FORMATION OF STEAM

KALYANI .T
SCIENTIST - B
IMU (V)
 Introduction
Steam (WaterVapor)
Steam is the most common working fluid used in vapor power cycles because of its many
desirable characteristics, such as:
(a) low cost,
(b) availability, and
(c) high enthalpy of vaporization.

Steam power plants are commonly referred to as:

(a) coal plants,
(b) nuclear plants, or
(c) natural gas plants, depending on the type of fuel used to supply heat to the steam.

The steam goes through the same basic cycle in all of them. Therefore, all can be analyzed
in the same manner.
Thermodynamics Power and Refrigeration cycles
Two important area of applications of thermodynamics are :
o Power generation
o Refrigeration
Thermodynamic cycles can be subdivided into two categories
• Power cycles
• Refrigeration cycles
Power cycles
The devices or systems used to produce a net power output are called engines and the
thermodynamic cycles that operate on are called power cycles.
Refrigeration cycles :
The devices or systems used to produce refrigeration are called refrigerators, air conditioners or
heat pumps and the cycles they operate are called refrigeration cycles.
Thermodynamic cycles can be categorized as :
• Power or refrigeration cycles
• Gas cycles or vapor cycles
• Closed cycles or open cycles
• In gas cycles, the working fluid remains in gaseous phase through out the entire cycle.
• Whereas in vapor cycles the working fluid exists in the vapor phase during one part of the cycle
and in the liquid phase during another part.
 Formation of Steam
Steam: Water in vapor state is called as steam. Steam is the technical term for the gaseous
phase of water, which is formed when water boils. It is a source of heat energy , used for developing power in
thermal power plants.

Steam is the most common working fluid used in vapor power cycle, because of its many
desirable characteristics such as Low cost,Availability and High enthalpy of vaporization.

Property Diagrams In Common Use

• p-V diagram and the T-s chart which are used in general
thermodynamic work, useful because pressure and volume
are easily visualized.

•There are other charts which are of practical use for

particular applications.

• The specific enthalpy-specific entropy chart is used for

steam plant work and

•The pressure-specific enthalpy chart is used in

refrigeration work.

•These charts are drawn for water water and steam.

 Formation of steam-Contd….
The process of formation of steam is discussed in detailed
State 1
• Consider a cylinder fitted with a piston which cam move freely
upwards and downwards.
• Take 1 kg of water at 0 oC with volume vf m3 under the piston Fig (i).
• Let the piston is loaded with ‘W’ to ensure heating at constant
pressure.

State 2
• Now if the heat is imparted to water, a rise in temperature will be
noticed and this rise will reach till the boiling point.
• The boiling temperature is known as the temperature of formation of
steam or saturation temperature.
• It may be noted that during heating up to boiling point that there
will be slight increase in volume of water due to which piston
moves up and hence work is obtained as shown in the Fig (ii).This
work is how ever is small so neglected.
Contd…
State 3
 Now, if supply of heat to water is continued it will be noticed that rise
in temperature after the boiling point reached is nil, but the piston
starts moving upwards indicates that there is increase in volume
which is only possible if steam formation occurs.
 The heat being supplied does not show any rise in temp., but changes
water into vapour state (steam) is known as Latent heat or hidden
heat.
 So long as the steam is in contact with water, it is called as wet steam
as shown in fig (iii).
State 4
 If the heating of the steam is further progressed as shown in fig. (iv)
such that all water particles associated with steam are evaporated,
the steam so obtained is called dry and saturated steam.
 If vg m3 is the volume of 1 kg of dry saturated steam then
work done in the piston will be
WD = p (vg – vf) ,
where’ p’ is the constant pr., due to weight ‘W’ on the piston.
Contd…
State 5
• Again, if supply of heat to the dry saturated steam is continued at
constant pressure there will be increase in temperature and volume of
steam. The steam so obtained is called super heated steam and it behaves
like a perfect gas. This phase of steam formation is illustrated in fig. (v)

Sketch of experiment in which heat is added isobarically to water in a

closed piston-cylinder arrangement.
Graphical representation of the Formation of
Steam

Temperature Vs. Heat Addition (T − Q)diagram

Important Terms Relating To Steam Formation
Sensible heat of water (hf) or (hw) :
It is defined as the quantity of heat absorbed by 1 kg of water when it is heated from 0
oC (freezing point) to boiling point.

