Open Journal of Mathematics and Physics | Volume 3, Article 247, ISSN: 2674-5747

https://doi.org/10.31219/osf.io/k9fbc | published: 29 Ago 2021 | https://ojmp.org JR

[white paper]
Diamond Open Access [waiting peer review]

Categories in symbols
Open Mathematics Collaboration∗†
August 29, 2021

Abstract
An introduction to the language of category theory is presented
in a very minimalistic fashion, using the fewest number of symbols
as possible. In this white paper, the focus is on the main con-
cepts underlying categories.

keywords: category theory, functor, diagram, duality, categorical product

The most updated version of this white paper is available at

https://osf.io/k9fbc/download
https://zenodo.org/record/5328443

Introduction
1. This is the first paper of the “in symbols” series published in the
Open Journal of Mathematics and Physics.

2. The mathematical content is presented in the Appendix, after the

References.

3. Our purpose is pedagogical so that one can easily have an overview of

the mathematical definitions and results around the main topic.

∗ All authors with their affiliations appear at the end of this white paper.
† Corresponding author: mplobo@uft.edu.br | Open Mathematics Collaboration

1
 4. Anyone familiarized with the basic mathematical symbols should be
able to understand the material, with more or less effort depending on
the mathematical maturity of the reader.

5. There are excellent introductory references about Category Theory

in [1–4].

6. If you need further assistance, check [5, 6].

Electronic version
7. Categories in symbols as a mathematical (searchable) knowledge base
is also available at

https://omkb.notion.site/9fadacf7796640eba3a5eccf2dc30a2b

or

https://bit.ly/2Y7Zw2D

Meta-linguistic symbols
8. ∶= means that what is on the left is defined by what is on the right

9. ∶≡ means that the strings on both sides are identical

Topics
10. The following definitions are included in the Appendix.

11. Category

12. Class of objects

13. Morphisms (maps, arrows)

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14. Hom-set

15. Identity morphisms

16. Class of all morphisms

17. Small/Large category

18. Morphism leaving/entering an object

19. Examples of the categories of sets, monoids,

(abelian) groups, R-modules, vector spaces over a field,
(commutative) rings, fields, partially ordered sets
(posets), relations, topological spaces, manifolds with
smooth maps, and categories of the propositional calculus

20. Preordered (thin) category

21. Covariant/Contravariant functor

22. Local arrow part (restriction) of a functor

23. Set valued functor

24. Parallel/Antiparallel functors

25. Composition of functors

26. Special types of functors: full, faithfull, and fully

faithfull

27. Embedding of a category in other category

28. (Contravariant) Power set functor

29. Forgetful functor

30. Underlying-set functor

31. (Large) Category of all small categories

3
32. Concrete/Abstract category

33. Subcategory

34. Diagrams

35. Directed graph (digraph)

36. Class of vertices (nodes)

37. Set of arcs (leaving/entering)

38. Loop

39. In/Out-degree

40. Labeled digraph

41. Directed path

42. Length of a path

43. Underlying digraph

44. Commutative diagrams

45. Morphisms left and right-invertible

46. Category isomorphism (invertible, i.e., with two-sided

inverse)

47. Morphisms left (monic) and right-cancellable (epic)

48. Initial, terminal, and zero objects

49. Zero morphism

50. Dual (opposite) category

51. Dual property

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52. Self-dual

53. Dual statement

54. Product category

55. Bifunctor

56. Category of arrows

57. Comma category (slice, coslice)

58. Source/Target object

59. Comma objects

60. Category of elements

61. Hom-set category

62. Product of objects

63. Mediating morphism

64. Projection maps

65. Poset category (supremum)

66. Binary products for a category

67. Product morphism

68. Categorical product

69. Mediating morphism trick

5
Open Invitation
Review, add content, and co-author this white paper [7, 8].
Join the Open Mathematics Collaboration.
Send your contribution to mplobo@uft.edu.br.

Open Science
The latex file for this white paper together with other supplementary
files are available in [9, 10].

How to cite this paper?

https://doi.org/10.31219/osf.io/k9fbc
https://zenodo.org/record/5328443

Acknowledgements
+ Open Science Framework
https://osf.io

+ Zenodo
https://zenodo.org

Agreement
All authors agree with [8].

