PRESENTATION AND

COLLECTION OF DATA
Lecture 4
Psychological Statistics

1/31/2022 RTALITAGTAG 1
Presentation and Collection of Data
Topics
• Common Types of Graphs
• Choosing the Type of Graph Based on
Variables
• Guidelines for Creating the Perfect
Graph
Expected Outcome
Choose, analyze, and understand
relevant numerical data utilized in
everyday life in numerical and
graphical formats.

1/31/2022 RTALITAGTAG 2
 ✓ A well-constructed graph begins with raw
data.
✓ It is the responsibility of the researcher to
organize this information in the way that
best clarifies the data.
✓ This section discusses graphs that
describe the relation between two or
more variables in just one image.
✓ We will learn how to create scatterplots
and line graphs, graphs that depict
relations between two scale variables.
✓ We will also learn how to create bar
graphs, pictorial graphs, and pie charts—
graphs with one or more nominal
variables—along with a scale variable.

1/31/2022 RTALITAGTAG 3
SCATTERPLOT
• A scatterplot is a graph
that depicts the relation
between two scale
variables. The values of
each variable are marked
along the two axes, and a
mark is made to indicate
the intersection of the
two scores for each
participant. The mark is
above the participant’s
score on the x-axis and In this example, it is more likely that hours spent studying would predict
the grade on the statistics exam. So, the independent variable (x) is the
across from the score on number of hours spent studying, and the dependent variable (y) is the
the y-axis grade on the statistics exam.

1/31/2022 RTALITAGTAG 4
 B. A nonlinear relation between variables means
that the relation between variables is best

SCATTERPLOT described by a line that breaks or curves in some

A. A linear relation between variables
means that the relation between
variables is best described by a straight
line.
way
The Yerkes–Dodson law predicts that stress/anxiety improves test
performance—but only to a point. Too much anxiety leads to an inability to
perform at one’s best. This inverted U-curve illustrates the concept, but a
scatterplot would be a better clarification of the relation between these two
variables.

1/31/2022 RTALITAGTAG 5
LINE GRAPH
• A line graph is used to illustrate
the relation between two scale
variables; sometimes the line
represents the predicted y
scores for each x value, and
sometimes the line represents
change in a variable over time.
• One type of line graph is
constructed using a scatter plot.
• The line of best fit is the line
that minimizes the distances of
the dots from that line. The line
of best fit allows us to use the x
value to predict the y value. if a student studies for 2 hours, she will earn a test score of
about 62; if she studies for 13 hours, she will earn about 100.

1/31/2022 RTALITAGTAG 6
BAR GRAPHS
• Bar graphs are visual depictions
of data when the independent
variable is nominal or ordinal and
the dependent variable is scale.
• Each bar typically represents the
average value of the dependent
variable for each category.

Pareto chart, a type of bar graph in

which the categories along the x-axis
are ordered from highest bar on the left
to lowest bar on the right. This ordering
allows easier comparisons and easier
identification of the most common and
least common categories.

1/31/2022 RTALITAGTAG 7
PICTORIAL GRAPH
A pictorial graph is a visual depiction of data
typically used for an independent variable
with very few levels and a scale dependent
variable. Each level uses a picture or symbol
to represent its value on the scale dependent
variable

1/31/2022 RTALITAGTAG 8
PIE CHART

A pie chart is a graph in the shape of a circle with a slice for every level of the independent
variable. The size of each slice represents the proportion (or percentage) of each category.
A pie chart’s slices should always add up to 100% (or 1.00 if using proportions).

1/31/2022 RTALITAGTAG 9
Reviewing the Concepts
• Scatterplots and line graphs allow us to see relations between two scale variables.
• When examining the relation between variables, it is important to consider linear
and nonlinear relations, as well as the possibility that no relation is present.
• Bar graphs, pictorial graphs, and pie charts depict summary values (such as means
or percentages) on a scale variable for various levels of a nominal or ordinal
variable.
• Bar graphs are preferred; pictorial graphs and pie charts can be misleading.

1/31/2022 RTALITAGTAG 10
Choosing the Type of Graph Based on
Variables
• When deciding what type of graph to use, first examine the variables.
• Decide which is the independent variable and which is the dependent variable.
• Also, identify what type of variable—nominal, ordinal, or scale (interval/ratio)—
each of them is.
• Most of the time, the independent variable belongs on the horizontal x-axis and
the dependent variable goes on the vertical y-axis.

1/31/2022 RTALITAGTAG 11
Choosing the Type of Graph Based on
Variables
• Once we make a brief assessment of the variables,
we can determine the appropriate graph:
1. If there is one scale variable (with frequencies),
then we use a histogram.
2. If there is one scale independent variable and one
scale dependent variable, then we use a
scatterplot or a line graph.
3. If there is one nominal or ordinal independent
variable and one scale dependent variable, then
we use a bar graph or a Pareto chart.
4. If there are two or more nominal or ordinal
independent variables and one scale dependent
variable, then we use a bar graph.

1/31/2022 RTALITAGTAG 12
1/31/2022 RTALITAGTAG 13
Chartjunk can take the form of any of three
unnecessary features, all demonstrated
in the rather frightening graph in Figure 3-18.
1. Moiré vibrations refer to any of the patterns
that computers provide as options to fill n bars.
Tufte recommends using shades of gray instead
of patterns.
2. Grids refer to a background pattern, almost
like graph paper, on which the data
representations, such as bars, are superimposed.
Tufte recommends the use of grids only for
hand-drawn drafts of graphs. They should
never be in a final version of a graph.
3. Ducks are features of the data that have been
dressed up to be something other than merely
data.

1/31/2022 RTALITAGTAG 14
CREATING GRAPHS
• Scatterplot

1/31/2022 RTALITAGTAG 15
CREATING GRAPHS
• Bar Here is the 2004 gross domestic product (GDP), in trillions of U.S. dollars, for
each of the
• Pareto Chart world economic powers that make up what is called the Group of Eight, or
G8, nations.

Canada: 0.98 Italy: 1.67 United Kingdom: 2.14

France: 2.00 Japan: 4.62 United States: 11.67
Germany: 2.71 Russia: 0.58

How can we create a bar graph for these data? First, we put the countries on
the x-axis.
We might choose to put them in alphabetical order (or we might choose to
create a
Pareto chart in which the countries are ordered from highest to lowest GDP).

1/31/2022 RTALITAGTAG 16
CREATING GRAPHS
• Bar Here is the 2004 gross domestic product (GDP), in trillions of U.S. dollars, for
each of the
• Pareto Chart world economic powers that make up what is called the Group of Eight, or
G8, nations.

Canada: 0.98 Italy: 1.67 United Kingdom: 2.14

France: 2.00 Japan: 4.62 United States: 11.67
Germany: 2.71 Russia: 0.58

How can we create a bar graph for these data? First, we put the countries on
the x-axis.
We might choose to put them in alphabetical order (or we might choose to
create a
Pareto chart in which the countries are ordered from highest to lowest GDP).

1/31/2022 RTALITAGTAG 17