is plotted on a
graph.
5. Calculate the average error and report the accuracy of thermocouple.
6. Draw a graph between thermometer reading and thermocouple (e.m.f) reading. If a

straight line is obtained, then the thermistor is good to use.
In-Lab
1.7. Safety Observations:
1. Ensure that water tank is at least 80% full.

2. Ensure that at the end of the experimental performance, the heater should be stopped.
3. Wear gloves as this experiment involve heating of water beaker.
4. Cool down the equipment before draining the water inside the glass vessel so that the
heater will not be overheated when there is no water inside the vessel.
5. Make sure tap water used is free from any contamination to prevent blockage inside the
condenser.
Observations and Calculations:

Water Boiling point= 100oC
Thermocouple start from= 30oC
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Table 1.1
No. of Obs. Temperature, Temperature, Error, E =

T1 T2 (T1 - T2)
(Thermocouple) (Thermometer)
℃ ℃ ℃
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
1.8. Formula`s for the Experiment:
Average Error = Sum of all errors reported i.e., E1+ E2 + E3 + E4 + E5
Average %age error =
Formula used:
%age Accuracy = (1 – Average Error) × 100
Results:
% age accuracy = %
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Post-Lab
1.9. Findings:
It has found, error exists in each reading, and the accuracy found for thermocouple is %.
1.10. Display Results
“Curve, with thermometer reading on X-axis, and thermocouple reading on Y-axis”
1.11.Conclusion:
A thermocouple is the most accurate and stable temperature sensor and is more linear than
a thermistor. However, thermocouples are the slowest and most expensive temperature
sensors. Thermocouple is superior to thermistors in that their readings are more accurate
and more repeatable. The thermocouple has high accuracy as compared to the
thermistor.
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Experiment 02
Equipment Title: THERMISTOR
Pre-Lab
2.1. Objective:
Draw the calibration curve and report the accuracy of the given Thermistor with the help of
Thermometer.
 The thermistor shows non-linear behavior due to its low range as compared to other
sensors.
The thermistor is a kind of resistor whose resistivity depends on surrounding temperature.
It is a temperature sensitive device. The word thermistor is derived from then word, thermally
sensitive resistor. The thermistor is made of the semiconductor material that means their
resistance lies between the conductor and insulator.
The variation in the thermistor resistance shows that either conduction or power dissipation
occurs in the thermistor. The circuit diagram of thermistor uses the rectangular block which has a
diagonal line on it.
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Selection factors:
The response graph of the thermistor is different from the thermocouple and the RTD in
that it's not linear. Figure shows the typical response for thermocouples, RTDs, and
thermistors. Since the thermistor response is a curve, it's important to locate linear portions
of the curve to provide the best accuracy and repeatability. In some cases a table should be
consulted to determine the exact amount of resistance the thermistor should provide for any
given temperature. Also notice from the graph that the resistance decreases as the
temperature increases, and at some point the temperature will increase sufficiently to make
the resistance equal zero and the thermistor is no longer useful as a temperature sensor.
Construction of Thermistor:
The thermistor is made with the sintered mixture of metallic oxides like manganese, cobalt,
nickel, cobalt, copper, iron, uranium, etc. It is available in the form of the bead, rod and
disc. The different types of the thermistor are shown in the figure below.
1. Bead type- The bead form of the thermistor is smallest in shape, and it is
enclosed inside the solid glass rod to form probes.
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Figure: Bead type thermistor
2. The disc shape is made by pressing material under high pressure with diameter
range from 2.5 mm to 25mm.
Figure: Disc type thermistor
Types of Thermistor:
The thermistor is classified into two types. They are the negative temperature coefficient
and the positive temperature coefficient thermistor.
 Negative Temperature Coefficient Thermistor – In this type of thermistor the

temperature increases with the decrease of the resistance. The resistance of the negative
temperature coefficient thermistor is very large due to which it detects the small variation
in temperature.
 Positive Temperature Coefficient Thermistor – The resistance of the thermistor

increases with the increases in temperature.
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Negative Temperature Coefficient
Many NTC thermistors are made from a pressed disc, rod, plate, bead or cast chip of
semiconducting material such as sintered metal oxides. They work because raising the
temperature of a semiconductor increases the number of active charge carriers it promotes them
into the conduction band. The more charge carriers that are available, the more current a material
can conduct. In certain materials like ferric oxide (Fe 2O3) with titanium (Ti) doping an n-type
semiconductor is formed and the charge carriers are electrons. In materials such as nickel oxide
(NiO) with lithium (Li) doping a p-type semiconductor is created, where holes are the charge
carriers.
Positive Temperature Coefficient
Most PTC thermistors are made from doped polycrystalline ceramic (containing barium titanite
(BaTiO3) and other compounds) which have the property that their resistance rises suddenly at a
certain critical temperature. Barium titanite is ferroelectric and its dielectric constant varies with
temperature. Below the Curie point temperature, the high dielectric constant prevents the
formation of potential barriers between the crystal grains, leading to a low resistance. In this
region the device has a small negative temperature coefficient. At the Curie point temperature,
the dielectric constant drops sufficiently to allow the formation of potential barriers at the grain
boundaries, and the resistance increases sharply with temperature. At even higher temperatures,
the material reverts to NTC behavior.
Barium titanite thermistors can be used as self-controlled heaters; for a given voltage, the
ceramic will heat to a certain temperature, but the power used will depend on the heat loss from
the ceramic.
The dynamics of PTC thermistors being powered also is extremely useful. When first connected
to a voltage source, a large current corresponding to the low, cold, resistance flows, but as the
thermistor self-heats, the current is reduced until a limiting current (and corresponding peak
device temperature) is reached. The current-limiting effect can replace fuses. In the degaussing
circuits of many CRT monitors and televisions an appropriately chosen thermistor is connected
in series with the degaussing coil. This results in a smooth current decrease for an improved
degaussing effect. Some of these degaussing circuits have auxiliary heating elements to heat the
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thermistor (and reduce the resulting current) further.
Another type of PTC thermistor is the polymer PTC, which is sold under brand names such as
"Polyswitch" "Semifuse", and "Multifuse". This consists of plastic with carbon grains embedded
in it. When the plastic is cool, the carbon grains are all in contact with each other, forming a
conductive path through the device. When the plastic heats up, it expands, forcing the carbon
grains apart, and causing the resistance of the device to rise, which then causes increased heating
and rapid resistance increase. Like the BaTiO 3 thermistor, this device has a highly nonlinear
resistance/temperature response useful for thermal or circuit control, not for temperature
measurement. Besides circuit elements used to limit current, self-limiting heaters can be made in
the form of wires or strips, useful for heat tracing. PTC thermistors 'latch' into a hot / high
resistance state: once hot, they stay in that high resistance state, until cooled. The effect can be
used as a primitive latch/memory circuit, the effect being enhanced by using two PTC
thermistors in series, with one thermistor cool, and the other thermistor hot. The IEC standard
symbol for a PTC thermistor includes a "+t°" under the rectangle.
Applications:
Most common uses of thermistors are in digital thermometers, in cars to measure oil and coolant
temperatures, and in household appliances such as ovens and refrigerators, but they are also
found in almost any application that requires heating or cooling protection circuits for safe
operation. For more sophisticated applications, such as laser stabilization detectors, optical
blocks, and charge coupled devices, the thermistor is built in. For example, a 10 kΩ thermistor is
the standard that is built into laser packages.
2.3. Apparatus:
 Potentiometer
 Thermistor
 Water Beaker
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1. The standardization of potentiometer is done, when the thermistor is not connected to it.
2. After connecting the thermistor with potentiometer, the thermistor and a mercury filled
thermometer are inserted into water beaker.
3. For every 5°C rise in the temperature of water in the beaker, note the temperature of both
thermometer and thermistor.
4. Calculate the average error and report the accuracy of thermistor.
5. Draw a graph between thermometer reading and thermistor reading. If a straight line is
obtained, then the thermistor is good to use.
2.5. Diagram:
Figure: Labeled figure of thermistor setup
27
In-Lab