Heat raises the temperature of the water and can be sensed with a thermometer.
Latent heat or hidden heat (hfg) :
It is the amount of heat required to convert water at a given temperature and
pressure into steam at the same temperature and pressure. (or)
The amount of heat required to convert 1kg of saturated water to 1 kg of saturated
steam at constant temperature is called latent heat of vaporization( hfg ).
It is expressed by the symbol hfg and its value is available from steam tables.
Dryness fraction (x):
The ratio of the mass of the pure dry steam to the total mass of the wet steam is
called dryness fraction.
Ex: Let the mass of the pure dry steam is a wet steam = ms kg
Let the mass of the water particles = mf kg
Dryness fraction (x) = [ms /(ms +mf)] = ( ms / m )
If dryness fraction (x) : x < 1 represents wet steam
x = 1 represents dry steam
x > 1 represents superheated steam
Contd…
Wet steam :
A mixture of saturated water and saturated steam is called wet steam.
Dry saturated steam (Ts):
Steam which is 100 % dry at saturation temperature is called dry saturated steam.
Super heated steam (Tsup):
The steam which is heated beyond the dry and saturated steam point is called super
heated steam.
Degree of super heat :
It is defined as the degree to which the steam is super heated above the saturation
point at constant pressure. D.O.S = T sup – T s
Specific volume (v) :
Specific volume of steam is defined as the volume occupied in m3 by 1kg of steam.
Specific enthalpy of steam (h) :
The amount of heat transferred to 1 kg of steam at constant pressure. Its units are
(kJ/kg) or it is the total heat contained in 1 kg of steam.
Specific entropy :
Specific entropy is defined as the ratio of the heat transferred (dQ) to the absolute
temperature of the steam at which the heat transfer takes place per kg of steam.
Sp. Enthalpy, entropy, volume of wet ,dry, superheated steam formulas are represented
in the table.
Equations related to wet,dry,saturated,superheated steam
S.No Property Saturated Wet Steam(wet) Saturated Steam Superheated
water (w) (s) steam (Sup)
1. Specific volume vw x.vs vs (Vs / T s ) .Tsup
(v)
2. Specific hw hw + x . L hs hs + kp [Tsup -
Enthalpy (h) Ts ]

3. Specific ---- p.x.vs P . vs p . vsup

External work
(w)
4. Specific Internal ---- h wet - w wet h s - ws h sup - w sup
energy (e)

5. Internal Latent ---- x ( L – p .v s ) ( L – p .v s ) ----

heat (Li)
6. Specific Entropy Øw Øw + ( x.L / Ts ) = Øs Øs + kp loge
(Ø ) Øw + (x . Øfg ) [Tsup / T s ]

Specific heat of steam = 2.2 kj/kg Notations can be represented :- Steam tables for saturated water and steam
Specific heat of water = 4.18 kj/kg fluids w or f (pressure) :-
Cp or Kp – Specific heat for steam s or g Critical Pressure : 221.2 bar, Critical temperature :
L latent heat (hfg,sfg or vfg) 374.15 0 C
 Temperature− Enthalpy diagram an

Critical point:
 It is defined as there is no phase boundaries exist at this point. This point will occur at a
particular temperature and pressure. Temperature is known as critical temperature and pressure
known as critical pressure.
 It is also defined as temperature at which the density of the vapor becomes the same as that of
the liquid.
 PROPERTY TABLES
 For most substances, the relationships among thermodynamic properties are too complex
to be expressed by simple equations. Therefore, properties are frequently presented in the
form of tables.
 The values of u, h, and s cannot be measured directly, and they are calculated from
measurable properties using the relations between properties.
 Exercise problems
1Q. A sample of steam as a quantity of 90 % dry and at 250 kpa, determine the enthalpy and specific
volume per kg of steam?

