Applications of Group Theory

MAT - 431
CIA-1 (Component A)

Submitted By:

Ameya Bhatnagar (2240805)

Under the Supervision of

Dr. Tabitha Rajashekar Paradesi

Department of Mathematics
CHRIST (Deemed to be University), Bengaluru

January 2024
 DECLARATION

This is to certify that the research work entitled “Applications of Group Theory” is a report
submitted to the Department of Mathematics under the supervision of Dr Tabitha Rajashekhar
in partial fulfillment for the award of the marks for the Continuous Internal Assessment (CIA)
for the course Linear Algebra (MAT431) during the academic year 2023-24.

I, hereby confirm the originality of the work and that there is no plagiarism in any part of the
report.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my BSc. Mathematics teacher Dr. Tabitha
Rajashekhar, Associate Professor, Department of Mathematics, School of Sciences, CHRIST
(Deemed to be University), for her vital support, guidance and encouragement without which
this project would not have come forth.
I would also like to thank Dr. Mayamma Joseph, Head of the Department, Department of
Mathematics, School of Sciences, CHRIST (Deemed to be University) for her continued
support and to provide the facilities required to execute this project.
Last, but not the least, I would like to thank everyone else who contributed directly or indirectly
to this project.

Ameya Bhatnagar (2240805)

Contents
1 Introduction 2

2 Conceptualization 3

3 Applications of Group Theory 5

3.1 Cryptography and Diffie–Hellman Key Exchange . . . . . . . . 5
3.2 Irrational choice due to Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3 Rubik’s Cube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.4 The Modularity Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

4 Conclusion 13
1 Introduction
The subject of groups and group theory forms an integral part of algebra,
and even beyond the world of mathematics, we encounter the applications of
group theory in our day-to-day lives and across various fields. Group theory is
applied in a wide range of areas, such as physics, computer science, chemistry,
and robotics and also plays a vital role in many mathematical fields like prime
factorization, number theory and many geometrical concepts.
By mathematical definition, any non-empty set together with one or more
binary operations is called an algebraic structure. Now, let G be an algebraic
structure such that a ∗ b represents the elements of G obtained by applying
the binary operation, denoted by ∗, between the elements “a” and “b” of G.
Then this algebraic structure (G, ∗) is a group if the operation ∗ satisfies the
following 4 properties:

1. Closure property

2. Associative property

3. Existence of identity element

4. Existence of inverse element

2 Conceptualization
Propounded by Evariste Galois, group theory is central to abstract algebra
and has evolved over the years. Now, we look into binary operations, alge-
braic structures, groups and Abelian groups.
Let S be a non-empty set. The mapping: S x S ,→ S, which associates
each ordered pair (a,b) of the elements of S to a unique element of S, denoted
by a b, is called a binary operation on S. If it is a binary operation on S,
then we say S is closed under.
A non-empty set together with one or more than one binary operation(s)
is called an algebraic structure. For example, (S, ∗)
Lastly, we come to the concept of groups. A group is an algebraic struc-
ture required to satisfy certain criteria or axioms, as mentioned below. Let
G be a non-empty set and be a binary operation defined on G.[3]

1. Closure property: For every a, b ∈ G, we have a ∗ b ∈ G.

2. Associative property: For all a, b, c ∈ G, and binary operation ∗,

we have (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c).

3. Existence of identity element: There exists an element e ∈ G such

that for every a ∈ G, e ∗ a = a ∗ e = a. Such an element is unique and
is called the identity element of the group.

4. Existence of inverse element: For every a ∈ G, there exists an

element b ∈ G such that a ∗ b = e = b ∗ a, where e is the identity
element. For each a, the unique element b is called the inverse of a
and is denoted by a−1 .
On satisfying these 4 elements, an algebraic structure can be declared
a group. Furthermore, one last condition needs to be considered for a
group to become an Abelian group.

5. Cumulative Property: (a ∗ b) = (b ∗ a) for all a and b in G. On

satisfying all 5 properties, the algebraic structure (G, ∗) is an Abelian
group.

Further definitions regarding group theory:

Order of a group: It is the number of elements in the group G which
is denoted by O(G).