3. Wear gloves as this experiment involve heating of storage tank.
condenser.
6. Wear safety goggle and lab coat.
Average % age Error = %
Formula Used:
% age accuracy = (1- %age error) *100
Results:
% age accuracy = %
2.7. Observations and Calculations:
Water Boiling point= 100 oC

Thermistor start from= 30oC
28
Table 2.1

T1 T2 (Thermistor) (T1 - T2)
(Thermometer)
℃ ℃ ℃
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Post-Lab
2.8. Findings:
It has found, error exists in each reading, and the accuracy found for thermistor is %.
2.9. Display Results:
 Draw the graph between thermometer reading (x-axis) and thermistor reading (y-axis).
29
Graph 2.1
2.10. Conclusions:
Thermocouples are superior to thermistors in that their readings are more accurate and
more repeatable. The thermocouple has high accuracy as compared to the thermistor.
The thermistor has leaded whose resistance reduces their accuracy. The temperature
measuring ranges of the thermistor is °C whereas that of the thermocouple is °C to °C.
30
Experiment 03
Equipment Title: RTD
Pre-Lab
3.1. Objective:
Draw the calibration curve and report the accuracy of the given RTD with the help of
Thermometer.
 The RTD have high linearity at the low-temperature range but shows some sort of
non-linear behavior at higher temperature.
A Resistance Temperature Detector (also known as a Resistance Thermometer or RTD) is

an electronic device used to determine the temperature by measuring the resistance of an
electrical wire. This wire is referred to as a temperature sensor. If we want to measure
temperature with high accuracy, an RTD is the ideal solution, as it has good linear
characteristics over a wide range of temperatures.
Working Principle:
An RTD works by using a basic principle; as the temperature of a metal increases, so does
the resistance to the flow of electricity. An electrical current is passed through the sensor,
the resistance element is used to measure the resistance of the current being passed through
it.
Construction:
The RTD incorporates pure metals or certain alloys that increase in resistance as
temperature increases and, conversely, decrease in resistance as temperature decreases.
RTDs act somewhat like an electrical transducer, converting changes in temperature to
voltage signals by the measurement of resistance. The metals that are best suited for use as
RTD sensors are pure, of uniform quality, stable within a given range of temperature, and
31
able to give reproducible resistance-temperature readings. Only a few metals have the
properties necessary for use in RTD elements.
RTD elements are normally constructed of platinum, copper, or nickel. These metals are
best suited for RTD applications because of their linear resistance-temperature
characteristics, their high coefficient of resistance, and their ability to withstand repeated
temperature cycles.
Types:
There are two main types of resistance temperature detectors, thin-film and wire-wound.
 Wire-Wound RTDs:
Wire wound RTDs are built using a small diameter wire, typically platinum, which is
wound into a coil and packaged inside a ceramic insulator. Larger extension wires are then
spot welded to the platinum wire. Conversely, the small diameter wire can also be wound
around the outside of a ceramic mandrill and coated with an insulating material such as
glass with extension wires then being spot welded to the winding wires.
 Thin Film RTD Elements:
Thin film RTDs are made by depositing a thin layer of resistive material, typically
platinum film, onto a ceramic substrate. A pattern is then etched onto the element,
creating the electrical circuit. Platinum Thin-film RTDs offer a nearly linear temperature
vs resistance relationship as well as very high accuracy over wide temperature ranges.
Applications:
 RTD sensor is used in automotive to measure the engine temperature, an oil

level sensor, intake air temperature sensors. In communication and
instrumentation for sensing the over the temperature of amplifiers, transistor
gain stabilizers, etc.
 RTD is used in power electronics, computer, consumer electronics, food handling

and processing, industrial electronics, medical electronics, military, and aerospace.
32
3.3. Apparatus:
 Potentiometer
 RTD
 Water Beaker
1. The standardization of potentiometer is done, when the thermistor is not connected to it.
2. After connecting the RTD with potentiometer, the RTD probe and a mercury filled
thermometer are inserted into water beaker.
3. For every 5°C rise in the temperature of water in the beaker, note the temperature of both
thermometer and note down resistance on RTD.
4. Calculate the average error and report the accuracy of RTD.
5. Draw a graph between thermometer reading and RTD reading. If a straight line is
obtained, then the RTD is good to use.
3.5. Diagram
Figure: figure of RTD setup
RTD Indicator
33
In-Lab

3. Wear gloves as this experiment involve heating of storage tank.
condenser.
6. Wear safety goggle and lab coat.
Average %age error = %
Formula Used:
Results:
% age accuracy =%
Water Boiling point= 100oC

RTD start from= 30oC
34
Table 3.1

T1 (RTD) T2 (T1 - T2)
(Thermometer)
℃ ℃ ℃
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Post-Lab
3.9. Findings:
It has found that the accuracy found for bourdon tube is %.
3.10 Display Results:
 Draw the calibration curve, with thermometer reading on X-axis, and RTD reading on Y-
axis.
35
Graph 3.1
3.11. Conclusions:
Thermocouples are superior to thermistors in that their readings are more accurate and
more repeatable. But RTDs are superior to thermocouples and thermistors. The RTD
has high accuracy as compared to the thermistor and thermocouple. The temperature
measuring ranges of the thermistor is °C and of the thermocouple is °C whereas of the
RTD is °C.
Difference between RTD, Thermocouple and Thermistor
Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)
An RTD sensing element consists of a wire coil or deposited film of pure metal. The element’s
resistance increases with temperature in a known and repeatable manner. RTDs exhibit excellent
accuracy over a wide temperature range and represent the fastest growing segment among
industrial temperature sensors. Their advantages include:
 Temperature range: RTD models cover temperatures from -260 to 650°C (-436 to
1202°F).
 Repeatability and stability: The platinum resistance thermometer is the primary

