Hydrodynamics

HYDRAULICS/WATER
ENGINEERING III
LECTURER: Mr. ST TETSOANE
HYDRODYNAMICS
CONTENT
 FLUID FLOW
 FLUID FLOW IN PIPES
 FLOW MEASUREMENT
 WATER NETWORK ANALYSIS
(EPANET)
FLOW TYPES
 One dimensional flow: when the flow
pattern is described along the length
of the conduit. The interest is in
changes of average velocity and
pressure occurring along the length of
the conduit rather than across it.
FLOW TYPES
 Two dimensional flow: when two
dimensions suffice (sufficient) to
describe such flow, e.g. flow between
two parallel walls.
 Three dimensional flow: when the
flow pattern is described in three
dimensions.
PRINCIPLES OR CONSERVATION
OF LAWS
 Conservation of mass
 Conservation of energy
 Conservation of momentum
OF LAWS
Application
 For known discharge, calculate the
pressure, flow depths and/or
velocities at specific sections;
 For known discharge, calculate the
required conduit size to convey the
flow.
 Flow can be defined as mass flow rate
( m ) or volumetric flow rate (Q)
OF LAWS
Conservation of mass
1 m
m 2
ρ1A1V1  ρ2 A 2 V2
ρ1  ρ2
A1V1  A 2 V2
Q  AV
Q in 1   Q out 2 
OF LAWS
Conservation of energy/ Bernoulli’s equation
2 2
P1 V P2 V
  Z1  h p 
1
  Z2  h 
2
ρg 2g ρg 2g
OF LAWS
 Energy terms: Pressure energy
P
ρg
OF LAWS
 Energy terms: Kinetic energy
V2
2g
OF LAWS
 Energy terms: Potential/Positional
energy
z
OF LAWS
 Energy terms: Pump energy
hp
OF LAWS
 Energy terms: Energy loss
4fLV 2
hf  (f by Fanning)
2gd
fLV 2 (f or λ by Darcy)
hf 
2gd
OF LAWS
Conservation of momentum (horizontal
pipes only; and ignore pipeline weight
and fluid weight)
Forces in either x or y direction

F  m V2(out)  V1(in) 
Momentum  m V
  ρQ
m
 F   ρQV2(out)   ρQV1(in)
 F  ρQV2(out) V1(in) 
HYDRAULIC POWER
Pw  ρgQh p
FLOW MEASUREMENT through
pipes
 Direct volume or weight
measurement
 Gas and liquid flow can be measured in
volumetric or mass flow rates, such as
litres per second or kilograms per second.
These measurements can be converted
between one another if the material's
density is known.
 In engineering contexts, the volumetric
flow rate is usually given the symbol Q,
and the mass flow rate, the symbol m  .
Nalluri, C., Featherstone, R.E. 2001. Civil Engineering Hydraulics. 4th ed. Oxford: Blackwell Science Ltd.
Pressure based meters
 Flow measuring meters through pipes:
 Pitot tube
 Venturi meter
 Pitot tube
 Is a pressure measuring instrument used
to measure fluid flow velocity by
determining the stagnation pressure. It is
an L-shaped tube held against flow to
create stagnation point. Bernoulli's
equation is used to calculate the dynamic
pressure and hence fluid velocity.
 Pitot tube
P1 V12 P2 V22
   V2  0
ρg 2g ρg 2g
V12 P2  P1

2g ρg
P P
but : h  2 1
ρg
V12
h
2g
V  2gh
The actual velocity will be slightly less than velocity given by equation above
and it is modified by introducing a coefficient, C (usually between 0.95 to 1.0)
V  C 2gh
 Venturi meter
 It constricts the flow in some way,
and pressure sensors measure the
differential pressure before and
within the constriction. The
coefficient of discharge of Venturi
meter ranges from 0.96 to 0.99 for
turbulent flow.
 Orifice plate
 Is a plate with a hole through it, placed in
the flow; it constricts the flow, and
measuring the pressure differential across
the constriction gives the flow rate. It is
basically a crude form of Venturi meter, but
with higher energy losses. Its discharge
coefficient has a much lower value (0.6 to
0.63) as the area A2 in discharge equation
refers to the orifice and not to the
contracted jet. There are three types of
orifices: concentric, eccentric, and
segmental.
 Venturi meter
 Venturi meter
P1 V12 P2 V22
  