References
[1] Roman, Steven. An Introduction to the Language of Category Theory.
Birkhäuser, 2017.

6
[2] Simmons, Harold. An Introduction to Category Theory. Cambridge
University Press, 2011.

[3] Leinster, Tom. “Basic category theory.” arXiv preprint

arXiv:1612.09375 (2016).
https://arxiv.org/pdf/1612.09375.pdf

[4] Riehl, Emily. Category theory in context. Courier Dover Publications,

2017.

[5] Velleman, Daniel J. How to prove it: A structured approach. Cam-

bridge University Press, 2019.
https://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0521861241

[6] Warner, Steve. Pure Mathematics for Beginners. GET 800, 2018.
https://books.google.com/books?vid=dcWrvAEACAAJ

[7] Lobo, Matheus P. “Microarticles.” OSF Preprints, 28 Oct. 2019.

https://doi.org/10.31219/osf.io/ejrct

[8] Lobo, Matheus P. “Simple Guidelines for Authors: Open Journal of

Mathematics and Physics.” OSF Preprints, 15 Nov. 2019.
https://doi.org/10.31219/osf.io/fk836

[9] Lobo, Matheus P. “Open Journal of Mathematics and Physics

(OJMP).” OSF, 21 Apr. 2020. https://osf.io/6hzyp/files

[10] https://zenodo.org/record/5328443

The Open Mathematics Collaboration

Matheus Pereira Lobo (lead author, mplobo@uft.edu.br)1,2
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4554-1372

1 Federal University of Tocantins (Brazil)

2 Universidade Aberta (UAb, Portugal)

7
Categories in symbols
FIVE BASIC CONCEPTS

• Categories

• Functors

• Natural transformations

• Universality

• Adjoints
DEFINITION

C := CATEGORY

1. OBJECTS
Obj(C ) := class of objects
A ∈ Obj(C ) :≡ A ∈ C

2. MORPHISMS
hom C (A, B) := hom-set for the pair (A, B)
A, B ∈ C ( A and B are not necessarily distinct pair of
objects)

elements of hom C (A, B) := morphisms, maps or arrows from A

to B
f ∈ hom C (A, B) :≡ f : A → B :≡ f AB
A, B := objects of C
A = dom(f ) := domain of f
B = codom(f ) := codomain of f
morphisms are not necessarily functions

3. DISJUNCTION
hom C (A, B) ∩ hom C (C , D) = ∅ unless A = C and B = D

4. COMPOSITION

g ∘ f ∈ hom C (A, C ) := morphism := composition of g with f

f AB :≡ f ∈ hom C (A, B)
g BC :≡ g ∈ hom C (B, C )
∃g ∘ f , f ∘ (g ∘ h) = (f ∘ g) ∘ h , associative
g ∘ f tacitly means dom(g) = codom(f )

5. IDENTITY MORPHISMS
 ∀A ∈ C ∃1 A ∈ hom C (A, A)
(f AB ∈ hom C (A, B)) → (1 B ∘ f AB = f AB ∧ f AB ∘ 1 A = f AB )

1 A := identity morphism for A

Mor(C ) := class of all morphisms of C

NOTATIONS

hom C (A, B) :≡ (A, B) :≡ [A, B] :≡ C (A, B) :≡ Mor(A, B)

• not all authors require property 3 in the definition of a

category

• for some authors, hom-sets are classes

locally small category := the hom-classes are sets

small category := Obj(C ) and Mor(C ) are sets
large category := not a small category
(h 1 , h 2 ∈ hom C (A, B)) → (h 1 and h 2 are parallel)
A = dom(f ) :≡ f is a morphism leaving A
B = codom(f ) :≡ f is a morphism entering B
EXAMPLES OF CATEGORIES

Set := category of sets

Obj := class of all sets
hom(A, B) := set of all functions from A to B

Mon := category of monoids

Obj := class of all monoids
hom(A, B) := set of all monoid homomorphisms from A to B

Grp := category of groups

Obj := class of all groups
hom(A, B) := set of all group homomorphisms from A to B

AbGrp := category of abelian groups

Obj := class of all abelian groups
hom(A, B) := set of all group homomorphisms from A to B

Mod R := category of R -modules ( R := ring)