• Infinite groups: O(G) is infinite

Example: (R, +) is an infinite group
• Finite groups: O(G) is finite
Example: (1, 1, ∗) is a finite group

• Semi Group: A non-empty set G with an associative binary operation

is called a semigroup. (G, ) is a semigroup if

1. a, b ∈ G =⇒ a ∗ b ∈ G.
2. a, b, c ∈ G =⇒ a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c.
Example: (N, +) is a semi group
3 Applications of Group Theory
3.1 Cryptography and Diffie–Hellman Key Exchange
A very interesting application of group theory and different types of groups
is in Group-based cryptography, which is used to construct cryptographic
primitives. Cryptography is the art of writing and solving codes to ensure
secure communication across different channels. Most cryptographic schemes
use groups in some way. In particular, the Diffie–Hellman key exchange uses
finite cyclic groups. So the term group-based cryptography refers mostly to
cryptographic protocols that use infinite non-abelian groups.
Diffie–Hellman key exchange (1976) is a method of securely exchanging
cryptographic keys over a public channel and was one of the first public-key
protocols as conceived by Ralph Merkle and named after Whitfield Diffie
and Martin Hellman. It is one of the earliest practical examples of public
key exchange implemented within the field of cryptography, wherein there is
involvement of a private key and a corresponding public key.
Traditionally, the first step of secure communication requires that the 2
parties first exchange keys by some secure physical means, such as paper key
lists transported by a trusted courier. Then, the keys are decoded to obtain
the information. The Diffie–Hellman key exchange method, however, allows
two parties that have no prior knowledge of each other to jointly establish
a shared secret key over an insecure channel. That means that with their
individual keys and the DH mechanism, they can automatically generate a
secret key, which works for both of them but is very difficult to be hacked
into by a third party. This key can then be used to encrypt subsequent
communications. The execution of this method involves large and complex
numbers, but we will understand the mechanism through a simple example.[2]
The original implementation of the protocol uses the multiplicative group
of integers modulo p, where p is prime, and g is a primitive root modulo p.
These two values are chosen in this way to ensure that the resulting shared
secret can take on any value from 1 to p–1 (reduces the risk of a third party
guessing the secret key). Here is an example of the protocol -:

1. Alice and Bob publicly agree to use a |p| = 23 and base g = 5 (which
is a primitive root modulo 23).

2. Alice chooses a secret integer a = 4, then sends Bob, A = g a |p|

A = 54 .|23| = 4

3. Bob chooses a secret integer b = 3, then sends Alice, B = g b |p|

 Figure 1: Diffie–Hellman Key Exchange Concept Diagram

B = 53 .|23| = 10

4. Alice computes s = B a |p|

s = 104 .|23| = 18

5. Bob computes s = Ab |p|

s = 43 .|23| = 18

6. Alice and Bob both get the same number, 18, so they now share a
secret key (the number 18), which is the private key.

The essence of this calculation and both Alice and Bob have arrived at
the same values, lies in this expression:
Ab |p| = g ab |p| = g ba |p| = B a |p|
Using this calculation, which involves the properties of Abelian groups, both
parties obtain the same key.
Also, it should be noted that the values a and b are kept secret. All the
other values: p, g, g a |p|, and g b |p| are sent in the clear. However, because
it takes an extremely long time to compute the secret key using the public
values, it is impossible for anyone to breach the security. Once Alice and
Bob compute the shared secret(using group theory) they can use it as an
encryption key, known only to them, for sending messages across the same
open communications channel.[6]