ρg 2g ρg 2g
P2  P1 V12  V22
h
ρg 2g
A1V1  A 2 V2  Q
2gh
V1  A 2
A  A 22
2
1
A1A 2 2gh
Q  A1V1 
A12  A 22
2gh
or : Q  A1
m2  1
Ideal equation is obtained by neglecting all losses. The actual discharge is written by
introducing a coefficient Cd.
Venturi meter
Venturi meter
2gh
Q  Cd A1
m 1
2
A
m 1
A2
2gh
Q  Cd A 2
1  m2
A
m 2
A1
Orifice plate
Ideal flow rate Actual flow rate
2gh 2gh
Q  Cd A1 Q  Cd A1 2
2  A1 
 A1  
A 
 1
   1  0 
 Cc A 0 
2gh
A2 Q  Cd A 0
Cc   A0 
2
A0 1  
A 
 1 
FLOW THROUGH orifices and
mouthpieces
 Small Orifice
P1 V12 P2 V22
 h   lossesP1  P2  0
ρg 2g ρg 2g
V22
h
2g
V2  2gh
V2 is theoretical velocity and actual velocity is:
V2  C v 2gh
Cv is coefficient of velocity defined as:
Vactual
Cv 
Vtheoretical
The jet area is much less than area of the orifice due to contraction and corresponding
coefficient of contraction is defined as:
A jet
Cc 
A orifice Nalluri, C., Featherstone, R.E. 2001. Civil Engineering Hydraulics. 4th ed. Oxford: Blackwell Science Ltd.
mouthpieces cont..
 Small Orifice
Q  A jet  Vjet
Q  Cc A  C v 2gh
Q  Cd A 2gh
Cd is coefficient of discharge defined as:
Qactual
Cd 
Q theoretical
Cd  Cc C v
mouthpieces cont..
 Small orifice: Trajectory of a jet leaving an
orifice
y  gx/Vjet 
1 2
2
Vjet  x g/2y  2
1
 
1
CV  Vjet / 2gH  x g/2y 2


1
2
2gH 
1
2
CV  x
2yH  2
1
Cc coefficient of contraction is obtained by measuring

diameter of the jet at vena contracta (dJ):
dj
Cc 
D orifice
mouthpieces cont..
 Large rectangular Orifice
Q
2
3

Cd 2g b H1 2  H 22
3 3

As the orifice is large velocity is not constant across the jet
FLOW IN PIPES
 To supply water, pipelines were built sporadically from the
Middle Ages on.
 The water was led from springs in the mountains to nearby
forts and palaces, by gravity flow.
 With the development of iron and steel manufacturing and
after introduction of efficient pumps, the building of pipelines
became common practice.
 Amount of pressure required to push desired amount of
discharge through a pipeline became a paramount question for
designers.
 Because it was easy to quantify discharge and pressure lost
through a pipe, a great deal of experimental and field data was
collected on pipe flow.
 Natural scientific development to put these data into the form
of design formulas followed quite early.
Simon, A.L., 1986. Hydraulics. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons
FLOW TYPES
 Laminar flow: the flow has a smooth
appearance, e.g. flow of honey &
thick syrup from a pitcher/jug.
 Turbulent flow: is characterized by
mixing action throughout the flow
field. Simple observations will reveal
this type of flow in rivers and in the
atmosphere (wind).
FLOW IN PIPES
 EMPIRICAL METHOD – Hazen-Williams