interpolation instrument used by the National Institute of Standards and Technology from
-260 to 962°C. Ordinary industrial RTDs typically drift less than 0.1°C/year.
36
 Sensitivity: The voltage drop across an RTD provides a much larger output than a
thermocouple.
 Linearity: Platinum and copper RTDs produce a more linear response than
thermocouples or thermistors. RTD non-linearities can be corrected through proper
design of resistive bridge networks.
 Low system cost: RTDs use ordinary copper extension leads and require no cold
junction compensation.
 Standardization: Manufacturers offer RTDs to industry standard curves, most

commonly 100 Ω platinum to EN60751
Thermocouples
A thermocouple consists of two wires of dissimilar metals welded together into a junction. At the
other end of the signal wires, usually as part of the input instrument, is another junction called
the reference junction, which is electronically compensated for its ambient temperature. Heating
the sensing junction generates a thermoelectric potential (emf ) proportional to the temperature
difference between the two junctions. This millivolt-level emf, when compensated for the known
temperature of the reference junction, indicates the temperature at the sensing tip.
Thermocouples are simple and familiar. Designing them into systems, however, is complicated
by the need for special extension wires and reference junction compensation. Thermo-couple
advantages include:
 Extremely high temperature capability: Thermocouples with precious metal junctions

may be rated as high as 1800°C (3272°F).
 Ruggedness: The inherent simplicity of thermocouples makes them resistant to shock

and vibration.
 Small size/fast response: A fine-wire thermocouple junction takes up little space and has
low mass, making it suitable for point sensing and fast response. Note, however, that
many RTDs have time constants faster than equivalent thermocouples.
37
Thermistors
A thermistor is a resistive device composed of metal oxides formed into a bead and encapsulated
in epoxy or glass.
A typical thermistor shows a large negative temperature coefficient. Resistance drops

dramatically and non-linearly with temperature. Sensitivity is many times that of RTDs but
useful temperature range is limited. Some manufacturers offer thermistors with positive
coefficients. Linearized models are also available.
There are wide variations of performance and price between thermistors from different sources.
Typical benefits are:
 Low sensor cost: Basic thermistors are quite inexpensive. However, models with tighter
interchangeability or extended temperature ranges often cost more than RTDs.
 High sensitivity: A thermistor may change resistance by tens of ohms per degree
temperature change, versus a fraction of an ohm for RTDs.
 Point sensing: A thermistor bead can be made the size of a pin head for small area
sensing.
38
39
Comparison:-
Hence from the above graph, we can conclude the following points:
The first one is that the thermistor shows non-linear behavior due to its low range as
compared to other sensors and the reading accuracy of 80%. The behavior
completely follows the Stein Hart mathematical non-linear behavior as shown below:
1/T = 𝑎 + 𝑏 ∗ (lnR)2 + c(lnR)3
Where R is the resultant output signal of thermistor in non-linear form.
The thermocouple shows completely linear behavior throughout the experimental range
and also have high reading accuracy of approximately 95%. The linear behavior is
explained by the following equation.
𝐸 = 𝛼𝛥𝑇
The RTD have high linearity at the low-temperature range but shows some sort of non-
linear behavior at higher temperature as predicted by the following quadratic equation.
𝑅 = 1 + 𝑎𝑇 + 𝑏2 ∗ 𝑇
The reading accuracy is also higher as compared to Thermistor but low as compared to
thermocouple 93.33%.
Figure: Comparison graph between Thermistor, Thermocouple and

RTD
Linearity
65
Temperature of calibrated instrument
60
Thermistor linearity
55
Thermocouple
linearity
RTD
40
35
40
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Temperature of thermometer(oC)
Experiment 04
Equipment Title: Dead Weight Tester
Pre-Lab
4.1. Objective:
Draw the calibration curve and report the accuracy of bourdon gauge using dead weight tester.
 Bourdon tube has high linearity as depicting in graph and also of good accuracy in
results.
Dead weight testers are named so because they utilize dead weights in determination of pressures
operating in a closed and compressed fluid system. They are so called because of the reason that
for each value of pressure to be exerted/ applied in the closed hydraulic system, a predetermined
fixed amount of weights is used to exert the force to counterbalance the buoyancy forces. Each
weight is stamped with the equivalent amount of force that will be exerted on a predetermined
area of piston cylinder arrangement by using that weight. Therefore, the device is called Dead
Weight tester.
DWT (Dead Weight Tester) is based on the principle of Pascal's law. The law states that in a
closed system of incompressible fluid, the pressure applied will exert equal amount of force in all
the directions. In DWT system, silicon oil is used within the closed boundaries of the Piston
cylinder arrangement, piping, pressurization chamber and in the head on which the gauge to be
tested/ calibrated is fixed. The oil is taken into the pressurization chamber from oil bowl and all
the air entrapped is vented off. This is because of the reason that air is compressible and hence
do not allow pressure to be exerted equally in all the areas and there by create error in the test
results. Once the system is full of air free oil, pressure is gradually increased from the
pressurization chamber. Oil pressure starts increasing in all the areas including piston cylinder
41
arrangement over which the dead weights are mounted. As the force increases gradually and
equals the amount of downward force being exerted by the dead weights, the total system gains
the state of equilibrium and just at that moment, the dead weights start getting lifted up. At this
condition, the amount of force operating in the entire system is same. The sum of pressure values
stamped on weights lifted is operating on the pressure gauge element also, which is under test/ to
be calibrated. Necessary corrections are made in the zero/ span adjustments in gauges/ Pressure
transmitters. Above sequence is repeated for all the values at 0%, 25%,50%,75% and 100% to
check for linearity and repeatability. This is how the DWTs are working.
Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric pressure, also known as barometric pressure (after the barometer), is the pressure
within the atmosphere of Earth. The standard atmosphere (symbol: atm) is a unit of pressure
defined as 101,325 Pa (1,013.25 hPa; 1,013.25 mbar), which is equivalent to 760 mm Hg,
29.9212 inches Hg, or 14.696 psi. The atm unit is roughly equivalent to the mean sea-
level atmospheric pressure on Earth; that is, the Earth's atmospheric pressure at sea level is
approximately 1 atm.
In most circumstances, atmospheric pressure is closely approximated by the hydrostatic