Obj := class of all R -modules
hom(A, B) := set of all R -maps from A to B

Vect F := category of vector spaces over a field F

Obj := class of all vector spaces over F
hom(A, B) := set of all linear transformations from A to B

Rng := category of rings

Obj := class of all rings
hom(A, B) := set of all ring homomorphisms from A to B

CRng := category of commutative rings

Obj := class of all commutative rings (with identity)
hom(A, B) := set of all ring homomorphisms from A to B
Field := category of fields
Obj := class of all fields
hom(A, B) := set of all ring embeddings from A to B

Poset := category of partially ordered sets

Obj := class of all partially ordered sets
hom(A, B) := set of all monotone functions from A to B
f : P → Q such that p ≤ q ⇒ f (p) ≤ f (q)

Rel := category of relations

Obj := class of all sets
hom(A, B) := set of all binary relations from A to B

Top := category of topological spaces

Obj := class of all topological spaces
hom(A, B) := set of all continuous functions from A to B

SmoothMan := category of manifolds with smooth maps

Obj := class of all manifolds
hom(A, B) := set of all smooth maps from A to B
 P :≡ Poset(P , ≤)

P := category poset
(P , ≤) := partially ordered set (poset)
a, b, c ∈ P ; a, b, c ∈ Poset(P , ≤)
a, b, c := objects of P
a > b → hom(a, b) = ∅
a ≤ b → hom(a, b) = {ab}
hom-sets specify ≤ on P
(ab : a → b) ∧ (bc : b → c) → a ≤ b ≤ c → a ≤ c → hom(a, c) = ∅

COMPOSITION: bc ∘ ab = ac
hom(a, a) = {1 a } ; 1 a := identity morphism for a

n := category Poset(N, ≤)

m, n ∈ N ; n = {0, 1, ..., n − 1} ; 0 = ∅ ; m < n → m ∈ n

objects of n =: 0, 1, ..., n − 1 ∈ n
the class of all morphisms of C =: Mor(n) = {≤}

preordered (thin) category := there is at most one morphism

between every pair of objects

∃f AB → we can define A ⪯ B→ C := thin category

∃!f AB ∈ P ↔ A ⪯ B
⪯ preorder relation (reflexive, transitive) on the objects
of C
reflexivity ~> identity; transitivity ~> composition

P :≡ (P , ⪯) := preordered class (category)

p∈P →p∈P
C := category; A, B ∈ C
∀C : ∃f AB → A ⪯ B
 ∃f αβ ↔ α ⊢ β

α ⊢ β := α deduces β
′
f αβ ∈ P 1 ; f αβ ∈ P2
P 1 , P 2 := categories of the propositional calculus
wffs := well-formed formulas (of the system) := objects of
Pc
′
f αβ := a specific deduction of β from α
 F :C⇒D

(object part) F : Obj(C ) → Obj(D)

(arrow part) F : Mor(C ) → Mor(D)

F := functor (pair of functions) from C to D

C , D := categories

COVARIANT, CONTRAVARIANT FUNCTOR

covariant functor := preserves the direction of arrow

contravariant functor := reverses the direction of arrow

(F := covariant) → (∀A, B ∈ C , F : hom C (A, B) → hom D (F A, FB))

F : hom C (A, B) → hom D (F A, FB)) :≡ F maps f : A → B in C to
F f : F A → FB in D

(F := contravariant) → (∀A, B ∈ C , F : hom C (A, B) →

hom D (FB, F A))
F : hom C (A, B) → hom D (FB, F A)) :≡ F maps f : A → B in C to
F f : FB → F A in D

f
f : A → B :≡ A → B := morphism
Ff
F f : F A → FB :≡ F A → FB := morphism

F := covariant functor (maps one-arrow diagrams in C to one-

arrow diagrams in D , "identity loops" and "triangles" are
preserved)

(similarly for contravariant functor)

F 1A = 1F A (identity is preserved)

composition is preserved

(F := covariant) → (F (g ∘ f ) = F g ∘ F f )
(F := contravariant) → (F (g ∘ f ) = F f ∘ F g)

F ∣ hom C (A,B ) := local arrow part of F := restriction of F to

hom C (A, B)

(F : C ⇒ C ) := functor on C

F : C ⇒ Set

F := set valued functor

C := category

(F , G : C ⇒ D) → (F and G are parallel)