formula.
 SCIENTIFIC METHOD – Chézy formula,

Manning formula, Darcy-Weisbach formula.
Simon, A.L., 1986. Hydraulics. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
FLOW IN PIPES (Hazen-Williams
formula)
V  kCR 0.63
S 0.54
k is factor dependent on units (0.849 for m/s & m; 1.318 for ft/s & ft);
C is factor dependent on relative roughness;
R is hydraulic radius (area of flow divided by wetted perimeter); &
S is the slope of the energy grade line (hL /L).
NB!! Hazen-Williams formula can only be used for water
McGhee, T.J., 1991. Water Supply & Sewerage. 6th ed. Singapore: McGraw-Hill
FLOW IN PIPES (Darcy & Weisbach
formula)
Darcy-Weisbach formula
Darcy’s friction factor (λ)
L V 2 λLV 2
hf  λ 
d 2g 2gd
Fanning’s friction factor (f) (mostly followed by chemical engineers)
L V 2 4fLV 2
h f  4f 
d 2g 2gd
FLOW IN PIPES (Darcy &
Weisbach formula)
Advantages of Darcy-Weisbach formula
• It is based on fundamentals.
• It is dimensionally consistent.
• It is useful for any fluid (oil, gas, and sluges).
• It can be derived analytically in the laminar
flow region.
• It is useful in the transition region between
laminar flow and fully developed turbulent
flow.
• The friction factor variation is well
documented.
FLOW IN PIPES (Darcy &
Weisbach formula)
Disadvantages of Darcy-Weisbach formula
• The friction factor in the formula depends not
only on roughness but also on Reynolds
number.
FLOW IN PIPES (friction factor f )
 The friction factor f was a subject to
much of the theoretical and
experimental research (Blasius, 1913;
Nikuradse, 1933; Colebrook, 1938;
Barr, 1975; Wood, 1966; Churchill,
1977; Chen, 1979 & many more.
 The value of f was found to be
dependent on the Reynolds number of
the flow and relative roughness of the
pipe.
Simon, A.L., 1986. Hydraulics. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
FLOW IN PIPES (Reynolds number)
 Osborne Reynolds developed basic laws of turbulent flow.
 With his analytical and experimental work he showed that
the Reynolds number was a basic parameter relating to
laminar as well as turbulent flow.
 Flow was observed to be laminar when Re was about 2000
and became fully turbulent when Re was higher than
4000.
 When Re is between 2000 and 4000, type of flow is very
unpredictable and often changes back and forth between
laminar and turbulent states (transitional zone).
 Note that precise values of Reynolds number versus flow
regime do not exist.
 Guidelines given above are approximate, and other
references may give different values.
Roberson, J.A., Crowe, C.T. 1997. Engineering Fluid Mechanics. 6th ed. New York: John Wiley & Son, Inc.
FLOW IN PIPES (Reynolds number)
Reynolds number
Vd ρVd
Re  
ν μ
Kinematic viscosity
μ
ν
ρ
FLOW IN PIPES (Relative roughness)
 Pipes don’t have perfect smooth surfaces inside.
 This pipe roughness restrict the flow of the water
near the pipe surface and lowers the velocity.
 Resulting in higher velocities near the centre of
the flow and lower velocities near the pipe
surface.
 Hence additional force or power is needed to
overcome this effect in the pipe system, in
channel steeper slopes.
 Nikuradse conducted tests on flow in pipes that
were roughened with uniform-sized sand grains.
 While Moody did tests on commercial pipes
where roughness is random.
Roberson, J.A., Crowe, C.T. 1997. Engineering Fluid Mechanics. 6th ed. New York: John Wiley & Son, Inc.
Pipe material k (mm)
Brass 0.0015
Concrete
Steel forms, smooth 0.18
Good joints, average 0.36
Rough, visible form marks 0.60
Copper 0.0015
Corrugated metal (CMP) 45
Iron (common in older water lines, except ductile or DIP, which is
widely used today) 0.12
Asphalt lined 0.26
Cast 0.12
Ductile, DIP – cement mortar lined 0.15
Galvanized 0.045
Wrought 0.0015
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 0.0015
Polyethylene, high density (HDPE)
Steel 0.0048
Enamel coated 0.9 ̴ 9.0
Riveted 0.004
Seamless 0.045
Commercial
FLOW IN PIPES (MOODY DIAGRAM:
plot of f v/s Re on log-log scale)
Meyer, C.F. 1995. Water Engineering. 2nd ed. CMTEK Lecture Materials cc
FLOW IN PIPES (Colebrook and
White)
1  1.255 ε 
 4log   
f  R e f 3.71d 
FLOW IN PIPES (OTHER
LOSSES)
 Entry into pipe
 Exit into tank
 Enlargement of pipe
 Reduction of pipe
 Bends
 Valves
 Equivalent length
LOSSES)
Sharp entry head loss from a tank into