3.2 Irrational choice due to Symmetry

The concept of group theory forms the mathematical basis for the idea of sym-
metry, which, surprisingly, underlines several phenomena of behavioural eco-
nomics. Behavioural Economics is essentially the study of irrational choice,
which prefers psychological concepts over economic and mathematical mod-
els when it comes to consumer decision-making and other economic activity.
It is claimed that these irrational choices are closely related to the idea of
symmetry. Symmetry is a kind of perceptual-cognitive tool for organizing
and systematizing large amounts of information from the environment into
coherent knowledge. Symmetrical patterns are just more attractive to us
than asymmetrical ones.
This attraction towards symmetry leads us to the discussion about ref-
erence dependence. In simple words, it means that humans make choices
using certain references, knowingly or unknowingly, and these may turn out
to be irrational because the choices based on references are not always the
smartest choices. There is a reference point that they pay heed to before
conducting an economic activity like consumption or resale. This is in search
of a symmetry, a known pattern, even though it may be irrational.
Similarly, there is the case of loss aversion. In terms of symmetry, a
decision-maker, facing the decision moment, is actually projecting his/her
own status on the future by drawing an analogy, that is, seeking symme-
try between current and future statuses. Since he/she would prefer keeping
future status symmetrical to the reference point (current status), he/she is
ready to pay for that. They would not like to lose Since humans feel comfort-
able and safe upon detecting symmetry, they tend to maintain the current
status.[5]
Now this concept of symmetry is mathematically explained using group
theory. A symmetry group is a subgroup of the transformation group (A
transformation is an action of mapping from an initial state to a final one,
and can be active or passive). It contains only those transformations that
leave the object under consideration (its physical or monetary attributes) un-
changed (to maintain symmetry). A group representation is a description of
the elements of a transformation/ symmetry group in terms of more familiar
and intuitive mathematical objects. For instance, a group of abstract trans-
formations can be represented by a group of linear algebra objects, whereby
every element of the transformation group gets a linear algebra counter-
part in such a way that all properties of the transformation group remain
preserved. Therefore, representation theory is crucial for making abstract
transformations mathematically operational. In fact, representation theory
makes symmetry analysis mathematically feasible.
Let us demonstrate the possible application of symmetry analysis in the
context of behavioural economics. The following simple example shows how
symmetry analysis can be used to connect the concept of reference depen-
dence with standard economic concepts such as utility, demand, and price.[4]
Let us assume that x, y, and z represent one monetary and two physical
attributes of an object R, which serves as the reference point in the process of
reference-dependent preference formation. α, β, andγ represent transforma-
tion parameters. The result of the transformation application is as follows:

αx, βy, γz

For simplicity, the parameters (α, β, andγ) of three active transformations

are replaced by a single parameter (ϵ) of one passive transformation:

ϵR

For the transformation to be symmetry transformation, the physical and

monetary attributes of the object R have to remain unchanged (to maintain
symmetry or status quo):

ϵR = R ⇐⇒ αx = x, βy = y, γz = z

Reference-dependence involves the inclusion of the symmetry transforma-

tion in the preference structure:

A > B > C ⇐⇒ A = ϵR

Consequently, the applied transformation results in the inclusion of sym-

metry (A = ϵR = R) in all economic concepts that are consecutively derived
from the newly formed preferences.
Therefore, the representing utility function takes the following reference-
dependent form:

u(R) > u(B) > u(C)

The symmetry impacts the derived demand function:

 xA = f (pR , m)

Finally, it also impacts the price willing to be paid on the market:

pA = f (xR )

The symmetry is apparently responsible for the price being finally influ-
enced by object R, which served as the reference point at the beginning of
the process, i.e., the reference point (the familiar point R that leads to main-
taining symmetry) finally influences the price and consumer decision. This
implies that irrational choice is based on symmetry, which is mathematically
proved by group theory and symmetry groups. The understanding of this
approach could only be derived from the potential of group theory.

3.3 Rubik’s Cube

The Rubik’s Cube, a 3D combination puzzle invented in 1974 by Hungarian
sculptor and professor of architecture Ernő Rubik, is one of the most popular
applications of group theory. The puzzle is often used as a pedagogical tool
for teaching the principles of group theory, as its solutions can be modelled
using this mathematical framework.
The Rubik’s cube is composed of 27 small cubes, which are typically
called “cubies”. 26 of these cubies are visible (if the cube is apart, the 27th
cubie won’t actually exist). When working with the Rubik’s cube, it’s helpful
to have a systematic way of referring to the individual cubies. Although it
seems natural to use the colours of a cubie, it is actually more useful to have
names which describe the locations of the cubies.[1]
We can make the set of moves of the Rubik’s cube into a group, which
we will denote (G, ∗). The elements of G will be all possible moves of the
Rubik’s cube (for example, one possible move is a clockwise turn of the top
face followed by a counterclockwise turn of the right face). Two moves will
be considered the same if they result in the same configuration of the cube
(for instance, twisting a face clockwise by 180 degrees is the same as twisting
the same face counterclockwise by 180 degrees). The group operation will be
defined like this: if M1 and M2 are two moves, then M 1 ∗ M 2 is the move
where you first do M1 and then do M2.