(F : C ⇒ D ∧ G : D ⇒ C ) → (F and G are antiparallel)

F , G := functors
C , D := categories
COMPOSITION OF FUNCTORS

(G ∘ F )(A) = G(F A) for A ∈ C

(G ∘ F )(f ) = G(F f ) for f ∈ hom C (A, B)

G ∘ F := GF
F : C ⇒ D; G : D ⇒ E
F , G := functors
C , D, E := categories

SPECIAL TYPES OF FUNCTORS

∀lap := surjective → F := full

∀lap := injective → F := faithfull
∀lap := bijective → F := fully faithfull

object part of F := injective → F := embedding of C in D

lap := local arrow parts (restrictions)

F :C⇒D
F := functor
C , D := categories
 ℘ : Set ⇒ Set

℘ := power set functor

(sends A to its power set ℘(A) )
(sends each f : A → B to f : ℘(A) → ℘(B) )

f : A → B := set function
f : ℘(A) → ℘(B) := induced function (sends X to f X )
(same notation ~> function + induced function)

F : Set ⇒ Set

F := contravariant power set functor

(sends A to its power set ℘(A) )
(sends each f : A → B to f −1 : ℘(B) → ℘(A) )

f : A → B := set function
f −1 : ℘(B) → ℘(A) := induced inverse function (sends X ⊆ B
to f −1 X ⊆ A )

(f ∘ g) −1 = g −1 ∘ f −1

∀A : A ∈ Obj(C ) → A ∈ Obj(D)
∀f : f ∈ hom C (A, B) → f ∈ hom D (A, B)

F :C⇒D

F sends A ∈ C to itself (an object in D )

F sends f C : A → B to itself (a morphism in D )

F := forgetful functor

U : C ⇒ Set on C
U := underlying-set functor

C , D := categories
 SmCat := (large) category of all small categories

∄ category of all categories

small categories ∈ Obj(SmCat)
F ∈ Mor(SmCat)
F := covariant functor

(∃F : C ⇒ Set ∧ F := faithful functor) → (C := concrete)

1. ∀A : A ∈ C → A can be thought of F A
2. ∀f ∈ C , (f : A → B) can be thought of (F f : F A → FB)
3. 1 A can be thought of F 1 : F A → F A
(f ∘ g) ∈ C can be thought of F f ∘ F g

abstract category := not concrete

C := category

examples

Grp, Rng, Vect, Poset = concrete

Rel = abstract
All small categories are concrete.

(∅ = Obj(D) ⊆ Obj(C ) ∧ ∅ = Mor(D) ⊆ Mor(C )) → (D :=

subcategory of C )

1. ∀A, B ∈ D : hom D (A, B) ⊆ hom C (A, B) ∧ (1 A ) D = (1 A ) C

2. (f D : A → B ∧ g D : B → C ) → (g ∘ f ) C = (g ∘ f ) D

(hom D (A, B) = hom C (A, B)) → (D := full)

C , D := category
⊆ subclass

1 A := identity map
 (F C ) A = {F A ∣ A ∈ C }
(F C ) f = {F f ∣ f ∈ hom C (A, B)}

¬□(F C := subcategory of D)

F C := image of C
(F C ) A := set of objects
(F C ) f := set of morphisms
functor =: F : C ⇒ D
C , D := categories
□ := it is necessary

example

∃(g ∘ f ) → (F (g) ∘ F (f ) = F (g ∘ f ) ∈ F C )

(F obj := injective) → (F C := subcategory of D)

F obj : Obj(C ) → Obj(D) := object part of F

F :C⇒D
C , D := categories
 J -diagram in C with index category J := functor J : J ⇒ C

J , C := categories
J (J ) := image of J

¬□(J (J ) := subcategory of C )
¬□(J β ∘ J α ⊆ J (J ))
□ := it is necessary

DIGRAPH-BASED VERSION OF A DIAGRAM

J := category
J := functor
J (J ) := image of J
m, n, p, q ∈ J
J m, J n, J p, J q ∈ J (J )
α, β, J α , J β := morphisms
DIRECTED GRAPH

D ⊇ V (D) ∪ ( ⋃ A(v i , w j ) )
i,j

D := directed graph (digraph)