a pipe
2
kV
h en 
2g
k (loss coefficient) = 0.5
LOSSES)
Exit head loss from a pipe into a tank
2
kV
h ex 
2g
k (loss coefficient) = 1
LOSSES)
Head loss due to sudden pipe enlargement
h enl 
V1  V2 
2
2g
P1  P2 V1  V2
2 2
  h enl
ρg 2g
LOSSES)
Head loss due to sudden pipe reduction
2
 1  V22
h red   1
 Cc  2g
Cc from Table 7.1
LOSSES)
Bends head loss
2
kV
h ex 
2g
k (loss coefficient) from Table 7.2
LOSSES)
Valves head loss
2
kV
h ex 
2g
k (loss coefficient)
from Table 7.3
LOSSES)
Equivalent length
2
4f(L/d)V
h 
2g
FLOW IN PIPES (Half full &
Partially full)
 Flow capacity of half full or partially full circular pipes
may be calculated from Manning’s formula.
 Partially full means flow depth that is less than half full or
flow depth that is more than half full.
 Manning’s formula is used where uniform flow prevails.
 Uniform flow occurs where depth, width, velocity, slope,
and surface roughness remain constant along the pipe.
 Manning’s equation requires cross-sectional area, wetted
perimeter, hydraulic radius and roughness coefficient for
flow of specified depth in the pipe of known size.
 These are easier to calculate in full pipe flow however for
pipes flowing half full and partially full different set of
equations are used.
McGhee, T.J., 1991. Water Supply and Sewerage. 6th ed. Singapore: McGraw-Hill Book Co.
FLOW IN PIPES (Manning’s
formula)
1 2 3 12
V R S ………………..1
n
A 2 3 12
Q R S ………………..2
n
V is velocity of flow (m/s);
Q is volumetric flow rate passing through channel reach (m3/s);
n is roughness coefficient/friction factor (dimensionless);
R is hydraulic radius (A/P) (m);
A is cross-sectional area normal to flow direction (m2);
P wetted perimeter of cross-sectional area of flow; &
S is the slope of hydraulic slope line (m/m).
FLOW IN PIPES (Half full flow)
π 2
A D
8
π
P D
2
RA
P
FLOW IN PIPES (Less than half full
flow)
h  y y is flow depth
D
r 
2
rh
; radians 
1
θ  2cos 
 r 
r 2 θ  sinθ 
A
2
P  rθ
RA
P
FLOW IN PIPES (More than half full
flow)
h  2r  y y is flow depth
D
r 
2
rh
; radians 
1
θ  2cos 
 r 
A  πr 
2 r 2
θ  sinθ 
2
P  2r  rθ
RA
P
FLOW IN PIPES (roughness
coefficient n)
 The published Manning’s n values in the literature are for
full pipe flow.
 When TR Camp,1946 used these values nfull to calculate
flow rate for partially full pipes using Manning’s formula, he
found that Qpartial calculated are not the same as Qpartial
measured.
 He subsequently developed a method to improve
correlation between measured Qpartial values to calculated
Qpartial values using Manning’s formula.
 He did this by using Manning’s roughness coefficient with
depth of flow in the pipe as a fraction of the pipe diameter.
 That is, he used variation in n/nfull as function of y/D.
 He developed a graph showing variations of Q/Qfull; V/Vfull;
and n/nfull.
FLOW IN PIPES (roughness
coefficient n)
0  y D 1
0  y D  0.03 : n/n full  1  (y/D)/(0.3)
0.03  y D  0.1 : n/n full  1.1  (y/D  0.03)(12/7)
0.1  y D  0.2 : n/n full  1.22  (y/D  0.1)(0.6)
0.2  y D  0.3 : n/n full  1.29
0.3  y D  0.5 : n/n full  1.29  (y/D  0.3)(0.2)
0.5  y D  1 : n/n full  1.25  (y/D  0.5)(0.5)

FLOW IN PIPES (Normal
depth yn)
 For constant flow rate flowing through the
channel/pipe with constant slope, roughness
coefficient, cross-sectional area, the depth of the
flow will be constant at a depth called normal
depth.
 This normal depth in gravity flow through partially
full pipes is calculated the same as it is in open
channel flow.
 The normal depth can be calculated by rearranging
Manning’s formula to:
Qn
 12
2
AR 3
S
EPANET 2 – Hydraulic modeling and
Water-Quality modeling
Hydraulic analysis engine capabilities:
 places no limit on the size of the network that can be analyzed
 computes friction headloss using the Hazen-Williams, Darcy-
Weisbach, or Chezy-Manning formulas
 includes minor head losses for bends, fittings, etc.
 models constant or variable speed pumps
 computes pumping energy and cost
 models various types of valves including shutoff, check, pressure
regulating, and flow control valves
 allows storage tanks to have any shape (i.e., diameter can vary with
 height)
 considers multiple demand categories at nodes, each with its own
pattern of time variation
 models pressure-dependent flow issuing from emitters (sprinkler
heads)
 can base system operation on both simple tank level or timer
controls and on complex rule-based controls.

Hydrodynamics

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Hydrodynamics

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HYDRAULICS/WATER

Forces in either x or y direction

CV  Vjet / 2gH  x g/2y 2

Cc coefficient of contraction is obtained by measuring

 EMPIRICAL METHOD – Hazen-Williams

 SCIENTIFIC METHOD – Chézy formula,

Fanning’s friction factor (f) (mostly followed by chemical engineers)

Sharp entry head loss from a tank into

k (loss coefficient) = 0.5

Exit head loss from a pipe into a tank

Head loss due to sudden pipe enlargement

Head loss due to sudden pipe reduction

Cc from Table 7.1

Bends head loss

k (loss coefficient) from Table 7.2

Valves head loss

0  y D  0.03 : n/n full  1  (y/D)/(0.3)

0.03  y D  0.1 : n/n full  1.1  (y/D  0.03)(12/7)

0.1  y D  0.2 : n/n full  1.22  (y/D  0.1)(0.6)

0.2  y D  0.3 : n/n full  1.29

0.3  y D  0.5 : n/n full  1.29  (y/D  0.3)(0.2)

0.5  y D  1 : n/n full  1.25  (y/D  0.5)(0.5)

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