Rough
Sol. Given data : 1 bar = 1 x 10^5 N/m2
= (1 x 10^5 /1000) Kn/m2 or kpa
The dryness fraction (x) = 90% /100 = 0.9 1 bar = 100 Kn/m2
x = 0.9 , since x < 1 = wet steam ? = 250 Kn/m2
= 2.5 bar
Pressure (p) = 250 kpa
From Steam Tables :-
Pressure (p) = 250 / 100 = 2.5 bar At P = 2.5 bar
To Find :- Wet steam hw or hf = 535.4 kj/kg
Latent heat hfg or L = 2181.0 kj/kg
1. Enthalpy of steam at wet condition Specific vol.vg or vs. = 0.71840 m3/kg
h wet = hw + x . L
= 535.4 + (0.9) * ( 2181)
h wet = 2498.3 kj/kg
2. Specific volume per kg of steam
v wet = x * vs
= (0.9) x (0.71840)
v wet = 0.64656 m3/kg
2Q. Calculate the specific volume , specific enthalpy and specific entropy of steam at a pressure of 9bar
and temperature 250 oC. ? Take Cp or Kp values for superheated steam as 2.1 kj/kg k.

Sol. Given data :-

Pressure = 9 bar
Temperature = 250 oC (since the temperature is > Ts the condition is superheated,above 100 oC the state is
in superheated steam)
To Find :- From Steam Tables :-

1. Specific volume at superheated condition At P = 9 bar

Vsup= (vs / Ts ) * Tsup Temperature Ts orTg = 175.4 oC
Saturated steam hs or hg= 2772.1 kj/kg
= (0.21482 / 448.5) * (523.13) Sp.Entropy Øs or Øg= 6.619 kj/kg k
Vsup = 0.2505 m3/kg Sp. Volume vg or vs = 0.21482 m3/kg

2. Specific Enthalpy at superheated condition Tsup = 250+273.13 = 523.13 k

hsup = hs + Cp [Tsup - T s ] Ts orTg = 175.4 + 273.13 = 448.53 K

= 2772.1 + 2.1 [523.13 - 448.53]

hsup = 2928.73 kj/kg
3.Specific Entropy at superheated condition
Øsup = Øs + Cp loge [Tsup / T s ]
= 6.619 + 2.1 * [523.13 / 448.53 ]
Øsup = 6.95 kj/kg-k
3Q. Determine the specific liquid enthalpy and specific enthalpy of
1. dry saturated steam
2. 2.wet steam with dryness fraction 0.9 at a pressure of 0.8 MN/m2

Sol. Given data :- Rough

1 bar = 1 x 10^5 N/m2 = 1 x
Dryness fraction x= 0.9 (x < 1 represents wet steam) 10^3 Kn/m2 =
1bar = 100 Kn/m2
Pressure = 8 bar ? = 0.8 Mn/m2
To Find :- =8 bar

1. Specific Liquid Enthalpy at dry saturated conditions

Saturated steam hs or hg= 2767.5 kj/kg From Steam Tables :-
2.Specific Enthalpy at wet condition
At P = 8 bar
h wet = hw + x . L Temperature Ts orTg = 170.4 oC
= 720.9 + (0.9) * (2046.5) Saturated steam hs or hg= 2767.5 kj/kg
h wet = 2562.75 kj/kg Wet steam hw or hf = 720.9 kj/kg
Latent heat hfg or L = 2046.5 kj/kg
Ts orTg = 170.4 + 273.13 = 443.53 K
4Q. Calculate the internal energy of 2kgs of steam at a pressure of 60 bar and dryness fraction of 0.9
Sol. Given data :-
mass = 2 kgs
Pressure = 60 bar = 60 * 100 kpa
Rough
Dryness fraction x= 0.9 (x < 1 represents wet steam) 1 bar = 1 x 10^5 N/m2
= (1 x 10^5 /1000) Kn/m2 or kpa
To Find :- 1 bar = 100 Kn/m2 or kpa
60 = ?
1. Internal energy e wet = h wet - w wet = 60 * 100 Kn/m2 or kpa
h wet = hw + x . L
= 1213.7 + (0.9) * (1571.3)
h wet = 2627.87 kj/kg
From Steam Tables :-
Wwet = p.x.vs At P =60 bar
=(60 * 100) * (0.9) * (0.032433) Temperature Ts orTg = 275.6 oC
Saturated steam hs or hg= 2785.0 kj/kg
Wwet = 175.1382 kj/kg Wet steam hw or hf = 1213.7 kj/kg
Hence Latent heat hfg or L = 1571.3 kj/kg
Specific volume Saturated vs = 0.032433
Internal energy e wet = h wet - w wet m3/kg
= 2627.87 - 175.1382 Ts orTg = 275.6 + 273.13 = 548.73 K

= 2452.7318 kj/kg
Therefore total internal energy e wet = 2452.7318 *2 = 4905.46 kj