∅ = V (D) := class of vertices (nodes)
(v, w) := ordered pair of nodes
A(v, w) := set of arcs from v to w (leave v , enter w )

a 1 , a 2 ∈ A(v, w) → a 1 ∥ a 2
ℓ ∈ A(v, v) → ℓ := loop

v 1 ∈ V (D)
ind(v 1 ) := in-degree of v 1 := cardinal number of arcs
entering v 1

outd(v 1 ) := out-degree of v 1 := cardinal number of arcs

leaving v 1

deg(v 1 ) = ind(v 1 ) + outd(v 1 ) := degree of v 1

LABELED DIGRAPH, DIRECTED PATH

D ℓ := labeled digraph := all nodes and arcs are labeled

(parallel arcs have distinct labels)

no distinct nodes and no distinct arcs have the same label →

D ℓ is uniquely labeled

e 1 ∈ A(v 1 , v 2 ), e 2 ∈ A(v 2 , v 3 ), ... , e n−1 ∈ A(v n−1 , v n ) := directed

path (sequence of arcs)

length of a path := number of arcs in the path

f f
A → B → C := path
f f
g ∘ f := label of A → B → C

underlying digraph for the diagram := nodes and arcs are

labeled (from J)
NOTATION

D, E, F, ... := diagrams
D :≡ D(J : J ⇒ C )

f f
(∀A, B : (A, B) ∈ D ∧ A → B ∧ ∃(A, B)len(A → B) ≥
2) ⟹ D commutes

D := diagram in C
C := category
A, B := objects
f := morphism
A, B, f ∈ C
len := length of a directed path

example 1: the following diagram commutes since β1 ∘ γ = α1

and β2 ∘ γ = α2

e f g
example 2: E :≡ E → A → B and A → B
E := commutative diagram; f ∥g
commutative condition: f ∘e=g∘e
 (∃f L : B → A) ⟹ (f : A → B := left-invertible)
fL ∘ f = 1A

(∃f R : B → A) ⟹ (f : A → B := right-invertible)
f ∘ fR = 1B

(∃f −1 : B → A) ⟹ (f : A → B := invertible (isomorphism))

f −1 ∘ f = 1 A
f ∘ f −1 = 1 B
A≈B

¬□(category isomorphism = (f := injective) ∨ (f := surjective))

f L := left inverse
f R := right inverse
f −1 := (two-sided) inverse of f
A ≈ B := A and B are isomorphic
C := category
□ := it is necessary
¬□ := not necessarily

∃f −1 → ∃!f −1

∃(i 1 ∘ i 2 ) ⟹ (i 1 ∘ i 2 ) := isomorphism ∧ (i 1 ∘ i 2 ) −1 = i −1 −1
2 ∘ i1

f := morphism
i 1 , i 2 := isomorphisms
 (∀g, h : C → A . g ∥ h ∧ f ∘ g = f ∘ h → g = h) ⟹ (f :=
left-cancellable (monic or mono))

(∀g, h : B → C . g ∥ h ∧ g ∘ f = h ∘ f → g = h) ⟹ (f :=
right-cancellable (epic or epi))

f : A → B := morphism
C := category

f := left-invertible ⟹ f := left-cancellable (monic)

f := right-invertible ⟹ f := right-cancellable (epic)

f := invertible ⟹ f := monic and epic

f := monic (left-cancellable) and right-invertible ⟹ f :=

isomorphism

f := epic (right-cancellable) and left-invertible ⟹ f :=

isomorphism

f : A → B := morphism
C := category
 (∀A ∈ C ∃!f : I → A) ⟹ (I := initial)

(∀A ∈ C ∃!f : A → T ) ⟹ (T := terminal)

(A := initial and terminal) ⟹ (A := zero object)

C := initial ⊻ terminal ⟹ hom(C , C ) = {1 C }

objects =: I , A, T , C ∈ C
C := category

I1 , I2 ∈ C ⟹ I1 ≈ I2

T1 , T2 ∈ C ⟹ T1 ≈ T2

I 1 , I 2 := initial objects
T := terminal object
C := category
≈ isomorphism

Set := category
∃!I ∧ I = ∅
∀A ∈ Set : A := singleton ⟹ A := terminal

I := initial object
singleton set

terminal object
 ∀f ∈ C : f = h 0B ∘ g A0 ⟹ f := zero morphism

0∈C
f : A → B; h : 0 → B; g:A→0
C := category
any morphism entering or leaving 0 is a zero morphism