pressure caused by the weight of air above the measurement point. As elevation increases, there
is less overlying atmospheric mass, so that atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing
elevation. Because the atmosphere is thin relative to the Earth's radius, especially the dense
atmospheric layer at low altitudes, the Earth's gravitational acceleration as a function of altitude
can be approximated as constant and contributes little to this fall off.
Gauge Pressure
Gauge pressure is the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure. Gauge pressure is positive for
pressures above atmospheric pressure, and negative for pressures below it. In fact, atmospheric
pressure does add to the pressure in any fluid not enclosed in a rigid container. This happens
because of Pascal's principle.
42
The total pressure, or absolute pressure, is thus the sum of gauge pressure and atmospheric
pressure: Pabs = Pg + Patm where Pabs is absolute pressure, Pg is gauge pressure, and Patm is
atmospheric pressure. For example, if your tire gauge reads 34 psi (pounds per square inch), then
the absolute pressure is 34 psi plus 14.7 psi (Patm in psi), or 48.7 psi (equivalent to 336 kPa).
Absolute Pressure
Absolute Pressure is the sum of gauge pressure and atmospheric pressure
For reasons we will explore later, in most cases the absolute pressure in fluids cannot be
negative. Fluids push rather than pull, so the smallest absolute pressure is zero. (A negative
absolute pressure is a pull.) Thus the smallest possible gauge pressure is Pg = −Patm (this
makes Pabs zero). There is no theoretical limit to how large a gauge pressure can be.
Differential Pressure
Differential pressure is essentially the difference in pressure between two given points. It is a
type of pressure measured within different industries using differential pressure sensors.
Differential pressure is more complex than Gauge or Absolute pressure as it has two variables
Differential pressure (DP or ∆P) is the difference between any two applied pressures. Almost all
pressure readings are considered differential pressure readings, as pressure is measured as
absolute pressure, in relation to vacuum, or gauge pressure, in relation to atmospheric pressure.
Differential pressure, in general, is a measure of pressure where the reading and reference values
are variable. Differential pressure is calculated by subtracting one of these values from the other.
If Pipe A flows at 100 psi and Pipe B flows at 30 psi, the differential pressure would be 70 psi.
Why is bourdon gauge calibrating with dead weight tester?
Dead weights are usually used for pressure gauge calibration as they come with high accuracy,
so they can be used as primary standard. Dead weight testers are the basic primary standard for
accurate measurement of pressure.
43
A dead weight tester is often called a primary reference standard because it is considered to
produce the most accurate results because the mass of the weights and the area of the piston
cylinder are known to a very high accuracy.
Applications
 Primary standard for calibrating the pressure scale in a hydraulic range up to 1,400
bar [20,000 lb/in²]
 Reference instrument for factory and calibration laboratories for the testing, adjustment
and calibration of pressure measuring instruments
 Complete, stand-alone system, also suitable for on-site use
4.3. Apparatus:
 Dead Weight Tester
 Bourdon Gauge
 Plates
 Piston
 Lubricating Oil
1. Initially the gauge which is to be calibrated is connected to the dead weight tester.
2. The lever is moved outward completely.
3. Close a shut-off valve to avoid entrapping of air within the system. Apply a pressure on
the liquid in the piston, corresponding to the weight on the piston.
4. After putting a pressure plate of suitable weight upon dead weight tester, the lever is
gradually moved outwards.
5. During closure of lever, Bourdon gauge showed increase in pressure. The piston is
moved inwards until the scale of Bourdon gauge stops with the jerk.
44
6. At that point, Bourdon gauge reading is noted.
7. Again, the same procedure is repeated right by placing another pressure plate on the top
of already placed pressure plate.
8. The graph between dead weight tester reading on X-axis and Bourdon gauge reading on
Y-axis is plotted.
In-Lab
1. Ensure that piston is filled with lubricating oil, as incomplete oil filling can damage the
piston surface, when pressure is applied through lever.
2. To keep oil from spilling over as a result of pressure from weights, ensure that the shutoff
valve for the oil reservoir remains closed throughout this process.
3. Be extremely careful, while operating the lever, as operating the lever beyond the limit
could lead to overpressure in the system. This will cause upward movement of piston and
release of pressure, which may lead to plates and lubricating oil falling on the floor, thus
can cause tripping hazards and injury.
4. Make sure to handle the plates carefully, as improper handling can lead to fall-off and can
lead to injury.
5. Wear necessary PPE`s to perform the experiment.
4.6. Diagram:
45
Oil Reservoir
Bourdon
Dead Weights
Primary Shut off

Piston valve
Leveling Feet
500 gram
plate
500 gram
plate
500 gram
plate
500 gram
plate
333 gram
plate
46
Table 4.1
Pressure applied Bourdon gauge

Error,
Sr. No. by weights, Reading
E=P1-P2
P1 P2
bar bar bar
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
4.8. Formulas:
Average % age Error =

47
Formula Used:
Results:
% age accuracy = %
Post-Lab
4.9. Findings:
It has found that, the accuracy found for bourdon tube is %.
 Draw the graph between P1 and P2.
Bourdon gauge calibration curve