Understanding the group structure of these permutations can aid in find-

ing a solution to the cube. For instance, knowing that the operations of
rotating different faces of the cube form a group under composition allows us
Figure 2: Configurations of a Rubik’s Cube

Figure 3: Transformations of the Cube

to systematically explore the possible configurations of the cube. Moreover,
the structure of this group gives us valuable information about the cube it-
self, such as the fact that any configuration can be reached from any other
via a sequence of moves or the minimum number of moves required to solve
the cube from any given position.

3.4 The Modularity Theorem

The Modularity Theorem, also known as The Taniyama-Shimura-Weil
conjecture, is a profound result in the field of group theory that establishes a
deep connection between elliptic curves and modular forms. It was originally
conjectured by mathematician Pierre Deligne in the 1970s and was finally
proved by Andrew Wiles in 1994, as a critical step in his proof of Fermat’s
Last Theorem.
The theorem provides a powerful link between two seemingly unrelated
areas of mathematics: the theory of elliptic curves and the theory of modu-
lar forms. Elliptic curves are a special kind of algebraic curve with a group
structure defined over the complex numbers, while modular forms are com-
plex analytic functions that satisfy certain transformation properties under
a particular group of linear fractional transformations.
The equation y 2 = x3 + ax + b, where a and b are constants, describes an
elliptic curve, which is a particular kind of cubic curve. A geometric operation
known as the chord-and-tangent law creates an abelian group from the set
of solutions to this equation plus a unique ”point at infinity.”
A modular elliptic curve is an elliptic curve E that admits a parameteri-
zation
Xo (N ) =⇒ E
by a modular curve, which asserts that every elliptic curve over the rational
numbers is modular.

From the graphs of elliptic curves shown below, y 2 = x3 + x2 and y 2 = x3 ,

if we consider these as curves over the rationals, then the theorem asserts
that they can be parametrized by a modular curve as the curves consist of
all points in the plane whose coordinates (x, y) satisfy the relation[7]

y 2 = x(x − an )(x + bn )

The Modularity Theorem has far-reaching consequences in number theory

and algebraic geometry. It provides a deep understanding of the arithmetic
 Figure 4: Graphs of elliptic curves y 2 = x3 + x2 and y 2 = x3

properties of elliptic curves and allows for the study of their Galois rep-
resentations through the more accessible theory of modular forms. It has
numerous applications, including the proof of Fermat’s Last Theorem, the
Taniyama–Shimura–Weil conjecture, and the construction of explicit points
with large height on elliptic curves.
4 Conclusion
Thus, the concept of group theory is helpful in explaining seemingly unrelated
yet important phenomena like irrational choice in behavioural economics and
Diffie-Hellman key exchange in cryptography. The properties of Abelian
groups are used in the Diffie-Hellman key exchange method, such that the
two parties can create a shared private key to ensure secure communication,
alongside the individual public keys. These properties are further used in
other cryptographic methods in a much more complex form.
Group Theory also provides a powerful framework for understanding and
analyzing the Rubik’s Cube. By recognizing the cube’s movements as ele-
ments of a group, we can explore its symmetries and transformations, and
solve strategies in a systematic and mathematical manner. Group Theory
not only allows us to classify different cube states but also provides insights
into the complexity and solvability of the puzzle
The Modularity Theorem in number theory relies on group theory, reveal-
ing deep connections between elliptic curves and modular forms. Similarly,
the symmetry groups are used to mathematically establish the concepts of
symmetry in human cognition and decision-making, which may lead to irra-
tional choices.
This portrays the importance of mathematical topics and fields of study
like group theory in different disciplines like cryptography, behavioural eco-
nomics, robotics, physics, chemistry, etc.
References
[1] Chen, J. Group theory and the rubik’s cube.

[2] En.wikipedia.org. Diffie–hellman key exchange - wikipedia. Accessed on

13 2024.

[3] Herstein, I. Topics in algebra, 2006.

[4] Kahneman Tversky. Prospect theory, 2021.

[5] Kozic, I. Fundamentals of behavioral economics: Role of symmetry in

irrational choice, 2018. Accessed on January 13, 2024.

[6] Lake, J. What is the diffie–hellman key exchange and how does it work?,
2021.

[7] R. van Dobben de Bruyn. The modularity theorem, June 21, 2011.