∀A, B : A, B ∈ C ⟹ ∃!(zero morphism) between A and B

z := zero morphism ⟹ (f ∘ z) := zero morphism ∧ (z ∘ g) :=

zero morphism
(zero morphisms “absorb” other morphisms)

0∈C
z:A→B
C := category

A ∈ C → A ∈ C op
hom C op (A, B) = hom C (B, A)

C := category
C op := opposite category (dual category) (morphisms are
reversed)

f ∈ hom C op (A, B) ∧ g ∈ hom C op (B, C ) ⟹ g ∘ op f ∈

hom C op (A, C ) = f ∘ g ∈ hom C (C , A)

∘ op := composition in C op

g ∘ op f = f ∘ g

(C op ) op = C , (every category is a dual category)

 ∀C : C has p op ↔ C op has p ⟹ p op := dual property to p

p := property of C
C := category
C op := dual category

isomorphism is self-dual,

A ≈ B in C ↔ A ≈ B in C op

≈ isomorphism

dual statement := same statement stated for C op and

expressed in terms of C

(C has Π → C has p) ≡ (C op has Π → C op has p) ≡ (C has Π op →

C has p op )

Π = {q i ∣ i ∈ I } := set of properties
Π op = {q iop ∣ i ∈ I } := set of dual properties
p := single property

PRINCIPLE OF DUALITY

Π ⇒ p ↔ Π op ⇒ p op
(C has Π → C has p) ↔ (C has Π op → C has p op )

Π = Π op (Π is self-dual)
Π ⇒ p ↔ Π ⇒ p op
 product category: B × C

(f , g) ∘ (h, k) = (f ∘ h, g ∘ k)

F :A×B ⇒C

B, B ′ ∈ B ; C, C′ ∈ C
(B, C ) := objects of B × C
f : B → B′ ; g : C → C′
(f , g) := morphism from B × C to B ′ × C ′
F := bifunctor := functor from A × B to C
 Obj(C → ) = hom C (A, B)

(α : A → A ′ , β : B → B ′ ) :=
morphism in C → (pair of arrows in C )

(g ∘ α = β ∘ f ) := the diagram commutes

(γ , δ) ∘ (α, β) = (γ ∘ α, δ ∘ β) := composition in C →

(1 A , 1 B ) := identity morphism

A, B, A ′ , B ′ ∈ C
f : A → B; g : A′ → B ′
C := category
C → := category of arrows of C

morphism in C → := morphism between arrows

COSLICE CATEGORY (COMMA CATEGORY)

(A → C ) = {(B, f : A → B) ∣ B ∈ C } := comma category

:= category of arrows leaving A (coslice category)

α : (B, f : A → B) ⇒ (C , g : A → C )

α∘β =α∘β

1B ∘ α = 1B ∘ α = α

α ∘ 1B = α ∘ 1B = α

A := source object
B := target objects
(B, f : A → B) := comma objects
α ∈ (A → C )
1 B := identity morphism for (B, f : A → B)
A, B, C , α ∈ C
α∘f =g
C := category
actually, (A → C ) = (A → I C )
I C := identity functor on C

SLICE CATEGORY

(C → A) = {(B, f : B → A) ∣ B ∈ C } := comma category

:= category of arrows entering A (slice category)
 α ′ : (B, f : B → A) ⇒ (C , g : C → A)

α ′ ∈ (C → A)
g∘α=f
(A → C ) is the dual of (C → A)
COMMA CATEGORY: First Generalization

(A → F ) = {(C , f : A → FC ) ∣ C ∈ C }

α : (C 1 , f 1 : A → F C 1 ) ⇒ (C 2 , f 2 : A → F C 2 )

F : C ⇒ D := functor
source object := A ∈ D
FC := target objects (image of C under F )
α ∈ (A → F ) := comma category
(C , f : A → FC ) := comma objects
F α ′ ∘ f 1 = f 2 , α ′ : C 1 → C 2 in C between "pre-target" objects