3
2.
5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
P1 (bar)
4.11. Conclusions:
Through the lab we were able to study and sketch the construction of a typical Bourdon Gauge
and describe how it works. And were able to establish the calibration curve of the Bourdon
Gauge. Steps should be taken to minimize the error and continue the experiment to achieve the
final results.
48
Experiment 05
Equipment Title: U-Tube Manometer
Pre-Lab
5.1. Objective:
Draw the calibration curve and report the accuracy of Bourdon gauge using U-Tube Manometer.
 Efficiency of U-Tube Manometer should be 100%.
Pressure of a fluid is the normal force exerted by a fluid on a unit area. The pressure designated
will be either an absolute pressure or a gauge pressure. Absolute pressure is measured relative to
a perfect vacuum (absolute zero pressure), whereas gauge pressure is measured relative to the
local atmospheric pressure. Absolute pressures are positive, but gauge pressure can be either
positive (above atmospheric pressure) or negative (below atmospheric pressure).
49
Figure 5.1
It is a widely used device for measurement of fluid pressure under steady state and laboratory
conditions. This method involves balancing the unknown pressure against the pressure produced
by a fluid column of known density. The manometer gives directly the gauge pressure.
Working Principle:
A manometer works on the principle of hydrostatic equilibrium and is used for measuring the
pressure. Hydrostatic equilibrium states that the pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is equal,
and its value is just the weight of the overlying fluid.
Applications:
It is used in laboratory, in the calculations of flow rates and velocities of different fluids by
measuring pressures. Used to calculate head losses of a fluid flowing through pipes. In industries
U-tube manometers are also used to measure differential pressures of low velocity fluids
5.3. Apparatus:
 Manometer
 Bourdon Gauge
 Syringe
 Ink
 Gauged scale
1. Connect the wiring to points A & E for the positive pressure measurement.
2. Fill the U-tube manometer with the ink to a certain level and ensure that both heights are
equal in U-Tube manometer, after attaching to the pressure assembly.
3. From point B, inject pressure in the system by using syringe.
4. Note the difference in height of the manometer, and correspondingly note the pressure on
the bourdon gauge.
50
5. Repeat the same step for 3 readings.
6. Connect the wiring to points A & F for the negative pressure measurement.
7. Repeat the steps 2 – 5 for negative pressure measurement.
In-Lab
1. Make sure to apply pressure carefully, as excessive pressure can lead to the overflow of
ink from point C, which can lead to tripping hazard as well.
2. Handle the apparatus carefully, as glassware is involved in the experiment.
5.6. Diagram:
51
Positive Pressure Negative Pressure
Bourdon Gauge Bourdon Gauge
Syringe for
applying or
sucking pressure
U-Tube
Manometer
A. Positive Pressure:
Table 5.1
Pressure as Pressure
per as per Error, E =
Sr. No. Manometer Reading (mm)
manometer bourdon (P1 – P2)
(P1) gauge (P2)
H1 H2 H = H1 – H2 mbar mbar Mbar
1.
52
2.
3.
4.
B. Negative Pressure:
Table 5.2
(P1) gauge (P2)
H1 H2 H = H1 – H2 mbar mbar mbar
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.8. Formula`s:
dp = density × g × dh
53
Post-Lab
5.9. Findings:
The U-tube manometer is very accurate.
 Draw the graph between P1 and P2 for both positive and negative pressure measurements.
 The Calibration curve between Positive Pressure Bourdon Gauge Pressures (P2) vs. U-
tube manometer pressures (P1) is shown in Graph 5.1.
8
7
6
5
4
1
P 3
2
1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
P2
Graph 5.1 P2 vs. P1
The Calibration curve between Negative Pressure Bourdon Gauge Pressures (P2) vs. U-
tube manometer pressures (P1) is shown in Graph 5.2.
54
Negative Bourdon Gauge Vs U Tube
25
20
15
0 5 10 15 20
P2(mbar
Graph 5.2
The findings of this experiment is explicitly shown in the Table 5.1 and Table5.2 and calibration
curves illustrates as Graph 5.1 and Graph 5.2 tell us very much stuff about the results of the
experiments that as the pressure in the bourdon gauge increases, the pressure in the U-tube
manometer increases with little fluctuations. Bourdon Gauge shows nonlinearity with both the
cases of Positive and Negative pressures.
5.10. Conclusions:
We come to the conclusion from the results that clearly indicate the behavior of U tube
manometer with the applicability of bourdon gauge pressure with both positive and negative
domains that demonstrate that U tube manometer is not sharply synched with Bourdon gauge
pressure as calibration curves are not linear and symmetrical. Also, the application of pressure
through syringe is also not very accurate and there are a lot of fluctuations due to the
disturbances in maintaining the pressure in the bourdon gauge that’s ultimately cause the
linearity of the U tube Manometer to suffer.
55
Experiment 06
Equipment Title: Inclined Tube Manometer
Pre-Lab
6.1. Objective:
Draw the calibration curve and report the accuracy of Bourdon gauge using Inclined Tube
Manometer.
 Efficiency of Inclined-Tube Manometer should be 100%.
Pressure of a fluid is the normal force exerted by a fluid on a unit area. The pressure designated
will be either an absolute pressure or a gauge pressure. Absolute pressure is measured relative to
a perfect vacuum (absolute zero pressure), whereas gauge pressure is measured relative to the
local atmospheric pressure. Absolute pressures are positive, but gauge pressure can be either
positive (above atmospheric pressure) or negative (below atmospheric pressure).
56
Figure 6.1
It is a widely used device for measurement of fluid pressure under steady state and laboratory
conditions. This method involves balancing the unknown pressure against the pressure produced
by a fluid column of known density. The manometer gives directly the gauge pressure.
Construction:
It consists of a tube of glass bent into an inclined tube shape. It is then filled with a fluid. The
density of the fluid dictates the range of pressures that can be measured. Both ends of the tube
are pressure ports. If one port is left open to the atmosphere and the other port is connected to
the pressure to be measured, the device acts as a gauge pressure meter. If both ports are
connected to two different unknown pressures, the instrument acts as a differential pressure
gauge.
Working Principle:
A manometer works on the principle of hydrostatic equilibrium and is used for measuring the
pressure. Hydrostatic equilibrium states that the pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is equal,
and its value is just the weight of the overlying fluid.
6.3. Apparatus:
 Manometer
 Bourdon Gauge
 Syringe
57
 Ink
 Gauged scale
1. Connect the wiring to points E & G for the positive pressure measurement.
2. Fill the U-tube manometer with the ink to a certain level and ensure that both heights are
equal in U-Tube manometer, after attaching to the pressure assembly.
3. From point H, inject pressure in the system by using syringe.
4. Note the difference in height of the manometer, and correspondingly note the pressure on
the bourdon gauge.
5. Repeat the same step for 3 readings.
6. Connect the wiring to points F & G for the negative pressure measurement.
7. Repeat the steps 2 – 5 for negative pressure measurement.
In-Lab
1. Make sure to apply pressure carefully, as excessive pressure can lead to the overflow of
ink from point C, which can lead to tripping hazard as well.
2. Handle the apparatus carefully, as glassware is involved in the experiment.
6.6. Diagram:
Syringe for applying Positive Pressure Negative Pressure

or sucking pressure Bourdon Gauge Bourdon Gauge
58
Inclined Tube
Manometer
A. Positive Pressure:
B.
59
Table 6.1
(P1) gauge (P2)
H1 H2 H = H1 – H2 mbar mbar mbar
1.
2.
3.
4.
C. Negative Pressure:
Table 6.2
Pressure as per Pressure as per
manometer manometer
Sr. No. Manometer Readings (mm) (P1) (P2) E
H1 H2 H = H 1 - H2 mBar mBar mBar
60
3
6.8. Formula`s:
dp = density × g × (h2cosα – h1)
H2 = h2 Sin 45°
Post-Lab
6.9. Findings:
The inclined tube manometer is very accurate.
The findings of this experiment is explicitly shown in the Table 6.1 and Table 6.2 and
calibration curves illustrates as Fig. 6 and Fig. 7 tells us very much stuff about the results of the
experiments that as the pressure in the bourdon gauge increases, the pressure in the inclined
manometer increases along the corrective factor of cos 45° with little fluctuations. Bourdon
gauge shown no linearity in the Positive pressure of Bourdon gauge but seems to be linear in the
case of Negative pressure of the Bourdon gauge
Draw the graph between P1 and P2 for both positive and negative pressure measurements.
The Calibration curve between Positive Pressure Bourdon Gauge Pressures (P 2) vs. U-tube
manometer pressures (P1) is shown in Fig. 6.1.
61
Fig. 6.1: P2 vs. P1
The Calibration curve between Negative Pressure Bourdon Gauge Pressures (P 2) vs. U-tube
manometer pressures (P1) is shown in Fig. 6.2.
Negative Bourdon Gauge Vs Inclined tube

Manometer
25
20
15
0 5 10 15 20
P2 (mbar)
Fig.6.2: P2 vs. P1
62
6.11. Conclusions:
We come to the conclusion from the results that clearly indicates the behavior of inclined
manometer with the applicability of bourdon gauge pressure with both positive and negative
domains that demonstrate that inclined manometer is not sharply synched with Bourdon gauge
positive pressure as calibration curves are not linear and symmetrical because the application of
pressure through syringe is also not very accurate and there are a lot of fluctuations due to the
disturbances in maintaining the pressure in the Positive pressure bourdon gauge that’s ultimately
cause the linearity of the inclined Manometer to suffer. But in the Negative pressure Bourdon
gauge, the inclined manometer seems to be linear and accurately calibrate with the Bourdon
gauge that cause the calibration curve to become a straight line.
63
Comparison between Inclined Tube Manometer and Inclined Tube
Manometer:
We come to the conclusion from the results that clearly indicates the behavior of inclined
manometer with the applicability of bourdon gauge pressure with both positive and
negative domains that demonstrate that inclined manometer is not sharply synched with
Bourdon gauge positive pressure as calibration curves are not linear and symmetrical
because the application of pressure through syringe is also not very accurate and there
are a lot of fluctuations due to the disturbances in maintaining the pressure in the Positive
pressure bourdon gauge that’s ultimately cause the linearity of the inclined Manometer to
suffer. But in the Negative pressure Bourdon gauge, the inclined manometer seems to be
linear and accurately calibrate with the Bourdon gauge that cause the calibration curve to
become a straight line.
We conclude from the results that clearly indicates the behavior of U tube manometer
with the applicability of bourdon gauge pressure with both positive and negative domains
that demonstrate that U tube manometer is not sharply synched with Bourdon gauge
pressure as calibration curves are not linear and symmetrical. Also, the application of
pressure through syringe is also not very accurate and there are a lot of fluctuations due
to the disturbances in maintaining the pressure in the bourdon gauge that’s ultimately
cause the linearity of the U tube Manometer to suffer.
Comparison between Inclined and U-

