STEAM

Steam is the vapour form of water and is invisible when pure

and dry. It does not obey the laws of perfect gases, until it is perfectly dry.
When the dry steam is further heated, it behaves more or less like a
perfect gas . The steam is , generally , used as a working substance in the
operation of steam engines and steam turbines .

Formation of Steam
When water is continuously heated at a constant pressure then
its temperature raises according to the given heat and the specific volume
of water also increases. After a certain time a condition is obtained at
which temperature becomes constant. This temperature is known as
saturation temperature or boiling temperature.
When further heat energy is added into this saturated water the
formation of steam starts and temperature remains constant. This condition
stands until all the water converts into steam. Heat energy given during
this process is used into the phase change ( i.e. from water to steam ) and
this heat energy is known as latent heat of vapourisation.The steam so
formed is called saturated steam.

Total Heat Of
Superheated Steam
Hs

Vapour state

Vaporisation

Liquid
state

Temperature

Melting

Solid state

Latent heat of Fusion Degree of Superheat

Sensible heat Latent heat of Vaporisation

Total heat

Heat added
 When all the water converts into steam and heat addition
remains continue, then increase in temperature of steam so formed starts
and this steam is known as superheated steam. The superheated steam
behaves like a heated gas and is used to drive turbines etc.

Properties and Definitions

Saturated steam : It is a vapour at the temperature corresponding to the

boiling point of water at the imposed pressure.

Wet steam : It is the saturated steam containing suspended water particles

in it. It does not contain sufficient heat energy to maintain all water in the
vapour form.

Dry saturated steam : It is the saturated steam which does not contain
any water particles suspended in it.

Superheated steam : Heating of saturated steam after it has become dry

is known as superheating process and the steam so obtained is known as
superheated steam.

Degree of superheat : It is the difference between the temperature of the

superheated steam and the saturation temperature of the same steam
corresponding to the given pressure of the steam.

Degree of superheat = T - Ts

where, T - superheated steam temperature

Ts - saturation temperature

Sensible heat of water : Heat absorbed in kcal by 1 kg of water when

heated at constant pressure from its freezing point to the boiling point.
Sensible heat is also known as total heat of water or enthalpy
of water.

Latent heat of vapourisation : It is the quantity of heat in kcal absorbed

by 1 kg of water at saturation temperature for a given pressure for
complete conversion into steam at the same temperature.
Latent heat of vapourisation decreases as the pressure
increases.

Total heat or Enthalpy of steam : It is the quantity of heat in kcal required

to convert 1 kg of water at 0 0C at constant pressure into the required type
of steam.
Specific volume of steam : It is the volume occupied by the steam per
unit mass at a given temperature and pressure . It is expressed in m 3/kg
and is the reciprocal of the density of steam .
The specific volume of steam increases with the increase in
temperature and decreases with the increase in pressure .

Specific enthalpy of steam : It is the total heat absorbed by the steam

per unit mass from the freezing point of water ( 0 0C or 273 K ) to the
saturation temperature ( 1000C or 373 K ) plus the heat absorbed during
evaporation . It is expressed in kJ/kg .
The specific enthalpy of steam increases with the increase in
temperature and pressure .

Specific entropy of steam : It is a theoritical value of heat energy ,

which can not be transformed into mechanical work under the given
conditions of temperature or pressure .It is also called degree of disorder
of the system .
The most common term used is the “ change of entropy “
expressed in kJ/kg K , which is mathematically given as :

dS = dQ / dT = Heat supplied / Temperature of the system

The specific entropy of steam decreases with an increase in

temperature and pressure .

Dryness fraction : It is the ratio of actual dry steam, to the weight of

same quantity of wet steam.

Dryness fraction ( X ) = Ws / ( Ws + W )

where, Ws - actual weight of dry steam

W - weight of water in suspension

Critical pressure and temperature of steam

If a vapour is compressed slowly and isothermally, the
pressure will rise until there is saturated vapour. If the compression is
continued, condensation takes place, the pressure remaining constant so
long as the temperature remains constant. As the temperature increases,
the liquid vapour transition decreases, and becomes zero at the critical
point. Below the critical point only, there is a liquid – vapour transition
zone, where a saturated liquid, on heating absorbs the latent heat of
vaporisation, and becomes saturated vapour at a constant pressure and
temperature. Similarly, a saturated vapour on cooling, releases the latent
heat of condensation at constant pressure and temperature to become
saturated liquid.
 Above the critical point, however, a liquid, upon heating
suddenly flashes into vapour ; or a vapour, upon cooling, suddenly
condenses into liquid. There is no distinct transition zone from liquid to
vapour and vice versa. The corresponding temperature at the critical point
is known as Critical Temperature (Tc) . The pressure and volume at the
critical point are known as the Critical Pressure (Pc) and the Critical
Volume (Vc).
For water,
Pc = 221.2 bar
Tc = 374.15 0C
Vc = 0.00317 m3/kg

Effect of steam parameters

a) Increase in the superheat at constant pressure increases the mean

temperature of heat addition and hence the cycle efficiency.
b) When the turbine inlet pressure increases, the moisture content at the
turbine exhaust increases.If the moisture content of steam in the later
stages of the turbine is higher, the entrained water particles along with
the vapour coming out from the nozzles with high velocity strike the
blades and erode their surfaces thereby unbalancing the rotor. It is
desirable that most of the turbine expansion should take place in the
single phase or vapour region. The maximum moisture content at the
turbine exhaust should not exceed 15%

Desirable characteristics of the working fluid

a) The fluid should have a high critical temperature so that the saturation
pressure at the maximum permisible temperature ( metallurgical limit ) is
relatively low. It should have large enthalpy of evaporation at that
pressure.
b) The saturation pressure at the temperature of heat rejection should be
above atmospheric pressure so as to avoid the necessity of maintaining
vacuum in the condensers.
c) The specific heat of liquid should be small so that little heat is
required to raise the liquid to the boiling point
d) The freezing point of the liquid should be below room temperature,so
that it does not get solidified while flowing through the pipeline.
e) The fluid should be chemically stable and should not contaminate the
materials of construction at any temperature.
f) The fluid should be non - toxic, non - corrosive, not excessively viscous
and low in cost.