(F → A) = {(C , f : FC → A) ∣ C ∈ C }

α : (C 1 , f 1 : F C 1 → A) ⇒ (C 2 , f 2 : F C 2 → A)

f 2 ∘ F α ′ = f 1 , α ′ : C 1 → C 2 between "pre-source" objects in C

(A → F ) is the dual of (F → A)
 (α : B → B ′ , β : C → C ′ ) := morphism from (B, C , f : FB →
GC ) to (B ′ , C ′ , f ′ : F B ′ → GC ′ )

Gβ ∘ f = f ′ ∘ F α

(B, C , f : FB → GC ) := object of (F → G)
(F → G) := comma category
F : B ⇒ D; G:C⇒D
F , G := functors
B ∈ B; C ∈ C; f, g ∈ D
B, C , D := categories
 f : (C , a) → (D, b) := morphism f : C → D such that F f (a) = b

F : C → Set := set-valued functor

Obj(Elts(F )) = (C , a)
Elts(F ) := category of elements
C ∈ C , a ∈ FC
C := category
 {hom C (A, X ) ∣ X ∈ C } = Obj(C (A, −))

∀f : X → Y in C ∃f ← ∈ C (A, −) : hom C (A, X ) → hom C (A, Y )

∀α ∈ hom C (A, X ) : f ← (α) = f ∘ α

C (A, −) := hom-set category

"follow by f " =: f ← ∈ C (A, −)
C := category

{hom C (X , A) ∣ X ∈ C } = Obj(C (−, A))

∀f : X → Y in C ∃f → ∈ C (−, A) : hom C (Y , A) → hom C (X , A)

∀α ∈ hom C (A, X ) : f → (α) = α ∘ f

C (−, A) := hom-set category

"preceed by f " =: f → ∈ C (−, A)

(∀C 1 : C 1 ∈ C ) ⇒ C ′ := (C 1 ⊔ ∗ ∧ f A : ∗ → A) :=
hom-set category ⇒ (∀A : A ∈ C → A = hom C ′ (∗, A))
 (f : A → B in C ) = (f ← : hom C ′ (∗, A) → hom C ′ (∗, B))

initial "object" (morphism) =: ∗ ∈

/C
⊔ := adjoining
A∈C

(A × B, ρ 1 : A × B → A, ρ 2 : A × B → B) :=
product of A and B

∀(X ∈ C , f : X → A, g : X → B) ∃!θ : X → A × B

object =: A × B ∈ C
morphisms =: ρ 1 , ρ 2 ∈ C
θ := mediating morphism (map)
ρ 1 , ρ 2 := projection maps
the diagram commutes, ρ 1 ∘ θ = f and ρ 2 ∘ θ = g
A, B ∈ C := category

α = β ↔ ρ1 ∘ α = ρ1 ∘ β ∧ ρ2 ∘ α = ρ2 ∘ β

α, β : X → A × B
(application, uniqueness, mediating morphism)
 P 1 , P 2 ∈ Poset(P ) → P 1 × P 2 := supremum

P 1 , P 2 ∈ Poset(P ) := category poset

examples

Set → product := cartesian product

Grp, Mod, Vect, Rng → product := usual direct product

∀C 1 , C 2 ∈ C : ∃C 1 × C 2 → C has binary products

Field := does not have products

objects =: C 1 , C 2 ∈ C := category
 θ :≡ (f 1 × f 2 : (A 1 × A 2 , α 1 , α 2 ) → (B 1 ×
B 2 , β 1 , β 2 )) := product morphism

f1 : A1 → B1 ; f2 : A2 → B2
α i , β i := projection maps for A 1 × A 2 and B 1 × B 2 ,
respectively

morphisms =: f 1 , f 2 ∈ C
C := category with binary products
categorical product

MEDIATING MORPHISM TRICK

goal: X → B1 × B2
define: δ1 : X → B1 , δ2 : X → B2
use the definition of product

∃!τ : X → B 1 × B 2 such that β 1 ∘ τ = δ 1 and β 2 ∘ τ = δ 2

τ := mediating morphism (map)
we need a pair of maps: A 1 × A 2 → B 1 and A 1 × A 2 → B 2

αi : A1 × A2 → Ai
fi : Ai → Bi

∃!θ : β 1 ∘ (f 1 × f 2 ) = f 1 ∘ α 1 and β 2 ∘ (f 1 × f 2 ) = f 2 ∘ α 2