tube
25
20
U tube
P1 (mbar)
10
Inclined
Tube
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
P2
Figure: Comparison between U-tube and Inclined Tube Manometer

64
Experiment 07
Equipment Title: LEVEL CONTROL RIG
Pre-Lab
7.1. Objective:
To determine the time constant of liquid level system.
 Time constant increases with the increase of resistance to flow and storage capacity.
Liquid level system is one of the systems that follows a first-order differential equation behavior.
For this system, a tank of uniform cross-sectional area is being considered. In addition, both inlet
and outlet flows are controlled by a control valve. One of the assumptions for such system is that
the control valve resists the flow of the liquid in the tank. Therefore, when there is sudden
change in the resistance of the inlet flow (i.e., changes in the valve opening), disturbance may
enter the tank system. The exit flow may also offer disturbance to the system for any changes in
the resistance caused by the valve.
For a flow system at laminar range, the resistance that correlates the flow and head linearly is the
linear resistance.
qo = h / R
where, qo = Volumetric flowrate
h = Head
R = Linear resistance (Equivalent to gain, K)
For a liquid level system aside from the time constant, the transfer function also considers the
effect of the resistance. In this case, the transfer function for this system is modified in such a
way to also account the effect of the resistance of the valve.
Step input change follows a decaying exponential response from the initial height to its final
65
steady-state height. At t = τ, the height is approximately equal to the 63% of the steady-state
height obtained. The triple of τ corresponds to a height that is 95% of the steady-state height.
These percentages hold for all first-order processes.
7.3. Line Tracing/ Diagram of Equipment:
Diaphragm Control Valve
PID Controller
Level Tank
Power Button
Graduated Rota Meter

Rule
Needle
Valve
Solenoid
Valve
Water Inlet
Gate Valve
Water Storage Tank

and Pump
Figure: Line Tracing/ Diagarm of Equipment
66
7.3. Apparatus:
 Water Storage Tank
 Level Switch, Rod and Pump
 Water feeding circuitry
 Regulation proportional solenoid valve
 Clear PVC cylindrical tank equipped with a graduated rule. Lineal internal overflow tube.
 Diaphragm control valve.
 Disturbing piping with a vernier needle setting valve and ball valve.
 Configurable electronic PID controller.
1. Fill the water storage tank with water up to 80% level.

2. Make sure that drain valve of the level tank is closed at the start of the experiment.
3. Make sure that the valves at the downstream of the pump are opened.
4. Turn the power supply on.
5. Start/Turn on the pump.
6. Wait for Level tank to fill till the level alarm switch of the tank turns on. At this point, the
pump will stop automatically.
7. Turn off the pump.
8. Open the drain valve of the level tank to 30%.
9. Note the reading of level in level tank at an interval of 10 seconds.
10. Note the readings till the level alarm switches off.
11. The resistance of the valve at the outlet flow is determined by plotting mean height (h)
v/s flowrate (Q). The inverse of the slope of the generated line in the plot is the
“Resistance”.
12. Determine the area (A) of the storage tank.
13. Calculate the time constant of the experimental system.
67
In-Lab
1. Don`t run pump idle.

2. Ensure that at the end of the experimental performance, the pump should be stopped.
3. Make sure that no water splashes on the floor, as it may lead to the tripping hazard.
4. Wear Lab Coat and Safety Goggle while performing the experiment.
condenser.
Area of Storage Tank = _________________ cm2
For 3LPM:
Final level
Time of
Initial level of water Mean Level Volume Flow rate
Serial # flow
of water (h1) (h2) (H) (V) Q = V/T
(T)
(cm) (cm) (cm) (ml) (sec) (ml/sec)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Table 7.1
68
For 4.5LPM:
Final level
Time of
Initial level of water Mean Level Volume Flow rate
Serial # flow
of water (h1) (h2) (H) (V) Q = V/T
(T)
(cm) (cm) (cm) (ml) (sec) (ml/sec)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Table 7.2
Post-Lab
7.7. Findings:
Flow rate increases w.r.t time and height of tank also increases. For LPM, height of tank
low as compared to LPM w.r.t same time but ͳp constant.
Slope = cm2/sec
1
ͳp = × Area
Slope
69
Time constant of this process is 10 second.
 For 3LPM: Graph between mean level (h) v/s flowrate (Q) to find the time constant as
shown below:
Mean Level (h) v/s flowrate (Q)

70
60
f(x) = 48.265 x
50
Flow rate (ml/sec)
40
30
20
10
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Mean Level (cm)
Figure 7.1: Graph between h and Q
 For 3LPM: Graph between mean level (h) v/s flowrate (Q) to find the time constant as
shown below:
Mean level (h) v/s flowrate (Q)

100
90
80 f(x) = 48.265 x
70
Flow rate (ml/sec)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Mean level (cm)
70
Figure: Graph between h and Q
7.9. Conclusions:
It is clear from the process. This is the First order differential system. Time constant is 10s for this
process. Time constant depends upon two parameters. One is Resistance and second is area means storage
capacity. If resistance which is the slope increases, then time constant increases.
Transfer function of first order differential system:
h ’(s) Kp
G(s) = =
Fi(s) Tps+1
There are two points from this process is as follows:
1. The cross-sectional area of the tank A is a measure of its capacitance to store mass. Thus,
the larger the value of A, the larger the storage capacity of the tank.
2. Since ͳp = AR, we can say that for the tank we have
(Time constant) = (storage capacitance) × (resistance to flow)
The time constant is also used to characterize the frequency response of various signal systems.
Physically, the time constant represents the elapsed time required for the system response to
decay to zero if the system had continued to decay at the initial rate, because of the progressive
change in the rate of decay the response will have actually decreased in value to 1 / e ≈ 36.8% in
this time (say from a step decrease). In an increasing system, the time constant is the time for the
systems to reach 1 − 1 / e ≈ 63.2% of its final (asymptotic) value (say from a step increase
71
Mean Level (h) v/s flowrate (Q)
100
90
80
Flow rate (ml/sec) 70
60 3LPM
50 f(x) = 48.265 x Linear (3LPM)
40 4.5LPM
30
20
10
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Mean Level (cm)
Figure: 7.3: Comparison between 3LPM and 4.5LPM
Experiment 08
Equipment Title: LEVEL CONTROL UNIT
Pre-Lab
8.1. Objective:
Determine the effect of variation in PID characteristics on the response of the level control unit:
 Change in Gain in Proportional (P) Mode
 Change in Gain and Reset Time in Proportional-Integral (PI) Mode
P controller is mostly used in first order processes with single energy storage to stabilize the
unstable process. The main usage of the P controller is to decrease the steady state error of the
system. As the proportional gain factor K increases, the steady state error of the system
decreases. However, despite the reduction, P control can never manage to eliminate the steady
state error of the system. As we increase the proportional gain, it provides smaller amplitude and
phase margin, faster dynamics satisfying wider frequency band and larger sensitivity to the
72
noise. We can use this controller only when our system is tolerable to a constant steady state
error. In addition, it can be easily concluded that applying P controller decreases the rise time
and after a certain value of reduction on the steady state error, increasing K only leads to
overshoot of the system response. P control also causes oscillation if sufficiently aggressive in
the presence of lags and/or dead time. The more lags (higher order), the more problem it leads.
Plus, it directly amplifies process noise.
P-I controller is mainly used to eliminate the steady state error resulting from P controller.
However, in terms of the speed of the response and overall stability of the system, it has a
negative impact. This controller is mostly used in areas where speed of the system is not an
issue. Since P-I controller has no ability to predict the future errors of the system it cannot
decrease the rise time and eliminate the oscillations. If applied, any amount of I guarantees set
point overshoot.
The aim of using P-D controller is to increase the stability of the system by improving control
since it has an ability to predict the future error of the system response. In order to avoid effects
of the sudden change in the value of the error signal, the derivative is taken from the output
response of the system variable instead of the error signal. Therefore, D mode is designed to be
proportional to the change of the output variable to prevent the sudden changes occurring in the
control output resulting from sudden changes in the error signal. In addition, D directly amplifies
process noise therefore D-only control is not used.
73
Figure 8.1
The actuator is an electric immersion pump (2), which delivers water from a supply tank (1) into
the liquid level tank (3). The pump must be actuated by an external input signal, e.g. from a
controller. The liquid level is recorded using the pressure of the water column in the tank. The
level tank contains an ascending pipe for this purpose. An air hose (4) conveys the pressure from
its upper end to a pressure sensor inside the unit. The liquid level is then provided as an electric
voltage signal. The electrically operated bleeder valve (6) can be used to set the discharge from
the tank by assigning the influencing variable Z. The valve operates proportionally and can be
variably adjusted. Its position can only be influenced by external control (e.g. via a PC). The
exception is a disturbance in the system. The bleeder valve can be spontaneously switched to Z =
74
100% using the button (11). The overflow (5) prevents water from escaping if the discharge
through the valve (6) is not enough. The pump signal lamp (9) and the bleeder valve signal lamp
(10) indicate whether the respective elements are actuated.
Figure 8.2
75
8.3. Diagram:
Display
Pressure
hose
Liquid level tank
overflow
Bleeder valve
Supply tank
pump
Master switch
Pump switch
Button for
bleeder valve
76
8.4. Apparatus:
 Water Storage Tank
 Water Level Tank
 Pump
 PID system
1. Fill the water storage tank with water to at least 80% level.
2. Attach the PC to the level control unit and open the software.
3. Select the “Level Control Unit”. A pop-up window is appeared which can be used to
study the parameters of PID controllers.
4. The pump should not be energized/ operated until your control setting is complete and
whenever you are giving new values/changing values of gain or etc. the pump should be
switched off.
5. Set the controller to “Continuous Mode” on the PC.
6. “W” represents the reference variable / set point. “X” represents the measured variable /
level of liquid in the upper tank, “Z” represents the %age opening of drain valve of upper
tank and “Y” represents the controlled variable.
7. Give set point a value of 50%, and disturbance variable a value of 40%.
8. Vary the values of proportional gain from 20 to 100 and check the response of the
system. Make sure that values of reset time and rate time are zero. This will be a P
arrangement. Compare the system on all values of gain and report the optimum
operational condition.
77
9. Now, at a certain value of gain, vary the value of reset time from 10 to 50 s. Make sure
that value of rate time is zero. This will be PI arrangement. Compare the system and
report the optimum operational condition.
10. Take the screenshots of the generated graphs at an interval of 1 minutes.
In-Lab
1. Don`t run pump idle.

2. Ensure that at the end of the experimental performance, the pump should be stopped.
3. Make sure that no water splashes on the floor, as it may lead to the tripping hazard.
4. Wear Lab Coat and Safety Goggle while performing the experiment.
condenser.
Time (s) response of system Experimental Time Experimental Response

0
4
6
8
10
14
17
19
20
25
28
39
45
50
78
55
60
70
120
150
189
200
250
300
Table 8.1
Post-Lab
8.8. Findings:
Increasing the time constant, the response of system becomes slow and system reaches the
reference height by taking large time.
 Take the screenshots of graphs generated online at an interval of 1 minute and compare
all the cases.
Comparesion between expermental and theoritical

response
4
3.5
3
2.5 Theoritical reponse
h(t)m
2 Experimental response during lab

1.5
1
0.5
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time (sec)
79
1. When time constant is small.
80
2. When time constant is large.
8.10. Conclusions:
Response is 1st order with respect to input change because model used in above calculation is 1st
order in nature. Hence the response is theoretically perfect.
Increasing the time constant, the response of system become slow and system reaches the
reference height by taking large time.
81
RECOMMENDED BOOKS
1. Seborg, D. E. (2011). Process dynamics and control. Hoboken, N.J: John Wiley & Sons.
2. Bequette, B. W. (2003). Process control: Modeling, design, and simulation. Upper Saddle
River, N.J: Prentice Hall PTR.
3. Stephanopoulos, G. (1984). Chemical process control: An introduction to theory and

practice. Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice-Hall.
4. Luyben, L. W (1989). Process Modeling, Simulation and Control for Chemical

Engineers. McGraw Hill Higher Education.
82
GLOSSARY
ACCURACY:
 Accuracy of a measurement is that how close is the measurement to its true value of the
quantity being measured.
 Close to true close.
 Degree of closeness of the measurements of a quantity to its actual value.
Accuracy defines the error of the instrument where,
Error / Offset = Actual Measurement – True Value
Accuracy is quoted in terms of the full scale reading of the instrument. For example, accuracy of
orifice plate is  0.75 to 2%.
CALIBRATION:
The comparison of a device with unknown accuracy to a device with a known accurate standard
to eliminate any variation in the device being checked.
Standard  Known correctness
2nd device  test instrument
DEAD TIME / LAG TIME:
The time interval in which no response of the system is detected following a small (usually
0.25% - 5%) step input.
DRIFT:
 It is departure from true value.
 It is the actual change in the measurement value when the

same characteristics is measured under the same
conditions, same operator, at different points in time.
 Drift indicates how often a measurement needs

recalibration.
83
FLEXIBILITY:
The ability of a system to respond to potential internal or external changes effecting its value
delivery, in a timely and cost-effective manner.
HYSTERISIS:
 The delay between the action and reaction of measuring instrument. It is amount of error
that results when this action occurs.
 It is retardation of an effect when the forces acting upon a body are changed.
 As there is no elastic material no material will return precisely to its starting value when
the deforming force is removed. That is because the molecules have an internal friction.
And it causes hysteresis.
GAIN:
Gain is ratio of the magnitude of the output change of a given system or device to the magnitude
of the input change that caused the output change.
OFFSET:
Described as a steady state deviation of controlled variable from set point or simply as a steady
state error.
PRECISION:
The precision of a measurement is also called its reproducibility or the repeatability. It is defined
as the degree to which the repeated measurement under changed conditions shows the same
result.
 Eliminating the systematic error improves the accuracy but does not change precision.
 An accurate reading can also be precise, but a precise reading is not accurate.
RANDOM ERROR:
 It is always present in the measurement. It is caused by inherently unpredictable

fluctuations in the readings of a measurement apparatus or in the experimenter’s
interpretation of instrument readings.
84
 There are the statistical fluctuations (in either direction) in the measured data due to the
precision limitations of the measurement device e.g. 14.7, 14.6, 14.3. Random error is
reduced by taking average over large range of readings.
RANGE:
 It is the region on which a quality may be measured or received (input range) or

transmitted (output range) and is defined by stating the lower and upper values.
 It can also be said as the lowest to highest values of the instrument. For example, a
thermometer has a range of 0-110C.
RESET TIME:
Reset time is the time needed by the controller to repeat the initial proportional action.
RESOLUTION:
It is defined as the minimum difference in the value of a quantity that can be discriminated by a
device (sensor).
RESPONSE:
 The act of responding, reply or reaction.
 The reaction of an instrument or a mechanism to a specific stimulus.
SENSITIVITY:
The ratio of the change in output magnitude to the change of the input that cause it after the
steady state has been reached.
SET POINT:
A reference value representing the desired value of the process variable being controlled.
85
SPAN:
It is magnitude of the range of the instrument. For example, a bourdon gauge has range of 1-50
bar, then its span is, 50-1 = 49 bars.
STANDARDIZATION:
 It is the process of establishing the technical standard specification standard test method,
standard definition, standard procedure (or practice) etc.
 The process of establishing by common agreements, engineering criteria, terms,

principles, practices, materials, items, processes and equipment`s parts and components.
STEP CHANGE:
The change of a variable from one value to another in a single process, taking a negligible
amount of time.
SYSTEMATIC ERROR:
There are the reproducible inaccuracies that are consistently in same direction. This error is often
due to the problem which present throughout experiment.
 If the existence of error is identified, then it causes is eliminated.
 It may occur because of mainly two reasons.
o There is something wrong with the instrument or its data handling system.
o The instrument may be wrongly used by the experimenter.
TIME CONSTANT:
 It is the time taken by an instrument to represent its response is called its time constant.
 Time const. of the 1st order system is the time when 63.2% of the ultimate response is
achieved.
TOLERANCE:
 The unwanted, but acceptable deviation from derived dimension.

86
 It is the allowance made for deviation.
TURN DOWN RATIO:
Turn down function is the direct function of the range of the instrument and is the ratio of the
upper range value of the instrument to the lower range value. Higher turn down ratios are
beneficial because the processes are dynamic.
87

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PROCESS CONTROL (LAB)

LAB RESOURCE PERSON:

Dr. Mehwish Batool

DR. MARIA MUSTAFA

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

COMSATS UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD, LAHORE CAMPUS.

PROCESS CONTROL EXPERIMENTS:

7. Determine the Time Constant of the given liquid level system

1. Describe fundamentals of Process Control & associated lab equipment.

PROGRAMME LEARNING OUTCOMES (PLO`S)

The program learning outcomes are depicted as below:

Description Weightage CLO`s Covered

MECHANISM OF LAB ASSESSMENT

Semester Start to Mid Examination

 Lab Rubrics # 1 (Weightage = 8 marks)

 Midterm (25 marks)

 50% weightage of paper + viva

 50% weightage of Lab Rubrics # 1 & Lab Rubrics # 2

 Lab Rubrics # 2 (Weightage = 8 marks)

After Mid Examination to Terminal Examination

 Lab Rubrics # 3 (Weightage = 9 marks)

 50% weightage of paper + viva

 50% weightage of Lab Rubrics # 6, Lab Rubrics # 7 & Lab Rubrics # 8.

 All the lab assessment cover CLO # 1 to CLO # 6.

 Overall weightage of lab rubrics is 62.5%.

Pre-Lab (30%) In-Lab (50%)

Safety Rules and Regulations

1. Have I done this before?

3. Does anything look wrong?

4. What are the hazards?

5. Should I work in a fume hood?

6. Do I need goggles or other safety equipment?

7. Do I need additional help?

8. Should I check further with my instructor?

9. Have I planned this experiment or exercise?

10. Do I know what to do, if there is an accident?

11. Do I know where the fire extinguishers are located?

LABORATORY SAFETY RULES

1. NO SMOKING IS ALLOWED IN THE LABORATORY PREMISES.

4. Wear rubber gloves when handling liquids.

5. Find out the location of First Aid Box.

16. Do not smell directly any chemical being heated.

22. All power wiring is to be installed by an approved electrician.

23. Always remember: SAFETY IS GOOD TECHNIQUE!

Equipment Title: THERMOCOUPLE

The hypothesis of this experiment could be following:

1.2. Process and Applications:

Working Principle of Thermocouple:

The working principle of the thermocouple depends on the three effects.

1. Ungrounded Junction – In ungrounded junction, the conductors are entirely

2. Grounded Junction – In such type of junction the metals and protective

Characteristic functions for thermocouples that reach intermediate temperatures, as covered by

The Type E thermocouple is suitable for use at temperatures up to 900°C (1650°F) in a

Due to its reliability and accuracy, Type K is used extensively at temperatures up to

Type M (82%Ni/18%Mo–99.2%Ni/0.8%Co, by weight) are used in vacuum furnaces for the

This nickel-based thermocouple alloy is used primarily at high temperatures up to 1260°C

Type B (70%Pt/30%Rh–94%Pt/6%Rh, by weight) thermocouples are suited for use at up

Type R (87%Pt/13%Rh–Pt, by weight) thermocouples are used 0 to 1600 °C.

Type S (90%Pt/10%Rh–Pt, by weight) thermocouples, similar to type R, are used up to

(95%W/5%Re–74%W/26%Re, by weight) maximum temperature will be measured by

Thermocouple characteristics at low temperatures. The AuFe-based thermocouple shows a

Type P (noble-metal alloy) or "Platinel II"

Type P (55%Pd/31%Pt/14%Au–65%Au/35%Pd, by weight) thermocouples give a thermoelectric

Thermocouples of platinum/molybdenum-alloy (95%Pt/5%Mo–99.9%Pt/0.1%Mo, by weight)